Poverty Knowledge in South Africa: a Social History of Human Science, 1855–2005 Grace Davie Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-19875-2 - Poverty Knowledge in South Africa: A Social History of Human Science, 1855–2005 Grace Davie Index More information

Index

Abdurahman, Abdullah 108 See also human scientists, kholwa, race and Actor-Network Theory 62, 80, 122, 137, 201 racism, African social workers See also Latour, Bruno, Science and African veterans 111, 124, 132, 137 Technology Studies (STS) African social workers 47, 57, 73, 146, African Survey, 1938 130–132 150–151 Africans’ Claims in South Africa, 1943 121 See also Jan Hofmeyr School of Social Work African independence movements 151, 199, Afrikaans language 39, 92–93 201, 230, 284 Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut 211 African National Congress (ANC) Afrikaner motherhood 42 and 1993 election campaign 250, 254, Afrikaner nationalism 66, 78, 91–96 293 See also Volkskongress and National Development Plan 287–297 agricultural demonstrators 13, 156, 228 and nationalization debate 234–244 alcohol 75, 150, 169, 172, 201, 261 and “second phase” of democracy 287, 290 Alexandra Bus Boycott, 1943–44 118–123, and social welfare policy 1, 16, 272–278, 141 287–297 Alexandra Bus Boycott, 1957 169–170, 172 Africans’ Claims in South Africa, 1943 121 All-Africa Convention, 1946 159 alliance with COSATU and SACP 196, 238, Atlantic Charter, 1941 104, 121, 125, 290 273, 288, 290, 293 attitude research 97–99, 152–153, 177–182, “Constitutional Guidelines” 235, 238 212, 217, 226–236, 240, 256, 262, 280 Department of Economic Policy (DEP) 238, apartheid 242, 245, 249 and Afrikaner nationalism 66, 78, 91–96 “Discussion Document” 238–239, 241–242 and rural “betterment” planning 102, 150, founding of 27–28, 30 155–160, 162, 164–167, 207, 216 Freedom Charter, 1955 71, 149, 231, 235, and urban planning 148–152, 167–171 238, 245, 249, 251, 254, 259, 283, 289, “Bantu Education” 182, 284 290 “cheap labor thesis” 183 in exile 199, 235, 248 creation of 78–140 newspapers 74–75 deﬁnition of 2 “Ready to Govern” 243–244 ending of and resistance to using science 4, Reconstruction and Development 77, 113, 151–152, 179–250 Programme (RDP) 253–254, 256–269 forced relocation 160, 164, 166, 168–169, Umkonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) 216 172, 199 Group Areas Act 146, 110 Women’s League of 47 homeland “independence” 78, 102, 178, Western Cape branch of 58–59 182, 207, 211, 223, 226–233, 292 Youth League 121 159, 259 National Party (NP) 92, 94–95, 101–102, African intellectuals 4, 13, 21, 27–33, 71, 123–125, 128, 145–148, 160–163, 222, 151–152, 165, 171, 195, 201, 210, 280 230, 242–243, 277, 281

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-19875-2 - Poverty Knowledge in South Africa: A Social History of Human Science, 1855–2005 Grace Davie Index More information

Index 321

negotiations with ANC 217, 234, 236 General Factory Workers’ Beneﬁt Fund pragmatists 160–163, 174 195 purists 117, 160–163, 174 Federation of South African Trade Unions “tri-cameral government” 219 (FOSATU) 195–196, 214, 223 “separate development” 102, 141, 143, Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union 160, 162, 165–166, 211 (ICU) 51–54, 57, 77, 282 state 155, 160–164, 171, 198, 214, 227, National Union of Metalworkers (NUMSA) 234, 141–250, 279–281 194, 290, 292 statistics and social monitoring 5, 102, Trade Union Advisory and Coordinating 142–175, 252–253 Council (TUACC) 195 Special Branch (Secret Police) 297 South African Congress of Trade Unions Verwoerd, Hendrik 93–95, 101–102, (SACTU) 169–171, 173 106, 141, 144, 147–148, 160–165, 182, and the Durban Strikes 192–195 222, 291 Weihahn Commission, 1979 214 volkekunde ethnos theory 102, 160 See also Durban Strikes, Weihahn Volkskongress 82, 92–93, 95, 162, Commission “anti-politics machine” 101–102 Boesak, Allan 219, 223, 243 Bolton, Harriet 185, 187, 197, 196 Bantustans 78, 102, 166, 178, 182, 211, 217, Bond, Patrick 1, 291 220, 226–233, 292 Booth, Charles 44, 64–65, 77, 201 See also apartheid, “homelands” Botha, P. W. 220–222 Badsha, Omar 180, 195, 219 “boundary objects” in science 111, 227 Barchiesi, Franco 277 See also “household,” Poverty Datum Line, “basic needs” 26, 77, 122, 129, 132, 191, 197, “quantitative objectivity” 221, 251, 257, 259 “boundary work” in science 106, 109, 112, Basic Income Grant (BIG) 6, 272–276, 117, 137, 140, 199–201, 266 283–284, 296 See also positivism, “quantitative Batson, Edward objectivity,”“scientism” and Johann Potgieter 198–200 Bourdieu, Pierre 11–12, 62, 80, 108, 211, and “quantitative objectivity” 174, 229 120–123, 185 Bowley, Arthur 64, 105, 113, and the Poverty Datum Line 12, 101, 120, “breach” 122–123, 129, 140–141, 149, 168,198, as prelude to social research and catalyst of 201, 211, 280–281 epistemic mobility 2, 48, 101, 119, 132, at the University of Fort Hare, 1975 206, 184, 197, 211, 234 239, 272, 282 272 deﬁnition of 17 and urban planning after 1948 144–149, attempts to repair 48, 50, 197, 202, 233, 152 239 Batson, Helen 105, 110 British Medical Association (BMA) nutrition Beaumont Commission 32–33 standards 126 beer halls 57, 167, 170, 188 Broederbond 93 betterment planning 102, 150, 155–160, 162, bubonic plague 41 164–167, 207, 216 Budlender, Debbie 224 Beveridge Report, 1942 114–115, 123 Buhlungu, Sakhela 192 Biko, Steven (Steve) 182–183, 186, 197, 201, Bureau of Market Research 181, 198, 200 210 Buthelezi, J. B. 190 Black Consciousness Movement 7, 151, Buthelezi, M. G. 222–223, 229–231, 233 181–183, 193, 209–210, 214, 234, 282 black trade unions Calderwood, D. M. 148 Congress of South African Trade Unions Callon, Michel 80 (COSATU) 195–196, 214, 238, 240, 258, Cape Town Board of Aid 106 273, 288–292 capabilities approach 260, 294

322 Index

capitalism 5, 11, 13, 16, 66, 95, 142, 163, 183, color bar, industrial 50, 76, 79, 98, 101, 118, 204–205, 209, 213, 220, 237, 274, 287, 121, 173, 208, 214 290 colored (mixed-race) people and “colored Carnegie Commission Continuation poverty” 7, 9, 21, 27, 41–42, 46, 50, 52, Commission 93–96 54–56, 59–65, 68–69, 86, 92, 94, 101, See also Department of Social Welfare, 108, 112–116, 124, 127, 184, 190, 198, Verwoerd 219, 269, 280 Carnegie Inquiry into the Poor White Problem See also pensions, race and racism in South Africa, 1929–32 (Carnegie Columbia University 82, 71, 97 Commission) commissions of inquiry fieldwork and findings 81–91 as means of delaying legislative action, public reception of (especially National dampening unrest, and preserving Party) 91–96, 101, 124 legitimacy 37, 48, 59, 143, 159–160, Batson’s responses to 108–109 293 Carnegie Corporation 71, 74, 82–83, 96, 107, Beaumont Commission 32–33 130, 219, 221 Carnegie Inquiry into the Poor White Cato Manor 167–169 Problem in South Africa (Carnegie cattle culling 143, 155, 159–160 Commission) 81–95, 101, 108–109, 113, Cattle Killing 124, 219, 222, 280 See Great Cattle Killing Ciskei Commission 227–229, 231 census 18, 55, 102, 136, 236, 239, 252, 256, Commission of Enquiry into 262, 269, 275 Non-European Bus Services in See also statistics Johannesburg 119–121 Central Statistical Services (CSS) 252, 275 Commission of Inquiry into Certain See also Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) Organisations (Schlebusch Commission) Chamber of Commerce 172, 200, 221 197 Chase Manhattan Bank 204–205 Commission of Inquiry into Labour Cheadle, Halton 180, 185, 187–188, 195, Legislation (Weihahn Commission) 179, chiefs 8, 13, 25, 142–143, 155, 157–159, 195, 214 164–165, 190 Commission of Inquiry into Legislation Cillers, S. P. 206 Affecting Utilisation of Manpower Ciskei 37, 128, 155–158, 165, 226–229, 231 (Riekert Commission) 214 Ciskei Commission 227–229, 231 Commission on Old-Age Pensions and civil resistance 11, 224, 266, 268, 297 National Insurance 56 civil society 6, 16, 104, 118, 122, 144, 171, Committee of Inquiry into a Comprehensive 179, 195, 205, 251, 285, 287, 307 System of Social Security for South Africa “civilized labor policy” 55–57, 78, 96, 115 (Taylor Committee) 272–274 See also Hertzog, J. B. M. General Missionary Commission 38 “civilizing mission” 66, 131, 139 Moyne Commission 132 “civilized standards of living” 62, 95–96, 200, Native Economic Commission 16, 78, 155 218, 221, 281 Requirements for Stability and See also Poverty Datum Line, race and Development in KwaZulu and Natal racism (Buthelezi Commission) 229–231 climate change 19, 295 Second Carnegie Enquiry into Poverty and Coetzee, J. M. 9, 160, 250, 274 DevelopmentinSouthernAfrica Cold War 52, 172, 199, 259, 205, 258 (Second Carnegie) 177–178, 217–226, Coleman, Neil 288–289, 294–295 232–233 Colonial Office, British 31, 33, 80, 129–139, South African Native Affairs Commission 199, 284 35–36 “colonial science” 129, 138–141 Tomlinson Commission 160–164 Colonial Welfare and Development Act, 1940 Transvaal Indigency Commission 44–45, 132–133 49–50

Index 323

Transvaal Labour Commission 34–35 of human science and struggles for power Truth and Reconciliation Commission 2, and resources 100, 142–144, 233, 195 266 Wilcocks Commission on the Cape of social surveys and anti-apartheid Coloured Population 108, 113 organizing 165–166, 174 Commission of Enquiry into Non-European See also breach, Douglas, “looping,” Bus Services in Johannesburg Poverty Datum Line, human science, 119–121 strikes Commission of Inquiry into Certain cost-of-living statistics 4, 76, 85, 104, 122, Organisations, 1974 (Schlebusch 140, 149, 74, 179, 184, 198, 214, 240, Commission) 197 281 Commission of Inquiry into Labour See also “basic needs,”“civilized standards Legislation, 1979 (Weihahn of living,” Poverty Datum Line Commission) 179, 195, 214 Coulter, C. W. 107 Commission of Inquiry into Legislation Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Affecting Utilisation of Manpower, (CSIR) 156, 232 1979 (Riekert Commission) 214 “culture contact” 116, 130–131, 134 Commission on Old-Age Pensions and Curtis, Jeanette 180, 186, 198 National Insurance, 1926 56 Committee of Inquiry into a Comprehensive Dadoo, Yusuf 118 System of Social Security for South Africa Dart, Raymond 65 (Taylor Committee) 272–274 Davies, Rob 237, 247 Congress of South African Trade Unions Department of Economic Policy (DEP) 238, (COSATU) 195–196, 214, 238, 240, 258, 242, 245, 249 273, 288–292 de Klerk, F. W. 236–237, 242, 283, Conradie, J. H. 124 debt 2, 75, 133, 237, 242 consumer price index 56, 128 degeneration theory 6, 21, 41–44, 46–48, 53, Cooper, Frederick 10 60, 68–69, 82, 90, 92, 100, 150, 280 co-production See also eugenics as approach to history 3–20 Department of Native Affairs (Bantu definition of 11 Administration) 10, 31, 35, 37, 73, 75, compared to Actor-Network Theory 77, 119–121, 128, 143, 144–145, 147, 69–70, 80, 137–138 149–150, 155–158, 161, 164, 281, compared to “governmentality” 142–144, Department of Social Welfare 46, 93–94, 101, 173–174 106, 276 compared to materialist, revisionist See also Carnegie Commission history 50 Continuation Committee of disruptive grassroots protests, labor “dependency” 24, 34, 43, 49, 69, 76, 79, 86, strikes, and poverty knowledge 18, 50, 55, 91, 92, 94, 100, 106–107, 240, 259, 261, 67, 140, 142–144, 174, 193, 196–198, 273, 276, 297 201, 205, 233, 263 Department of Labour 45, 67, 75–76, 106, of everyday speech and human science 23, 170, 173, 186, 190, 206, 214 63, 96–98 See also Poor White Census, Wage Boards of lay knowledge and human science 60, depression 62–63, 69–70, 72–74, 177–174, See Great Depression 196–198, 202 Desmond, Cosmas 166, 171 of local expertise and scientific knowledge “detribalization” 134, 137, 155 75, 173–174 “development,” economic 102, 133, of poverty lines, public discourse, and policy 150, 155–161, 162, 166, 164–168, 174, debates 129, 202, 272–276 199, 207, 211, 213, 216–217, 219, 220, of racial stereotypes and scientific categories 222–223, 227, 229, 239, 252–254, 272, 80–81, 97, 100, 136–137, 143–144 276, 286–295, 297

324 Index

“discursive formations” 3, 10, 14, 279, 293 eugenics 40–44, 46–48, 60, 67–69, 88, “distinction” within scientific fields 11–12, 24, 137 80, 105–112, 226, 279, 292 See also degeneracy theory District Six 110 divestment and divestment campaigns 177, Federation of South African Trade Unions 180, 199, 203, 205, 207–208, 251 (FOSATU) 195–196, 214, 223 dockworkers (stevedores) 51, 188–193, 279, Federation of South African Women 282 149–150 See also Student Wages Commissions, Wage Ferguson, James 6, 143, 201–202, 286 Boards Fabian socialism 38–39 Douglas, Mary 63, 86, 109 fieldworkers 11, 107–108, 110–120, 128, “doles” 9, 44, 86, 95, 133, 272–273 173, 178, 228–229, 264, 281 See also poor relief See also co-production, human science domestic workers 47, 225, 286 First World War 25, 29 drought 25, 43, 75, 89, 155, 279 Food and Allied Worker’s Union 288 Drum magazine 171–172 Ford Foundation 219, 227 Dube, John 30–31 Foucault, Michel 3, 9, 14 Du Bois, W. E. B. 47 Fox and Back Report, 1938 128 Dubow, Saul 5, 42, 84, 91 See also pensions “Durban moment” 180–198 franchise rights 30, 38, 55, 71, 217, 222, 228, Durban Strikes, 1973 179, 184, 192–198, 254–255 201–202, 211, 263, 282 Freedom Charter, 1955 71, 149, 231, 235, Dutch East India Company 7, 42 238, 245, 249, 251, 254, 259, 283, 289, Dutch Reformed Church (DRC) 42–43, 82, 290 91–92 dystopias and apocalypse 21, 25, 158, 173, Gallup, George 232, 234 244 Gandhi, M. K. 51, 118, 181–183 See also millenarianism, prophesy Garment Workers’ Union 185 Garvey, Marcus 68 Eastern Cape gender and gender inequality 16, 24, 72, 209, See Ciskei, Transkei 219, 229, 239, 261 Economic Freedom Fighters 292 General Factory Workers’ Benefit Fund 295 employment codes 17, 177, 202–207, General Missionary Commission 38 214–215 Gevisser, Mark 249, 258, 293 epistemology Gini coefficient (for inequality) 1, 4, 265, definition of 16, 208, 279 267, 269–271, 276, 289, 294 epistemic mobility Glass, E. V. 200–201 as a resource and a danger for “globalization” 242, 245, 260 human scientists 15–17, 177, 179, 215, 279, Gordon, Max 91 282–286, 297–299 “governmentality” 142–144, 151, 154, 174 definition of 13–15, 282 Great Cattle Killing, 1856–57 11, 24–25 turns to qualitative thinking 95, 86, 138, Great Depression 19, 62, 86, 94, 106 166, 177 , 208, 213, 216, 218, 225, 233, Greenberg, Stanley 254–255 252, 281, 282 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 6, 191, 217, turns to quantitative thinking 45, 107–108, 237, 247, 265, 292, 297 115, 117, 122, 137, 138, 147, 152–153, Grosskopf, J. F. W. 83, 85, 88 167, 174, 177, 191, 198–199, 217, 266, Growth, Employment and Redistribution 275–276, 284, 295 (GEAR) 258–266, 269–270, 289, Ensor, Paula 180, 197 “erudite and subjugated knowledges” 14, “habitus” 11, 23–24, 62, 86, 144, 153 241 See also Bourdieu, co-production Erwin, Alec 180, 195, 256, 258, 289 Hacking, Ian 4, 13

Index 325

Hailey, William Malcolm 130–132 Human Science Research Council (HSRC) Hemson, David 226, 236, 252, 255, 267 after Durban Strikes 195–198, 208 human scientists and dockworkers 190–195 197, 202 and “distinction” 11–12, 24, 80, 105–112, and “slave wages” exposé 202–203 226, 279, 292 and the Student Wages Commissions 180, architects 146–148 184–186, 227 as intermediaries, 11–12, 81, 152, 154, 281 Hellmann, Ellen 70, 97, 116–117, 120, 162, attitude researchers 97–99, 152–153, 281 177–182, 212, 217, 226–236, 240, 256, See also SAIRR, Alexandra Bus Boycott, 262, 280 1943–44 anthropologists 71, 73, 79, 96 102, Hertzog, J. B. M. 51, 54–55, 60, 69, 77–78, 138–139, 153, 156, 161–162, 166, 81, 92, 94, 96, 101, 103 180 See also “civilized labor policy” economists 1, 15–16, 18, 22, 66–70, 76, HIV-AIDS 3, 218, 285–266 83, 85–90, 133, 156, 167, 173–174, Hofmeyr, Jan 65 211–212, 217, 225, 235–249, 256–258, Hofmeyr School of Social Work 73, 146, 261, 266–271, 275, 282–283 150–151, 281 historians 27, 50, 52, 61, 66–70, 76–80, Hoernlé, Agnes Winifred 77, 96, 116, 117, 100, 106, 209–210, 280 161 mathematicians 64, 223 Horner, Dudley 184, 188, 219, 227, 252, market researchers 181, 198, 200, 211, Houghton, Hobart D. 166–167 228–229, 231 housing 1, 11, 37, 68, 102, 113, 121, 141, Marxian revisionist historians 27, 50, 52, 145–152, 168–169, 188, 204, 219, 236, 70, 82–74, 121, 178, 183, 208–213, 217, 253, 256, 257, 260, 266, 267, 277, 281, 219 283 medical doctors 13, 21–22, 37, 65, 83, 118, “household” 111, 168 121 130, 157, 157, 182, 224 Household Subsistence Level (HSL) 200–201, modelers 244–250, 255, 260, 265, 274 204, 224, 254 nutrition experts 36–37, 120, 126, 128, human science 139, 145, 147, 201, 222, 261, 294 American influences 5, 21, 45, 47, 61, 74, opinion pollsters 19, 177, 210, 218, 83–85, 97, 130–133, 154–155, 212–213, 226–234, 254 231, 243, 264, 290 psychologists 22, 82, 84, 96, 153, 183 as interactive and absorptive 4–5, 11–13, planners 5, 102, 115, 124–125, 141, 17–18, 23, 50, 67, 79–80, 81, 98, 100, 146–150, 155, 158–159, 160–165, 144, 150, 152, 154, 165, 174, 192, 201, 168–170, 198, 287, 290 204, 215, 218, 241, 248, 266, 276, 287, public health experts 10, 41, 57, 62, 74, 295–296, 298 123–124, 128, 144, 148, 166 British and Commonwealth influences on 5, social surveyors 67, 70, 76–78, 81–91, 54, 64–67, 83, 126, 201 104–122, 128–132, 134–150, 152, compared to natural science 18, 61–62, 107, 155–161, 164, 166–170, 178, 184–189, 109 198–202, 206, 211, 217, 220, 228, 233, definition of 6, 14, 17 251–278 German influences on 5, 41, 51, 67, 83, 93, social workers 13, 73, 82, 93, 105–107, 102, 105, 132, 160 109, 116–117, 132, 134, 136, 142, popularization 70, 90–91 138, 233, 279 146–147, 150, 281 “scientism” 107 “human rights” 2, 103, 113, 115, 121, 140, recommendations for human scientists 15, 152, 235 286–299 See also Africans’ Claims, Freedom Charter, See also co-production, limits of invention, Second World War looping, “quantitative objectivity” Hutt, W. H. 105

326 Index

Iliffe, John 234 Jan Hofmeyr School of Social Work 73, 146, Income and Employment Survey, 2000 268 150–151 “influx control” 113, 145–146, 148, 155, 160, Janish, Miriam 119–120 214 Jabavu, D. D. T. 46–47 Indians 7, 9, 21, 27, 41, 51, 56–57, 64, 70, Jews, representations of 40, 75, 95, 98, 124 111, 118, 123, 127, 135, 138, 172, Joint Councils 70–74, 76–77, 79, 81, 101, 183–184, 185, 219, 267, 281 105, 113, 184 See also apartheid, race and racism See also SAIRR indunas (chiefs) 188–192, 194 Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union Kadalie, Clements 51–54 (ICU) 51–54, 57, 77, 282 Kakamas Labor Colony 43–46 Industrial Conciliation Act, 1924 55, Keiskammahoek 156–159, 165–167, 228 75, 184 Keiskammahoek Rural Survey, 1948–52 inequality 156–157, 228 black-white wage gap 58, 76, 141, 187, 189, Keynes, John Maynard and Keynesian 208, 212, 282 economics 133, 213, 248, 291 gender 16, 24, 72, 209, 219, 229, 239, 261 Krige, Eileen and Jack 161–162 Gini coefficient for 1, 4, 265, 267–267, kholwa (believers) 27–33 269–271, 276, 289, 294 See also African intellectuals Inter-racial 104, 173, 207, 212–213, Klenerman, Fanny 77 218–244, 246, 253–254, 259–263 Knight, J. B. 173, 206, 212–213 Intra-racial 218, 250, 264–269 Kuznets, Simon 212–213 post-apartheid 2, 16, 234–299 Kuzwayo, Ellen 151, 193 relative poverty 4, 21, 38–40, 122, 177, Kwa-Thema 146–148 180, 206–216, 233, 282 “two nations” 182, 264 labor colonies 21, 43–49, 70, 76, 86, 92 wage gap between rich and poor 2, 206, See also Kakamas, “poor whites” 213, 248, 264, 269 labor discipline 34, 93, 240, 273 influenza pandemic, worldwide, 1918 labor migration 8–9, 10, 33–34, 76, 141, 143, 25–26, 29 159, 166, 183, 208, 227, 252, 285, 292 Inkatha Institute 229–230 “the labor question” 10 Inkatha Movement (Party) 230, 276 labor stabilization 103, 145, 157, 163, Institute for Democracy in South Africa 206–207, 279, 281 (IDASA) 255 labor unions Institute for Planning Research 198 See black trade unions, Rand Revolt intelligence (IQ) testing 19, 82, 84–85, 90, Labour Party 50–51 96–97 Lodge, Tom 234–235, 249 Intercontinental Marketing Services Africa Land Act, 1913 (IMSA) 228–229, 231 See Natives Land Act intermediaries Latour, Bruno 12, 137, 201 chiefs, informants, field workers, census- Le Corbusier 146 takers, and translators as 12, 46, 84, 90 le Roux, Pieter 50, 236, 245, 257–258 110–112, 142–143, 188, 228 Legassick, Martin 50, 53, 183, 208, 217 human scientists as 11–12, 81, 89–90, 152, Lehfeldt, R. A. 68–69, 76 281 Leibbrant, Murry 265, 294 Max Gluckman on 12 Leihlo la Sechaba (Eye of the Nation) 169 See also co-production, human scientists liberalism and “white liberals” 13, 41, International Labor Organization (ILO) 51–53, 57, 62, 65, 69, 77, 72, 74–81, 129–130, 262–263 105, 114, 117, 145, 146, 151, 154, 183, International Monetary Fund (IMF) 245, 193, 206, 209–210, 215, 237, 280, 281, 248–249, 289, 292–294 284 Israelite movement 26 See also SAIRR

Index 327

“limits of invention” in human science Marxian revisionist historians 27, 50, after apartheid 285–299 52, 70, 82–74, 121, 178, 183, 208–213, deﬁnition of 12–13, 62–63, 174–175 217, 219 vis-à-vis apartheid planning 144–149, Marzullo, Sal 205 155–160 Mathes, Khulekani 289 vis-à-vis ﬁeldwork 105–112 Mattes, Robert 255–256 vis-à-vis social welfare debates 69–70, Matthews, Z. K. 71, 121, 147, 152, 235 79–80, 122–138, 154 May, Julian 259–261 See also habitus, Latour, Science and Mayhew, Henry 62–63 Technology Studies Maxeke, Carlotte Manye 47 “living wages” 35, 121, 167, 170, 171, 177, Mbeki, Govan 165–166 223, 282 Mboweni, Tito 243, 245 “looping” 4, 11, 19, 165, 192 McGrath, M. D. 206, 212, 237 See also co-production, Hacking, human McMenamin, Viv 243 science (popularization of) Meer, Fatima 183 London School of Economics (LSE) 104–105, Merriman, John X. 42 136 Meth, Charles 240–241, 243, 254, 274–277, Loram, Charles T. 70–73, 83 294 See also Joint Council Movement Mgijima, Enoch 26 millenarianism 11, 21, 24, 27, 106, 168, 239, Macmillan, William M. 61, 66–70, 76–80, 244 100, 106, 209, 280 Mills, Michael Elton 156–157 MacCrone, I. D. 79, 86–90, 152–154, “minima” 114, 129, 147, 168, 224 181–183, 199, 227, 280 “minimum standards moment” 104–107, “macroeconomic populism” 242, 246, 255, 257 122, 126, 129, 132–134, 138–144, 187, See also neo-liberalism 198, 208 Macroeconomic Research Group (MERG) See also Second World War, Poverty Datum 247–248, 252–253, 256 Line Mafeje, Archie 180 minimum wages 76–77, 136, 170–173, Mokaba, Peter 259 184–208 Magona, Sindiwe 225–226 See also “basic needs,” Poverty Datum Line Malan, D. F. 92, 125, 145 mining sector Malan, F. S. 44, 94 Chamber of Mines 21, 33–38, 49, 74, 128, Malherbe, Ernst Gideon 82–91 93, 95–96, 234 100, 106, 280 compounds (labor hostiles) 8, 36, 38, 74, Malinowski, Bronislaw 96 188 malnutrition 36–37, 120, 124, 126, 128–130, discovery of diamonds and gold 8, 33 136, 139, 147, 166, 222, 261 industrial color bar 50, 76, 101, 173, 208 manufacturing sector 10, 76, 94, 145, 148, labor recruitment 8–9, 33–34 244, 248, 297 Marikana Massacre 285, 292 Mandela, Nelson 2, 27, 66, 121, 171–172, nationalization 178, 235–239, 241–243, 174, 228, 234–239, 242–244, 248, 250, 246–247, 250, 283 257–258, 281, 283, 295, 289 nutritional standards for African miners 21, Mandela, Winnie 151 36–37, 106 Manuel, Trevor 245, 247–249, 256, 258, 263, control over African newspaper 74–75 273, 287, 289–291, 293 Rand Revolt 50 Marais, Hein 249 See also capitalism, labor migration, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 148 nutritional standards Marchand, Reverend B. 43, 45 “mixed economy” 235–238, 243, 247, 250, Marikana Massacre, 2012 285, 292 289 Marx, Karl 16, 214 mixed-race people Marx, Shula 50, 52, 217 See colored people

328 Index

modeling exercises, post-apartheid 244–250, Ndobe, Bansby 54, 58, 60 255, 260, 265, 274 Nietzsche, Friedrich 14 modernism 42, 91, 71, 105–107, 142–144, Nkomo, Joshua 151 146, 161, 281 Nongqawuse 24–25 Mokhetle, Anna 150–151 Nontetha 26 Moll, Terrence 237, 241, 245–246 nonviolence 51, 118, 287, 297–298 Møller, Valerie 231–232 Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) 91, 132 Mont Fleur scenarios 245–247 nutrition Mugabe, Robert 230 See malnutrition Murry, Haldane A. 42 “obligatory passage point” 201, 205 Naidoo, Jay 253, 256 October Household Survey 178, 262 Namibia (South-West Africa) 50, 103, 189, old age pensions 214 See pensions Natal Strike, 1913 51 “organic intellectuals” 4, 282, 298 National Development Plan 287–295, 297 Orlando 150–151 National Party “over-population” and apartheid policies 222, 230, 242–243, see “population” 277 before 1948 92, 94–95, 101–102, 123–125, Pact Government 51, 54 128 See also Hertzog, J. B. M. creation of apartheid 145–148, 281 Palmer, Mabel 72, 77 divisions within 160–163 Pan African Congress (PAC) 149, 171, 199 negotiations with ANC 217, 234, 236 See also Sobukwe Pact government 51 Pan-Africanism 58–59, 149, 171, 199 “tri-cameral government” 219 “parasitic” threats to social body 14, 54, 58, See also Afrikaner nationalism, apartheid, 122–124, 297 de Klerk, Verwoerd pass laws 47, 54, 76, 103, 118, 145, 171, 178, National Productivity Institute (NPI) 240–241 214 National Union of South African Students See also inﬂux control, Sharpeville, Reikert (NUSAS) 180–184, 197, 282 Commission nationalization 178, 235–239, 241–243, patriarchy 9, 72, 151 246–247, 250, 283 See also gender inequality Native Advisory Board 149 Pearson, Karl 107 Native Affairs Department pensions, old age 1–212, 21, 36, 56, 60, 94, See Department of Native Affairs 112, 123, 126–128, 135, 267, 280, 293 Native Economic Commission, 1930–32 16, Pensions Act, 1928 56 88, 155 Pension Laws Amendment Act, 1944 127–128 Native Representative Council 81 “people’s power” 216, 218–219, 224, 244 native reserves 10, 35, 78, 94, 117, 128, 143, Phelps-Stokes Fund 61, 71, 74 150, 159, 168, 220, 279 Phillips, Arthur 134–135 See also Bantustans, Natives Land Act Phillips, Ray 73–74, 150–151 Native Welfare Ofﬁcers 47, 57 See also Jan Hofmeyr School of Social Work Natives Land Act, 1913 27, 29–32, 35, 50, 78, photography 37, 88, 166, 171–172, 210, 117 219 Nattrass, Jill 212–213 Pillay, Vella 236, 238, 241, 237, 248 Nattrass, Nicoli 4, 128, 242, 248, 263–264, Piven, Frances 17, 179, 192, 297 268, 271 Plaatje, Sol 16, 21, 27–29, 31–33, 38, 71, 280 neo-liberalism 2, 6–7, 142–144, 211, 231, Polaroid Company 199–200 236, 249–250, 252, 259, 261, 270, 274, Poor Laws, British 25, 41, 48–51 277, 285–286, 290 “poor whites” 8–9, 16, 24, 40, 42–48, 58, 66, Netshienzhe, Joel, 273, 276 79, 84–100, 108–109, 116, 123, 125,

Index 329

154–155, 206, 222–223, 242, 259, 280, as tool of political agitation and critique 4, 284 104, 141, 145, 149, 167, 170–172, 174, poor relief 10, 42–44, 46, 48–50, 60, 67, 106, 177, 184–192, 193, 281 129, 136 business managers’ views of 200–201, 208, See also dependency, “doles” 214, 273 “population” 46, 108, 134–136, 221, definition of 101, 126–127 228–240, 265 Effective Minimum Level (EML) 127, 129, Porter, Ted 4–5, 61 193, 203, 205 positivism 18, 23, 73, 81, 107, 109, 113, 270, Household Subsistence Level (HSL) 218, 241, 249 200–201, 204, 224, 254 See also “boundary work,” in Cape Town 113–115, 129, 206, 281 recommendations for scholars, in Durban 167, 169, 183 “scientism” in Drum Magazine 172 Potgieter, Johann 198–201, 204, 224 in employment codes 203–204, 282 poverty in Guardian exposé on “slave wages” double vision of 3 202–203 “deserving poor” 3, 25, 43, 55–56 in Johannesburg 118–122, 146, 149, “loafers” and “won’t works” 46, 64, 259, 171 284 in Mombasa 134–135 malnutrition 36–37, 120, 124, 126, in Port Elizabeth 167 128–130, 136, 139, 147, 166, 222, 261 in Salisbury (Harare) 135 “multi-dimensional” poverty 3, 15 257, in Zanzibar 135 259, 294, 297 Mandela’s reference to 171 pre-scientific meanings of 11–12, 23–24, “minima” 114, 129, 147, 168, 224 62–63 Minimum Living Level (MLL) 240, 248 poverty lines 56, 77–78, 58 public uptake of 4, 12, 101–102, 114, relative poverty 4, 21, 28, 122, 177, 189, 149,193, 196, 198, 201, 205, 233, 206, 208, 212, 215, 216, 233, 282 279, 282 See also human scientists, inequality, “poor reformist critiques of (by attitude whites,” Poverty Datum Line (PDL), researchers) 231–232, 240–241 poverty knowledge, “vulnerability” radical critiques of 208, 215, 223–225, Poverty and Inequality Report, 1998 259–260 291 Poverty Datum Line (PDL) Verwoerd’s use of 101, 144–281, 163 and Basic Income Grant 272–276, 283–284 poverty knowledge and South African Communist Party and “erudite and subjugated knowledges” 119–120 14, 241 and Durban Strikes 193 and “quantitative objectivity” 4–5, 61, 72, and National Building Research Institute 102, 107, 115, 117, 135–137, 152, 174, 146–148 177, 191, 217, 281 and South African Congress of Trade as a discursive formation 3, 10, 14, 279, Unions 170 293 and South African Institute of Race as a historical dialectic 15, 233, 241, 278, Relations 101, 113–118 295 and Student Wages Commissions 184–192, as co-produced 122, 140, 169, 174, 178, 193, 208, 282 215, 228, 271, 279 and Tomlinson Commission 171 definition of 3, 11, 14–16 and Wage Boards 184–192 privatization 178, 206, 211, 236, 239, 261, and wartime social security debates 298 122–123, 126–129, 281 Protestant Social Gospel 61, 66, 74, 77 as “anti-politics machine” 202 Progressive-era 61, 66, 70, 71, 74, 281 as “boundary object” 140 Project for Statistics on Living Standards and as “obligatory passage point” 201–202, 206 Development (PSLSD) 252–253, 272

330 Index

prophets and prophesy 11, 21, 24–26, 29, 106, racial re-classiﬁcation boards 112, 226–227 158, 173, 244 Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. 96–97 See also dystopias, millenarianism,worlds Ramaphosa, Cyril 291, 293–295, 297 without want, utopias Ramphele, Mamphela 224–225, 244 Prospects for Successful Transition 244–245 Rand Aid Society 49 Rand Revolt 1922 50, 55, 76 “quality of life” 217, 222, 226, 231, 233, 236, “rank and ﬁle” attitudes 227, 231, 233 245, 247, 276, 282, 294 Raphael, Adam 202 “quantitative objectivity” 4–5, 61, 72, 102, recommendations for scholars 20, 277–278, 107, 115, 117, 135–137, 152, 174, 177, 285–299 191, 217, 281 Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) 253–254, 256–269 race and racism Reddy, E. S. 199 and inequality after apartheid 251–299 Regan, Ronald 259 and employment codes 17, 202–207 Reikert Commission 214 and “parasitic” threats to social body 14, relative poverty 4, 21, 28, 122, 177, 189, 206, 54, 58, 122–124, 297 208, 212, 215, 216, 233, 282 and SACP 52–53 Requirements for Stability and Development and Second World War 103–104, 129–141 in KwaZulu and Natal, 1980–82 and state policies 9–10, 21, 41, 33–36, 41, (Buthelezi Commission) 229–231 45–46, 54–56, 70, 77, 81, 89, 122–129, rent scales 91, 101, 108, 128–129, 150–151, 143–149, 155–165, 182, 188, 195, 199, 170, 224, 203 “residuum” 14, 41, 69 and the “poor white question” 9–10, 40–51, revisionist historians 68, 81–95, 101, 108–109, 113, 124, 219, See Marxian historians 222, 280 Rheinallt-Jones, R. D. 70–71, 73, 75, 77, 113, and white liberals 74, 79, 108, 113–118, 116, 128 172, 262 See also SAIRR anti-Semitism 75, 95 Rhodes-Livingston Institute 81, 132 at Wits University 65–66 Robb, Lindsay R. 156 attitude researchers 97–99, 152–153, Ross, Dorothy 107 177–182, 212, 217, 226–236, 240, 256, Rothmann, M. E. R 83, 86–87, 91 262, 280 Rowntree, Seebohm 64, 105, 113, 201 Black Consciousness responses to 7, 151, Richards, Audrey 134, 138 181–183, 193, 209–210, 214, 234, rinderpest 43 282 Rivonia Trial, 1963–1964 171, 165, 199, 281 categories used in this book 7 “common sense” of 98–99 Sanlam 95 hierarchies of 17, 22, 42, 69, 98–99 satyagraha 51, 188 in discussions of Africans as “primitive” scenario exercises 244–250 versus “poor” 34–35, 103, 128, 214 Seekings, Jeremy 4, 128, 264, 268, 277 in the making of human science 11, 16, Second Carnegie Enquiry into Poverty and 23–24, 62, 86, 144, 153 Development in Southern Africa, in social surveying 62–65, 66–69, 96–102, 1980–1984 (Second Carnegie) 177–178, 110–112, 119–122, 129–141, 152–154, 217–226, 232–233, 239, 245, 252 160–175, 236–250 Second World War 56, 66, 103–104, 137, persistence of 1, 200, 285 152, 155, 164, 280 taxonomy 63–64, 73 Seidman, Gay 202, 205 swartgevaar (black danger) 38, 54, 92, 103, Sen Amartya 260 145 “separate development” 102, 141, 143, 160, See also attitude research, co-production, 162, 165–166, 211 eugenics, Jews, MacCrone, Rand Revolt See also apartheid, Verwoerd, Tomlinson

Index 331

service delivery 1, 149, 218, 258, 265, 267, social security 283, 295, 287 and Basic Income Grant 272–276, 283–284 Settlement House Movement 64, 67, 70, 105, and the Boer Republics 41 113 as response to unrest 48, 50, 197, 202, 233, Schlemmer, Lawrence 217, 222, 226–233, 239 240, 247, 255, 261–264, 271, 275, 283, post-war discussions of 114–115, 121–129, 294, 296 290 science post-apartheid discussions of 6, 259, 262, See human science 268, 272–276, 283–284, 306 “scientific field” 80, 108 pre-colonial definitions of 8 See also Bourdieu, distinction See also Africans’ Claims, social welfare Science and Technology Studies (STS) or policy Science Studies and social history 13, Social Security Committee, 1943 125–127 197 social science and co-production 11–12, 79–80, 90, 106, See human science 111, 122, 137 social surveying “de-scription of technical objects” 132 as a “solicitious science” 109 “obligatory passage point” 201–202, 206 history of 62–64 “the Economy” 62, 243 See also Batson, Booth, cost-of-living “the Social” 12–13, 79–80, 137–138, 140, statistics, human scientists, Macmillan, 100 Rowntree, Schlemmer, Social Survey of See also Actor-Network Theory, Callon, Cape Town co-production, Latour Social Survey of Cape Town 104, 108–112, sanctions, international economic 141, 174, 113, 134–135, 280 219, 226, 228, 233–234, 237, 287 See also Batson, Edward, Poverty Datum “sanitation syndrome” 40–41 Line, SAIRR Scheepers, Anna 187, 189 “social wage” 260, 266–268, 274, 276, Schreiner, Olive 21, 38–40, 173 283–294 Seme, Pixley 30, 288 social welfare policy Shaka 8, 29 after apartheid 1–3, 16, 268–299 Sharpeville Massacre, 1960 171, 189, 199, and white racial uplift 9, 10, 41–51, 201, 205 62, 76 Shell Oil Company 202, 245 See “poor whites” Shezi, Vusi 194–195 British influences on 25, 41 Silberman, Leo 139–140 Child Support Grants (CSG) 267–268, Simkins, Charles 220 293 Smit, D. L. 120–121, 155–157 Department of Social Welfare 46, 93–94, Smuts, Jan 50–51, 103, 119, 125, 145 101, 106, 276 Slovo, Joe 235 Disability Grants (DG) 267–268, 274, 293 “slums” 21, 41, 54, 61, 67–68, 87, 109, 111, German influences on 41 131, 165 old-age pensions 1, 21, 55–58, 60, 94, 101, “the Social” 12–13, 79–80, 137–138, 140, 112, 114–116, 121–128, 135, 207, 216, 100 267–268, 281, 293 See also Actor-Network Theory Reconstruction and Development Sobukwe, Robert 149 Programme (RDP) 253–254, 256–269 Social and Economic Planning Council 125, “separate development” 102, 141, 143, 127 160, 162, 165–166, 211 social grants Social Old Age Pension (SOAP) 267–268 See social welfare policy White Paper for Social Welfare, 1997 259 social history 13, 197 See also apartheid, betterment, Basic Income social organism metaphor 79, 90, 92, 113, Grant, social security, “social wage,” 117, 123, 162, 167, 172, 209 South African state

332 Index

social workers 13, 73, 82, 93, 105–107, 109, Department of Native Affairs (Bantu 116–117, 132, 134, 136, 142, 146–147, Administration) 10, 31, 35, 37, 73, 75, 150, 281 77, 119–121, 128, 143, 144–145, 147, See also Phillips, Jan Hofmeyr School of 149–150, 155–158, 161, 164, 281 Social Work Department of Social Welfare 46, 93–94, socialism 61, 148, 180, 181, 213, 218, 222, 101, 106, 276 231, 233, 235–237, 244, 247, 250 “state consciousness” 44, 72 See also Fabian socialism, nationalization forced relocation 160, 164, 166, 168–169 soil erosion and conservation 132, 142–143, 216 150, 155–157, 160, 166, 279 ofﬁces and agencies as site of protest 77, 192 Soil Conservation Service, United States taxation 8, 9, 16, 25, 26, 34, 45, 61, 94, 155 118, 164, 266, 272, 284, 292 Sophiatown 150–151 tensions and contradictions within 9–10, South African Bureau of Racial Affairs 13, 16, 155, 160–164 (SABRA) 162 social monitoring by 17, 41, 47–46, 48 South African (Black) Students Association Special Branch (Secret Police) 297 (SASO) 182–183, 197, 210 violence of 26, 59, 171, 181, 197–198 See also Biko, Steve, Black Consciousness See also capitalism, commissions of inquiry, South African Chamber of Business (SACOB) mining industry, social welfare policy 239–240 South African War (Anglo-Boer War) 9, 49, South African Council of Trade Unions 66, 82 (SACTU) 169–171, 173, 184 Soweto Student Uprisings, 1976–77 177, 179, See also black trade unions 197, 209–211, 226–227, 233, 292 South African Communist Party (SACP) 50, statistics 52, 54, 118–120, 162, 196, 234–235, and “governmentality” 153, 161, 178 238, 245, 258, 290 and post-apartheid policymaking 218, 238, South African Institute of Race Relations 248–278 (SAIRR) 70–79, 81, 101, 105, 113, and “quantitative objectivity” 70–71, 117, 116–120, 155, 168, 172, 184, 188, 197, 139, 185, 263, 295 200, 216, 227, 262–263, 281 and the Carnegie Commission 82–85, 94 See also Joint Councils, white liberals and the Poverty Datum Line 101, 112, 120, South African Iron and Steel Corporation 94 124, 135, 241 South African Labour and Development and the Student Wages Commissions Research Unit (SALDRU) 198, 219–221, 184–198 252–253, as an idiom of political claim-making 4, See also Second Carnegie 102, 220, 254, 264, 281, 284 South African Labor Bulletin 209 as co-produced 3–19, 174, 179 South African Modern Movement 148–149 national styles of 19 South African Native Affairs Commission, on poverty and inequality during apartheid 1903–05 35–36 212 South African Participatory Poverty popularization and radicalization of 3–20, Assessment 260–261 104, 144, 165, 174, 179, 189, 214, 276 South African state public and ofﬁcial demand for 45–46, 72, and “governmentality” 44, 142–175 132, 136, 177, 178, 208, 216 and commissions of inquiry as a tool of See also cost-of-living, epistemic mobility, legitimation 143, 293 human scientists, unemployment as a regime of distribution 1–2, 6, 91 94, Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) 262–263, 213, 230–231, 237–238, 241–243, 247, 268, 275 259, 272, 277, 293 strikes, labor co-productionist reading of 142–175 African workers 51, 145, 192–198, Department of Labour 45, 67, 75–76, 106, 201–202, 234, 285 170, 173, 186, 190, 206, 214 and social welfare reforms 75–76, 132, 214

Index 333

as a prelude to and reason for social Tomlinson Commission 161–164 investigation 10, 64, 132, 134, 137, 177, Trade Union Advisory and Coordinating 179, 197–207, 282 Council (TUACC) 295 as “breech” 197, 282 Trade Union Research Project 198 as catalyst of epistemic mobility 17, Transkei 37, 78, 128, 159, 165–166, 226 208–212, 263 Transvaal Indigency Commission, 1906–08 dockworkers (stevedores) 188–193, 282 44–45, 49–50 Durban Strikes 179, 184, 192–198, Transvaal Labour Commission, 1904 34–35 201–202, 211, 263, 282, Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) 285 foundry workers 186 Trollope, Anthony 40 farmworkers 285 “trusteeship” 131, 199 Indian workers 51 Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union 1995–1998 2, 197 (ICU) 52 Tshabalala, Lillian 122 Ovambo contract workers 189, 191, 193 Turner, Richard (Rick) 180–185, 189, 197 Marikana miners 285 Turner, Victor 17 National Union of Mineworkers 234 Tutu, Bishop Desmond 220, 233, 273–274 white workers 48–49, 55 See also Industrial Conciliation Act, Wage unemployment 3, 44, 49, 74, 94, 126, 178, Boards 226–227, 236, 240, 251, 260, 262, 267, Student Wages Commission 271, 298, 264–266, 268–287, 290–293, and 1968 student activism in Europe 180, 295 214 United Democratic Front (UDF) 216–217, and the General Factory Workers’ Beneﬁt 219–220, 223, 234–235, 249, 273, 282, Fund 195 United Nations 118, 130, 199, 202 in Cape Town 180, 191–192 United Party 123–124, 127, 145, 164, in Durban 180, 182, 184–191, 193, 195 174, in Pietermaritzburg 180, 193, 195 Union of South Africa, 1910 9 See also Durban Strikes, Hemson, Poverty University of Cape Town (UCT) 83, 101, 104, Datum Line 180, 186 191, 198, 201, 219–221, Sullivan, Leon Reverend 204–205, 208 223–224 Sullivan Principles 204–205, 208 University of Fort Hare (South African Native Surplus People’s Project 216 College) 46, 71 “surplus population” 142–144, 161, University of Grahamstown 67, 182 163–166, 214 University of Natal 166, 180, 182, 202 Suzman, Helen 222 University of Port Elizabeth 198 swartgevaar (black danger) 38, 54, 92, 103, University of Pretoria 93, 156, 161, 198, 145 University of Stellenbosch 43, 82, 84, 92–93, 162, 206, 248, 257, 261, 268, 275 TCVB states 269 University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) 65, 77, See Bantustans 80, 96–97 106, 117, 145–146, 152, 181, Tambo, Oliver 199, 235 209, 234, 272, 291, 294 taxation 8, 9, 16, 25, 26, 34, 45, 61, 94, 118, Urban Areas Act, 1923 145 164, 266, 272, 284, 292 Urban Foundation 211, 231 Taylor, Vivienne 272 urbanization, African 47–48, 137 Terreblanche, Sampie 2, 222, 268 utopias 11, 21, 29–34, 40, 53–54, 60, 88, 166, Thaele, James 59 168–169, 181, 273–274, 280 Thatcher, Margaret 242, 258, 259 Themba, Can 172 van den Berg, M. J. 123 Thompson, E. P. 44, 183, 209 van der Berg, Servaas 1, 248, 261–262, Tindale, Hugh 187 266–268, 270–271, 274–277, 294, 296 Tomlinson, F. R. 152, 161 van der Horst, Sheila 187

334 Index

van Onselen, Charles 48, 209 wage gap between rich and poor 2, 206, van Seventer, Dirk Ernst 269–270 213, 248, 264, 269 Vavi, Zenlinzima 289–290 “white wages” 77, 55, 173, 198, 238 Verba, Sidney 232–233 Washington, Booker T. 28, 46 Verwoerd, Hendrik “Washington Consensus” 249, 250, and the Carnegie Commission Continuation 272, 289 Committee 93–95, 106 Webb, Beatrice and Sidney 66–67, 72, 77 as Minister of Native Affairs 101–102, 141, See also Fabian socialism 144, 147–148, 291 West Indies 132, 135, 137–138 as apartheid pragmatist 163–165 White Paper for Social Welfare, 1997 259–270 on “separate development” 160–161 Whiteford, Andrew 269 volkekunde ethnos theory 102, 160 Wilcocks Commission on the Cape Colored Volkskongress 82, 92–93, 95, 162 Population, 1934–38 108, 113 “vulnerability” 260–261, 266, 285, 294 Wilcocks, R. W. 85, 108, 112 Wilson, Francis 219–222, 224–225, Wage Boards, Department of Labour 252, 258 creation of 76 Wilson, Godfrey 132, 209 and the Joint Councils 76–77 Wilson, Monica (Hunter) 50, 156, 180 and SACTU 170 Wilson, Woodrow 61 and SAIRR 75–77, 81, 184 witchcraft 25–26 and dockworkers (stevedores) 188–193, 282 Wits History Workshop 209, 282 and garment workers 187 Walker, Eric 153, 209 Student Wages Commissions 184–193, 227 Wolpe, Harold 183 wages Woolard, Ingrid 259–260, 265, 267–268, black-white wage gap 58, 76, 141, 187, 189, 294 208, 212, 282 World Bank 133, 225, 245, 249, 252, 263, “kafﬁr wages” 85 283, 289 living wages 35, 121, 167, 170–173, 223, World Economic Forum in Davos 242–243 282 male “breadwinner wages” 112, 120, 151, Xuma, Alfred B. 121–122 164, 173, 190, 214 minimum wages 66, 76–77, 123, 170–173, Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia) 229, 231, 233 184–207, 248 Zuma, Jacob 287, 288, 291, 293