Teaching Emergent Literacy Skills

EMERGENT LITERACY FOR CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

by Linda K. Laz

I dedicate this handbook to all my students with autism who have shown me how to think “outside the box” and for giving me brief glimpses of life in their world. They teach me.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION...... 1

PREREADING SKILLS ...... 2

BASIC CONCEPTS ...... 4 ALPHABET:...... 4 COLOR:...... 5 OPPOSITES: ...... 5 SHAPES: ...... 6 SEASONAL/HOLIDAYS ...... 6 HALLOWEEN:...... 6 THANKSGIVING:...... 7 CHRISTMAS: ...... 7 MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. DAY ...... 8 VALENTINE’S DAY:...... 8 EASTER ...... 9 SEASONS/WEATHER ...... 9 WINTER:...... 9 SPRING:...... 10 iii GENERAL WEATHER: ...... 11 COMMUNITY ...... 11 FARM ...... 11 FIREFIGHTERS ...... 12 NEIGHBORHOODS ...... 13 SCHOOL ...... 13 TRANSPORTATION ...... 14 GOVERNMENT ...... 15 ANIMALS ...... 15 MAMMALS ...... 15 BIRDS ...... 17 FISH...... 18 OCEAN ...... 18 INSECTS ...... 19 REPTILES ...... 20 FROGS/AMPHIBIANS...... 20 ANIMAL BABIES...... 21 PETS...... 21 ZOO ANIMALS...... 22 RAINFOREST ...... 23 HEALTH/HYGIENE ...... 23 BODY: ...... 23 EMOTIONS: ...... 24

TEACHING PHONICS TO CHILDREN WITH AUTISM...... 26

iv PHONEMIC AWARENESS...... 27 PHONICS...... 29 THE SET-UP ...... 31 THE ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE ...... 35

AUGMENTATIVE/ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION AND LITERACY...... 47

TOYS ...... 48 COMMUNICATION DEVICES...... 51

COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR COMMUNICATION ...... 55

COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR READING ...... 57

SUMMARY ...... 60

REFERENCES ...... 61

APPENDIX: STARTER MATERIALS FOR TEACHING PHONICS...... 63

INTRODUCTION

This handbook is written for educators who teach students between the ages of 6 and 10 years old who have moderate to severe autism and associated significant deficits in reading. The handbook gives teachers a starting point through which they can develop their own materials, methods, and approaches to literacy instruction which should include phonics reading instruction. It should not be considered a complete program for teaching reading. Phonemic awareness and phonics should be taught concurrently with the other components of reading instruction—comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency. In addition, some students may struggle with phonics; and for them, a sight word approach might be more appropriate. Chapter One of the handbook provides a list of children’s literature for the emergent reader with autism. Students with autism often have difficulty attending in many activities, especially during story time when the print and pictures in a book are busy or the story is too long. This chapter lists books that have minimal words, illustrations that are captivating, and provides a variety of subjects to help the special educator bring literature into their students’ lives. Chapter Two of the handbook focuses primarily on phonics instruction for students with autism. It provides information on how to make materials and modified lessons to teach and meet decoding goals. Chapter Three of the handbook provides a list of augmentative communication devices, computer aided programs, toys, and other materials which can be adapted for reading instruction and how they can be used. This handbook is based on contemporary best practices, evidence-based wherever possible, that provide lessons, methods, and materials to teach students with autism fundamental emergent literacy skills.

PREREADING SKILLS

Students with autism often come to school unprepared for the rigorous, fast pace of typical reading instruction. They may not have had the reading or language opportunities typical children receive because of the unique behavior challenges their parents face on a daily basis (Lewis & Tolla, 2003; NRC, 2001; Downing, 2005). Students with autism may also have short attention spans, difficulty attending to another person, even difficulty sitting in one place for more than a few minutes. Some may not understand language as communication or will withdraw into repetitive, stereotypical behaviors (NRC, 2001). These factors make it very difficult for a teacher to obtain the child’s attention and keep it for the duration of a typical story time. Language experiences such as listening to stories, knowing which way to hold a book, and turning pages are the forerunners to becoming a successful reader (Broun & Oelwein, 2007). One approach to reading stories to students with autism is to gather together a small group— three to four students. Have them sit at a table rather than on the floor (sitting at a table reduces distractions and helps them have a physical structure in which to participate). A kidney-shaped table as commonly found in special education classrooms works well. Their picture schedule (Bondy & Sulzer- Azaroff, 2002; Hodgdon, 1995) should direct them to “Group Activity.” It can last from 15 to 30 minutes depending on the ability of the group to attend. Once the students have seated themselves, show them a mini-schedule of the activities. To get them motivated to sit and participate with the group, begin with a song chosen by one of the students. Story time can come after the song. Read the story to them, and then have them do an activity (i.e. a worksheet or art activity) that relates to the story or the theme of the week. Once the activity is 2

completed, Group Activity is done, and the students should be instructed to check their schedules. This chapter lists books that have minimal words, many eye-catching pictures, and/or a cadence that can capture the attention of most students with autism. It is not a complete list, nor should these be the only books presented to students with autism. Use these books as starting points to expand your own library and help your students learn to attend to and enjoy literature.

BASIC CONCEPTS

ALPHABET:

Title Author

Chicka Chicka Boom Boom Bill Martin Jr. & John Archambault Alphabet City Stephen T. Johnson Animals A to Z David McPhail Amazon Alphabet Book Martin & Tanis Jordan

Any alphabet book is great to use, but do not read all the information under each letter. Just reading some of the words that are associated with the letter is enough. Find alphabet books that feature subjects that are interesting or appealing to the students.

COLOR:

Title Author

Brown Rabbit’s Day Alan Baker I Went Walking Sue Williams Snappy Little Colors Kate Lee & Caroline Repchuk White Rabbit’s Color Book Alan Baker

OPPOSITES:

Title Author

Animal Opposites-A Slide and Seek Book Alex Steele-Morgan Opposites Rosalinda Kightley Playground Opposites Anne Meyers Winnie-the-Pooh’s Opposites Inspired by A.A. Milne

SHAPES:

Title Author

Colors and Shapes Maureen Roffey Detective Max Sally Pollack

SEASONAL/HOLIDAYS

HALLOWEEN:

Title Author

A Dark Dark Tale Ruth Brown Halloween Colors Carla Dijs I Like Pumpkins Jerry Smath Monster Math Anne Miranda There’s a Nightmare in My Closet Mercer Mayer Where the Wild Things Are Maurice Sendak

THANKSGIVING:

Title Author

Celebrating Thanksgiving Joel Kupperstein Happy Thanksgiving Margaret McNamara One Little Two Little Three Little Pilgrims B.G. Hennessy Ten Fat Turkeys Tony Johnston Thanksgiving is Here! Diane Goode ‘Twas the Night Before Thanksgiving David Pilkey

CHRISTMAS:

Title Author

Celebrating Chanukah Debbie Martinez Celebrating Christmas Kimberly Roark If You Take a Mouse to the Movies Laura Numeroff Santa’s Surprise Keith Faulkner & Jonathan Lambert

7 The Night Before Christmas Jan Brett or Clement C. Moore The Snow Tree Caroline Repchuk The Twelve Days of Christmas Jan Brett The Twelve Dogs of Christmas Emma Kragen

MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. DAY:

Title Author

Celebrating Martin Luther King, Jr. Day- Joel Kupperstein Dreaming of Change

VALENTINE’S DAY:

Title Author

Celebrating Valentine’s Day Kimberly Roark Guess How Much I Love You Sam McBratney How Do I Love You? Leslie Kimmelman I’ll Always Love You Hans Wilhelm

EASTER:

Title Author

Celebrating Easter Joel Kupperstein

SEASONS/WEATHER

WINTER:

Title Author

How Polar Animals Hide Melvin & Gilda Berger Jimmy’s Snowy Book Paul Dowling Polar Animals in Danger Melvin & Gilda Berger Polar Animal Babies Melvin & Gilda Berger Polar Animals All Year Long Melvin & Gilda Berger Snow Uri Shulevitz

Stranger in the Woods Carl R. Sams II & Jean Stoick The Snowy Day Ezra Jack Keats The Mitten Jan Brett Thomas’ Snowsuit R. Munsch & M. Martchenko Where Polar Animals Live Melvin & Gilda Berger What Polar Animals Eat Melvin & Gilda Berger

SPRING:

Title Author

Down Comes the Rain Franklyn M. Branley It’s Raining, It’s Pouring Kin Eagle Little Cloud Eric Carle Rain Robert Kalan Rain Rozanne Lanczak Williams The Rain Came Down David Shannon When the Earth Wakes Ani Rucki

10 GENERAL WEATHER:

Title Author

Little Cloud Eric Carle The Seasons Ian Smith Whatever the Weather Karen Wallace

COMMUNITY

FARM:

Title Author

A Family Farm Marcy Haber Click Clack Moo Cows That Type Doreen Cronin Down By the Cool of the Pool Tony Mitton

Dream Horse Ena Keo Everyone Wears Wool Gare Thompson Flowers for Cora Stephanie Werner Horse Feathers! Manuel Hoyo I Heard Said the Bird Polly Berrien Berends Old MacDonald Had a Farm Traditional Peek-a-Moo! Marie Torres Cimarusti Seek & Slide on the Farm No author, Books Are Fun, Ltd Slide & Find on the Farm Kathie Smith The Cow Who Clucked Denise Fleming The Very Happy Hen Jack Tickle Touch & Feel Farm Dorling Kindersley When Cows Come Home David L. Harrison When the Leaf Blew In Steve Metzger Who’s in the Coop? Angie Sage

FIREFIGHTERS: Title Author

Emergency! Margaret Mayo & Alex Ayliffe To the Rescue! Matt Mitter

NEIGHBORHOODS:

Title Author

Children Around the World Verna Wilkins Going to the Pool Ena Keo Jobs Susan Canizares & Betsey Chessen Jobs People Do Anita Ganeri Markets Pamela Chanko & Samantha Berger My Friends Taro Gomi Silly Sally Audrey Wood The Neighborhood Party Katherine Mead What Can I Be? Rozanne Lanczak Williams

SCHOOL:

Title Author

A Busy Week Katherine Mead Every Monday Gare Thompson

How Do Dinosaurs Go to School? Jane Yolen & Mark Teague If You Take a Mouse to School Laura Numeroff Kids Like Rozanne Lanczak Williams School Samantha Berger & Pamela Chanko Schools Around the World Donald Mitchell The Day the Teacher Went Bananas James Howe The Playground Problem Margaret McNamara

TRANSPORTATION:

Title Author

Row Row Row Your Boat Iza Trapani The Wheels On the Bus No author, Allied Publishing Group Tootin’ Around Town No author, Phidal Publishing

GOVERNMENT:

Title Author

Celebrating Patriotic Holidays Joel Kupperstein The Pledge of Allegiance No author, Scholastic Publishing

ANIMALS

MAMMALS:

Title Author

Baby Bear, Baby Bear, What Do You See? Bill Martin, Jr. Bats Bats Bats Christine Price Bats At Bat Christine Price Bears Melvin & Gilda Berger Bear Facts Gare Thompson

Bear Feels Sick Karma Wilson & Jane Chapman Brown Bear, Brown Bear, Bill Martin, Jr. & Eric Carle What Do You See? Do You Want To Be My Friend? Eric Carle Five Little Monkeys series Eileen Christelow Geraldine’s Blanket Holly Keller Giraffes Can’t Dance Giles Andreae & Guy Parker-Rees Here is Little Pig Maryann Dobeck If You Give a Moose a Muffin Laura Joffe Numeroff K is For Kissing a Cool Kangaroo Giles Andreae & Guy Parker-Rees Llama, Llama, Red Pajama Anna Dewdney Panda Bear, Panda Bear, Bill Martin, Jr. & Eric Carle What Do You See? Piggies Audrey Wood & Don Wood Pigs in Hiding Arlene Dubanevich Rascal’s Rotten Day Madge Tovey Sleepy Bears Mem Fox The Bear Escape Gare Thompson The Story of Ferdinand Munro Leaf The Three Pigs David Weisner The Very Bouncy Bear Jack Tickle Where Oh Where is Kipper’s Bear? Mick Inkpen

BIRDS:

Title Author

A New Nest Stephanie Handwerker Daisy and the Egg Jane Simmons Don’t Let the Pigeon Stay Up Late! Mo Williams Edwina the Emu Sheena Knowles & Rod Clement First Readers’ The Ugly Duckling Gaby Goldsack Henry’s Awful Mistake Robert Quackenbush Penguins Melvin & Gilda Berger Robins Melvin & Gilda Berger The Chick & the Duckling Mirra Ginsburg Whistle Like a Bird Sarah Vazquez

17 FISH:

Title Author

A Fishy Story Richard Leslie Fish Eyes Los Ehlert One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish Dr. Suess Patchwork Fish Tale Stewart Moscowitz The Bravest Fish Matt Buckingham Where the Forest Meets the Sea Jeannie Baker

OCEAN:

Title Author

A Little Whale Tale Sam McKendry Clumsy Crab Ruth Galloway Commotion in the Ocean Giles Andreae & David Wojtowycz Fidgety Fish Ruth Galloway Humpback Whales Susan Watson Seek & Slide in the Sea No author, Books Are Fun, Inc. 18 Smiley Shark Ruth Galloway The Very Silly Shark Jack Tickle

INSECTS:

Title Author

A Picnic Rozanne Lanczak Williams Caterpillar Spring Butterfly Summer Susan Hood Inch By Inch Leo Lionni Life Cycles Caterpillar to Butterfly Sally Hewitt Little Cricket’s Song Joanne Barkan One Hundred Hungry Ants Elinor J. Pinczes Spider on the Floor Raffi Ten Little Ladybugs Melanie Gerth The Crunching Munching Caterpillar Sheridan Cain & Jack Tickle The Flea’s Sneeze Lynn Downey The Grouchy Ladybug Eric Carle The Itsy Bitsy Spider Iza Trapani The Very Friendly Firefly Jack Tickle The Very Greedy Bee Steve Smallman The Very Hungry Caterpillar Eric Carle Three Hungry Spiders and One Fat Fly! Dawn Bentley When the Fly Flew In Lisa Westberg Peters 19

REPTILES:

Title Author

Amazing Lizards Fay Robinson Komodo! Peter Sis The Very Clever Crocodile Jack Tickle What’s for Dinner? Ann Garrett & Gene-Michael Higney When the Alligator Came to Class Cass Hollander

FROGS/AMPHIBIANS:

Title Author

A Frog Thing Eric Drachman Frogs Laura Driscoll From Tadpole to Frog Kathleen Weidner Zoehfeld Long Lewie Kathryn Persch The Big Wide-Mouthed Frog Ana Martin Larranaga

20 ANIMAL BABIES:

Title Author

Animal Babies in Grasslands Jennifer Schofield Animal Babies in Rain Forests Jennifer Schofield Animal Babies in Ponds and Rivers Jennifer Schofield Baby Animals in the Wild Sonia Black Baby Bear Patrick Yee Fluffy’s Busy Day Stephanie Werner Good Little Puppy Stephanie Werner Skip the Duckling Stephanie Werner Whose Baby? Masayuki Yabuuchi

PETS:

Title Author

Bad Kitty Nick Bruel Cats Know Best Colin Eisler 21 Cat, What is That? Toni Johnston Come On Up! Joy Kim Cookie’s Week Cindy Ward Dogku Andrew Clements Dogs Don’t Wear Sneakers Laura Numeroff Here Is My Cat Rozanne Lanczak Williams Kitten’s First Full Moon Kevin Henkes My Dog Angela Joy My Dog Jet Kathryn Lewis Puppies For Sale Dan Clark Scaredy Cat Joan Rankin The Dog Rozanne Lanczak Williams The Good Bad Cat Nancy Antle Tiger is a Scaredy Cat Joan Phillips Touch & Feel Cats & Kittens No author, Books Are Fun, Ltd. Touch & Feel Dogs & Puppies No author, Books Are Fun, Ltd. Where Oh Where Has My Little Dog Gone Iza Trapani

ZOO ANIMALS:

Title Author

Peek-a-Zoo! Marie Torres Cimarusti Seek & Slide in the Wild No author, Books Are Fun, Ltd. 22 Starry Safari Linda Ashman Sweet Dreams—How Animals Sleep Kimiko Kajikawa That’s Good That’s Bad Margery Cuyler

RAINFOREST:

Title Author

Rainforest Baby Animals Ann Hardy Who Lives in the Rainforest? Susan Canizares & Mary Reid

HEALTH/HYGIENE

BODY:

Title Author

An Egg is an Egg Nicki Weiss Going to the Dentist Sally Hewitt Leo the Late Bloomer Robert Kraus Loose Tooth Lola M. Schaefer My Tooth is About to Fall Out Grace Maccarone Parts Tedd Arnold 23

EMOTIONS:

Title Author

A Book of Hugs Dave Ross A Good Day Kevin Henkes I Am Positive! David Parker I Can Be Fair! David Parker I Can Listen! David Parker I Can Try New Things! David Parker I Was So Mad Mercer Mayer Howard B. Wigglebottom Learns to Listen Howard Binkow Knuffle Bunny Mo Willems Let’s Talk About…Feeling Sad Joy Berry Let’s Talk About…Needing Attention Joy Berry Let’s Talk About…Saying No Joy Berry My Many Colored Days Dr. Seuss No, David! David Shannon N-O Spells NO! Teddy Slater Smudge’s Grumpy Day Miriam Moss & Lynne Chapman Today I Feel Silly & Other Moods That Jamie Lee Curtis Make My Day We Just Moved! Stephen Krensky 24

What Are You So Grumpy About? Tom Lightenheld When I Feel Angry Cornelia Maude Spelman When Sophie Gets Angry—Really, Really Molly Bang Angry

TEACHING PHONICS TO CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

Students with moderate to severe autism present unique challenges to the educator when attempting to teach the big ideas in reading. These students have difficulty attending as well as understanding the parts-to-whole concept when breaking down words into phonemes (NRC, 2001). Temple Grandin (1995), a popular and prolific writer who herself has been diagnosed with autism, talks about “thinking in pictures” or visual thinking rather than thinking in words, an approach that represents a second language to her. Other language barriers, the difficulty some students with autism have in (a) processing words and concepts quickly and accurately and (b) sometimes simply duplicating speech sounds, make teaching literacy skills beyond sight word acquisition seem like an insurmountable task (NRC, 2001). But it is possible! This chapter provides (a) suggestions for working with children with autism on phonemic awareness activities, and (b) a direct instruction method to teach phonics. Needless to say, best instruction would include pretests and posttests of student skills.

PHONEMIC AWARENESS

Phonemic awareness is the ability to identify the smallest units of sound in language, separate them, and manipulate them (Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2004). Because of their language difficulties and dependence on visual cues, students with autism generally have more difficulty understanding the parts-to-whole concept (Lanter & Watson, 2008) and may need a slightly different approach to phonemic awareness than their typically developing counterparts. Lanter & Watson (2008) state that being able to speak should not be a prerequisite for reading instruction to begin, even though it is typically thought to be important to pre-reading. Naturalistic strategies focus on the motivations and interests of the students (NRC, 2001). Examples of naturalistic strategies are pivotal response training and incidental teaching. In pivotal response training, the focus is on teaching and generalizing self-management, social skills, and spontaneous language use (pivotal behaviors) in the natural environment. Proponents of this method maintain that skill in these pivotal areas empower a student to generalize many behaviors across settings and people (NRC, 2001; Koegel & Koegel, 1995). Incidental teaching involves direct teacher and student interaction using materials that are important to the student. The teaching is embedded in the natural setting and is child-initiated (NRC, 2001). The emphasis is less on direct instruction and more on teaching in the moment with purpose and intent. The educator needs to watch for those moments and be prepared to use them to teach phonemic awareness.

Suggestions include:

 Use visual supports, music, and rhyming books wherever possible  Model thinking-out-loud to demonstrate how individuals use background knowledge and strategies to increase comprehension (Lanter & Watson, 2008).  Use musical instruments such as drums or shakers to break words into phonemes; for example, tapping or shaking for each syllable in a name—three times for Zach-a-ry.  Use letter tiles or magnetic letters to manipulate words and sounds.

PHONICS

Phonics is the ability to (a) understand the relationship between letters and sounds, (b) combine them to make words, and (c) use this skill automatically to decode unknown words (Vaughn & Linan- Thompson, 2004). Studies indicate that students with autism use typical phonological cues to read words (Calhoon, 2001), but their language difficulties may interfere with acquiring the skill to do this. One method for the student with autism to acquire new skills is through discrete trial training (NRC, 2001). Discrete trial training is a specific method of intensive instruction. This begins in a one-to-one setting but can be used in any setting (Donnellan, LaVigna, Negri-Shoultz, & Fassbender, 1988). The discrete trial is a very small unit of instruction that is presented to the student. When the student responds, a reinforcer or correction as appropriate is given immediately. Discrete trial training has over the years been criticized because the method was often used in clinical settings and it was difficult to demonstrate generalization beyond the one-to-one format (Nelson & Huefner, 2003). However, it is this approach which has been most effective in teaching new skills to children with severe autism (NRC, 2001). Discrete trial methods allow teachers to teach and measure success without the reliance on accurate speech sounds from the student. The approach is structurally simple. The teacher presents a stimulus or cue to the student (i.e., a letter and a verbal prompt). The student responds, and a reinforcement or correction is given immediately following the response. This is one trial. The teacher decides before the lesson begins how much assistance or shaping a student may need, thus assuring a student’s success in responding correctly (Donnellan et al., 1988).

The first step in preparing a student to learn is to make sure the student is attending. Using the discrete trial format, the teacher sits across from the student and gives a prompt such as “get ready,” “listen,” or “look” and places hands on knees to give a physical cue as well as verbal to the student. The teacher may have to employ physical prompts to begin to shape this behavior. At the beginning, any attempt that the child makes to comply with the cue should be reinforced. Once this behavior reaches 80 to 100 percent accuracy over 3 trials, the teacher is ready to proceed to other lessons.

THE SET-UP

To teach the alphabetic principle and phonics to children with severe autism, materials will need to be organized in advance. You will need:

 hard-backed canvas (used for painting),  sticky-backed Velcro™,  Mayers-Johnson’s Boardmaker or other picture programs,  tag board or poster board,  a laminator.

Prepare the canvas by placing Velcro™ along each side and in 3 rows from top to bottom or side to side. Decide which side of the Velcro you want on the board (hook or soft) and be consistent throughout all the materials.

Using the board and Velcro™ gives the students a physical framework for the lesson and makes it easier for those with motor issues to grasp and manipulate the cards.

Teaching materials include two sets of small, 2” x 2” alphabet cards with each letter of the alphabet, and two sets of 2” x 2” pictures depicting common word families.

32 card.

Two tools that are effective for reinforcement are called a choice wheel and a reinforcement The choice wheel is simply a circle made out of poster board divided into 3 or 4 sections. Each section has a piece of Velcro™ attached. Laminated pictures approximately 1” x 1” of motivating reinforcements are placed in each section. The teacher asks the student, “What do you want to work for?” and presents the choice wheel. The student can choose from the items on the choice wheel.

The picture is placed on a working for… card. The working for… card should have the words “I am working for…” at the top and a spot to place the picture. Below are one to six spots marked with Velcro™ to place tokens representing the completion of each task within the session. 0Tokens can be small erasers, pennies, or the stars provided by Pyramid Educational Products, Inc. It is important to note that once the tokens are given, they are never taken away within the session. If the student does not complete the task, the chosen reinforcement is not given. Once it is established what the student will work for, the discrete trial session begins.

THE ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE

The alphabetic principle is the understanding that words are made up of letters and sounds. Students need to be able to identify all the letters of the alphabet, correctly associate each with its corresponding sound, and then put them together to make words. The sooner the letters become words with pictures to back up the visual strengths of students with autism, the better the students will comprehend.

GOAL: When presented with up to 6 or 7 letters of the alphabet, the student will identify the letters by independently handing the correct letter to the teacher upon request in 4 out of 5 trials by ______(date). (Note: for students with especially significant learning challenges, this goal of learning the names of the letters might be eliminated. Instead, instruction would begin with learning the sounds associated with the letters—see next goal)

a. Letters a, m, t, s, i, f by _____(date) b. Letters d, r, o, g, l, h by _____date) c. Letters u, c, b, n, k, v, e by _____date) d. Letters w, j, p, y, x, q, z by _____date)

STEP ONE: Names of the letters.

1. Using alphabet cards, present ONE card at a time 2. Place “a” in front of the student. 35

3. Say, “Give me “a.” The student picks up the card and hands it to the teacher. 4. Give reinforcement (not a token on the board) coupled with verbal praise. The type of reinforcement depends on what motivates the student. Reinforcements can range from tangible or edible to a pat on the back or a smile. It needs to be something that is quickly given and received so that there is not a long period of time in between trials. 5. Present “a” until the student picks up and hands the “a” card to the teacher successfully three times in a row. Move the “a” card around the table so it is not in the same place all of the time.

6. Once the student correctly chooses “a,” present “a” with a blank card and continue with the process until the student again picks up and hands the “a” card to the teacher successfully three times in a row. Remember to reinforce every correct response.

7. This is a good stopping point to give the student a token to put on the “working for…” card. 8. After the letter has been learned, present another letter in the same way. Once you have gone through the process with two letters, you can put the two letters together and ask for each of the letters to demonstrate discrimination.

9. Continue until the student has learned the predetermined set of letters and has acquired all the tokens on the token board. The “working for…” reinforcement is then granted to the student.

Proceed through the letters of the alphabet until enough letters have been learned for the student to begin the next step in the process. When more letters are required, go back to goal one, step one for the next set of letters. Provide opportunities for the student to apply the knowledge in independent work (i.e., worksheets, file folder activities, matching, and sorting), group activities (i.e., reading alphabet books); and other times during the day.

38 GOAL: When presented with up to 6 letters of the alphabet and a verbal cue given by the teacher, the student will identify the sound of the letter by handing the correct letter to the teacher upon request in 4 out of 5 trials by _____(date).

a. Letters a, t, c, b, r, m by _____(date) b. Letters h, f, p, v, e, n by _____(date) c. Letters l, i, o, g, d, j by _____(date) d. Letters z, s, u, w, y by _____(date)

STEP 2: The sounds of the letters.

1. Use the same procedure as before, but use only letters that will easily form into word families with corresponding pictures (i.e., a, t, c, b, r, m and pictures of a cat, bat, rat, and mat). Place the first letter on the top of the board and the same letter somewhere below. 2. Present the letter “a.” 3. Say, “a” (as in cat) and point to the letter at the top of the board. 4. Say, “give me ‘a.’” 5. Student picks up “a” and places it next to the matching “a” on top of the board. 6. Place the student’s “a” in different places on the board and continue until the student correctly responds three trials in a row. 7. Continue with the letters chosen for the lesson, following steps 6 through 9 from the previous section.

After the letters in one benchmark have individually been learned, you can start discrete trial sessions.

40 One session takes place over 10 to 15 minutes:

1. Place 6 letters on the board and have the student match the letters to the letter placed at the top of the board. 2. Continue with the 6 letters on the board, and verbally ask for each letter by saying the sound of the letter: “Give me ‘T’.” 3. The next step is presenting the pictures and letters to spell words.

GOAL: When presented with pictures of objects in a word family and the letters that spell the word, the student will correctly match the beginning letter sound to spell the word depicted in the picture in 4 out of 5 trials by _____(date).

1. Word families –at, -an, -ap by _____(date). 2. Word families –en, -ed, -et by _____(date). 3. Word families –op, -ot, -og by _____(date). 4. Word families –ig, -in, -un by _____(date).

STEP THREE: Matching letters/words to pictures

Once the sounds of the letters have been learned, present them together with the pictures in order to form words.

1. Set up the board so that there is a picture at the top and the word family letters on the next row. Below the word family letters, place the letter that corresponds to the picture.

42 2. Next, put a picture at the top and the word family letters on the next row. Below the word family letters, place the letter that corresponds to the picture.

3. Model what it is you want the student to do, verbally describing as you do it. “I put the ‘c’ (k) in front of –at to make the word “cat.” 4. Say, “This is ‘cat,’” emphasizing the “c” sound. “Make ‘cat.’” 5. The student chooses the letter “c” and moves it in front of the –at to form the word “cat.” 6. Reinforce. 7. Continue to follow this procedure moving through all the letters and pictures so that the student is successfully discriminating through 6 letters and pictures at a time.

8. To check for understanding, place the word at the top of the board and have the student match the picture to the word.

Keeping data is vitally important. Here is a sample data sheet to show how this is done. . Sd is the discriminative stimulus presented to the student . L/L is matching letter to letter . L/S is matching the letter to the sound . WPW is matching the word to the picture and the word . SP/P is completing the spelling to match the picture at the top of the board . P/W is matching the picture to the word given at the top of the board.

Student Name: ______

+ = correct - = incorrect S = shape

Date Teacher Sd L/L L/S WPW SP/P P/W % Initials 1/20 JH a -at + + + + - 80 JH c -at + + + s s 60 JH b -at + - + + - 60 m -at r -at

After teaching the letters of a word family, it is important to supplement the lesson with worksheets, flip chart books, word wheels, computer programs, phonics books, and other opportunities for the students to practice what they have learned. There are many activities that are available on the market. Be cautious about how much artwork is on the paper and how much writing is required. Students with autism often have fine motor difficulties, so it is best to provide work tasks that avoid writing. Many tasks can easily be converted using Velcro™. You can also use word processing programs and adaptive keyboards to circumvent handwriting issues.

AUGMENTATIVE/ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION AND LITERACY

The rise of augmentative/alternative communication (AAC) and computer aided instruction (CAI) to assist students in communication has provided additional opportunities for students with autism and other disabilities to learn to read. Devices with keyboards are especially convenient for learning letters and the sounds of letters as well as forming words and sentences for students with verbal and/or physical limitations. There are a variety of toys on the market that provide additional phonics support.

This chapter highlights some of the devices as well as computer programs that can be useful in early literacy instruction. Computer aided instruction (CAI) is emerging as a valuable avenue for reaching and teaching students with autism who are unable to function within the constraints of the typical teacher-student relationship (Heimann, Nelson, Tjus, & Gillberg, 1995)

TOYS

Leap Frog™ has created many toys that provide literacy opportunities for children. Leap’s Phonics Library is a fun way for students to practice the sounds of the letters and play games that support phonics word building. One potential danger to this product may be that the talking goes on too long for some students to maintain interest. In my experience, it may be too much fun for the student, and learning gets replaced by the desire to play.

Leap’s Phonics Library

Geosafari™ has created the Geosafari Phonics Lab™ which is similar to the Leap Frog product. It does not include trademark characters like the Leap Phonics Library. This characteristic could be helpful when working with students with autism who are distracted by extraneous decoration.

Geosafari Phonics Lab

Hooked on Phonics® offers various electronic toys that include the Phonics Word Master™ and the Musical Letter Twist™. These toys operate like the LeapFrog™ and Geosafari™ phonics toys and ask students to find letters, sounds of letters, and spell words. The Hooked on Phonics® Reading Systems are not research-based.

Phonics Word Master Musical Letter Twist

COMMUNICATION DEVICES

Communication devices with keyboards can be very helpful to students with autism who are nonverbal. These devices not only provide a much-needed tool for communication but can also be used to teach emergent literacy skills. These devices speak for the student, so teaching, reviewing, and testing a student’s skill in phonics is easy and effective. I have used them successfully with students who had severe communication difficulties. However, the cost of these products may be prohibitive unless the family has Medicaid coverage. The units below are from the Say-It! Sam™ series of devices, costing approximately $3000 to $7000. Both offer keyboards as a feature.

Say-It! Sam

The DynaVox V and DynaVox Vmax™ speaking series of communication devices is another product that can be used for literacy instruction. It has a keyboarding program as well as other features that are similar to a personal computer or notebook. These devices range in price from $7500 to $9000. Because it is more like a computer, it may not be as user-friendly for younger children as the Say-It! Sam™.

DynaVox V and DynaVox Vmax

Vanguard™ Plus features software that offers single-meaning pictures, spelling systems, and picture prediction that takes the user’s most common vocabulary and automatically arranges the icons for convenient access to them. It has synthesized speech capabilities as well as word processing for spelling. The Vanguard communication system can cost upwards from $8000.

Vanguard™ Plus

53 Enkidu Labs have created two new devices that are small enough to hold in one hand. They are the Palmtop3™ Impact and the iChat3™ Impact, ranging in price from $4000 to $5000. They both use speech output, word prediction, and character (picture) prediction for fast communication. The individual who uses either of these devices must have good motor control because a stylus is needed to touch chosen icons.

Palmtop3™ and iChat3™

DynaVox markets Dynawrite™ which is a keyboard with a small screen that displays what is typed and also has voice output.

Dynawrite™

COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR COMMUNICATION

If communication devices such as the Say-It! Sam™ and DynaVox™ are not accessible or affordable, there are computer programs or supplements that can provide a way for children with autism to demonstrate literacy skills without speaking.

The IntelliTools IntelliKeys™ Alternative Keyboard is used without the computer keyboard. There are a series of overlays which enlarge and enhance the typical keyboard. It allows teachers to customize the keyboards, for example, settings assign how quickly it responds to touch, how quickly the mouse moves, and the ability for students to “lift off” before another key are pressed. One can also create keyboards to teach word families. It is not a voice-output device.

IntelliKeys™

Mayer-Johnson has a new program which is Boardmaker™ software for personal computers that provides more picture symbols, word processing with word prediction and a speaking feature. It is called Boardmaker with Speaking Dynamically Pro v.6™, and may be used with either laptop or desktop computers.

Boardmaker with Speaking Dynamically Pro v.6™

COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR READING

There are a variety of software programs that can be used effectively to teach phonics, spelling, and writing skills to students with autism spectrum disorders. The Waterford Early Reading Program™ (WERP) is a computer-based program that uses research- based curriculum to teach students how to read, write, and keyboard. The program requires special computers dedicated to the system. Many kindergarten classrooms have WERP, and access to them is easily set up by the teacher for each student. Since it is an instruction system by itself, it is not as adaptable as other software to the needs and interests of students with autism. Writing with Symbols 2000™ and Communicate: SymWriter™ are part of the Boardmaker Software family. Written material can easily be adapted with symbols to create stories, sentences, and words. These both feature voice output to enhance the understanding of unfamiliar or unknown words.

Writing with Symbols 2000™ and Communicate: SymWriter™

Computer software programs can enhance literacy instruction, but many of them are too slow or difficult for a student with autism to follow. One FREE online program is found at www.starfall.com. Children are introduced to letters and sounds through animated activities, stories, games, and videos. The stories are interactive and fun. There are also workbooks and materials that go along with the website that can be purchased for a small charge. Here is the main menu from the website:

ABCs Let's get ready to read Calendar Gingerbread Grandparent Pumpkin

Learn to Read Snowman 100th Day! Groundhog Zac the Rat and other tales Turkey

Clover It's Fun to Read Valentine Word Hunt Earth Day About Me, Art Gallery, Magic + more!

Flower I'm Reading Plays, Nonfiction, Comics + more!

Extra Language Resources is an interactive web-based program that offers activities for phonemic awareness and reading. It is designed for students K-2 and requires a teacher or clinician to be with the student. This program may be purchased at www.elr.com.au/elr.htm.

Other computer access programs include: ClickN READ Phonics http://www.clicknkids.com/Phonics.asp Headsprout Reading Products http://www.headsprout.com/home/products/ Owl & Mouse Educational Software Letter Sounds http://www.yourchildlearns.com/letter/letter-sounds/htm

SUMMARY

While students with autism may pose significant challenges in literacy instruction, there are many innovative techniques and tools accessible for teachers to help them learn to read. Focusing on the strengths of the students, using discrete trial methods that teach specific skills, and using available tools to allow them to communicate their knowledge and understanding can provide students with autism the opportunity to learn valuable reading skills. The use of tables and chairs (rather than floor sitting) can help students with autism focus on stories read by the teacher. Read books that are fun and colorful, yet not wordy. Discrete trial teaching is one evidence-based practice that has proven effective in helping students with autism to learn. The techniques presented in this handbook are broken down to target each step in phonics so that students with autism can learn and be successful despite their language and communication barriers. There are a variety of devices, tools, toys, and computer software that can enhance newly learned skills and assist teachers and students in the process of developing literacy competence. We can and must go beyond basic sight words. By teaching basic phonics skills to students with autism, we open to them a much more expansive set of functional reading skills.

REFERENCES

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APPENDIX Starter Materials for Teaching Phonics

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a e i o u

64 -AT Words (pat, rat, bat, cat, fat, hat, mat)

pictures from Mayer-Johnson’s Boardmaker™ 65

-AN Words (can, fan, man, pan, tan, van)