INFLUENZA CRYSTALS Breakthrough in Research

JOURNEY TO THE STARS Expedition to remote PNG

PORTLAND'S VISITOR The Pygmy Right Whale

PITURI An indigenous intoxicant

THE KESTREL Australia's smallest falcon

SPRING 1987 VOL. 22 NO. 6 THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM Focussed on marine life that inhabits the waters around° Australia south of 30 S, the book covers every group of living creatures ffiat live in this �on: sponges, cnidanans, worms, sea mosses, austaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, sea squirl'S, and mammals. With over two hundred different species from the prlnd.� marine groups, Australian Sea Life IS Neville Coleman more than just a reference book. It offers everyone a rare orportuni!f,to see a variety o marine life forms which, to most of us, are a mystery.

Neville Coleman , author of

Australian° Sea Fishes North of 30 and Australian0 Sea Fishes South of 30 , is one of Australia's foremost underwater explorers and photographers. Australian Revelations Natural History EDITORIAL

Published by t's hard to believe that there are summer in Portland Harbour, Vic­ The Australian Museum Trust still parts of the world where the toria (see p. 266). News spread and 6-8 College Street, fauna is virtually unknown. The ardent volunteers and scientists en­ Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 StarI Mountain peaks in Papua New abled the first-ever study at close Phone: (02) 3398111 Trust President: Robyn Williams Guinea were such a place until range of this little-known species. Museum Director: Desmond Griffin recently, when a joint expedition As a species, humans appear from the Australian Museumand the virtually unconquerable. We can Papua ew Guinea Division of EDITOR scale mountains, study whales, and Fiona Doig Wildlife explored this remote area to alter genetic pathways (see QQC p. SCIENTIFIC EDITOR study its vertebrate fauna (see p. 271 ). Yet something as small as the Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. 244). Expeditions like this cover influenza virus is the scourge of west­ CIRCULATION rugged terrain: they demand not only ern industrial society; a bout of 'flu John McIntosh amazing stamina but considerable can weaken the strongest individual. ART DIRECTION financial support. The Ok Tedi However, new breakthroughs in the Watch This! Design Mining Co. Ltd generously provided fight against this virus are being made TYPESETTING that support. Such assistance is to be now. Some spectacular photos of in­ Love Computer Typesetting Pty Ltd acknowledged-it benefits the fluenza crystals and the search for a FILM WORK South Sea International Press Ltd environment in the long term. cure to this virus are presented in PRINTING Support also arrived swiftly when Photoart (p. 276). RodenPrint Pty Ltd a Pygmy Right Whale sojourned last -Fiona Doig, Editor ADVERTISING Jean Barnet (02) 939 6263 Contents (02) 339 8234 Journey to the Stars 244 Tim Flannery SUBSCRIPTIONS Annual subscription (4 issues) Dinkum or Decoy? The Dilemma 250 Within Australia $A 16.00 of a Flower Wasp Other Countries $A20.00 Babs and Bert Wells Two-year subscription (8 issues) Within Australia $A30.00 Pituri: Tracing the Trade Routes 257 Other Countries $A36.00 of an Indigenous Intoxicant Tim Low For renewal or new subscription please Portland's Chance Encounter 266 forward credit card authority or cheque made payable to: with a Pygmy Right Whale The Australian Museum Andrew Arnold P.O. Box A285 Sydney South The Kestrel: Australia's 284 N.S.W. 2000, Australia Smallest Falcon Subscribers from other countries please Penny and Jerry Olsen note that money must be paid in Australian currency. FORUM All material appearing in Australian Natural History is copyright. Cockatoos: Pests nor Pets 254 Reproduction in whole or in part is not de la Motte and Graeme Phipps permitted without written authorisation from the Editor. .D FOODS Opinions expressed by the authors are their own and do not necessarily Succulents for Supper 262 represent the policies or views of the Tim Low Australian Museum. The Editor welcomes articles or RARE & ENDANGERED photographs in any field of Australian Philip Island Hibiscus 274 natural history. eil Hermes

PHOTOART Published 1987 Influenza Crystals 276 ISSN-0004-9840 Graeme Laver Front Cover REGULAR FEATURES These fantastic crystals of anti­ Letters 242 bodies complexed with influenza Robyn Williams 264 neuraminidase from a pilot whale Poster Article 265 may well lead the way to a vaccine Quips, Quotes & Curios 271 for the 'flu. See Photoart, p. 276. Vincent Serventy 280 Books 282

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 241 LETTERS \1edia, tvh\.Jt, ,\1t'thod� and ,�uck

Rubber Doubt of Australia's image abroad. Surely we should avoid I read your very interest­ such a cultural cringe, and ing journal each quarter make decisions on the and must compliment you basis of data (Grigg's article on its preparation. The on kangaroo culling, ANH texts and photographs are vol. 21 no. 4, 1984 and, of unusually high standard more recently, vol. 22 no.

and I learn more from ANH 5, 1987), and our beliefs "'U,J than I do from any other about the ways animals 0z < journal, including inter­ should be used, rather than X U,J national ones in my own by the desire for a good ...J< media image in foreign U,J profession! lJ"' I found the article A Tea­ eyes. We should make our 0 U,J tillating Titbit in the QQC own moral judgments. lJ -Rod Power section of ANH (vol. 22 Many placental mammals (particularly wild ungulates Macquarie University no.4, 1987) professionally and domestic cows) consume the efforts of their repro­ interesting and I wondered duction, stopping just short of their tasty offspring. Ewes, if Geoff Smith uses a natural Another Man's Poison however, rarely need to bite the umbilical cord. rubber compound (as op­ posed to a synthetic rub­ When I was a boy, my the older members of a be self-defeating for an ani­ ber) which comes in either father pointed out to me species feeding to a con­ mal to engage in the effort dry or latex form. If he does, that, in terms of protein in­ siderable extent upon the involved in reproduction it could well be that we take, no food could be more numerous smaller and then to consume the have a mutual interest and more appropriate than the members (which have fed products thereof, but we perhaps the inclusion of flesh of one's own species, on other species).This is ef­ may nevertheless marvel at the article in our inter­ since it provides the appro­ fectively the situation the delicate inhibitory national journal Rubber priate amino acids in just among Saltwater Croco­ mechanisms that permit a Developments may result the right proportions. As a diles in the rivers of north­ female mammal to eat her in stimulating interest in the professional soldier whose ern Australia, where a min­ afterbirth and to nibble use of specialty teats. If he job was to kill other hu­ ority of large animals eat a along the umbilical cord does not, it could be that mans when ordered to do high proportion of the until just short of her the use of natural rubber, so, he asked, like James F. young adults. equally tasty offspring. We with its better tear resis­ Weiner (A H vol. 22 no.4, Cannibalism can also should not be surprised tance, could be a means of 1987), what is our objec­ occur early in a life history: that the inhibition some­ improving his product with tion to cannibalism. As a there are some larval in­ times fails in domesticated regards to durability. zoologist, I look at the sects thateat each other (so mammals or that, in nature, -R.A. Billett question slightly differently that only one member of a eating a litter may be an ap­ Malaysian Rubber Bureau and ask why cannibalism is brood survives) or that propriate response to a lack (Australia) so rare in the animal king­ hatch inside the mother's of food for the mother. Eat­ Melbourne, Vic. dom. body and consume her ing of 'excess' juveniles can be a population control Geoff Smith does, in First of all, exclusive flesh. Cannibalism is also measure, as in the African fact, use natural rubber (not cannibalism is impossible. not uncommon among tad­ synthetic) for his specialty Because of the necessary poles or hatchling reptiles. Lion, but there has never teats and a copy of Mr Bil­ inefficiencies of metab­ The significant limitation is been much support for lett's letter has been for­ olism, a population of car­ that, on simple thermodyn­ Jonathon Swift's (1729) warded to him. Due to the nivores requires a self-per­ amic grounds, cannibalism proposal to reduce poverty patent conditions, the petuating population of cannot extend beyond in England and Ireland by exact composition of the food animals (a 'standing some individuals at some fattening the children of rubber used cannot be crop'), the combined mass stage of the life history. the poor for consumption publicly disclosed. of which is at least ten times It is instructive to con­ at the tables of the rich. -C.H. the combined mass of the sider the multitudinous in­ On the whole it makes predators. Thus, a species stances where the oppor­ good sense (in evolutionary Trial by Media that suddenly became tunity for cannibalism is not terms) for members of a completely cannibalistic taken up. This includes all species not to eat each Robyn Williams (ANH would be able to have no �nstances of adults that care other. The benefit of canni­ vol. 22 no. 4, 1987) says, more than one great binge for their eggs or young, in­ balism is slight except in approvir;igly, that a recent before disappearing from cluding such tempting situ­ very special circumstances decision about the level of the face of the Earth. On ations as mouth-brooding and, to avoid the danger of kangaroo culling was ap­ the other hand, there is no in carnivorous cichlid self-extermination, it must parently made on the basis bar to a limited number of fishes. It would, of course, be so hedged with inhi- 242 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 Come and see 'em at the

bitions that it is probably Melanesia and Oceania. a•balia11 more cost-effective to let That it may have occurred the nutritious carcase of a elsewhere as a matter of dead relative decay than to magical ritual should not be permit it to be eaten. This is difficult to comprehend by particularly the case in those who, each Sunday, • social species, where the consume what they be­ status of an individual is lieve to be the transub­ Scientific Seminars usually the outcome of stantiated flesh and blood Our regular lunchtime seminars physical contests, which of their Saviour. have now been made available stop well short of serious -Ronald Strahan to the public. If you'd like more injury to the contestants: if Australian Museum information, phone for a free the loser were considered copy of the News and Events edible, the tendency to kill brochure. would be greater. Spawn Stinks Humans evolved from a In Gordon Claridge's long ancestry of social pri­ article In the Red(ANH vol. 20th Century Dinosaurs mates and it is reasonable 22 no. 4, 1987) the con­ Come and see a new breed of dinosaurs­ to assume that the earliest fusion between Oscillator­ constructed from car parts-arriving at the Mu­ Homo sapiens had instinc­ ia and coral spawn is dis­ seum on August 29 for six weeks only. Tyran­ tive inhibitions against can­ cussed. As a guide to differ­ nosaurus rex, Stegosaurus, Dimetroden, Bronto­ nibal ism. By the same entiating the two it is stated saurus, Allosaurusand Deinonychus are waiting token, however, they were that whilst decomposing to meet you. Don't miss out! probably also inhibited Oscillatoria gives off an of­ against killing each fensive odour, the same is Antarctica-The Last other-a barrier we have not true of coral spawn. I frontier notably overcome. It is thus must disagree strongly with A fantastic trip exploring the Ant­ possible that we are now this assertion. I was present arctic Peninsula leaves in December permitted by our instincts on Heron Island late last 1987. Organised by the Australian to engage in meritorious year at the time of mass Museum Society (TAMS) the trip in­ mass killings but th.atan an­ coral spawning, and the cludes eight days in Antarctica, tique instinct still prevents stench of the decomposing three days in Easter Island, an over­ us from taking advantage of coral spawn washed up on night stay in the Andes and much the food thus provided. the beaches easily rivalled more. For full details phone TAMS Another possibility, to (and was not dissimilar to) on (02) 339 8225. which I incline, is that our that of decomposing Oscil­ general tendency not to eat latoria, which also washes each other is cultural rather up onto Heron Island's Guided Tours than innate and essentially beaches from time to time. 'Rogues and Scientists' is a an in-group phenomenon, However, Oscillatoria is history walk taking you be­ related to the fact that we distinguishable even with hind the scenes of the Mu­ tend not to kill our fellow the naked eye by its granu­ seum. We look at the fasci­ humans to get at the food in lar, 'sawdust' appearance, nating tales of conflict and their bodies, but rather to whereas coral spawn controversy. Free guided take over the food re­ seems comparatively tours of the highlights of the sources that they control. smooth in texture; and, as Museum are also available. If this were the case, one pointed out in the article, Phone Gavin Gatenby on might expect human canni­ only occurs in quantity on a (02) 398 8111 for details. balism to be restricted to few days in early Novem­ areas where animal protein ber and December. is hard to come by and (as I would just like to add on small islands) there are that I admire your maga­ Open Tuesday-Sunday & holidays severe restrictions on zine greatly, in particular 10arn-5pm, Mondays noon-5pm. Phone population size. I do not the level to which your wish to engage in contro­ articles are pitched (inter­ (02) 339 8111 for details of temporary versy over whether or not esting to both scientist and exhibitions. people have systematically layperson) and the quality eaten each other in recent of photography and ...... times but, if they have, I layout. wouldn't be surprised to -Claudia Catterall 6-8 College St. Sydney learn that it occurred in University of Queensland - AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 243 u.J"' lJ lJ 0 u ...J < I

244 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRI G 1987 Journey ToThe STARS by Tim Flannery Australian Museum

n April 1987 a joint expedition from the Australian Museum and I the Papua New Guinea Division of Wildlife filled in one of the few re­ maining 'blank spots' in our know­ ledge of the fauna of New Guinea. The expedition, consisting of myself, Hal Cogger and Lester Seri, travelled to the Star Mountains in far western Papua New Guinea with the purpose of surveying the mammals, reptiles and birds of this region, which until then had remained largely unknown. Since they were first named in 1910, the Star Mountains have fasci­ nated explorers and naturalists alike. But until 1965 they remained as inac­ cessible as the celestial bodies that are their namesakes, and it is ironic that humanity had well and truly en­ tered the space age before the jagged peaks of the 'Stars' (Scorpion, Capella and Antares) had been visited. And it was not for lack of trying that they remained unex­ plored. The renowned 1936-1937 Archbold Expedition from the Ameri­ can Museum of Natural History made a determined attempt to as­ cend the Stars and nearby ranges, but the loss of their aircraft meant that they could push no further than the foothills. The 1965 British Climbing Expedition that finally conquered Capella and Scorpion took six months and many aerial re-supply drops before they were successful . Twenty-two years would elapse bet­ ween the first ascent and our visit, and yet during this time the Stars' vertebrate fauna would remain un- AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 245 mained hidden in the mist. For a short time I felt like the loneliest per­ son on Earth, standing in a dank and almost silent valley, in a spot where perhaps no human had stood before. As the faint sound of the returning helicopter grew louder, I was re­ minded that there was work to be done. Our time was limited; and be­ fore long a camp had to be set up, equipment sorted and made service­ able, and traps laid. I quickly remem­ bered that Dokfuma is at 3,200 metres, as the smallest exertion left me gasping for breath and feeling altitude sick. Over the week we spent at "'U,J G Dokfuma, we slowly became familiar G 0 with its topography and plant and u < animal life. The mixed vegetation of I the small valley is a testament to the The author, Tim Flannery, at Bultem village, near Tabubil. The animal is intermediate position of New Rattus rattus, an immigrant into the area that arrived with the mine. It was Guinea. Many of the trees were caught by one of the children. southern pines, with Dacrycarpus (similar to the Huon Pines of Tas­ seen and unknown. know about local weather conditions mania), Phylloc/adus (Celery Top Our opportunity to visit the Star (which we later found to be treacher­ Pine) and Papuacedrus (Native Mountains came about through the ous) and the helicopter would be op­ Cedar) species being the most com­ commitment of the Ok Tedi Mining erating near its altitudinal limit. It was mon. The nearest relatives of these Company Ltd (OTML) to ensure that clearly essential to carry out an ex­ trees are today found in Tasmania, environmental damage is kept to a tensive reconnaissance of the area, New Zealand and South America, minimum in the area affected by their both to test the helicopter at high mining operations. The company has altitudes and to inspect the terrain The undescribed skink (genus created one of the world's largest and weather. We discovered that the Lobulia) is found only on isolated gold and copper mines at Mt Fubilan maximum load the chopper could peaks along the cordillera that forms in the southern foothills of the Star safely carry was 160 kilograms, and the mountainous spine of New Mountains. The terrain is that the weather was so changeable Guinea. About ten centimetres long, unbelievably difficult, with 339 rainy that flying could be called off at any it was the only reptile found at days per year and frequent land­ moment. Thus equipment for each Dokfuma. slides. Because of the size of their load had to be carefully chosen. It project, and the unique environment was decided that I should travel up within which it is situated, OTML has first. More than half the load would gone to great lengths to ensure that be taken up by my bodyweight no long-term environmental damage alone. With the remaining 75 will ensue. The OTML Environment kilograms, I had to include clothes, Section is responsible for this aspect personal equipment, a tent and of the operation and our request for enough food to last for a week or financial help was directed there. more in case the weather closed in Our expedition would clearly be an and left me stranded. expensive one, and was in a region in Stepping out of the helicopter which the mine would have only a onto the herbfield that was our minor impact. However, OTML chosen campsite was like entering could see the advantage of having another world. Twenty-five minutes baseline data from the area, and thus before, I had been standing in the fully supported our proposal. noisy, crowded mining town of Even with the help of OTML, it is Tabubil. The herbfield, called not easy to reach the Stars. To walk Dokfuma, where I now found myself from the mine site would take over a was silent and freezing. Mist was still week. A round trip by helicopter hanging over much of the tiny valley, takes 45 minutes, but it has its diffi­ but through it I could glimpse the culties and dangers. We chose to use mossy, gnarled southern pines that the helicopter, but this left us with ringed the herbfield. A tiny frog many problems to resolve. We had called from a moss mound and "' never seen our proposed landing site nearby I could hear distinctive u on Mt Capella, and didn't know if it wingbeats. They belonged to the ma- 8 was suitable for landing or had jestic McGregor's Bird of Paradise � drinking water nearby. We didn't (Macgregoria pulchra), which re- I 246 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 and they are evidence of loud 'whoosh' made by its wing Gondwanan connections. Yet feathers. As it hopped about among among these relics grew some sur­ the branches of its favourite food tree prising newcomers: a beautiful red­ (Dacrycarpus), its extraordinary or­ BOOKSFOR flowered Rhododendron of Asian ange eye-wattles would wobble origin, epiphytic orchids of the genus comically. McGregor's Bird of Para­ CHRISTMAS Dendrodium, and a small umbrella dise is only found on the highest tree (Scheff/era sp.) that attracted peaks of the Snow, Star and Owen FROMRAOU flocks of small green parrots. Stanley Mountains, and its fearless­ Daily the camp was enlivened by ness, large size and restricted distri­ All prices include packing and postage visits from McGregor's Bird of Para­ bution make it vulnerable to any kind ATLAS OF dise, which is the least-known and of habitat disturbance or exploi­ AUSTRALIAN BIRDS rarest member of its family. This strik­ tation. Other birds were constant 1984. M. Blakers, S.J.J .F. Davies camp visitors, including the Snow ing crow-sized bird fearlessly ap­ and P.N. Reilly. MUP. (includ­ proached our camp and, after ob­ Mountains Mannikin (Lonchura ing transparent overlays) .. $55.00 serving us, would fly-or more often montana), Alpine Pipit (Anthus glide-off with the characteristically guttera/is) and Grey-headed Thrush SHOREBIRDS IN AUSTRALIA 1987. B. Lane and J. Davies. THE EXPEDITION AREA Nelsons ...... $49.00 KADIMAKARA­ EXTINCT VERTEBRATES The Star Mountains OF AUSTRALIA 1985. �- P.V. Rich and G.F. van Tets. Pioneer ...... $49.00 METHODS OF CENSUSING BIRDS IN AUSTRALIA 1984. S.].J.F. Davies. RAOU Report No. 7 ..... $6.00 CHILDRENS BOOKS The expedition to the Star Mountain peaks (circled) THE NIGHT OF THE was in rugged terrain in an MUTTONBIRDS area that receives over eight 1981. Mary Small. metres of rainfall per year. Methuen ...... $10.00

THE PENGUIN THAT WALKS AT NIGHT. THE EMU THAT WALKS TOWARDS THE RAIN. THE LYREBIRD THAT IS ALWAYS TOO BUSY TO DANCE. THE KOOKABURRA THAT HELPS AT THE NEST. Authentic nature stories by Pauline Reilly from Kangaroo Press ... $5.00 each RAOU 1988 CALENDAR 12 spectacular bird pictures $10.00

All available from Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union 'Capella', the young tree-kangaroo, 2 1 Gladstone Street, soon adapted to camp life. Is he an Moonee Ponds, Victoria 3039. undescribed race of Doria's Tree­ Bankcard/Visa welcome kangaroo, Dendrolagus dorianus? AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 247 "'w lJ lJ 0u -I< :c

"'Lu lJ A baby mosaic-tailed rat (Melomys lJ u0 sp.), one of the nocturnal foragers of -I the subalpine herbfields. < :c across his chest. "D'bol!", he ejacu­ A mating pair of an undescribed small tree frog in which only the males lated, as he opened the billum to appear to have an extraordinary fleshy proboscis, the function of which, if reveal a large brown tree-kangaroo. I any, is unknown. These frogs were found in the region of the upper Ok Tedi became increasingly excited as I River. examined the animal, for it looked unlike any tree-kangaroo I had seen ( Turdus poliocephalus). Droppings before. While clearly related to of the Dwarf Cassowary ( Casuarius Doria's Tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus bennettt) were also seen in a small dorianus), which is common in east­ glade. ern New Guinea, it differed in a num­ The tiny frog that I had heard on ber of ways. Had we discovered a my first morningturned out to be one race of tree-kangaroos unique to the of the most interesting finds of the Star Mountains? Only time and a expedition. On some of the other thorough study, now underway, will high peaks of New Guinea, only one resolve that question. In my excite­ species of frog (family Microhylidae) ment at examining the large is present. At Dokfuma, two tree-kangaroo, I had quite over­ microhylid species occur. Each has looked a second man, Serapiap, who its distinct call and habits, one prefer­ was carrying a small brown ball of fur. ring clear ground among the ferns � It turned out to be a nearly indepen­ and herbs, the other preferring the 8 dent young tree-kangaroo. 'Capella', forest edge or moss mounds. Both u as he was soon named, became our species appear to be undescribed, � constant companion and camp while the only reptile, a small black mascot. skink, that we found in the area is One of the two small microhylid On some still mornings the eerie frogs found in the alpine herbfields chorused howling of New Guinean and moss forests around the wild dogs drifted in across the misty Dokfuma campsite. These frogs, less valley. Signs of their presence in the than two centimetres long, call loudly and frequently, even at air temperatures below 5° C. related to a form that occurs on a number of high peaks in the New Guinean cordillera.

"'Lu The mammal fauna of Dokfuma lJ lJ was harder to find, but also had its 0 u share of surprises. On our first after­ -I < noon after setting up camp, the three :c local men that accompanied us had One of New Guinea's most beautiful gone hunting with a dog. In the dis­ tance we could hear the uncanny e5 tree frogs, Litoria iris, shows its spec­ lJ tacular 'flash' colours when viewed howling so typical of New Guinean 8 from below through a glass sheet. dogs when they've located an ani- � This specimen, which is cryptic mal, and so we awaited their return i green on top, was found on the road with interest. Griem, our most active between Tabubil and the Ok Tedi and diminutive hunter, arrived first One of the beautiful rhododendrons mine. with a large billum (string bag) slung that were so common at Dokfuma. 248 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 form of well-worn trails and drop­ pings were abundant, yet we never sighted one of these shy animals. Shortly after dark, Dokfuma's most abundant mammal inhabitants became active. The rats of the alpine herbfields come in many shapes and VictorianGeology sizes. We found three different kinds. The most common is a species of Rattus, and not very different to Excursion Guide look at from the bush rats found in Australia. However it is only half the The Victorian Geology Excursion Guide is the culmination of a joint project size of these and is clothed in long between the Victorian Division of the Geological Society of Australia and the luxuriant fur. It may well be unique to Australian Academy of Science. It has been written by local authorities who the Star Mountains and is possibly an have been chosen because of their particular knowledge and ability to present unnamed species. Only slightly less the most up-to-date geological information about the area. The editing and common than this animal is a mosaic­ publication has been done by the group which was responsible for tailed rat. This handsome beast may "Perspective of the Earth." also be an undescribed species, as it The guide has been written to cater for a wide audience ranging from school doesn't resemble closely any teachers and tertiary students to interested amateur geologists, field mosaic-tailed rat that I have seen naturalists and tourists. from elsewhere in New Guinea. A , . Much of the information in the guide has not been published .o """ baby mosaic-tailed rat was found in a \ elsewhere and the sections describing the geology of Victoria moss nest in a small tree around the Ouve which outline the tectonic history, stratigraphy and igneous herbfield margin. Towards the end of history of Victoria should be of special interest to school our stay we found the third rodent teachers. There are also sections on Economic Geology species. It was a tree-mouse and Engineering Geology which (Pogonomelomys ruemm/er,) that is are topics emphasised in the known from other high mountain individual excursions. peaks in New Guinea. It is a curious Twenty-five excursions little animal with a short face and covering the Western large eyes, and a prehensile tail with a District, the Victorian grasping tip for climbing about in low Highlands and the eastern and bushes and trees. western Melbourne Trough have been Only two additional mammal included. Most of the excursions are 1 day species were obtained during our excursions departing from Melbourne, but there are some which could be of 2 stay. One was a tiny marsupial, the days duration in which cases the option is described in detail in the Long-tailed Pigmy Possum introduction to the excursions. Each excursion is presented as a separate (Cercartetus caudatus), which is chapter within which each of the sites is described in terms of the geological common in New Guinea's high features present. mountains. The other was a tiny The location of each site is described in detail by means of bent-winged bat (Miniopterus directions from the previous site. The directions for the locality macrocneme), which was attracted of the first site for each excursion are given from Melbourne. to our camp at night by the innumer­ Details of special conditions, dangers or the necessity to seek able moths that flocked to our kero­ permission to enter a site are also given. sene lamp. Very few bats occur high The geological features exhibited at a site are described separately and in New Guinea's mountains, so it was illustrations have been used extensively to aid descriptions. Where appro­ surprising to be visited nightly by priate the location of nearby sites which show similar features is given. these tiny insectivores. As the time drew near to leave As well as the many well known sites of geological interest there are Dokfuma, we again began to wonder descriptions of new sites which have been chosen because they exhibit excellent examples of geological features. if our departure would be delayed by bad weather. However, the morning The guide also contains an extensive index which includes both localities and of the appointed day broke clear and geological features. sunny, and our evacuation was effected without incident. By the Available Sept./Oct. '87 - Order enquiries: (062) 47 5335 time the last of us had arrived back in the hot and humid mining town of Tabubil, it was easy to believe that Dokfuma had been a dream. Dokfuma is such a different place, an 'island' of alpine plants and freezing peaks in a sea of tropical verdure. For AUSTRALIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the zoologists of the expedition, our GPO Box 783, Canberra ACT 2601 journey to this unique environment had been as exciting as travelling to the heavenly stars themselves. D AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 249

1. The flightless female thynnine wasp Megalothynnus klugii lives under­ ground for much of her life. When she is ready to be fertilised and fed by the male she emerges from the soil and climbs to the top of a low plant. 2. From this vantage point the female emits a pheromone that attracts a flying male.

3.ln a pick-up action, which may take only a fraction of a second, the male grasps the female with his legs. 4. With the female secured underneath, the male will carry her to a source of nectar. Dinkum orDecoy? The dilemma of a Flower Wasp

text and photos by Bahs and Bert Wells

ale flower wasps of the thynnines, even though 38 Aus­ subfamily Thynninae (order tralian genera have been identified, M Hymenoptera, family with some 500 species. Of the vari­ Tiphiidae) have difficulty discerning ous species and genera collected by the difference between the females us, the males ranged in body length of their own species and the labella (head to tail) from nine to 40 milli­ of hammer orchids. They are at­ metres; however only a few of these tracted to both by either a are implicated in orchid pollination. pheromone or pheromone­ Hammer orchids belong to the mimicking chemical respectively. genus Drakaea, a group of terrestrial The latter ensures that pollination of orchids endemic to Western Aus­ these orchids occurs. tralia. Four species have been named Little is known of the biology of and another four are undescribed.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 251 blossom of shrubs or trees. When the scent of a female is detected, the male flies low in a zig-zag course upwind to the source. He has to be quick, because other males may compete aggressively for her favour. In a pick-up manoeuvre, which may take only a fraction of a second in some species, the male grasps the female and carries her to some nearby higher vegetation where they couple. In other species, coupling occurs immediately and the pair then takes off toward a source of nectar. In some cases this may be close by, but on several occasions we have tried to follow larger, more visible thynnines, only to have the coupled pair vanish into the distance. Male and female thynnine wasps (Hemithynnus annu/atus) feeding and While feeding, the pair remains copulating on the blossom of Eucalyptus ficifolia. coupled. In due course the male drops the female to the ground. The tiny inconspicuous flower of labellum and the female wasp had a James Ridsdill Smith, entomologist hammer orchids sits at the top of a distinct likeness. from the CSIRO in Perth, believes the long slender stem, which, in one Hammer orchids, like many female is most likely returned to near species, may be up to 40 centimetres other terrestrial orchids with only a her original pick-up location, which tall. The stem rises from one small, single or a few flowers, do not offer is almost certainly the location of a flat leaf at ground level. Hammer or­ nectar as an attractant. They also lack population of scarab beetle larvae chids can be difficult to find and, for the bright colours that are associated which are hosts to flower wasps. the newcomer, are easily with more conventional pollination Here she burrows into the soil to seek overlooked. systems. Their pseudo-insect decoy out and oviposit on the host larva. The labellum of the flower is its may therefore be an alternative After hatching, the grub feeds exter­ most conspicuous part. Close exam­ attractant. nally on the beetle larva, finally con­ ination shows that this part re­ Female thynnine wasps are suming it, pupates and eventually sembles a wingless insect, complete wingless and somewhat ant-like in emerges as an adult wasp. It is not with glistening eyes, hairy thorax and appearance. They spend much of known how specific the thynnine­ fat body. It is held outward from the their time underground but emerge scarab relationship is, but relative stem by a hinged arm, which allows from the soil to mate and feed. After size does appear to be a factor-that movement in only one direc­ emerging they climb to the top of a is, larger species of wasp parasitise tion-toward the column and small shrub or grass stem, pose in a larger scarabs. pollinia. This unusual structure in­ characteristic manner with antennae Recent studies by botanists and trigued early botanists until it was ob­ erect, and release a pheromone to entomologists concerned with or­ served that the plants were being attract males. It is this posture that the chid pollination have established visited and pollinated by male flower hammer orchids mimic. that the orchid-insect relationship is wasps. The association between the Male thynnine wasps appear to species-specific, that is each species insect and the orchid took on new spend most of their time either flying of orchid attracts only one species of meaning when it was realised that the in search of females or feeding on the wasp. Evidence of this constancy has

252 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 been reinforced over a number of enough to satisfy all searching males. cally ward off the insects from the years of collection and identification, If indeed this is the case, then male subject, while the other set up the and seems to remain true even when wasps would be most vulnerable to camera equipment. populations of the same orchid have deception in that period. The orchid A few species of other genera of been separated by a great distance. therefore may have evolved to ground orchids arealso pollinated by Consider the way in which ham­ flower when male wasps are high and specific wasps, namely the Elbow mer orchids have exploited the sex­ females are low in numbers. Orchid (Spiculaea ciliata), the Beard ual behaviour of thynnine wasps. Our field observations, and Orchid (Calochilus robertsonit) and Not only do the flowers present a those of other workers, have shown some species of spider orchids visual decoy by mimicking the fe­ that the weather pattern has an influ­ (genus Caladenia). The insectiform male, but they also emit a chemical ence on male thynnine activity, labellum of the Dragon Orchid attractant similar to the pheromone which increases dramatically when ( Caladenia barbarossa) has appen­ produced by female wasps. The male the ambient temperature rises to dages that resemble legs, thus adding wasp approaches on the wing and, 30 ° C and above, particularly with even more realism to the decoy. grasping the labellum, attempts to pre-storm or low pressure conditions Not all thynnine wasp species carry it off. However, the hinged arm prevailing. Most activity seems to are implicated in orchid pollination, prevents this and the wasp, with the occur between the hours of 10 am and many terrestrial orchids are polli­ decoy firmly clasped, is catapulted and 2 pm. This information was use­ nated by insects other than into the column. Pollen transfer then ful when organising our travel to field thynnines, such as native bees, occurs. Our observations showed locations, enabling us to avoid the beetles, flies, gnats etc. These or­ that this sometimes happens with unproductive periods of inclement chids also have evolved unusual and quite a struggle, as if the inverted or indifferent weather, which were individual strategies to attract their wasp resists release of the labellum. surprisingly frequent during the ac­ specialised pollinators. However, On other occasions the contact was tive season between August and photographically, we found thereac­ only momentary, as if, perhaps, the December. tion of male thynnines to the trickery wasp had perceived the deception. Even in a confined population of of hammer orchids, and of their re­ Some speculation exists as to a specific orchid, known to be polli­ lated species, to be by far the most whether the orchids reach full polli­ nated by a thynnine wasp, the action spectacular, and indeed the most re­ nation potential at a time when fe­ often eluded us-many hours of warding. D male thynnines have not yet watching being fruitless. However, emerged, or at least when females by isolating one orchid some dis­ In Western Australia all have not reached numbers great tance from the colony, even by only wildflowers, including the terrestrial 50 metres, there was sometimes an orchids, are protected by strong 1. A hammer orchid (Drakaea g/yp­ immediate response, with one or legislation. In 7 985, the Western todon) offers its decoy labellum­ more males flying onto the labellum. Australian Department of Conser­ resem bi i ng the female thynnine Some observers suggest this indi­ vation and Land Management wasp's glistening eyes, hairy thorax cates that the wasps had become granted a special licence and a con­ and fat body. aware of the deception, and had lost tract to the authors for six months to 2. Two male thynnine wasps (Zaspi­ interest, their interest being renewed photograph orchid pollinators in ac­ /othynnus sp.) compete for the when an orchid suddenly appeared tion. The equipment and techniques decoy. in a new location. developed for this project 3. One wasp wins and attempts to On other much less frequent oc­ subsequently produced the work carry off the pseudo-female. casions, by sheer luck it would seem, illustrated here. From this, a sub­ 4. The hinged arm of the labellum we found ourselves in a large popu­ mission of four colour prints won the catapults the wasp into the pollen lation of thynnines that were vigor­ scientific category of the A/PP Pro­ structure where pollen grains are ously active. So aggressive were they fessional Photographer of the Year transferred. that one of us would have to physi- Awards in 7 986.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 253 FORUM

N6E 2o.4lfA - �s �,/(t1� ..... Scene from an Antwerp (Belgium) bird market. The sign, translated, reads "Young Amazon parrot guaranteed to speak". A Sulphur-crested Cockatoo also awaits sale. COCKATOOS PESTS NOR PETS by Ken de la Motte and Graeme Phipps Taronga Park Zoo

f we were playing an anagram the limits of this Forum presentation effective in terms of the time and word game we would score credit is to consider just two aspects of the materials required to keep birds off points by converting pest to pets. debate: firstly, does trapping provide crops, less frustrating for the land­ AI well-orchestrated campaign exists long-term benefits to farmers, and holder, and do not involve the active that purports to do just that. We are secondly, do wild-caught cockatoos destruction of wildlife. A necessary told that trapping cockatoos helps make good pets? If the answers to consequence of these methods is solve the farmers' crop predation these two questions are negative, that farm efficiency, and thus real in­ problems, provides a humane then pro-trade arguments will be come, is increased through better alternative to control measures such fatally flawed. yields and less labour wasted in futile as shooting and poisoning, and, if ex­ shotgun patrols of crops. ported, will satisfy a market demand Cockatoos as Pests Attempts at removal of bird of these birds as pets, thereby raising Despite the contention that the pests, in particular the Sulphur­ funds that can be applied to conser­ only solution to the conflict between crested Cockatoo ( Cacatua galerita) vation programs. farmers and cockatoos is the removal and the Galah (Eolophus rosei­ Attractive and plausible though of the birds by shooting, trapping and capillus), have generally been shown these thoughts may seem, the reality poisoning, detailed studies have to be ineffective in damage miti­ is otherwise. There is a considerable shown that the only hope for a long­ gation because the population dy­ body of articles and reports rebutting term solution is an integrated and in­ namics of abundant species are the above contentions, but they direct approach based on sound, geared towards the loss of up to 90 never seem to get as much airplay as ecological principles. These indirect per cent of juveniles in their first year. the pro-export lobby. Our aim within methods of control are far more cost- Without habitat alteration, numbers

254 VOL. 22 0. 6, SPRI G 1987 quickly recover as the survivors take heavily on direct methods such as only minor losses. Finally, it should advantage of ample nest sites and shooting, with only few agronomists be emphasised that inefficiency in food. In Australia the cockatoo prob­ advocating crop management as a crop management should not be lem is further exacerbated by the solution. used as an excuse to destroy local, emergence of fledglings coinciding It should be stressed that these native bird populations. with the maturation of summer grain indirect management options rep­ crops (primarily sunflower and sor­ resent an integrated approach as any Cockatoos as Pets ghum). It is this 'doomed surplus' of one technique on its own is unlikely The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo young birds that is the target of the to succeed. Each property, and in­ and the Galah figure prominently in direct control methods of shooting, deed region, should be assessed for the local pet trade, and these two poisoning and trapping. its past history of cropping and bird species are the main ones considered Traditionally parrots form large attack and the possibility of future as candidates for exportation. In our flocks to search for what was once a bird damage, and the crops planned view their reputation as good pets is sparsely distributed food source. The accordingly. Armed with this ap­ over-exaggerated. People imagine conflict between cockatoos and proach, district agronomists will be that the talking and performing pets grain growers has arisen primarily be­ well placed to offer grain growers they see on television are the birds cause farmers have simultaneously some real alternatives in bird pest they are buying in the petshop. This reduced natural food sources and, in control. For instance, after careful is not so. The 'talking' birds are its place, provided a highly nutritious appraisal, the decision may be notto almost always taken as partially­ and localised food source. grow a particular crop, substituting it feathered nestlings and hand-reared An ecological approach to the for a less bird-susceptible one. We to the point that they 'imprint' on problem is clearly needed. Manage­ humans. Such birds are able to be ment techniques that exploit the taught to mimic words and to per­ birds' natural behaviour, and aim at form tricks. By contrast the petshop altering the crop environment in bird that has been live-trapped as an terms of its attractiveness to birds, adult that was a member of a pair or have shown most promise. These in­ social group will not make an ideal clude early sowing and harvest so as " ... the petshop pet in a Manhattan apartment or a not to coincide with a population in­ bird... will not make suburban backyard. crease after the breeding season, and an ideal pet in a The current method of housing planting where the crop will be less Manhattan cockatoos kept as pets is totally un­ susceptible to bird attack, such as satisfactory and requires urgent regu­ away from treed watercourses, for­ apartment ... " lation. Adult cockatoos are confined ests and flight paths. The planting of to 'cocky cages', which not only for­ tall 'screen' plants around the crop bid the birds any chance of obtaining perimeter, together with the use of adequate exercise, but also make 'scare-shooting' with high-powered most of the environmental decisions rifles, reinforces the birds' fear of for them. By way of explanation, if a feeding in those areas in which they cockatoo was to be housed in an avi­ cannot survey the approach of pred­ are not only pro-birds but are pro­ ary, it would be able to fly from perch ators. Screening trials have been farmers, and intend putting together to perch and, if the aviary was shown to reduce the time and costof a practical manual aimed at assisting sensitively designed and sited, seek patrolling a crop and the amount of farmers to manage crop-predation by cooler, shaded parts of the aviary on seed loss by up to 85 per cent. Comp­ birds. hot days and warmer, sunnier areas lementary strategies such as decoy Unfortunately, there will still be on colder days; it would be able to crops, and the provision of feeding those landholders who insist on rain-bathe or bathe in a large water stations of trash grain or stubble area, planting opportunistic crops (for ex­ dish; if provided with leafy branches will enhance the effectiveness of de­ ample, long, thin crops along rivers to chew, a lot of time would be spent terrent methods by giving the birds bordered by forest) with no regard for in this activity; and it would be able to feeding alternatives. sound agronomic or ecological prac­ maintain an appropriate distance The acceptance of these man­ tices. In the past these growers have from perceived or potential enemies agement techniques has been slow received a disproportionate amount be they humans, dogs, cats or what­ for two reasons. Firstly, the majority of publicity through the media, re­ ever. There would also be the oppor­ of grain growers incur little damage sulting in a distortion of the true tunity to provide other aviary mates, and the costs of control are not justi­ nature of bird damage suffered State­ which are essential to the well-being fied. Indeed, out of a survey of 71 wide. It is interesting to note that sev­ of birds in which allo-preening is an district agronomists throughout ere bird damage has often been cor­ important social function. Queensland, New South Wales and related with poor farming practices. The 'cocky cage' denies all of Victoria, only four received frequent However these severe losses are re­ these opportunities. The doting new requests for advice on controlling stricted to relatively few farms with owner doesn't recognise that keep­ birds. Secondly, this advice still relies the vast majority of crops suffering ing a wild-caught cockatoo in a AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 255 'cocky cage' introduces stresses that may make the bird difficult to train. Attempts to have 'cocky' sit on the hand or arm is often met with a pain­ ful bite from the bird. Likewise, if cockatoos are liberated into the liv­ Comewith LindbladTravel ing room with the thought of training them to fly onto the arm or giving them exercise, damage to the furni­ andcruise the magnificent ture may result, and the cockatoo is usually not co-operative with its re­ Continent of placement into the cage at the end of the exercise period. In addition, cockatoos have rau­ cous alarm and contact calls, usually exercised in a dawn or dusk chorus. The Antarctic adventure surpasses The amount of contact calling will be any travel experience on earth. Ice greater in a cockatoo kept in solitary packs, glaciers and awsome icebergs confinement. The calls are particu­ glitter like giant diamonds. Join our larly undesirable in a house pet, and onboard naturalist and mingle with are definitely unappreciated by millions of penguins, ferocious neighbours. Little wonder that many leopard sealsand huge elephant seals cockatoos are liberated each year by allwaiting to be photographed. owners, the evidence of which exists in and around all capital cities. Aboard the luxury vessel MV Illiria Society in general should be you will enjoy elegant furnishings, questioning the whole wild cockatoo museum quality artwork, congenial pet trade and its local effects before it is foisted onto an unwitting orth atmosphere as you cruise this timeless American or European market. land. Not all cockatoos live in Aus­ tralia. The islands to the north (Indo­ After 23 years cruising the Antarctic nesia, West lrian, Solomons, New Lindblad Travel must be the Hebrides and the Philippines) have undisputed leader in tourism to this several species, including two part of the world. So why not see subspecies of the Sulphur-crested your Travel Agent today or contact us Cockatoo. These animals have been for our brochure and experience the legally exported to orth America Lindblad difference. and Europe. It is therefore germane to ask what has happened to the hun­ dreds of thousands of individuals that have been marketed there over the last decade. A few specialist (02) 221 8378 aviculturists breed them and sell hand-raised young birds at a pre­ mium price to the pet trade, but no LINDBLAD TRAVEL established captive populations exist. In the absence of information to the contrary we would suggest that the majority die within the first 12 LINDBLAD TRAVEL months of capture, although a few may survive for many years in cap­ M.L.C. CENTRE, 49TH LEVEL, SYDNEY 2000 AUSTRALIA. TELEPHONE: (OZ) ZZl 8378 * FACSIMILE: (02) 261 3895 * TELEX: AA26998 tivity. Records of United States (and WITH OFFICES IN, NEW YORK • WESTl'ORT • BEIJING • HONG KONO Australian) zoo bird departments Please send me your Antarctic Brochure show that cockatoo species are regu­ larly offered to them as gifts by har­ Name: ______assed pet owners. In summary, we are not opposed Address: ______to people keeping birds as pets, as the psychotherapeutic value, as Postcode: such, is undeniable. But let them be aviary-bred Cockatiels or Telephone: ______Budgerigars-not wild cockatoos! Travel Agents Lie. B949 NH/6/87 House pets they are not. House pests they become. People should not be taken in by any sleight of hand that turns pest into pets. D

256 VOL. 22 0. 61 SPRING 1987 PI I

by Tim Low

urke and Wills endured fright­ joyed the experience we cannot say, ful hardships during their last although the expedition's sole sur­ wretched weeks in central Aus- vivor, Mr King, certainly did; while tralia.B Local Aborigines helped ease living with Aborigines he chewed their pain, plying them with fresh Pituri a number of times to dull his fish, nardoo cakes, "nice fat rats", hunger and pain. and the "stuff they call bedgery or Australia's Aborigines used few petchery", described in Wills' diary drugs, and the Pituri of desert tribes (published 1863) as having a "highly has attained a mystique all of its own. intoxicating effect when chewed, Traded over hundreds of kilometres, even in small quantities". zealously hoarded and preserved, it Burke and Wills died only weeks figured prominently in the lives of later, the first whites ever to have dozens of tribes over much of central partaken of the Aboriginal drug now Australia. known as Pituri. Wnether they en- Pituri is the dried leaves and AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 257 stems of an outback shrub, Duboisia ordering the explorers ·to leave the Aborigines living outside south­ hopwoodii, named after Mr place". western Queensland simply didn't Hopwood of Echuca, a patron of the Cigarette-smoking hardly pro­ grasp the connection between the fateful Burke and Wills expedition. A duces effects like these, and precious stashes of dried Pituri chips, species of the alkaloid-rich anthropologists in recent years have traded in special woven bags, and the Solanaceae family, the Pituri plant is been forced to reassess the signifi­ slender-leaved shrub that grew on closely related to the tobaccos cance of nicotine as a drug. In the their own tribal land. For, contrary to (genus Nicotiana), Deadly Night­ Americas, Indians used very potent anthropological wisdom, Aborigines shade (Atropa belladonna) and the tobaccos as significant mind-altering were not consummate botanists, and hallucinatory thornapples (genus substances, and the Pituri wads tribes often remained ignorant of Datura). chewed by Aborigines were also very plant foods and medicines used Early pharmacists were quick to strong. Their nicotine content, elsewhere. investigate Pituri, hoping its alkaloids already two to three times that of More recently another view has might prove useful in medicine. They cigarettes, was further enhanced by been expressed. Analysis of Pituri must have been disappointed to dis­ adding highly alkaline ash from plants from different places has re­ cover the active constituent was nic­ special acacias, releasing the nic­ vealed considerable chemical vari­ otine, the alkaloid in cigarettes. otine from its bondage with acids and ation. While Queensland and some Pituri was often dismissed as enhancing its uptake by the body. Western Australian plants contain mere chewing tobacco, a description icotine in such doses has a depres­ nicotine as their main alkaloid, plants that belittled its immense versatility sant effect, and the user attains a from the orthern Territory are as a drug. Chewed Pituri quids were trance-like state, immune to pain. dominated by nor-nicotine, a more passed from mouth to mouth to pro­ Pituri was widely traded by Abor­ potent alkaloid more toxic to people. mote mirth during talks and feasts. igines, and herein lies a mystery. The Bedourie Pituri may have been pre­ The drug raised stamina on long des­ main centre for Pituri processing lay ferred because it was safer. ert treks: one Aboriginal boy sup­ in far south-western Queensland, In the western half of the North­ posedly walked 260 kilometres in near Bedourie, a small desert town ern Territory, Pituri appears to have two days with no other sustenance. probably named phonetically after been spurned in favour of wild Pituri was said to inspire courage dur­ the drug. Pituri from this area was tobaccos (Nicotiana spp.). Of these, ing warfare, and to enable men to traded throughout a region of the most popular species (N. gosse,) 'fire-walk' on hot stones. It made 550,000 square kilometres, passing contains only nicotine, but at least men voluble: the desert traveller Mr along trade routes running south to one of the species used, N. Gilmour (cited in Bancroft 1877) met Lake Eyre, north to Cloncurry, and benthamii, also yields nor-nicotine. an old man who "refused to have west into the Northern Territory. Yet Aborigines in these parts used Pituri anything to say or do until he had Pituri already grew in some of these only to capture Emus and wallabies, chewed the pituri, after which he places. Why was it traded? hurling the leaves into waterholes rose and harangued in grand style, A traditional view has been that where the animals would become drugged and easy to club to death. Pituri from the western deserts of PITURI DISTRIBUTION AND ABORIGINAL TRADE ROUTES the orthern Territory is the only kind I have tried. I made a quid by pounding the leaves and mixing them with chalk in place of ash. Sucking on the quid produced an im­ mediate dreamy state that was mild in intensity but long in duration. Lunch was taken two hours later and I suddenly became dizzy and weak, and feared I would collapse. This state passed after 20 minutes. I also tried smoking the leaves. This pro­ duced a pleasant heightened state, followed by deep relaxation. No ill­ effects were noted. It must be stressed that random tasting, chewing or smoking of plants is not a recommended practice, es­ pecially when the plants contain known toxins. The nicotine in two commercial cigarettes can kill when chewed, and Pituri is also • Pituri Distribution dangerous. D Area where Pituri used Why Aborigines in the western half of the orthern Territory did not The main centre for Pituri use Pituri I cannot say. Perhaps they processing lay in far south-western considered it dangerous, although I Queensland, near Bedourie. suspect they were simply maintain­ ing an old tradition by using wild

258 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 Pituri shrubs growing on a roadside in the south-western corner of the Northern Territory. Mt Connor can be seen in the background. tobaccos, which are widespread in Aiston wrote: itable markets. 11 central Australia but rare in most of "after everybody had rested and fed, A few white people took up the the regions where Pituri was traded. one of the party would throw down a use of pituri. The anthropologist The tribes who controlled the bag in front of the assembled camp; Pamela Watson interviewed an early Pituri trade have lost their way of life. anyone who wished to buy would settler who remembered a hotel in Pastoralists with their cattle, and the throw down, perhaps a couple of western Queensland serving whisky arrival of the overland telegraph, de­ boomerangs, perhaps a grinding mill, spiked with the drug as a knockout stroyed the local culture. The best or whatever he could spare; the drop. Bushmen sometimes smoked record of the trade was kept by "Pro­ pitcheri seller would leave his bag the leaves when their tobacco ran tector of Aborigines" George Aiston, until something that he wanted was out and, during the 1890s, the drug although his account was not pub­ offered; this he would accept by was supplied to the Chinese com­ lished until 193?, long after the trade picking it up and the buyer would munity in Sydney as an opium had ended. Aiston declared that the then pick up the bag of pitcheri. Per­ substitute. curing of Pituri, which involved dry­ haps another member of the pitcheri Watson believes that Aborigines ing the leaves in sand ovens, was the party would see something in the became addicted to Pituri. The eth­ monopoly of local Pituri tribes. He goods offered and would throw nographer Walter Roth wrote in 1901 noted that "any child born to the down another bag; if the buyers were that "Blacks will usually give any­ horde or tribe who belonged to the not satisfied they would pick up their thing they possess for it-from their pitcheri Moora automatically suc­ offerings, and if the seller was not women downwards". He noted that ceeded to all rights and privileges in satisfied he would pick up his bag of among Aborigines "there appears to the distribution". pitcheri. The camps near the pitcheri be as great a craving for pituri as The drug changed hands at grounds never became big markets amongst Europeans for alcohol, a fact unique markets along the trade because the pitcheri was more valu­ which is put into practical and econ­ routes where as many as 500 eager able the farther away it was traded. omic use by drovers, station man­ Aborigines assembled. Bartering The near camps were only used to agers and others". Traditionally the would begin at the first camp that was get enough utensils and weapons for drug was the preserve of older men, met after leaving the Pituri grounds. use when travelling to the more prof- but by the turn of the century women AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 259 The native tobacco Nicotiana excel­ sior is nowadays called 'Pituri' in the Northern Territory, creating con­ fusion with the true Pituri. This species, growing here within the Olgas, supplies the Pitjantjatjara Aborigines with a very popular chewing tobacco. The slender white flowers are characteristic. Tree Tobacco is a South American weed with psycho-active properties. It is were using it as well. After chewing, used as a drug in South America and reputedly by some Pitjantjatjara as well. the Pituri wad was stowed behind the ear, where it is possible that ad­ anthropologist Nicolas Peterson, fusion over the identity of plants ditional nicotine was absorbed even adopted the introduced Tree called 'Pituri', and faced with a his­ through the sensitive skin. Tobacco, which is used as a drug in torical record that is incomplete and Pituri was largely supplanted by South America. Its leaves, like those contradictory, it seems certain the white-man's tobacco (and perhaps of some native tobaccos, contain the full 'Pituri' story will never be to some extent by opium). By 1900 alkaloid anabasine and little if any known.D the two were becoming inter­ nicotine. changeable-there are reports of At Uluru National Park the wild Pituri smoked in pipes and of tobacco N. excelsior is especially Suggested Reading tobacco quids mixed with acacia popular. Pitjantjatjara descend in Aiston, G., 1937. The Aboriginal ash. land rovers upon the Olgas where Narcotic Pituri. Oceania 7: 372-77. 'Pituri' remains popular among the plant flourishes along damp gully Bancroft, J., 1877. "Pituri". Govern­ Aborigines today, although the plant lines. Wild tobaccos are milder than me nt Printer: Brisbane. now in use is more likely to be one of true Pituri, and probably compare in Griffin, W.J., 1985. Duboisias of Aus­ the wild tobaccos. These are closely strength with European chewing tralia. Pharmacy International 6: 305-308. related to the commercial tobacco tobacco. They were, and still are, ex­ (N. tabacum) Peterson, N., 1979. Aboriginal uses and there are 16 Aus­ tremely popular drugs, and today are of Australian Solanaceae. Pp. 171-88 in tralian species, although only a few probably the most sought after Abor­ "The Biology and Taxonomy of the were used as drugs. True Pituri has iginal plants in the Northern Terri­ Solanaceae", ed. by J.G. Hawkes, R.N. been confused with wild tobaccos tory. Like Pituri, they are often Lester and A.D. Skelding. Linnean So­ since at least the 1920s, and in the chewed in quids mixed with acacia ciety Symposium Series 7. Academic Northern Territory the name now ap­ ash. Press: London. plies to both. ow that Aboriginal communi­ Purdie, R., 1982. Tomatoes, Wild tobaccos are tall herbs with ties own vehicles, the use of these Tobacco and Intoxicant Weeds. Aus­ large soft leaves and tubular flowers wild tobaccos may have increased in tr alian Natural History 20(10): 343-48. Roth, W., 1901. Food: its search, on long stalks. The exception is Tree recent decades, although, like so (N. glauca), capture, and preparation. North Queens­ Tobacco a South Ameri­ much about these plants, this re­ land Ethnography 3: 1-31. can shrub that is now common in mains a matter for speculation. In Watson, P., 1983. This Precious Foli­ outback Australia. The Pitjantjatjara fact, the more one looks at the whole age: A Study of the Aboriginal Psycho­ Aborigines chewed several kinds of 'Pituri' phenomenon, the more ques­ active Drug Pituri. Oceania Monograph wild tobacco and, according to tions arise. After decades of con- No. 26. University of Sydney: Sydney. 260 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 Creative Force presents

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( Carpobrotus and Sarcozona Succulents for Supper species). Pigfaces are a-ttractive plants. here is something of the animal a field trip to drying and pressing From creeping stems they sprout in succulent plants. Those agaves and cacti (ouch!). showy purple flowers, which give Tfleshy leaves and succulent But even in Australia lazy botan­ way to purple or red fruits. The juicy stems invoke the texture and shape ists may skirt the larger fleshy plants, pulp tastes delightfully like salty of fingers and limbs. So fleshy are leaving these under-represented in strawberries or soft figs, and pigfaces such plants that they render other Australian herbaria. Botanists in can be considered among the best of plants flat and two-dimensional. No Adelaide told me how they recently all native fruits. wonder whole clubs and societies put in a special effort to collect an Pigfaces were important foods of are sworn to cacti and their kind. agave (Agave americana), an intro­ Aborigines, as early observers attest. But to botanists succulent plants duced feral plant now common in The following account by colonial are a professional nuisance. They are South Australia but scarcely re­ botanist Carl Wilhelmi, written in too bulky to fit into normal plant corded in the State herbarium. With South Australia in 1860, suggests the presses and the turgid leaves are too fleshy spike-edged leaves a metre or fruit was a staple food: watery to be easily dried. They are two tall and flower stalks ten metres "Pressing the fruit between their fin­ apt to sprout and grow within their high, no wonder most botanists look gers, they drop the luscious juice into folders, weeks or even months after the other way. the mouth. During the karkalla collection. Even when succulents Yet succulent plants often bear season, which lasts from January until can successfully be dried, they edible parts, and, in America, Indians the end of summer, the natives lead a shrivel and shrink into a pitiful mock­ harvested the leaves, seeds and fruits comparatively easy life; they are free ery of the original plant. of cacti, as well as juicy agave leaf from any anxiety of hunger, as the Australia's botanists are luckier bases. In Australia, explorers and set­ plant grows freely in all parts of the than most; our succulent plants have tlers made vegetables of the country . .. The Port Lincoln blacks smallish leaves. American botanists saltbushes, and Aborigines harvested eat only the fruit of this plant, but fare much worse-imagine devoting the fruits of succulent pigfaces those living between the Crampians

Eastern Pigface forms thick mats on beaches and headlands. Plants growing in full sunshine, such as this one photographed on Fraser Island, bear the most fruits.

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262 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 modestus), on southern plains. Carpobrotus glaucescens is the com­ mon species of eastern beaches, Karkalla (C. rossi1) its counterpart in the south, and C. virescensthe West­ ern Australian form. These are some­ times confused with Sarcozona praecox and 5. bicarinata of southern deserts and plains, although the latter are more upright plants and their flowers have fewer 'petals' (actually modified stamens). Some botanists believe 5. bicarinata to be a natural hybrid between 5. praecox and C. modestus, and in old reports of Abor­ iginal use it is sometimes difficult to know which genus is referred to. These true pigfaces are easily confused with Round-leaved Pigface (Disphyma crassifolium) of southern beaches and inland plains. It has smaller, less angular leaves, and small capsules on tall stalks in place of fleshy fruits. The juicy leaves are, however, edible raw and good to eat, and much tastier than Carpobrotus leaves, which may irritate the throat. Pigfaces must not be confused with garden Pigweed (Portulaca oleracea), an edible weed with tiny yellow flowers. Pigweed is so-named because pigs eat its leaves; pigfaces, rather, just look like pigs-they have something of the animal within them. The fruits of Karkalla are bright red and crowned by succulent horns. Good eating! D and the Victoria Ranges, as a substi­ tute for salt with their meat, eat also the leaves of this saline plant." (Trans. R. Soc. Vic. 5:172). The French naturalist Labil­ lardiere, anchored off Tasmania in 1800, noted in his Voyage in Search of La Perouse (1800) that "This fruit is a delicacy among the New Hollanders, who seek for it with care, and eat it as soon as they find it". Explorers also witnessed Aborigines eating the fruits, notably Edward John Eyre in South Australia and George Grey in the west. Australia has six native pigfaces, although some of these are difficult to distinguish and the species defi­ nitions are open to dispute. The problem lies partly in their succu­ lence: botanists collect pigfaces rarely and so the pool of specimens for study is small. There are three species of Carpobrotus on coastal Round-leaved Pigface has juicy salty leaves that were probably harvested at dunes and one, Inland Pigface (C. times by Aborigines, although no evidence for this has survived. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 263 ROBYN WILLIAMS

our own. There are 300 different me that the snakes we saw are no Snorkel Sense species of coral in the waters of these threat, but that the yellow and black tropical islands, including the famous kind has venom five times more riends often call me a techno­ fluorescent ones. I saw plenty of powerful than that of a cobra. Fortu­ logical primitive. It's not that I them, even while snorkeling off the nately, they're not aggressive. F don't understand modern de­ beach of my hotel, close to the rather She also showed me the magnifi­ vices, I simply find them intrusive, ugly port of Noumea. cent display of fluorescent coral at more trouble than they're worth. Ac­ Hard coral, white and round, like the aquarium. It is said to be the only cordingly, I have never used a com­ frozen brains, great mounds of bril­ place in the world where such coral puter, had a credit card or bought a liant blue, staghorns with purple can be seen on such a scale and with microwave oven. But I do appreciate tips-they all glide underneath like such sustained glow. They are in­ elegant and useful machinery, such some exquisite landscape from deed impressive. But why do they as the snorkel. another planet. You can suddenly be produce light? I conjectured that it's People have been diving for surrounded by hundreds of small to enable the algae, which live hundreds of years using various kinds fish, just out of reach, with seahorses symbiotically in the coral, to of apparatus. Aristotle mentions and parrot fish, and in crevices, the photosynthesise, especially in murky breathing apparatus in common use, silly red and blue clown fish, hiding in waters. Pascale agreed, as some reefs presumably around 300BC; indeed the fronds of their sea-anemone are obscured by silt, but then added Alexander the Great is quoted as host. that fluorescing coral is also found in using such equipment to stay under Then, the blue-black blob you fairly shallow water where light is water for long periods. In the long take to be a sea-slug rapidly expands plentiful. Could it be, then, that the history of diving we can find sundry and weaves to the surface. Then extra light from the coral allows ingenious systems from the long tube there's another. Two metre-long sea photosynthesis to continue after sun­ carried above the submerged person snakes, just an arms-length away. Are set so as to increase coral growth? on a pontoon (recorded by Pliny in they dangerous? Who knows? But it's a fascinating the first century AD and then Roger I went to the aquarium in speculation. Bacon in 1240), to various skin bags Noumea to find out. The Director is The work on Nautilus proceeds in the 16th century, and, inevitably, marine scientist Joannot Pascale, apace. This is one of the really designs by Leonardo da Vinci. Fins who studies coral growth and the ancient genera and it could be the were perfected by a Commander Nautilus cephalopods. She assured ancestor to modern cephalopods Corlieu of the French Navy in 1935, like squid and octopus. But you having invented them in 1920. In won't see Nautilus when snorkeling. 1331, pearl fishermen in the Persian They live in very deep water and rise Gulf were reported using goggles of to the surface at night when there's near-perfect transparency (before no moon. Last year, for the first time, glass was introduced), made from marine scientists in Hawaii managed highly-polished tortoiseshell. And to get one of the species (there are the 'aqualung' was, of course, the four) to reproduce in the laboratory. brainchild of Captain Jacques It lived for only three weeks, but re­ Cousteau (1943). searchers like Joannot Pascale are But what could be more straight­ very excited. forward than the snorkel-a tube Fluorescing coral and the extra­ held between your teeth that pro­ ordinary Nautilus are just two of the jects above the water? Indeed, the mysteries from an ocean where there ancient Greeks used such a device, are thousands. Some of these mys­ made from hollow reeds. My first teries come in the form of questions snorkeling experience was a revel­ that the scientifically-minded are ation. After you've managed to sup­ curious about. Others involve as­ press the instinct to pant and learn pects of research vital for the health instead to breathe steadily, the views of marine industries. Now that Aus­ below are from another world. If you tralia has achieved the front rank in ever need to convince sceptics that many aspects of the science of the support should be given for marine sea, are we now in danger of allowing science, just hand them a snorkel and such efforts to dwindle? Professor point them towards some sheltered Peter Sale from the University of Syd­ coastline. ney thinks we are. He's one of many My latest expedition was to New Underwater breathing apparatus scientists worried about recent cuts Caledonia. Through the window of designed in the 16th century. A skin to Australia's marine research the graceful Caravelle jet, I could see bag, from which a tube emerges, is budget. I wonder whether Barry the massive fringing reef-the fitted over the diver's head. The tube Jones or Senator John Button ever go longest barrier reef in the world after is held above the water by a float. snorkeling? D 264 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 he Green Python (Chondro­ python viridis) is a member of Tthe Boidae-a family of large, non-venomous snakes that kill their prey by constriction. This family in­ cludes the boas and pythons. They have flexible jaws, enabling them to engulf prey with diameters greater than their own, and possess vestiges of a pelvic girdle and hind limbs in the form of horny spurs on either side of the cloacal opening. Being com­ paratively small boids, Green Pythons average 1.2 metres in total length and occasionally reach 1 .8 metres. Green Pythons forage on the ground at night but spend most of the day resting in elliptical coils on branches or in hollow trees. Their adaptations for nocturnal activity in­ clude heat-sensitive pits in some scales of the upper and lower lips, which help them to locate warm-blooded prey, and vertically elliptical pupils, which open and close further than round pupils. Green Pythons have large sharp front teeth and adults feed primarily on birds and small mammals such as Rattus species. The young, which green with cream or white scales run­ cloaca! spurs than females, and they usually roost close to the ground, ap­ ning along the backbone or scattered are used in courtship and mating. The pear to eat mainly lizards and employ over the back. The green colour oc­ female Green Python lays 12 to 22 'caudal luring' to attract them. In this curs because cells containing yellow eggs in a sheltered spot such as a specialised feeding behaviour, a pigment (xanthophores) form a yel­ hollow log or tree, then coils around snake lying otherwise motionless low filter over a layer of particles in them and broods almost continu­ protrudes the tip of its tail from bet­ the skin that, due to the refraction of ously until they hatch about 10 to 12 ween the coils of its body and wrig­ light, appear blue. Some 'Green' weeks later. This behaviour protects gles it sinuously; the tail is thin and a Pythons lack the yellow pigment and the clutch from predators and also different colour from the rest of the are entirely blue (axanthic). maintains a fairly constant humidity body and looks like an enticing worm Young Green Pythons are a differ­ and temperature for incubation. to an inquisitive lizard, bird or ent colour to the adults. They vary When the ambient temperature mouse. As the young pythons ma­ from bright yellow through tan to drops, the female can stabilise tem­ ture, the colour differentiation disap­ dark brick red, and have conspicuous perature around the eggs by 'shiver­ pears and so does the caudal luring splashes of colour along the back­ ing' -producing muscular contrac­ behaviour. bone and sides; these markings are tions of the body which raise falling Green Pythons are also highly cream on dark individuals and white temperatures. adapted for their daytime arboreal surrounded by brown on yellow indi­ In Australia, Green Pythons are lifestyle. Their bodies are com­ viduals. The tail is a similar contrast­ found in only a few pockets of closed pressed from side to side and there is ing colour, as mentioned above. A canopy rainforest in north-eastern a distinct ridge along the backbone. conspicuous dark-edged white line Cape York Peninsula but they are The tail is also compressed and pre­ runs horizontally through the eye relatively common in New Guinea hensile for grasping branches. Spe­ and beyond, camouflaging it. This and the Aru and Schouten Islands, at cialised back muscles enable the line is very faint in adults. altitudes below 1,800 metres. They snakes to extend long portions of The dramatic change to adult col­ prefer undisturbed forest habitat but their body unsupported while climb­ ouration occurs around two years of are occasionally found in monsoon ing from branch to branch. The age when the snakes are about 70 forest, cocoa plantations, bamboo colour of adult pythons is alsoideally centimetres long. The transformation thickets and even kunai grassland.D suited for lying inconspicuously may take only a week or two and -Greg Mengden draped over a branch among leaves; occurs without shedding the skin. and Elizabeth Cameron they vary from dull to bright emerald Male pythons may possess longer Australian Museum

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 265

he timing seemed incredible. Denis immediately suggested acutorostrata), but a Minke Whale of Barely had we held our first that we implement the new Victorian this body length would almost cer­ whale rescue training work­ Whale Rescue Plan. Our first job was tainly still be suckling. On rare oc­ shopT and now we were in the throes to identify the whale. However, Bob casions Minke Whales are known to of organising the real thing. Early on Warneke, the Department's marine 'lose' or abandon their calves before Monday 1 December 1986, Denis mammal researcher, was away on a they are weaned. Little is known Read, Conservation, Forests and research trip and identification with­ about rearing young baleen whales, Lands (CFL) Regional Manager, out his expertise would be difficult. so clearly, if our visitor was a young 'phoned to brief me on the activities The whale spent very little time Minke, its only real chance of survival of Portland's strange cetacean visitor. near the surface during the first few was to find and re-unite it with its A three-metre-long whale had found days, so it was nearly impossible to mother. By 10.30 am we had a light its way into Portland Harbour several observe the key features required for plane in the air carrying out a re­ days previously, and was circling identification. Many of its features connaissance of the waters of about in what appeared to be a dis­ closely resembled those of a young Portland Bay and nearby Bridgewater orientated state. Minke Whale (Balaenoptera and Discovery Bays. The search, u.J°" ..J (.) w N"' marine biology and Kevin and Charles showed that the whale next to one of the most fre­ his photographic skills were to be whale had a distinctly bowed jaw, a quently used sections of Portland 268 VOL. 22 0. 6, SPRI G 1987 Harbour, I contacted Captain Don within a few seconds of them sub­ Bob also informed us that the Pygmy O'Donnell, Harbour Master with the merging. Frank named her 'Rosie' Right Whale was only the second oc­ Port of Portland Authority. Captain because of her underwater agility currence of this species in Victorian O'Donnell advised me that the next which he likened to playing 'ring a waters this century. He told me few weeks in the Port were likely to ring o' roses'. At first Rosie seemed about observations carried out on be one of the busiest on record with unsure of the video camera and the species in South Africa. Appar­ the start of the main period for grain would not approach Frank while he ently nearly all specimens seen or and live sheep exports, and the off­ held the unit in front of his face. This caught inshore have been juveniles. loading of a consignment of pencil made taping difficult but fortunately These South African researchers pos­ pitch for the Portland Aluminium she soon overcame this aversion. tulated that the appearance of C. Smelter. Fortunately the whale had Our main concern relating to her marginatain inshore waters in spring avoided swimming near the main welfare was whether she was feed­ and summer might represent part of a shipping berths but two difficulties ing. Plankton and tiny fish comprise general dispersal of animals after still had to be overcome. Many the main food of baleen whales, and weaning. Their records suggest that Portland residents were by now ar­ gut analyses carried out on Pygmy Pygmy Right Whales are, when seen, dent whale watchers and their Right Whales caught by Russian frequently in sheltered, shallow bays parked cars were blocking the main whalers in 1972 revealed unidenti­ and that this has been interpreted as access routes used by incoming grain fied species of the crustacean normal behaviour rather than the ac­ trucks and other port traffic. Captain copepod Ca/anus. Charles carried tions of sick and dying animals prior O'Donnell proposed clearing a berth out some plankton trawls near the to stranding. site currently being used as a pipe surface in the No. 1 Dock area. Sub­ Despite the concern about the storage area to provide a safe parking stantial plankton levels were found apparent loss in condition, Rosie and viewing area. to be present. A thick layer of marine continued to exhibit similar behav­ The proposed shipment of pen­ vegetation on the harbour bottom iour patterns over the next fortnight, cil pitch also gave us some concern. and its sloping sides also contained with her swimming concentrated in Pencil pitch is transported as a crys­ abundant plankton life. However we the No. 1 Dock area. However, at talline solid but dust associated with had not observed anything that could 4.15 pm on Christmas Eve, Kevin unloading operations is known to be interpreted as feeding behaviour. Sleep noticed a marked difference in sensitise human skin to ultraviolet The videotapes suggested that her behaviour. Her circular swim­ light causing severe sunburn. We she seemed to be losing condition, ming pattern had become irregular could only speculate about the likely and the volunteer groups thought and had slowed down, and at times risks to a marine mammal. After dis­ some attempt should be made to she entered shallow water in the far cussion between the CFL, Port of feed her. Although we had doubts corner of the dock and floated mo­ Portland Authority, Portland Smelter about the value of doing this, it was tionless for long periods. Although Services and the Whale Rescue unlikely that such experiments still swimming quite freely, she Centre, a strategy for the unloading would be harmful. Six attempts were showed no interest in Frank when he operation was devised to minimise made over the period of one week to dived near her, which was in corn- the risk of spillage. In addition, an release blended squid and fish in a inflatable oil boom was laid across fine cloud directly in the whale's the water in No. 1 Dock to reduce the path. Although she was seen swim­ chance of any floating material ming through these 'food clouds', coming in contact with the whale. there was no sign of feeding activity. The unloading operation went Throughout Saturday, Bill con­ O\'ERL\\DDRAGOMAN :\D\'E:\lTRES smoothly and without incident to the tinued to monitor his sound­ credit of all concerned. recording equipment. Sound­ Put yourselfin tbe picture Bill Dawbin arrived on Friday 5 monitoring in the harbour was at December on the 5 pm flight from times frustrating due to the back­ Melbourne. By 6.15 pm we were ground noise-in particular, the con­ down at the harbourside and within a stant throb of a generator on board a few minutes he had verified our ship anchored just outside the har­ identification. Bill set up his sound­ bour and, later in the day, heavy rain. recording equipment and com­ Bill's patience, however, was re­ menced the long and tedious waiting warded when he succeeded in re­ often associated with sound­ cording a series of clear, well-spaced recording cetaceans. sounds over a period of about half an Frank Ziegler had begun to hour. More success with recording videotape the whale's movements followed on Sunday before he had to underwater and a deep gash was dis­ return to Sydney in the evening. covered in front of the right pectoral Bob Warneke arrived back on flipper. Perhaps she had sought the Sunday. His considerable experi­ sheltered waters of the harbour in ence with whale strandings led him order to recuperate? By now the to conclude that the harbour had whale was responding very posi­ formed a man-made whale trap, tively to Frank and Charles Cooper "entry through the narrow entrance when they entered the water. Her being relatively easy but exit ex­ curiosity was insatiable and she tremely difficult for a small cetacean would swim rapidly towards them unused to navigating close inshore". AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 269 most of the morning Rosie circled off the beach, remaining in water about three metres deep. However by mid afternoon she began to move inshore amongst the swimmers. I watched her circle back on five consecutive occasions, approaching within two to three metres of one family group that was standing in knee-deep water staring in amazement. A windsurfer leapt off his board and ran toward the whale; I saw her lunge her tail flukes out of the water in two rapid succes­ >-­z sive beats and speed away from the < vi shallow water. At no time did she >-­ >-- appear to be at risk of stranding, de­ � spite the shallowness of the water. '""' > After the events of the Australia c5 Day weekend Rosie remained for Pygmy Right Whale skull, remains of a stranding on Bruny Island, Tasmania. another ten days in the harbour. Dur­ ing this time she ranged throughout plete contrast to her normal re­ and the baleen plates were exposed. the harbour area, sometimes return­ sponse. The average period between A likely explanation was that the ing to her original dock location and breaths had shortened noticeably whale was feeding on the plankton sometimes cruising over the seagrass and averaged about 100 per hour, that rises to the surface at this time. bed just off the harbour beach. But as although there was still considerable We were jubilant! mysteriously as she appeared she de­ variation in the length of periods bet­ Perhaps the most remarkable as­ parted. Fisheries and Wildlife Officer ween breaths. Dr David Fitzpatrick, pect of this whole account was the Bob Jackson made the last confirmed the District Veterinary Officer, was attention that the whale received sighting at 1 pm on Thursday 5 Febru­ alerted, and the whale rescue sling from the people of Portland and the ary 1987 from the marina within the and kit placed on standby. This mys­ crowds of summer visitors. Captain outer harbour. Several unconfirmed tifying behaviour continued for O'Donnell's foresight in clearing the reports added to the enigma of her about four hours and then suddenly harbourside had provided an excel­ disappearance. A crewman of a at 8.30 pm she was observed to lent viewing and carparking area, freighter anchored outside the har­ resume her normal swimming and which from dawn until dusk was bour entrance at this time claimed to breathing pattern. scarcely empty. Overnight Rosie had have seen "a large whale wider than Our regular daily monitoring become a local celebrity. So there three metres" swim past. When the continued into the ew Year. Rosie was great public consternation when ship eventually berthed, Kevin Sleep appeared active and healthy except the whale was reported missing from went aboard to try and locate this for a few minor abrasions that her usual place on Thursday 22 crewman, but language difficulties seemed to heal quite rapidly. There January. and reluctance to come forward frus­ was no substantial repeat of the er­ On Saturday morning a local trated this. There were other claims ratic behaviour observed on fisherman reported seeing a whale that two whales had been seen swim­ Christmas Eve. On 6 January, while swimming in a tight circle off ming together in the harbour. How­ Charles Cooper and David Crumpets Beach in Portland Bay ever we treated them with some Fitzpatrick were diving with her, south of the harbour. But just before scepticism as a large Australian fur Charles noticed what he believed noon Charles Cooper located Rosie seal had been sighted by our staff could be feeding behaviour. The in the outer harbour swimming off earlier in the vicinity of the whale. whale was seen with her snout in the foreshore beach. It appeared she Our initial apprehension on the seagrass and weed along the sloping had ventured out into Portland Bay whale's arrival had now been re­ side of the ten-metre-deep basin in but had now returned. placed by great relief at her success­ the dock. As she raised her snout, The whale's presence in the ful return to the sea. The whole exer­ sediment was stirred up. outer harbour raised a new set of cise had been a success in terms of Unfortunately it wasn't clear whether problems for us. Many of the activi­ the co-operation of the CFL with vol­ her mouth was open, or partly open, ties of the Australia Day weekend at unteer groups, the application of the during this activity, so these obser­ Portland focused on the outer har­ CFL Victorian Whale Rescue Plan to vations were inconclusive. bour, and the presence of many small the situation, and the scientific re­ On the evening of Sunday 11 motor craft meant that there was the cording undertaken. January, Kevin Sleep observed a new risk of collision. So the local FM radio Much had been gained from this pattern of swimming not previously station 3RPC was contacted to unique visit to Portland by the Pygmy observed. The whale appeared to broadcast warnings, while CFL staff Right Whale. The impact of her visit glide through the water for a distance advised people of the whale's pres­ has been a lasting one. Not since of about eight metres, the top of her ence as they launched their boats. Portland Bay was the centre of head just breaking the water surface. Sunday was good beach weather whaling on the Victorian coastline, The next night at dusk I also observed and many people crowded onto the 150 years ago, has a whale so influ­ the same gliding motion but this time narrow strip of sand on the foreshore enced and dominated the minds of the whale's mouth was gaping open within the outer harbour. During Portlanders. D 270 VOL. 22 0. 6, SPRI G 1987 QUIPS,QUOTES & CURIOS

A Not So Sticky Problem Have you ever won­ dered how dolphins and .. Killer Whales can maintain their sleek, smooth, low­ drag and foul-free surfaces when other synthetic ma­ terials (and creatures that, perhaps, don't rely so much on speed and agility to catch their prey) become fouled with slime and en­ crusting organsims? Simi­ larly, have you ever won­ dered why we have to rou­ tinely brush our teeth to rid them of attached biological debris, yet the insides of our cheeks, which are sub­ ject to the same fouling milieu of sticky molecules, bacteria and food, are free from such bioadhesions? The mucosal surfaces of the inside of the human z 0 cheek and theexternal skin u '-< of dolphins and Killer 0 Whales have been the sub­ < ject of Dr Robert Baier's re­ G search, at the State Univer­ Have you ever seen a barnacle stuck to a dolphin's back? sity of ew York at Buffalo. of various liquids of known made up of a relatively thin strong adhesion of the Using various biophysical surface tensions and mol­ layer of fully keratinised glycoproteinaceous veil fa­ techniques, Baier and four ecular sizes on different and unnucleated (dead) cilitates passive detach­ of his associates have dem­ surfaces provide contact cells. In contrast, the epi- ment by weak mechanical onstrated that the seem­ angle data that lead to a dermis of the inner cheek forces into the surrounding ingly diverse layers of parameter known as 'criti­ and dolphin skin is much watery medium, whether it human intra-oral mucous cal surface tension'. The thicker and consists of fully be the mouth or the sea. membranes and the exter­ mucosal surfaces exam­ nucleated (living) cells right These same low­ nal mucosal skin of dol­ ined gave critical surface up to the most superficial surface-energy properties phins have similar architec­ tensions between 20 and zone. More importantly, have recently been sue­ tural and chemical designs, 30 dynes per centimetre the outermost epidermal cessfully imparted to corn­ which significantly differ (one dyne is a unit of force cells are surrounded by a pletely synthetic materials, from the non-mucosal sur­ equivalent to one millionth glycoproteinaceous exu- such as artificial heart sacs face of external human skin of a newton). Critical sur­ date of their own making. and substitute blood (Biophysical Studies of face tensions of this order When the exudate surface vessels, and a non-toxic, Mucosa/ Surfaces, pp. seem to be typical of mini­ was characterised it was foul-resistant coating for 83-95 in Oral lnterfacial mal biological adhesion; shown to have a low critical ships is not far behind. Reactions of Bone, Soft Tis­ higher critical surface ten­ surface tension (20-30 -C.H. sue and Saliva, IRL Press sions for non-mucosal sur­ dynes per centimetre), in- Transgenic Ltd, Oxford, 1985). faces (30-40 dynes per dicating that it might be this Animals Oil placed on human centimetre) correlate low-surface-energy film Modern biology has re­ skin will quickly adhere and with stronger biological that is responsible for the cently seen the emergence spread, whereas if placed adhesion. foul-resistant properties of of a startling new tech­ on dolphin skin it will only Microscopic examin­ mucosa! surfaces. If indeed nology that has the poten­ 'bead'. Measurements of ation of the epidermis of micro-organisms do attach t ia I to change the pro­ the wetting and spreading human skin shows it to be and colonise, the lack of ductivity of our domestic

AUSTRALIA ATURAL HISTORY 271 farm animals. Recombinant eration in the new host is growth rate and metabolic tered this technique in D A techniques, which achieved in similar fashion. efficiency of sheep. To do sheep, and hence are allow the isolation and test­ The isolated, purified and this, we have prepared a pleased with our success at tube modification of single modified gene is then special growth hormone overcoming the difficulties genes from any organism, transferred to single-cell gene, in which the portion involved in adapting the have been combined with embryos of the recipient of the gene that regulates technique to this species. a novel method of gene species by the procedure the rate at which growth However, the gene in­ transfer. Together they pro­ of micro-injection. In this hormone is produced has serted into these transgenic vide a means whereby a technique, a very fine glass been changed to allow sheep is not operating as gene can be isolated from needle is inserted into one much more hormone pro­ efficiently as we would like, any species of animal, of the two pronuclei of the duction than usual in the and we have made a new plant, bacteria or fungus, embryo, and 1-2 picolitres transgenic animals. Several variation of the gene to and transferred to any other (a billionth of a litre) of variations of the overcome this. The animals species in such a way that D A solution injected into recombinant gene have containing the modified the foreign gene becomes the pronucleus. been tested in laboratory gene will be born during an integral functional part The production of mice, where we have the spring of 1987, and we of the recipient species' transgenic animals was first shown that transgenic mice hope they will respond to genetic information. When developed in laboratory can be made to grow nearly the gene as we have the recipient species is an mice. Recently, however, twice as fast and twice as predicted. animal, the new animals are the technique has been ex­ large as normal mice when While this new tech­ called 'transgenic'. tended to domestic farm the gene is 'switched on' by nology is still very exper­ Recombinant D A is animals. The aim here is to the addition of zinc to their imental, its power and po­ prepared by fragmenting transfer modified genes to diet. These mice transmit tential for improved animal the D A of the donor or­ these animals in order to the new gene to their productivity is awesome. ganism with special 're­ enhance their performance progeny quite normally, Animals with enhanced striction' enzymes, com­ in the production of and do not grow fast unless growth rates, increased bining the D A fragments economically-important the gene is 'switched on'. wool or milk production, with bacterial or farm products such as We have been able to and improved physiology bateriophage D A, and meat, wool or milk. produce four transgenic in areas such as repro­ cloning the recombinant In our laboratory at sheep containing one of duction, are certain to be molecules in bacteria to CSIRO in Sydney, we are our early variations of the part of the farm within the purify the individual mol­ producing transgenic recombinant growth hor­ next several decades. ecular species. Modifi­ sheep. Our first exper­ mone gene. We are one of -Kevin Ward cation of the isolated genes iments are designed to dra­ only three laboratories CS/RO to ensure their proper op- matically increase the worldwide that have mas- . · "i > �..';;, Shark and Sole It is a well-known fact that some species of sharks are dangerous to humans. During World War 2, many military personnel had to, in one way or another, spend long hours in the open sea; shark attack, and the fear of shark attack, thus became tactical war­ time problems that re­ quired immediate atten­ tion. Consequently, scien­ tists associated with the United States avy devel­ oped the first chemical shark repellent-'Shark Chaser'. It was a copper acetate-nigrosine dye mix­ ture, compressed into a 150-gram cake. When re­ quired, the cake would be unwrapped and swirled Australia's first transgenic sheep, produced at CSIRO, Prospect, Sydney, in 1986. about the user to create an 272 VOL. 22 0. 6, SPRI G 1987 Compiled by Georgina Hickey

enveloping black cloud. about and rapid opening However, post-war retro­ and closing of the gills) in spection, together with some sharks. carefully controlled tests, The active component cast severe doubt on Shark of the secretion is an acidic Chaser's efficacy. What ef­ protein called pardaxin. It fectiveness it may have had acts on the sharks' gills, was due merely to the vis­ causing deleterious effects ual screening effect of the on their ability to regulate black dye. But Shark passage of salt (in the forms Chaser wasn't all bad-it of ions) across gill mem­ did act as a psychological branes. In particular, it is a aid, suppressing fears of potent inhibitor of an those people stranded in A TPase-an enzyme that shark-infested waters (be acts as an ion pump and is the sharks real or critical for effective ion imaginary). regulation and salt balance. The disappointing ex­ In a marine environment, in perience with Shark Chaser which the salt content of cast doubt in some the water is many times peoples' minds about the higher than that of the ani­ practicality of a chemical mals' cells, maintenance of approach, in general, to a proper salt balance is es­ shark repellents. However, sential for survival. It is no chemical deterrents do wonder, then, that sharks have many potential ad­ shun this chemically­ vantages over other deter­ aversive fish. rent methods (electrical, Australia is home to acoustic or visual stimuli). three species of Pard­ They are simple to use, not achirus flatfish, and at least bulky, cost little and are two (P. hed/eyi and P. easy to manufacture and pavoninus) also produce Order formfor books reviewed on pages 282 and 283 distribute. this toxin. So the search for an ef­ Although pardaxin itself Quantity Title Price fective chemical shark re­ would probably be too pellent continued, but costly to collect or syn­ Seashellsof WesternAustralia $17.9S mostly with negative re­ thesise, there are inexpen­ Flora of SouthAustralia: 4 volumes 140.00 sults. Recently, however, sive substitutes (such as in­ A Bright and Savage Land 4S.OO the discovery by Eugenie dustrial surfactants­ Thomas Baines and the North Clark of the natural shark­ detergent-like substances) AustralianExpedition 6S.OO repellent properties of a that are supposed to Sharks: Silent Hunters of the Deep 27.9S Red Sea flatfish-the 'mimic' the action of Postage and Handling will be Moses Sole, Pardachirus pardaxin. Once fully an additional charge marmoratus-has pro­ tested, such substances vided some hope for the could be impregnated into Please charge to: development of an effec­ or sprayed onto wetsuits, tive chemical repellent providing fool proof pro­ D Bankcard D Mastercard D Visa D American Express (Natl Geogr. 145: 718-27, tection from sharks. Card Number ExpiryDate / / 1974). Pardachirus flatfish are The sole emits a milky not the only animals that Name secretion from glands along repel sharks. Some sea cu­ Address its dorsal and anal fins, cumbers and sea hares, for which is retained in part in example, also elicit the fish's mucous coating. aversive behaviour. The Signature Dissolved in seawater, a study of these natural shark protective halo of about repellents, in general and ten centimetres in radius specifically, can only make surrounds the fish, acting as the practicality of develop­ a powerful repellent to and ing a chemical repellent causing abnormal behav­ more promising. iour (such as thrashing -C.H. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 273 RARE & ENDANGERED Philip Island Hibiscus

• Philip Island

he Philip Island Hibiscus, Hibis­ vated in Australia where it is some­ cus insularis, is listed by the times, confusingly, known as the T IUC as one of the world's ten orfolk Island Hibiscus. most endangered plants. However, The Philip Island Hibiscus sur­ recent work on Philip Island and the vives in the wild in only two small Australian mainland has dramatically ptches-one 50 metres in diameter, increased this plant's chances of the other ten. It grows naturally as a survival. low woody shrub, reaching up to Philip Island is a 250-hectare, three metres in height. In more volcanic island, uninhabited by hu­ favourable sites it may have the po­ mans, eight kilometres south of Nor­ tential to grow into a small tree. Its folk Island. Two hibiscus species yellow-cream flowers appear in occur naturally on the island group. spring and, as they age, turn bright One, the Palau (H. tiliaceus), is wide­ crimson. The wild plants only have spread in the south Pacific but is re­ adult leaves but when grown from stricted to the main island of orfolk. seed the young plants display a dis­ The other, the subject of this article, tinctly lobed juvenile foliage. Recent is endemic to Philip Island. A related work at the Australian National tree, Lagunaria patersonia, grows on Botanic Gardens has shown that the x both islands and is known locally as adult foliage appears five years after 2 White Oak. This tree is widely culti- seedlings are established but in some < L:...... :...-::11,,;1;;,;..,....,,;,;.,....,.....,;�� -...... """'""' .. 274 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 cultivated plants the juvenile foliage has persisted for over ten years. Philip Island was once a well-vegetated island. Early botan­ ical records indicate that subtropical rainforest plants once occurred there NATURE in gullies. When the first penal col­ ony was established on nearby Nor­ folk Island in 1788, however, pigs, goats and rabbits spread to Philip Island and, within a few decades, the CONSERVATION natural vegetation was all but totally removed. Severe soil erosion oc­ the role of REMNANTS of curred and the pigs and goats died, but the rabbits persisted and contrib­ uted to the creation of today's barren landscape. The rabbits prevented survival of NATIVE the hibiscus seedlings. They main­ tained a bare soil surface beneath the plants, presumably altering the soil moisture levels and fertility, and bur­ rowed amongst the roots. Another VEGETATION threat to the hibiscus was the African Olive (Olea europaea africana)-an Over much of the world, "clearing" of introduced woody weed that prob­ land has removed most of the natural ably became established on the vegetation, leaving only small remnants island over a century ago and is now of the original ecosystems. Areas that the most conspicuous plant. By previously contained important bio­ overgrowing the endemic hibiscus, it logical resources have been among threatened it by limiting the plant's those cleared, so that many plant and growth yet afforded it some protec­ animal species have become restricted tion from the destructive salt-laden to remnants, which may consequently hold a vital store of genetic material. winds. Unlike large areas in which natural In the early 1980s several actions processes continue to function, the were undertaken to protect the re­ smaller remants are often subject to a maining wild plants. Seed and cut­ variety of disturbances that commonly tings were collected and propagated cause a decrease in their number of at the Australian National Botanic species. Gardens in Canberra. Seedlings are now held by many botanic gardens The book is divided into four main around Australia and some plants are themes: established in private gardens on 1. Ecological studies as the basis of Norfolk Island and one in the Royal management; Botanic Gardens in Sydney. The Afri­ 2. Fragmentation and population can Olive was cut back from the re­ genetics; maining hibiscus plants and a regular 3. Measuring and monitoring dynamics program of monitoring the olive es­ of remnants; and tablished. Finally in 1981 a program to eradicate the rabbits from the 4. Management. island commenced. Eradication was achieved in 1986. Ever since the African Olive was Price $60.00. checked and the rabbit numbers plus certified Postage ($9.00) started to decline, there has been a Available from leading natural history marked increase in the flowering of booksellers or direct from the publisher the wild hibiscus. It should now be possible for natural regeneration to SURREY BEATTY & SONS occur-the first time, perhaps, for 43 Rickard Road, Chipping Norton over a century. D -Neil Hermes NSW 2170, Australia Environmental Consultant

AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 275

FROM THE JOURNAL

The Abrolhos Islands

have seen many vast flocks of "I birds but I confess I was not at all prepared for the surprise I experienced in witnessing the amaz­ ing clouds . .. of these birds when congregating in the evening while they had their young to feed . .. Even those who had witnessed the vast flights of the Passenger Pigeon, so vividly described by Audubon, could hardly avoid expressing surprise at seeing the multitudes of these birds which at sunset move in one dense mass over and around the roosting place, when the noise of the old birds, the quack and the piping whistle of the young ones, are almost deafening." This was written in 1843 by John Gilbert in a letter to John Gould, after a visit to the Abrolhos Islands off Western Australia. Gilbert was assis­ tant to Gould, whose writings brought our natural history before a European public and who is more than 1 30 of the survivors. Greeting a Sea Lion among the man­ honoured in the Australia-wide Pelsaert returned to deal out justice groves of Serventy Island. nature association for children to the mutineers, including known as the Gould League. marooning two of them on the waters, warm and cold currents mix Forty years ago, when I read nearby mainland, our first white to create the southernmost coral those words of Gilbert, I decided I 'settlers'. reefs of the Indian Ocean, where157 must visit those magical islands. Situ­ This intriguing story of wreck, species of coral co-exist with kelp ated some 70 kilometres off the treasure, murder and retribution ex­ beds. Coral and kelp are usually Western Australian coast at cited the folk back home in Holland found in different areas, as coral is Geraldton, they were first recorded where the story was published under associated with warm waters and by a Dutch captain, Frederik de the title The Unlucky Voyage. kelp with cold. Houtman. In 1619 he noted seeing Wood-cuts convey the tragedies that The islands not only provide a "level broken country with reefs took place on those lonely islands. magnet for nesting seabirds but also around it". A similar group of danger­ But it is the natural history, not for land animals such as the Tammar ous islands off the coast of Brazil had the human history, that I am more Wallaby (Macropus eugeni,). Com­ been given the name interested in. The birds described by mander Pelsaert's notes on this ani­ Abrolhos-from the Portuguese abri Gilbert are the Lesser Noddy Terns mal represent the first description of vos a/hos, meaning 'keep your eyes (Anous tenuirostris}, which breed an Australian marsupial to reach open'. The island group on the other only here and across the Indian Europe: side of the world was given the same Ocean on the Seychelles. At least 1 7 "Besides we found in these islands � name, although not every skipper other seabirds nest on the Abrolhos large numbers of a species of cats, � took heed of the warning. Islands. The huge flocks, and the which are very strange creatures; ; In 1629 the ship Batavia was number of different species that they are about the size of a hare, their � wrecked on a reef in the island group. breed on Pelsart Island, the largest head resembling the head of a civet­ uz The commander, Francois Pelsaert, island of the group, make it one of cat; the forepaws are very > left in a small boat to get help from the world's most famous seabird short . .. resembling those of a Dutch ;s the colonies in Indonesia. In sanctuaries. monkey's . .. Its two hind legs, on the o his absence a mutiny led by Jerome What makes these islands par­ contrary, are upwards of half an ell it Cornelius ended in the murder of ticularly interesting is that, in these [500 millimetres] in length and it

280 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 Since my first visit to the had been named Serventy Island in Abrolhos 40 years ago, I have been honour of my brother, my sister and back many times, including a magical myself, for our work in natural history six months during which I lived in a and conservation. small hut on Pelsart Island as a kind of A floti I la of three yachts, the scientific beachcomber. My last visit, Serventy Expedition, made a tri­ made in January this year, was spent umphant landing on our island where gathering data in an endeavour to we were greeted by several Sea Lions convince the Western Australian (Neophoca cinerea) and many

Flock of Common Noddy Terns (Anous stolidus), which nest on Pelsart Island.

Government that here is an island nesting Bridled Terns (Sterna group whose natural history merits anaethus). Clouds of Sooty Terns (5. protection as a marine park and fuscata) arose on another island, which is possibly worthy of World which was joined to ours at low tide, Heritage nomination. Dr Paul Lewis, and further in the distance I could see an underwater photographer who clouds of Lesser Noddies rising from walks on . ..the flat of the heavy part has watched craypots landing on the mangroves. of the leg, so that it does not run fast. coral growths, estimates that the two Abrolhos was a name given as a Its tail is very long, like that of a long­ million pots dropped each year de­ warning to early sailors. Today it tailed monkey". stroy 2.4 square kilometres of the serves more effectively as an adver­ Pelsaert also created the myth reefs. In addition, Tammar Wallabies tisement for one of the greatest that these animals grow out of the and seabirds were used, in the early natural history delights of Western nipples of the mother. Even though days of the industry, as bait for the Australia's 'Silver Coast'. Yet the zoologists knew better, it was not crayfish; this, however, no longer name still serves as a warning, that is, until this century, when photographs takes place, at least with professional unless action is taken promptly, were taken of marsupials giving nor­ fishermen. unplanned development might mal mammalian birth, that the myth An additional attraction, for me cause irreparable damage to life both finally became 'extinct'. at least, was that one of the islands below and above its waters. D AUSTRALIA ATURAL HISTORY 281 Seashells of Western Australia but have only been tific societies, and the ad­ his characterisation of Australia described from New vent of science in the uni­ Thylac oleo carnifex, the Fred E. Wells and Clayton Zealand. A figure of a single versity curriculum), indi­ Marsupial Lion, as a W. Bryce. Western chiton valve in the glossary viduals, and controversies herbivore. As she now ac­ Australian Museum, Perth, might also have been useful (the geological debate bet­ knowledges, the weight of 1985, 207 pp. $17.95. in explaining what "pectina­ ween McCoy and Clarke, scientific evidence indi­ tion of the insertion plates" and disagreement over cates that Thylacoleo was a Fortunately, the title of this (page 30) means to the vast Thylacoleo's characteris­ carnivore, as Richard book is somewhat of a mis­ majority of readers unfamiliar ation as a carnivore). Owen maintained all nomer, for not only are those with chiton anatomy. There The real strength of the along. A second instance of molluscs with shells treated, is a small scatter of book lies in its splendid il­ personal advocacy is but also those without­ typographical errors lustrations; unfortunately, Moyal's apparent accep­ nudibranchs, octopods and ("vivalves" on page 21 gives the text is marred by de­ tance of a thesis claiming their kin. And it is especially an interesting connotation of fects. Interpretation of the that Amalie Dietrich pleasing to see some attempt liveliness to a usually seden­ historical record willalways amassed "the most impor­ to cover the 'minor classes' of tary group), but overall be contentious, but the tant collection made by a molluscs-the chitons, Seashells of WesternAustra­ idea that there was little ac­ single person" (p. 109). scaphopods, cephalopods lia is an excellent work and ceptance of Darwinian the­ While this may be good and even bivalves, which hopefully a foundation for an ory in Australia prior to the feminist history of science, have, until recently, been ig­ expanded treatment of the 20th century is increasingly it is of dubious veracity. nored in treatments of Aus­ fauna. It is well worth the dated. More disconcerting, -Colin Finney tralian molluscs, creating a moderate price of $17.95. however, are the many nig­ tyranny of the gastropods -Ian Loch gling errors of fact found with authors and publishers, throughout the book. Both and perpetuating a vicious Cook (p. 17) and La circle of lack of information­ Perouse (p. 29) would have lack of demandwithin the in­ been startled to find that Sharks: Silent Hunters terested public. A Bright and Savage they had sailed into Sydney of the Deep The book itself is an excel­ Land. Scientists in Harbour (Port Jackson); Capricorn Press Pty Ltd, lent production, with high­ Colonial Australia Thomas Brisbane did not Reader's Digest, Sydney, quality plates by Clay Bryce Ann Moya!. Collins, arrive in ew South Wales 1986, 208 pp. $27.95. and a lucid text by Fred Sydney, 7 986, 192 pp. until November 1821, so Wells. There has arisen the $45.00. could scarcely have pre­ Because of their large size usual problem of background It has only been over the sided over the inauguration and potentially ferocious be­ so that some dark-coloured past decade that the study of the Philosophical So­ haviour, the study of sharks species merge into the black of the history of Australian ciety of Australasia in June has not developed to the plates (for example plates 25 science, once the preserve 1821 (p. 87); Australian cor­ same extent as the study of and 27), but no universal of elderly scientists, has respondents of Darwin bony fishes. Sharks, general­ background exists for the vast gained a separate academic would have been surprised ly portrayed as primitive ver­ array of colours in molluscs, identity. Ann Moyal was an to find that he had none tebrates, may actually be at least not in the price range early pioneer of Australian prior to 1859 (p. 145); and it highly evolved creatures; of this book. There is also the history of science, both was J.D. Lang who an­ several species have even conceptual problem of a with her bibliographies and nounced the discovery of been classified as warm­ book limited to State bound­ Scientists in Nineteenth fossils in the Wellington blooded. Their sensitivity to aries, which don't approxi­ Century Australia: A Docu­ Caves, not Thomas even extremely weak electric mate any zoogeographical mentary Hi story (1976). Mitchell (p. 154). This list of fields appears to be one way division in Australia (apart She now gives us a breezy errors is by no means in which they locate prey. from the New South Wales­ and somewhat breathless exhaustive, and it indicates These are just a few insights Victorian border). The mixing overview of the develop­ a hurried or careless into the biology and be­ of the temperate fauna of ment of Australian science production. haviour of sharks gained from southern Western Australia over the course of the 19th A second flaw of the past and ongoing research, with the tropical northern century. book is Moyal's unmiti­ included in section one of fauna does create a market As Moyal highlights, for gated advocacy of certain this book. For the most part, outside its parochial title, and most of the century Aus­ individuals. Is Gerard Krefft the section is scholarly-based, readers from most of Austra­ tralian science was deriva­ "now generally regarded as although occasionally less lia will find some elements of tive of and dependent on the best vertebrate zool­ than scientific objectivity gets their local fauna treated. European science. She ex­ ogist of his day" (p. 98)? hived off as evidence for Ignoring the inevitable tax­ p lores issues (the Aus­ Moyal has already encoun­ refuting a theory. One exam­ onomic quibbles with a work tralian reaction to evol­ tered problems with Krefft ple of this is the assertion of this scope, aplacophorans utionary thought), events in her 1976 book by (page 53) that "muscle action (page 13) do occur within (the inauguration of scien- portraying him as correct in could hardly account for her

282 VOL. 22 0. 6,SPRING 1987 [the shark's) higher body tem­ Flora of South paper for easy access. hardt's expedition of 1848. perature" following the inser­ Australia I have two criticisms. In­ Braddon's book virtually tion of a thermometer into a Ed. by J.P. Jessop and H. R. formation on habitats is ignores the larger context of deep knife wound in the Tolkein. South Australian largely lacking. Only the or­ the Gregory expedition and shark's back, three hours af­ Government Printing chids and a few other concentrates on the limited ter it had been dragged to Division, Adelaide, 1986, 4 groups are well served; the role played by Thomas shallow water and had lain vols, 2,248 pp. $140.00. vast majority of plants re­ Baines, artist-storeman and "practically motionless". ceive no more than a single later leader of the support Section two is devoted to J.M. Black's delightful phrase such as "sandy party. The explanation for human interaction with Flora of South Australia, soils". The editors submit this circumscribed focus is sharks. From discussion of first published in 1929, was that "ecological notes have fairly obvious: the book is the possibility of Jonah's for over 50 years the stan­ largely had to be omitted designed as a showcase for whale having been a shark to dard text on South Aus­ through lack of data" but I the illustrations produced by the latest attempts in de­ tralian plants. This compact suspect the real reason was Baines during the expedition. veloping an effective shark user-easy flora was an in­ lack of time or conviction. It is unfortunate for both the repellent, the chapter is stud­ dispensable companion for Also, the illustrations tend book and Australian history ded with accounts of shark field trips in that State. to be crude and lifeless and that Baines did not accompa­ attacks on humans as well as But floras date quickly, occasionally unrecognis­ ny Gregory on his trek across human attempts at keeping and the need for something able. the top of Australia. sharks at bay. Although many new has at last been re­ onetheless, this is a In his research for the of the incidents took place in alised with the publication milestone publication, and book, Braddon appears to countries other than Austra- of this completely new sure to be the envy of bot­ have worked almost entirely 1 ia, the book is aimed at an edition. anists in other States. The from the diaries of the in­ Australian audience and Aus­ Alas, I shall think twice floras of Victoria and Tas­ dividuals on the expedition. tralian horror tales abound. before taking this new flora mania are now out of date, Although this gives an im­ The accounts are well chos­ into the field, for each of its and no other State has a mediacy to the text, it results en for their sensationalism four hard-bound volumes cornplete flora, although in a number of problems, in­ and typical of most Reader's is as big (and as heavy) as the Western Australian cluding Braddon adopting Digest books, the accom­ the complete edition of Herbarium has just re­ Baines' incorrect spelling of panying photographs...are of Black. The extra bulk is leased a flora of the Perth the names of New South high quality. taken up by the more gen­ region, another exciting ad­ Wales Governor William Section three contains a erous descriptions of each dition to our knowledge of Denison and the expedition's description of the 344 known plant, the wealth of line Australian plants. botanist, Ferdinand Mueller. species of sharks in the world illustrations and the in­ -Tim Low The other defect of this ap­ and an analysis of the geo­ clusion of many more proach is that the book gives graphical distribution of at­ plants. very little detail of the wider tacks. The species list is Indeed, the new flora de­ context of the expedition derived primarily from Sharks picts 30 per cent more Thomas Baines and (Braddon makes the claim of the World compiled by Dr plants, most of them intro­ the North Australian that the greatest achieve­ Leonard Compagno, one of duced species established Expedition ment of the expedition was the pre-eminent shark tax­ as weeds si nee 195 7. Russell Braddon. Collins Baines' paintings) and prior in­ onomists in the world and Weeds are an index of en­ and Royal Geographical vestigations of the Victoria thus presents a list which is as vironmental disturbance, Society, Sydney, 1986, 160 River (John Lort Stokes and up-to-date as possible. The and South Australia is faring pp. $65.00 John Wickam in the Beagle). geographic analysis of shark badly, perhaps the worst Admittedly the book is about attacks is another monumen­ among Australian States. In 1855 Augustus Gregory Baines, but his leadership tal research feat and provides This new flora begins took charge of an expedition problems are not significant an illustration of shark attack with an excellent illustrated to the north-western shoul­ enough to sustain the text of patterns. history of botanical dis­ der of Australia. In addition to the book. What do carry the The contributors to the covery in the State by D.N. exploring much of the envi­ book are Baines' illustrat­ book include some well­ Kraehenbuehl. One hun­ rons of the Victoria River, to ions-the sketches and water­ established scientists in the dred botanists from around which the expedition had colours more so than the field of shark research. With Australia have contributed been transported by sea, stylised oil paintings. the other shark enthusiasts, to the text. Thirty-five new Gregory's task lay in over­ One last point, the sketch they have managed to as­ plants, including orchids landing from that area to Bris­ of a shark on page 126 which semble a book well balanced and bluebells, are scientifi­ bane. The expedition was Braddon somewhat patronis­ in the biological and be­ cally described. Distri­ successful in both these ef­ ingly dismisses, is a whale havioural aspects of sharks, butions are listed by botan­ forts, although less so in a shark and therefore easily wi­ and facts and figures for the ical region. Each volume subsidiary task-the search thin the size range that Baines reader's interest. has its own comprehensive for information on the disap­ estimated. -Denise Rennis glossary, printed on pink pearance of Ludwig Leich- -Colin Finney

AUSTRALIA ATURAL HISTORY 283

K

by Penny and Jerry Olsen

he Australian Kestrel (Falco hunting over wastelands, airports cenchroides) is probably our and open parkland; perching on most commonly seen bird of roadside fence posts and electricity prey.T This small, pretty falcon has a poles and their wires. rather distinctive habit of hovering The early settlers called this bird almost stationary in the air while the Nankeen Hawk because its searching the ground below for prey. colour reminded them of the It is often found in close association yellowish-buff cotton cloth (nan­ to humans: nesting in suburban tree keen) originally made in Nanking, hollows and on tall city buildings; China. Later, those who recognised its affinities with a successful and land, rare in Tasmania and, in the far geographically widespread group of north, is locally common during the _ typical kestrels renamed It the Nan­ dry season. keen Kestrel. More recently its com­ Smallest of Australia's six falcons mon name has been changed again, (about the size of a slim magpie), the to the Australian Kestrel, in Kestrel is warm cinnamon brown acknowledgement of its regional with a buff breast. When perched the stronghold. Kestrel's stance is upright, its long tail adding to this effect. In the air its long Distribution tapered wings and long tail are obvi­ ous in most situations, particularly Falco c. cenchroides, the Aus­ when hovering. tralian subspecies, is more or less Typically Kestrels are solitary fal­ ubiquitous throughout Australia, cons found in open, short grassland. while the New Guinean subspecies However, they can tolerate a great F. c. baru, about which little is range of ecological conditions and known, is confined to the highlands are found in most types of country there. The Australian subspecies also from the rugged, treed slopes of Mt occurs, apparently as a winter Kosciusko to the flat, almost treeless vagrant, in New Guinea and Indo­ Nullarbor Plain. This adaptability is nesia. It is thought to have colonised due to their catholic diet and mo­ Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, 700 bility; as well as their flexibility in fledged pigeons, house mice, rabbit and 1,700 kilometres respectively . home range size, choice of nest site kittens and probably slugs and earth­ north-east of Sydney, as recently as and hunting technique. worms. The Fat-tailed Dunnart the 1960s. In the 1940s it reached the (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) is one of Australian territory of Christmas Hunting and Food the few native mammals recorded in Island in the Indian Ocean, perhaps the diet, introduced vertebrates by hitching rides on ships operating Hovering provides a mobile being common. in the area during the war. All three perch and allows the Kestrel to hunt One study in south-eastern Aus­ islands now support substantial in treeless areas. Only the grey and tralia revealed that while there were breeding populations. The Australian white Black-shouldered Kite (£/anus great numbers of invertebrates in the Kestrel is most common on the main- notatus) can rival the Kestrel in its diet there was a greater mass of ver­ mastery of hovering. On spotting tebrates. Prey is probably rep­ prey from its perch the Kestrel resented in the diet at least partly usually makes a short glide down according to its availability (accessi­ The Falcons onto its victim. Kestrels can also pur­ bility and abundance). Reptiles are The genus Falco is a group sue and overhaul aerial prey in flight, eaten more in spring and summer of small to medium sized, snatch prey from trees or the surface when they are most active; mice be­ largely daylight-hunting birds of water, and run over the ground in come almost the sole item in the of prey. Typically, they have pursuit of insects. They will eat Kestrel's diet during mouse plagues. short necks, long pointed freshly-killed animals hit by cars, Kestrels have been seen flying while wings and narrow tails. Their steal food from other birds and take carrying prey weighing up to 60 per eyes are dark and many have a advantage of prey flushed by a third cent of their own body weight (the black moustachial streak run­ party such as a human or tractor. A largest being a Stubble Quail, ning from beneath the front of pair of Kestrels will hunt Coturnix pectoralis). They consume the eye down past the corners co-operatively-one flushing or about 30 to 40 grams of prey a day of the mouth which may help splitting a flock, the other following (for example, three wild house mice) to reduce glare. The beak is behind, snatching up the confused or one fifth of their body weight. short, strong and hooked, victim. Prey is seized with the feet, with a tomial 'tooth' on each killed by reaching down and snap­ Movement side-thought to be of use in ping the neck, and usually carried to a snapping the necks of prey. perch to be dismembered and eaten, Little is known about move­ Falcons' talons are long and although some prey is consumed in ments of Kestrels within Australia. curved and their toes are flight. Some movements are dispersive, powerful. The hind toe is used Most hunting is done in daylight some random and some seem to ap­ to strike prey, while the hind but Kestrels may hunt crepuscularly proach true migration. In certain and elongated middle toe are (in twilight) and a similar kestrel over­ areas, for example near Canberra and the main toes used for snaring seas (the European Kestrel, F. Mildura, one or both of a pair of Kes­ prey. Falcons fly with strong tinnuncu/us) has been seen hunting trels will stay in their territory all year wing beats and have great by moonlight. round. Nevertheless Kestrels, es­ powers of diving ('stooping'). In one study, 82 per cent of 364 pecially young of the year and some Males are smaller than fe­ attempts to capture mostly insect adult females, leave their breeding males, particularly so in bird­ prey were successful. Prey includes territory in late summer-early catching species and less so in spiders, centipedes, moths, damsel autumn. In the south-east they ap­ insectivorous species like the flies, water beetles, dung beetles, pear to move further inland and also Australian Kestrel. Christmas beetles, frogs, small rep­ northwards up the east coast. At least tiles, sparrows, starlings, pipits, un- some of this movement is altitudinal,

286 VOL. 22 NO. 6, SPRING 1987 pairs will nest close together but will trees, cliff ledges and potholes, or the hold separate triangular-shaped ter­ stick nests of other birds. Man-made ritories fanning out from the nest site. sites like buildings and quarries are Pairs have been recorded nesting less also used. Nesting on the ground is than 100 metres apart and on three uncommon presumably because of adjacent power pylons 450 metres the increased risk of predation. Stick apart. More usually, however, they nests used are most often the open nest kilometres apart and territories nests of corvids, although use of the are irregularly spaced. enclosed nest of the Chestnut Crowned Babbler (Pomatostomus Breeding ruficeps), for example, is not un­ usual. In general a more enclosed Breeding is strongly seasonal ac­ nest like a pothole is preferred to an cording to area. It has been suggested exposed one. No nest is built by the that Kestrels can breed any time of Kestrel but a scrape (shallow de­ year under favourable conditions, pression) is made by shuffling the but there are only a couple of records body in the nest substrate. � of these birds breeding out of season. Pairs perform courtship in the � They can delay breeding, within breeding territory, with much soar­ z; limits, and apparently do so, for ex­ ing, displaying and vocalisation. The z ample, when waiting for corvids male makes mock attacks at the fe­ (crows, ravens, etc.) to va ate th ir male and the pair perform undulating A male Kestrel is caught on camera, _ � � seconds away from its murid meal. nests in areas where these birds build flights together, often in high wide the only suitable nests. In poor years, circles, giving a 'killy-killy' call. They 'play' aerial leapfrog and the male with movement down from the during a drought or after a fire, Kes­ trels may not attempt to breed. may make an aerial food pass to the Great Dividing Range in the colder Nests are usually hollows in female. Feeding of the female by the months and back again in spring. Kestrels are great opportunists and will gather in an area in times of plenty, for example during a mouse or locust plague, only to leave when the food source leaves or becomes exhausted. Territory If absent during winter, Kestrels return to a traditional breeding terri­ tory in early spring. During the breed­ ing season a male and female will defend a territory (by chasing and stooping at the intruder and uttering a defensive 'kee-kee-kee' call) against other Kestrels and potential z V\"' predators such as larger birds of prey ...J 0 and sometimes humans. A breeding ....:. territory contains some hunting 0 z ground and one or several potential < nest sites. However, some pairs are 0.. only able to obtain a suboptimal terri­ For study purposes, this juvenile Kestrel, which is 19 days old, is colour­ tory in which there is no nest site. The marked for individual recognition. territory often also contains a few sheltered (usually from the south-west) roosts where the Kes­ trels sleep (often with one leg tucked up), preen themselves, or eat prey, and some preferred vantage point from which to search for prey. Terri­ tory size seems to be dependent on the available food supply (suitable prey in suitable hunting habitat), f­ while territory shape seems to be de­ z termined by hunting terrain and the < z· z position of the nest site in relation to < this. For example, where nest sites uu are clustered in a group of isolated � trees in good hunting ground, Kestrel "' AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 287 male, and its associated behaviour, is are laid at roughly two-day intervals. summer. Birds in their first year are an integral part of courtship. The pair A second clutch may be laid if the first russet brown with buff underparts makes ritualised inspections of is lost. Each of the rounded oval, and are speckled and streaked with potential nest sites before making a freckled brown eggs weighs about black; their brown tails are barred choice. Often there is a high degree ten per cent of the female's body with black. They are similar to the of nest site fidelity and one nest is weight. Incubation starts after the adult female but tend to be more used for many years by one or both of laying of the second or third egg. heavily marked with black. Kestrels its previous occupants. Mating takes Both birds incubate although some are sexually dichromatic, adult place often and well before egg­ females appear to 'allow' their mates males, in contrast to females, have laying commences. Although Kes­ more involvement in incubation than powder-grey tails with only one trels are monogamous some pro­ others. A male and female have even (subterminal) black band, and often miscuous mating may occur bet­ been seen incubating the eggs have a powder-grey head. Neverthe­ ween neigbouring pairs. together. less, colour may occasionally be a A single clutch of eggs is laid, The chicks hatch after about 28 deceptive means of identifying the usually in September or days and, because the start of incu­ sexes as females seem to lose their October-earlier in warmer inland bation is delayed, usually hatch over tail barring (except the subterminal and more northern areas. Between two to four days. The brood size is band) with increasing age, and some one and seven but usually four eggs most commonly one less than clutch have a slight grey wash on the tail as size as one egg is often infertile, or well as indistinct barring. one chick fails to hatch or dies soon after hatching. A dead nestling may Post-breeding be eaten by its siblings or parents. est life is peaceful with no aggres­ After spending spring in pairs, sive 'Cain and Abel' struggle, in Kestrels become more gregarious in which a weaker chick may be eaten summer and may be seen in family by its stronger sibling as occurs in groups and loose aggregations of some other raptors, and only minor first-year birds, particularly in areas squabbles over food. where food is plentiful. In such areas The nestlings hatch in a coat of a variety of raptors may congregate sparse white down, which is re­ with little apparent conflict, although Vl,.: piracy of someone else's prey is not er: placed between four and nine days iii of age by a thicker coat of creamy unusual. During autumn, groups dis­ i perse as winter territories are i white down. This second coat re­ mains and is covered by feathers be­ established. fore the chick fledges at about four Hovering and a half weeks. At fledging the Mortality chicks have reached their full (adult) The hovering Kestrel is There have been no studies weight (males 160 grams, females stationary relative to the done on mortality in Australia. Prob­ 180 grams) and their flight feathers ground but is actually flying ably only about one third of fledg- forward at a pace adjusted to are almost full length. 1 ings survive their first year. The the speedof the head wind. Its During the nestling period prey is longest surviving Kestrel known was head remains steady, while dissected by the female and fed to at least eight years old, but a maxi­ the wings absorb the buffets the chicks. A soft 'chup' by her elicits mum life expectancy of about 15 of the wind, allowing it to pin­ an open-mouthed, food-begging re­ years may be possible. point prey on the ground sponse from very young (blind) Starvation and humans, both di­ below. In light wind, when the chicks and the female places slivers rectly an indirectly, are probably the airspeed of the Kestrel is low, of meat in their mouths. Later the biggest single causes of Kestrel the bird spreads its tail to in­ sight of her offering food is sufficient death. Kestrels have been found crease the area of its lifting stimulus and the chicks take the food drowned in water tanks, shot, caught surface. By depressing the tail, from her. By three weeks of age the in snares or by dogs and cats, the angle at which the air chicks are capable of feeding them­ poisoned by pesticides and are often strikes it is increased, giving selves, but prefer to be 'spoon-fed'. hit by cars. They fall prey to larger further lift. In strong winds the The male usually provides food dur­ raptors like Wedge-tailed Eagles Kestrel must fly harder to ing the early nestling period, later (Aquila audax) and Peregrine Falcons maintain its position and its both parents hunt. At one nest a pair brought food (mainly insects and four (Falco peregrinus). One nestling tail does not need to be died, trapped by its neck in a narrow fanned to provide extra lift. In small skinks) to the nest 74 times in part of it nest opening. suitable wind the bird can re­ about four hours. The parents con­ In spite of their associated perils, main effortlessly in the same tinue to provide at least some food to roadsides with their fences and position. By partly closing its their young after they have fledged, power poles, and cleared farming wings the Kestrel can glide and the family group remains land, have opened up new habitat for down against the wind, then, together for one to twomonths. Kestrels, and species introduced by by altering the angle of its humans, like starlings, house mice wings, rise with apparent ease Moult and Plumage and agricultural insect pests, provide • and hover in a new position. Kestrels moult annually, taking an abundant food source in some about four months, during spring and areas. D 288 VOL. 22 0. 6, SPRING 1987 T H E BICENTENNIAL BHP AWARDS FOR THE PURSUIT OF EXCELLENCE

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