JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2005, 38, 279–287 NUMBER 2(SUMMER 2005)

MONTROSE M. WOLF (1935–2004)

TODD RISLEY

UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA

Montrose Madison Wolf, who discovered the reinforcing power of adult attention for children and based on that discovery invented and named the nonviolent parenting procedure time-out; who discovered that absent speech and social development could be artificially created with operant conditioning techniques; who first engineered a token economy into a useful motivational system; who invented the good behavior game; who orchestrated the massive research program that developed and refined the Teaching-Family Model as a residential treatment solution for delinquent development; who reinvented field observation, repeated measurement, and single-subject research methods; who introduced and named the concept of social validity; and who led the founding of the discipline of problem-solving real-world research called applied behavior analysis, died of Huntington’s disease on March 19, 2004, at his home in Lawrence, Kansas. ______

BEFORE APPLIED ground Mont did not qualify for the degree!) BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS At Arizona State, Wolf was mentored by Jack Michael, and both his thesis and dissertation Mont Wolf was born in Houston, Texas, research studies were laboratory experiments on May 29, 1935. He received a BS in with animals. But from Lee Meyerson he psychology from the University of Houston in learned the clinician’s ethical principle to 1959. At Houston he was introduced to the personally know the individual people one is ‘‘problem-solving science’’ and the ‘‘experi- studying and serving, and to be responsible for menting society’’ notions of Francis Bacon, tracking and improving their well-being—an Claude Bernard, and B. F. Skinner by Jack ethic on which he later built the observation, Michael, and was enthused by the ground- measurement, and single-subject experimental breaking real-world field research in a mental design conventions of applied behavior analysis. hospital of his graduate student friend Ted He also served as a research assistant to both Ayllon (e.g., Ayllon & Michael, 1959). At Israel Goldiamond and Arthur Staats, gaining Houston he met and married fellow psychology experience in hands-on work with people and in student Sandra Spiller, who was his lifelong programmatic research. With Staats and others colleague and companion. (Staats, Minke, Finley, Wolf, & Brooks, 1964; Mont and Sandra followed Jack Michael to Staats, Staats, Schultz, & Wolf, 1961), Wolf Arizona State University where Mont received was a coauthor of the first two limited experi- an MA in psychology in 1961 and a PhD in mental demonstrations of an artificial reinforce- psychology in 1963. (Because his was among ment system—one that he soon developed into the first PhD degrees awarded at Arizona State, practical token economies and point systems of representatives from other departments carefully the type now adopted by many parents, monitored his dissertation defense. Mont teachers, and community service providers. recalled that an English professor’s minority opinion was that the PhD signified that one was a ‘‘cultured gentleman,’’ and that on that THE ORIGINS OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS Address correspondence to Todd Risley, HC-5 Box 6820, Palmer, Alaska 99645 (e-mail: [email protected]). In the early summer of 1962, Wolf doi: 10.1901/jaba.2005.165-04 joined Sidney Bijou at the Institute of Child

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Development at the University of Washington ‘‘Effects of Social Reinforcement on Isolate as a research assistant professor. Bijou, a major Behavior of a Preschool Child,’’ became Wolf’s figure in experimental child psychology, di- first citation classic (i.e., identified as one of the rected the Institute with its preschools, child most frequently cited publications by Current clinic, and experimental child laboratories, and Contents: Social & Behavioral Sciences). Forty he also coordinated the child clinical and years later, social reinforcement (positive atten- developmental psychology areas of the tion, praise, ‘‘catching them being good’’) has Department of Psychology at the University of become the core of most American advice and Washington. Bijou had recruited Donald Baer training for parents and teachers—making this and Jay Birnbrauer as new assistant professors of arguably the most influential discovery of developmental psychology and Robert Wahler modern psychology. as the postdoc director of the child clinic. Bijou The research methods that Wolf pioneered in had established a grant-funded human learning these studies were also groundbreaking: direct laboratory at a rural mental retardation institu- observation with interval recording and in- tion near Seattle and hired Wolf to run it. In terobserver reliability, systematic alteration of retrospect, Wolf never did the job he was hired the natural environment, reversal and multiple to do—generate useful knowledge from a hu- baseline single-subject experimental designs. man operant laboratory—but with the excite- These occurred at a time when, with the ment and productivity of everything else he exception of Ayllon’s work, the only real-time instigated, no one seemed to notice. (Wolf came data of human behavior were from laboratory to consider laboratory research on human settings, and the few real-world efforts were behavior to be an unproductive misdirection being documented only with field notes. Prec- of effort, and 5 years later when he created the edents for the structured observations were editorial policy of the new Journal of Applied found in several early child psychology studies, Behavior Analysis, he explicitly excluded pur- and precedents for field interventions were ported laboratory analogues in favor of the common to all teaching and helping profes- in-context observation and investigation of sions, but the research designs were new to real-world phenomena.) psychology. These designs did not come from When he arrived at the Institute, Wolf was conventional experimental design logic, which assigned to teach the teachers of the four pre- required experimental and control groups to schools a course in learning principles. The four show causality. Nor did they come from the class projects designed by Wolf and carried out conventions of the experimental analysis of by the teachers constituted the original exper- behavior, which relied on multiply revisited imental documentations—the discovery—of steady states of behavior associated with the reinforcing power of adults’ social attention different conditions to show causality. The for children. We had never seen nor imagined reversal or ABAB design that Wolf reinvented such power! The speed and magnitude of the from Claude Bernard’s early examples in effects on children’s behavior in the real world experimental medicine entailed establishing of simple adjustments of something so ubiqui- a baseline of repeated quantified observations tous as adult attention were astounding. Those sufficient to see a trend and forecast that trend four studies were subsequently published (Allen, into the near future (A); to then alter conditions Hart, Buell, Harris, & Wolf, 1964; Harris, and see if the repeated observations become Johnston, Kelly, & Wolf, 1964; Hart, Allen, different than they were forecast to be (B); to Buell, Harris, & Wolf, 1964; Johnston, Kelly, then change back and see if the repeated obser- Harris, & Wolf, 1966), and one of them, titled vations return to confirm the original forecast MONTROSE M. WOLF 281

(A); and, finally, to reintroduce the altered designed a token system for the classroom, and conditions and see if the repeated observations revised it until it was easy to run and success- again become different than forecast (B). (The fully sustained high rates of academic behav- unprecedented multiple baseline design that ior (and the children made steady progress Wolf first demonstrated at this time, and later through the reading, writing, and arithmetic elaborated on with other colleagues, similarly programmed instruction curricula that entailed concurrently establishing baselines of Birnbrauer, Bijou, Wolf and others were repeated observations of either more than one developing) (Birnbrauer, Bijou, Wolf, & behavior, more than one condition, or more Kidder, 1965; Birnbrauer, Wolf, Kidder, & than one person sufficient to see trends in each Tague, 1965). With teachers in another baseline and forecast those trends into the near classroom in that institution, Wolf also pro- future; to then alter conditions for one baseline vided the first example of a functional analysis and see if the repeated observations of that of a severe problem behavior with a field baseline become different than they were fore- experiment demonstrating that the frequent cast to be, and that the other baselines remain as vomiting by a student was, surprisingly, operant forecast; to then similarly alter conditions for behavior maintained by its function of return- a second baseline and see if it too becomes ing her to her dormitory (Wolf, Birnbrauer, different than forecast while the remaining Lawler, & Williams, 1970; Wolf, Birnbrauer, baselines confirm their original forecasts; and Williams, & Lawler, 1965). Wolf’s values, and so on.) Wolf reinvented these methods to fit the his intervention strategies, were always about problems being studied: how to show that this energizing people with positive reinforcement beneficial intervention with this child caused and building their skills and capabilities, and a quantifiable change in that behavior. In these about paying increased attention to the positive four preschool studies, Wolf first assembled things that people do. After he had pioneered field observation, field intervention, and single- the point system or token economy invention subject design into a field research methodol- into a reliable social technology in the class- ogy. That methodology came to define applied room, he relied on it as a part of his subsequent behavior analysis. problem-solving research and development Among Wolf’s other duties at the Institute of because it could sustain such high effort and Child Development was the task of building, at enthusiasm for learning and practice. a rural institution, an experimental classroom At the same time, Wolf accepted the for children with developmental disabilities. He challenge of getting Dicky, a post-cataract- had brought from Arizona State the first seed surgery 3-year-old boy with autism who of an extrinsic reinforcer methodology that he displayed temper tantrums and self-injury and now cultivated into a powerful motivational who resided in a psychiatric hospital 50 miles system—now called a token economy or point distant, to wear glasses. Thus began a year of system—that could spread out the powerful weekly drives that culminated in the premier reinforcing properties of ‘‘big things’’ into many study of behavior modification. Wolf had to small physical tokens or recorded points that develop techniques to deal with Dicky’s could be accumulated to buy them. And just as tantrums and sleeping and eating problems, important, Wolf had noted that the process also and to establish wearing glasses, basic socializa- artificially reordered the social attention of tion, and functional speech. After having just those who dispensed the tokens or points by discovered the power of adult attention for necessarily increasing their attention to the young children, and realizing that the staff positive behaviors they were rewarding. He could not simply ignore temper tantrums, 282 TODD RISLEY especially violent ones with mild self-abuse, teachers) in America—at the moments when Wolf decided to prescribe a response to their parents would have spanked or slapped— tantrums that would minimize any social use social isolation instead, and call it time-out. reinforcing effect of the necessary attention Time-out is now a part of our general culture in and counterbalance that reinforcement with everyday talk and popular cartoons, and is a period of social isolation. The prescription for arguably the most widely adopted social in- tantrums was to place Dicky, calmly and vention of modern psychology. without comment, in his room until the That study with Dicky and three follow-up tantrum ceased and at least 10 min had passed. studies are also noteworthy for discovering When tantrums were under control and after how operant conditioning techniques could be wearing glasses had been hand shaped, Dicky applied to shape verbal imitation and mean- began to throw his glasses occasionally. When ingful speech in children with severe disabilities the social isolation prescription was applied, in the now familiar discrete-trials approach glasses throwing decreased from about twice per (Risley & Wolf, 1964, 1967; Wolf, Risley, day to zero. But the hospital staff doubted that Johnston, Harris, & Allen, 1967; Wolf, Risley, it was due to the procedure because Dicky & Mees, 1964). These studies, which also didn’t seem to mind being taken to his room; included shaping social skills and toilet training he just rocked in his rocking chair and hummed together with Wolf’s functional assessment of to himself. Because throwing glasses was both vomiting, started a movement in behavioral less serious and more reliably measured than psychology to apply operant conditioning tantrums, Wolf agreed to discontinue the microanalysis and microteaching techniques to procedure—and glasses throwing soon in- behavior problems of people with severe dis- creased to the previous level. The social abilities, culminating in a new profession: the isolation procedure was reinstated, and glasses board-certified behavior analyst. In this and throwing decreased again to zero. When writing subsequent work, Wolf’s emphasis on the the paper about the study, Wolf wanted to entirety of a person’s daily life—analyzing emphasize the applicability of operant condi- consequences, building skills, motivating effort tioning ‘‘microteaching’’ techniques to children and enthusiasm—and on social validity also led with severe disabilities. The social isolation to a related movement in education called procedure had no precise analogue in operant positive behavior support and to the require- conditioning, but the practice of briefly turning ments for functional assessments in current out the lights after errors in match-to-sample federal law. The initial article reporting the research with pigeons (to avoid reinforcing work with Dicky, titled ‘‘Application of Oper- error–error–correct sequences) had been called ant Conditioning Procedures to the Behaviour time-out. So, in the paper, Wolf decided to Problems of an Autistic Child,’’ became Wolf’s attach that label to contingent social isolation second citation classic. for children’s acts that could not be ignored. After accomplishing all this in 28 months at Thus, this nonviolent alternative to physical Bijou’s institute, in 1964 Wolf took a regular punishment—based on his discovery of the academic position at the University of Arizona, power of adult attention for children—was where among other things he completed the labeled time-out in the paper that first in- first systematic demonstration of the use of troduced the procedure and documented its operant techniques to toilet train people with effectiveness. Forty years later, it is now severe developmental disabilities (Giles & Wolf, recommended by the American Academy of 1966). In 1965 Wolf was recruited to the Pediatrics (1998), and most of the parents (and University of Kansas where he spent the rest of MONTROSE M. WOLF 283 his professional life. Mont Wolf came to Kansas (Clark, Lachowicz, & Wolf, 1968; Wolf, Giles, because of the opportunity to create solutions & Hall, 1968). Then Wolf also began to work for problems of segregation and poverty on on remedial reading instructional techniques a community-sized scale at the Juniper Gardens (Barnard, Christophersen, & Wolf, 1974; Children’s Project. He came because of the Strang & Wolf, 1971) and on adapting research administration vision and funding variations of the incentive system for homes genius of Richard Schiefelbusch, who could (Christophersen, Barnard, Ford, & Wolf, 1976) temporarily support him and his students and and regular classrooms (Barrish, Saunders, & colleagues (and who could teach us all how to Wolf, 1969). One of these adaptations, the fund our problem-solving research). He came good behavior game, is still used by desperate because Baer had convinced Frances Horowitz teachers today. The article by Barrish et al., to allow us to create, in the new Department titled ‘‘Good Behavior Game: Effects of Indi- of Human Development that she headed, vidual Contingencies for Group Consequences a PhD program that emphasized immersion in on Disruptive Behavior in a Classroom,’’ be- research, demonstrated mastery of professional came Wolf’s third citation classic. competence, but few required courses. Many former students and former colleagues also came to Kansas as soon as we could, to continue THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR the excitement of collaborating with Wolf and ANALYSIS sharing his vision of a new field of problem- By 1966, the combination of field research solving research. methods and problem-solving strategies that Wolf’s first focus at Kansas was the Juniper Wolf had pioneered in 1962 had now evolved Gardens Children’s Project that he cofounded in sophistication and application and had and codirected in an African-American poverty proliferated across the country (except, pecu- neighborhood in Kansas City, Kansas. The liarly, in those places where operant laboratory project, one of Schiefelbusch’s many societal research was strongest). By this time, books of creations, was a joint venture of the University readings were no longer adequate vehicles to of Kansas and neighborhood civil rights assemble the work being done to enable cross- activists with participation by local churches fertilization across topics areas. And Wolf was and public housing authorities. A pediatrician dissatisfied with the narrow focus of each and a social worker conducted well-child clinics specialty therapy, child, and education journal and follow-up home visits, some behavioral he had been using for his work, and he was scientists worked on classroom problems with disturbed by the lack of differentiation between local schoolteachers, some established pre- laboratory analogue and real-world research in schools, and Wolf set up an afterschool re- the experimental journals. So he began building medial classroom in a church basement. support for a new journal. Several commercial Through laughter and kindness, fun field trips, publishers were willing, but the society that and opportunities to earn good stuff, elemen- published the Journal of the Experimental tary children were enticed to come voluntarily Analysis of Behavior was persuaded to subsidize to Wolf’s basement classroom every day after an applied companion journal. Nathan Azrin school and work on academic materials. As the was the obvious choice as founding editor, but incentive system was developed, the children he declined and nominated Wolf as the person began to come regularly and work hard—and to with the youth, dedication, and vision needed make large gains in academic progress in their for the job; thus, Wolf was chosen to shape the regular classrooms and on standardized tests new journal. He designed its name, the Journal 284 TODD RISLEY of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), to empha- instruction more than criticism with each sub- size natural rather than laboratory or clinic mission. An overview instructional article that settings and significant rather than inconse- Wolf and others wrote for JABA’s first issue also quential behavior (‘‘applied’’), observable re- helped (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968). That lationships rather than intervening variables or article, titled ‘‘Some Current Dimensions of hypothetical constructs or explanatory fictions Applied Behavior Analysis,’’ became Wolf’s (‘‘behavior’’), and quantified observations and fourth citation classic. In fact, for several years experimental research rather than narrative it was the most frequently cited article in the descriptions (‘‘analysis’’). social sciences, partly because it contained the Wolf then put in 3 years of heroic effort on first discussion of Wolf’s single-subject research top of his research projects and student men- designs. toring to create a field out of a journal. To After his 3-year term as founding editor appreciate the abysmal state of the articles ended in 1970, Wolf watched the journal submitted, one needs to go back to the edited continue to serve its function of prompting, books of readings in behavior modification or instructing, and reinforcing problem-solving therapy in the late 1960s (e.g., Bijou & Baer, field research as it passed through the hands 1967; Ullmann & Krasner, 1965; Ulrich, of successive editors. But he was concerned by Stachnik, & Mabry, 1966) before JABA the growing presence of articles that seemed to began to serve its function of providing show small concern for the well-being of the models and reinforcement for field research participants: The behaviors measured seemed with reliable measurement and valid design. trivial, or the methods seemed harsh or expen- Wolf was an unnamed coauthor of half the sive, or the effects seemed too small or too brief articles in the first two volumes as he helped to please the participants or significant others. authors reanalyze and rewrite their reports to Because Wolf’s vision of an experimenting salvage any parts of any work in which society requires a fair trade between an in- measurement and design allowed even tentative truding scientist and a benefiting participant, conclusions. He also ‘‘educated by review’’: this trend in the key publication outlet Everyone who submitted an article was assigned concerned him. As usual his response was to someone else’s article to review. He gave instruct rather than criticize. He wrote an article introducing the notion of social validity that extensive feedback to everyone—authors and spread throughout psychology (Wolf, 1978). reviewers—and circulated reviews to everyone Social validity is the radical concept that clients who needed a better example, and edited (including the parents and guardians of de- offensive statements out of the comments of pendent people, and even those whose taxes inexperienced reviewers. His expressed goal was support social programs) must understand and that everyone who submitted a paper, whether admire the goals, outcomes, and methods of it was accepted or rejected for publication, an intervention. Wolf’s article, titled ‘‘Social would submit another paper, and that paper Validity: The Case for Subjective Measurement would be a better one. Wolf was successful. or How Applied Behavior Analysis Is Finding Within 2 years, submissions of good research Its Heart,’’ became his fifth citation classic. increased as people began to do field experi- ments with adequate measures and single- subject designs because the outlet for such APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND BEYOND research existed, because early articles had provided them with good examples of it, and Concurrent with founding and defining because they received encouragement and a new field, Wolf went beyond it and began MONTROSE M. WOLF 285 to consider how one might conduct a research high-quality delivery of the Teaching-Family program to create a complete solution to Model. An estimated 10,000 teaching parents, a societal problem. He embarked on a program treatment foster parents, home-based therapists, of mission-oriented research that culminated as independent living counselors, and others— the Teaching-Family Model for facilitating the who have served over 85,000 children, youth, development of troubled youth. At Achieve- and dependent adults—have been trained and ment Place, a halfway house for delinquent certified since the association was established. In boys, he began with a point system (Phillips, 1975,Wolf also took the Teaching-Family Phillips, Fixsen, & Wolf, 1971), developed the Model, by then roughly complete, to Father teaching interaction that added emotional and Flanagan’s Boys Town. Their on-campus pro- cognitive features to make social and point gram was converted from dormitories to family reinforcement more instructive, then added homes with live-in teaching parents. The model preteaching before problem times and delayed then became the foundation for Girls and Boys but predictable reviews and reinforcement of Town’s far-reaching residential and foster successes, and finally added family conferences family programs that have served 40,847 and guided self-government. With effective troubled or at-risk girls and boys since 1975. methodology for a ‘‘hothouse’’ teaching envi- In 1996, Wolf received the Father Flanagan ronment, more complex developmental goals Award for Service to Youth in recognition of his were added: academics, self-control, accepting 30 years of mission-oriented research, the feedback, negotiating with authority figures, comprehensiveness of the resulting solution, conversation, effective interactions with dys- and the astounding number of identifiable functional parents, resisting drugs and alcohol, people measurably benefited by the Teaching- anger management. He then began to deliber- Family Model. Wolf’s illness prevented him ately expand, and began to document, the from mounting his planned teaching campaign processes for recruiting, training, supporting, to behavioral psychology about what he had certifying, and recertifying the teaching parent learned about mission-oriented research and couples who lived with the youth, and the building complete solutions to societal prob- processes for maintaining effective community lems. But in the middle of his decline, a group boards that sponsored and oversaw each new of his collaborators in the development of the home. Because a solution has a multitude of Teaching-Family Model helped him to write interrelated features, Wolf saw that experimen- a brief retrospective account of the model’s tal demonstrations in mission-oriented research development (Wolf, Kirigin, Fixsen, Blase´,& must be limited to only the most important or Braukmann, 1995). That account references the expensive or unpopular or counterintuitive research demonstrations of dozens of pieces of features, and so the published experimental the Teaching-Family Model and the model’s articles target only some parts of the complete outcomes in many of its applications. solution, but the teaching-family operations Montrose Wolf led by example, by enthusi- manuals are thoroughly field tested and contain asm, by patient instruction, not by exhortation. everything. He did not have to be in charge to accomplish As the number of homes grew and additional his ends—collaboration was his method, and he training sites were established and the model was its master. And we collaborators always got was adapted to serve other kinds of children and more than we gave. Several different people youth, Wolf designed a new professional orga- were heavily involved in each of his many nization, The Teaching-Family Association, as contributions described above (only his social a durable, decentralized vehicle for supporting validity paper was an isolated act). In retrospect, 286 TODD RISLEY in our work with him we collaborators were Richard Schiefelbusch. His research methods actually mostly eager followers—we either did were influenced by his belief in active problem something that he recognized as useful, tried solving, and he therefore followed Claude something he suggested, or wrote the draft he Bernard’s dictum of experimental medicine: outlined—but his recognitions, suggestions, When you have to try to help, the experimental and outlines always occurred in exciting question then becomes ‘‘What would have brainstorming discussions that made each of happened had you done nothing?’’ If we his collaborators a full partner of that part of consider Wolf’s professional contributions in Wolf’s larger vision. Although he was a truly that light, the productivity of the hundreds of humble person, Wolf accepted second or last his collaborators and students, the functioning authorship on most of the published products of thousands of participants in his several of his vision and ingenuity as a practical way to projects, the knowledge bases of those project motivate his collaborators. His goal was to make areas, the practices of behavioral psychology, the a dent in our society’s problem-solving in- field of applied behavior analysis, the discipline eptness, not to make a splash for recognition. of psychology, and the problem-solving abilities Wolf insisted that meaningful discoveries, of our society would have been notably less inventions, and solutions in human affairs can without him. only be developed by teams of people working Although Montrose Wolf was an inventor of together on ambitious projects over long time-out, his career was devoted to solving periods of time. He was certain that collabora- societal problems by filling people’s daily lives tion was a habit that could be taught through with fun and learning. On his tombstone in the practice, and he organized all his classes and family cemetery in Texas are inscribed the research meetings accordingly. Ninety-six dif- words ‘‘Time In.’’ ferent people coauthored one or more publica- tions with him. For most collaborators, working REFERENCES with Wolf was the most productive season of Allen, K. E., Hart, B. M., Buell, J. S., Harris, F. R., & their careers. For all collaborators, working with Wolf, M. M. (1964). Effects of social reinforcement Wolf was the most exciting time of our lives. on isolate behavior of a nursery school child. Child Development, 35, 511–518. Because of Huntington’s disease, Wolf was American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on unable to assume the expected later career role Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. of a senior statesman in behavioral psychology. (1998). Guidance for effective discipline. Pediatrics, 101, 723–728. After about 1985, he conserved his steadily Ayllon, T., & Michael, J. (1959). The psychiatric nurse as diminishing energy and brilliance to try to a behavioral engineer. Journal of the Experimental complete the Teaching-Family example of Analysis of Behavior, 2, 323–334. Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some mission-oriented research. He never ran for current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. elective office in professional organizations. His Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91–97. few offices and committee memberships were Barnard, J. D., Christophersen, E. R., & Wolf, M. M. (1974). Supervising paraprofessional tutors in a re- mostly honorific. He avoided further editorial medial reading program. Journal of Applied Behavior or professional review responsibilities. Because Analysis, 7, 481–489. of this, psychology was denied the mid- and Barrish, H. H., Saunders, M., & Wolf, M. M. (1969). Good behavior game: Effects of individual contin- late-career leadership of one of its most influ- gencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior ential figures. in a classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, Montrose Wolf’s vision of an experimenting 119–124. Bijou, S. W., & Baer, D. M. (Eds.). (1967). Child society was influenced by Francis Bacon and B. development: Readings in experimental analysis. F. Skinner, and later by Donald Campbell and Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. MONTROSE M. WOLF 287

Birnbrauer,J.S.,Bijou,S.W.,Wolf,M.M.,&Kidder,J.D. Staats, A. W., Staats, C. K., Schultz, R. E., & Wolf, M. (1965). Programmed instruction in the classroom. M. (1961). The conditioning of textual responses In L. P. Ullmann & L. Krasner (Eds.), Case studies using ‘‘extrinsic’’ reinforcers. Journal of the Experi- in behavior modification (pp. 358–363). New York: mental Analysis of Behavior, 5, 33–40. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Strang, H. R., & Wolf, M. M. (1971). Automated reading Birnbrauer, J. S., Wolf, M. M., Kidder, J. D., & Tague, C. instruction. Child Study Journal, 1, 187–201. (1965). Classroom behavior of retarded pupils with Ullmann, L. P., & Krasner, L. (Eds.). (1965). Case studies token reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Child in behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Psychology, 2, 219–235. Winston. Christophersen, E. R., Barnard, J. D., Ford, D., & Wolf, Ulrich, R., Stachnik, T., & Mabry, J. (Eds.). (1966). M. M. (1976). The family-training program: Control of human behavior. Glenview, IL: Scott Improving parent-child interaction patterns. In E. J. Foresman. Mash, L. C. Handy, & L. A. Hamerlynck (Eds.), Wolf, M. M. (1978). Social validity: The case for Behavior modification approaches to parenting (pp. 35– subjective measurement or how applied behavior 56). New York: Brunner/Mazel. analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Clark, M. S., Lachowicz, J., & Wolf, M. M. (1968). A Analysis, 11, 203–214. pilot incentive remedial education program. Wolf, M. M., Birnbrauer, J., Lawler, J., & Williams, T. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6, 183–188. (1970). The operant extinction, reinstatement and re- Giles, D. K., & Wolf, M. M. (1966). Toilet training extinction of vomiting behavior in a retarded child. In institutionalized severe retardates: An application of R. Ulrich, T. Stachnik, & J. Mabry (Eds.), Control of operant behavior modification techniques. American human behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 146–148). Glenview, IL: Journal of Mental Deficiency, 70, 766–780. Scott Foresman. Harris, F. R., Johnston, M. K., Kelly, C. S., & Wolf, M. Wolf, M. M., Birnbrauer, J., Williams, T., & Lawler, J. M. (1964). Effects of positive social reinforcement on (1965). A note on apparent extinction of the vomit- regressed crawling of a nursery school child. Journal of ing behavior of a retarded child. In L. P. Ullmann & Educational Psychology, 55, 35–41. L. Krasner (Eds.), Case studies in behavior modification Hart, B. M., Allen, K. E., Buell, J. S., Harris, F. R., & (pp. 364–366). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Wolf, M. M. (1964). Effect of social reinforcement on operant crying. Journal of Experimental Child Winston. Psychology, 1, 145–153. Wolf, M. M., Giles, D., & Hall, R. V. (1968). Johnston, M. K., Kelly, C. S., Harris, F. R., & Wolf, Experiments with token reinforcement in a remedial M. M. (1966). An application of reinforcement classroom. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6, 51–64. principles to the development of motor skills of Wolf, M. M., Kirigin, K. A., Fixsen, D. L., Blase´, K. A., & a young child. Child Development, 37, 370–387. Braukmann, C. J. (1995). The Teaching Family Phillips, E. L., Phillips, E. A., Fixsen, D. L., & Wolf, M. M. Model: A case study in data-based program de- (1971). Achievement Place: Modification of the velopment and refinement (and dragon wrestling). behaviors of predelinquent boys within a token econ- Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 15, omy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 45–59. 11–68. Risley, T. R., & Wolf, M. M. (1964). Experimental Wolf, M. M., Risley, T. R., Johnston, M., Harris, F. R., & manipulation of autistic behaviors and generalization Allen, K. E. (1967). Application of operant condi- into the home. Paper read at the meetings of the tioning procedures to the behaviour problems of an American Psychological Association, Los Angeles. autistic child: A follow-up and extension. Behaviour Reprinted in R. E. Ulrich, T. Stachnik, & J. Mabry Research and Therapy, 5, 103–112. (Eds.). (1966). The control of human behavior (pp. Wolf, M. M., Risley, T. R., & Mees, H. (1964). 193–198). Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. Application of operant conditioning procedures to Risley, T. R., & Wolf, M. M. (1967). Establishing the behaviour problems of an autistic child. Behaviour functional speech in echolalic children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1, 305–312. Research and Therapy, 5, 73–88. Staats, A. W., Minke, K. A., Finley, J. R., Wolf, M. M., & Brooks, L. O. (1964). A reinforcer system and Received November 29, 2004 experimental procedure for the laboratory study of Final acceptance January 18, 2005 reading acquisition. Child Development, 35, 209–231. Action Editor, Patrick Friman