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The teaching of Abby Whiteside: Rhythm and form in piano playing
Wood, Patricia A., D.M.A.
The Ohio State University, 1987
Copyright ©1987 by Wood, Patricia A. All rights reserved.
U-M-I 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
THE TEACHING OF ABBY WHITESIDE:
RHYTHM AND FORM IN PIANO PLAYING
DOCUMENT
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts
in the School of Music in the Graduate School of
The Ohio State University
by
Patricia Ann Wood, B.M., M.M.
*****
The Ohio State University
1987
Reading Committee: Approved by
Professor Jerry E. Lowder Ot/L/W- "77 CcC^Adviser Professor Peter Gano „ y School of Musi;
Professor Donald Gren
Co-Adviser School of Music Copyright by Patricia A. Wood 1987 This study is dedicated to the memory of my parents, William C. and Doris R. Wood ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to all those who helped with the preparation of this document and encouraged me to finish this degree. Dr. Jerry Lowder and
Dr. Peter Gano both gave of their time and expertise in the writing of this paper. Dr. Donald Gren was extremely supportive and encouraging in helping me to prepare my last doctoral recital. Dr. Gordon Wilson gave me expert guidance through my general exams and remains one of the finest musicians 1 know.
Special thanks goes to Sophia Rosoff whose knowledge, commitment, and dedication to the principles of Abby
Whiteside made the writing of this paper possible. Her dedication and inspiration as a teacher has changed my life as a pianist and that of many others. Finally I want to thank my friend and husband Albert Laszlo, who listened to countless readings of the manuscript, made valuable suggestions, and, as always, offered freely his encourage ment and love.
iii VITA
February 24, 1947 Born - Gallipolis, Ohio
1969 B.M., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1970-72 Teaching Associate, School of Music, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1972 M.M., Ohio State Univer sity, Columbus, Ohio
1976-78 Teaching Associate, School of Music, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1978-81 Adjunct Faculty, Bergen Community College, Paramus, New Jersey
1981-85 Piano Faculty, Bloomingdale School of Music, New York, New York
Summers 1981-82 Accompanist, Aspen Music Festival, Aspen, Colorado
Winter 1986 Adjunct faculty, Denison University, Granville, Ohio
1986-present Founding member, Chamber Arts Trio
1987-present Adjunct faculty, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio
Honorary and Professional Memberships
Pi Kappa Lambda, Phi Kappa Phi, Ohio Music Teachers Association
xv PERFORMANCES
Wednesday, February 23, 1977, 8:00 p.m., Hughes Auditorium. School of Music, College of the Arts, The Ohio State University, Graduating Recital Series, 1976-77. Supervising Professor: Prof. Richard Tetley-Kardos.
PATRICIA WOOD, piano Roy Sonne, violin Albert Laszlo, violoncello
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts.
PROGRAM
Sonata for piano and violoncello L. van Beethoven in g minor, Op. 5, No. 2 Adagio sostenuto ed espressivo Allegro molto piu tosto presto Rondo (Allegro)
Sonata for violin and piano in A Major C. Franck Allegretto ben moderato Allegro Recitativo - Fantasia Allegro poco mosso
INTERMISSION
Trio in B^, Op. 99 F. Schubert Allegro moderato Andante un poco mosso Scherzo: Allegro Rondo: Allegro vivace
Friday, August 17, 1979, 8:00 p.m., Hughes Auditorium. School of Music, College of the Arts, The Ohio State University, Graduating Recital Series, 1978-79. Supervising Professor: Prof. Richard Tetley-Kardos.
v PATRICIA WOOD, Piano
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree Doctor of Musical Arts.
PROGRAM
Preludes, Op. 11 Alexander Scriabin Nos. 10, 3, 6, 15, 14
Fantasy, C Major, op. 17 Robert Schumann Sempre fantasticamente ed appassionatamente Moderata. Sempre energico Lento sostenuto e sempre piano
INTERMISSION
Valses Nobles et Sentimentales Maurice Ravel
Sonata Alberto Ginastera Allegro marcato Presto misterioso Adagio molto appasionata Ruvido ed ostinato
Friday, August 1, 1980, 3:00 p.m., Hughes Auditorium. School of Music, College of the Arts, The Ohio State University, Graduate Student Recital Series. Supervising Professor: Prof. Richard Tetley-Kardos.
PATRICIA WOOD, Piano assisted by Richard Tetley-Kardos, piano
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts.
PROGRAM
Symphonic Variations for piano C^sar Franck and orchestra
Sunday, February 1, 1987, 8:00 p.m., Weigel Hall. School of Music, College of the Arts, The Ohio State University, Graduate Student Recital Series. Supervising Professor: Prof. Donald Gren.
vi PATRICIA WOOD, Piano
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree Doctor of Musical Arts.
PROGRAM
Sonata in E flat, Hob. XVI: 52 F.J. Haydn Allegro Adagio Finale: Presto
Sonata in A minor, D. 784 F. Schubert Allegro giusto Andante Allegro vivace
INTERMISSION
Partita no. 1 in B flat J.S. Bach Praeludium Allemande Corrente Sarabande Menuet I and II Gigue
Sonata for Piano (1949) Samuel Barber Allegro energico Allegro vivace e leggero Adagio mesto Fuga: Allegro con spirito
vii LIST OF EXAMPLES
Example Page
1. F. Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. 3, mm. 1-5 28
2. R. Schumann, Fantasy, op. 17, 2nd mvt., mm. 232-238 43
3. R. Schumann, Carnaval, op. 9, "Preambule," mm. 27-35 47
4. S. Barber, Piano Sonata, 1st mvt., mm. 35-41 52
5. F. Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. 24, mm. 1-17 57
6. L van Beethoven, Sonata, op. 31, no. 2, 2nd mvt., mm. 1-4, 43-46, 51-54 61
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
VITA iv
PERFORMANCES V
LIST OF EXAMPLES viii
INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter
I. Abby Whiteside and Her Philosophy 3
Biography 3 Evolution of Her Philosophy 6 References 13
II. Rhythm and Form in Piano Playing 15
Definitions of Basic Rhythm and Rhythm of Form 15 Tools for Learning with a Rhythm 20 The Role of the Top Arm and Torso 21 Outlining 26 Learning a Meter by Subdividing a Time Meter 33 Splashing 37 References 40
III. Application of the Tools.... 42
CONCLUSION...... 65 References « 68
APPENDIX 69
BIBLIOGRAPHY 72
ix INTRODUCTION
Abby Whiteside (1881-1956) was a pioneer in the teaching of piano. She investigated most thoroughly the problem of rhythm, how it is related to musical form
(phrasing), and most importantly, how rhythm and form are created by an emotional reaction to the music.
She related rhythm, form and emotion to the physical act of playing the piano. In her two books, Indispensables of Piano Playing and Mastering the Chopin Etudes and Other
Essays, she discusses rhythm, meter and form, and defines them by creating two new terms: "basic rhythm" and "rhythm of form." She illustrates physical means for establishing a "basic rhythm" and "rhythm of form" in musical examples, specifically the Chopin Etudes. The purpose of this paper is to clarify Whiteside's concepts of rhythm and form and to describe her physical approach for implementing them.
Whiteside's principles of piano playing have been discussed widely. Boardman's dissertation, A History of
Theories of Teaching Piano Technic,1 describes her work at some length, and Gerig discusses her philosophy in his book, Famous Pianists and Their Technique.2 Two of Miss
Whiteside's students, Joseph Prostakoff and Sophia Rosoff,
1 2 have written extensively about her work. They compiled all of her manuscripts and notebook entries for her intended book on the Chopin Etudes. The manuscripts for the Etudes and articles which Whiteside had written over the years were published in 1969 within one volume. Mastering the / Chopin Etudes and Other Essays. Rosoff and Prostakoff wrote an extensive foreword to this book in which they discuss Whiteside's educational background, character, and teaching philosophy. They recall their study with her and resolve some apparent contradictions found in the manu scripts. As an introduction to Whiteside's work, this foreword is invaluable. Two recent articles concerning
Whiteside's philosophy, one written by Prostakoff^ and the other an interview with Sophia Rosoff,4 have appeared in keyboard periodicals.
This paper will offer some perspective as to what influenced Miss Whiteside's thinking by providing a short biography and a discussion of the development of her philosophy. The primary task, however, will be to explain
Whiteside's concept of rhythm as it is used in piano performance. This will be accomplished by using her own definitions and what she called "tools for learning."
Specific musical examples will be selected from the repertoire to be explained in light of her principles.
Conclusions will be drawn concerning her contributions and uniqueness to the field of piano pedagogy. CHAPTER I
ABBY WHITESIDE AND HER PHILOSOPHY
Biography
Abby Whiteside was born in 1881 in Vermillion, South
Dakota. She majored in music at the University of South
Dakota and graduated with highest honors. She taught at the University of Oregon and went to Germany in 1908 to study with Rudolph Ganz. After her return, she settled in
Portland, Oregon, where she became a successful teacher.
In 1923 she came to New York City where she lived and taught the rest of her life. During the summers, however, from 1922 to 1956 she taught at several universities:
New York University, the University of Chicago, the Eastman
School of Music, and Mills College.5 Some of her important students have included: pianists Sophia Rosoff, Joseph
Prostakoff, Robert Helps, Eunice Nemeth, and duo-pianists
Arthur Whittemore and Jack Lowe, composers Morton Gould and
Vivian Fine, and music educators Marion Flagg, Norman
Lloyd, and Pauline Alderman.6
Whiteside's early training and general education would suggest nothing of an unusual or unconventional nature which might have prompted her revolutionary ideas
3 4 concerning piano playing. What motivated her experimenta tion and, ultimately, her innovative approach? Rosoff and
Prostakoff refer to her "restless and relentlessly inquir ing mind which ultimately led her so far from the concepts which are still widely and unquestioningly accepted by pianists and piano teachers."? This intense musical curiosity combined with her frustrations concerning her own teaching and playing provided her primary motivations. She wrote in her foreword to Indispensables of Piano Playing:
Teaching has been an exciting experience since I squarely faced the unpleasant fact, more than 25 years ago that the pupils in my studio played or didn't play, and that was that. The talented ones progressed, the others didn't—and I could do nothing about it. This fact became a challenge which forced me to believe in the tools I was using and led me to discoveries which mean that all can play.®
In the foreword to Mastering the Chopin Etudes and
Other Essays, the editors point out that it was in the early 1920's that her "mounting dissatisfaction with the techniques she had learned from her teachers culminated in a resolve to find new answers and new techniques.In a recent interview with Rosoff,*0 she pointed out that from
Whiteside's earliest years of teaching she was always possessed with a great diagnostic gift, and that much of her early thinking dealt with the question of why women were not able to play as powerfully as men. When asked to describe Whiteside's strongest influences, Rosoff named only two written sources: Otto Ortmann's The Physiological 5
Mechanics of Piano Technique and Mabel Todd's The Thinking
Body, both of which Whiteside read in the 1930's. Rosoff added that Whiteside was particularly influenced by
Ortmann's discussion of the function of the body's fulcrums in piano playing. Todd's book taught her that movement originates from body center and travels to periphery; this concept was to affect Whiteside's physical approach dramatically.
From the late 1920's until her death in 1956, Whiteside analyzed, experimented, and searched for principles of piano playing which would work for every student, both for the very talented and the less talented. Prostakoff explains:
...In her long, unswerving search for the best way to help each student achieve the most sensitive musical continuity and the greatest unrestrained virtuosity possible, she developed principles which she then ruthlessly abandoned if they proved faulty or inadequate. In the process she also abandoned many precepts which are largely accepted to this day in the pianist's world.
This uncompromising search for principles of piano playing yielded three books: The Pianist's Mechanism, which she later declared to be obsolete, Indispensables of
Piano Playing, and Mastering the Chopin Etudes and Other
Essays. All three books point to her obsession with finding what she called a "basic rhythm"* and allowing it
* For an explanation of Whiteside's terminology used in this paper, see Appendix, p. 70-71. A more complete discussion of her terminology may be found in the Glossary of Mastering the Chopin Etudes. 6
to produce a phrase-wise progression of the music which she
termed "rhythm of form." Gerig summarizes Whiteside's
teaching:
While possessing a high regard for [Otto] Ortmann..., she made her own observations outside of the science laboratory and throughout the world of nature—wherever physical skills were in evidence. She was a student of anatomy and body mechanics: she observed carefully the graceful, skilled movements of athletes in many fields: dancers, jugglers, musicians other than classical pianists (such as orchestra men, conductors, jazz pianists) and anyone else so engaged. She firmly believed and taught that a vital, all-encompassing rhythm (meter is not involved) is the basic coordinating factor involved in building an effective technique. This rhythm must be the basis of musical continuity and beauty of interpretation. Such a rhythm will also express itself in physical continuity of movement and flow.*2
The "all-encompassing rhythm" Gerig speaks of was termed
"basic rhythm" or "rhythm of form" by Whiteside. These two
concepts form th>^ foundation of her teaching philosophy and
are examined more closely in Chapter II.
Evolution of Her Philosophy
An examination of Whiteside's writings reveals her
ongoing struggle to produce a performance of great beauty
and simplicity in which the piano became a medium for
emotional expression (underline mine). The key words
beauty, simplicity, and emotion appear repeatedly in her
writings. In her first book, The Pianist's Mechanism, she
expresses her concerns with the state of piano teaching in the opening chapter entitled "What is Wrong with the Piano 7
Field?" Whiteside asks why the piano is less popular with concert audiences than either the voice or the violin. She writes:
It is hardly possible that the piano has less capacity for producing rhythm and melody, the two great appealing elements in music. Is it not rather owing to the lack of simplicity in present ing them that their beauty is lost to the listener? Perhaps, in spite of the general opinion, the piano is less skillfully used than either the voice or violin as a medium for emotional expression.*3
She further clarifies beauty and simplicity by discuss ing the virtues of two great artists of the day:
Rachmaninoff and Lhevinne. She states: "Each is a distinct personality, with a technical equipment which allows full range in speed and dynamics, without effort and always with beautiful tone quality."14 She believes that little is understood about how to achieve the artistry of the great players because they who have given us great beauty are not able to tell us how they do it. She suggests that the mechanism of the great artists is not understood because they themselves have such a vivid concept of beauty that they have "subconsciously blazed their cwn trail."15 she reminds us, however, that if our tools for playing are not those of the artists, neither will be our results. She further explains that when the student's muscular playing adjustment is correct, he, like the artist, may exhibit "the gift of the gods." She asks:
"Is technique, the perfect mechanism, only a means to an end, or, is it a creative factor in aiding emotional development?"
Whiteside knew what she wanted to hear: beauty and simplicity accompanied by great ease in playing. These artistic ideals remained her goals throughout her next 25 years of teaching. She implied that performers must learn from the great artists and observe what they do; this then is exactly what she did. When she asked whether technique is only a means to an end or if it must aid in the emotion al development of the creative act, she stated the main thesis of all her work: in the creation of a thing of beauty there must be an involvement of the emotions. The technique must in some way be integrated with the emotions in the creative act. How is this achieved in piano playing? The answer she eventually arrives at is, of course, rhythm, and even at this early stage in her thinking and experimenting she alludes to it:
It is a beautiful tone, a lovely melody, an alluring rhythm, a range of dynamics and simplicity that charm; and all of these are to be achieved only when power is wielded without strain and waste. Even when the innate response to rhythm is very strong it cannot be projected to the audience unless tone is being produced wilh a steady, balanced current of power. Accents may be right and time-spacing absolutely correct, but there will be no lilting, infectious rhythm. If you pick out every player before the public, in the orchestras or in the recital halls, and list those whose rhythm is an outstanding quality in their playing, you will find that in every instance tone is produced by balanced, flowing power, not by a power that begins and ends with single notes or that is at all constricted.*7 9
Whiteside believes that an "alluring rhythm" is all important and it is produced by what she calls a "steady, balanced current of power." She does not explain what she means by the word "power," but it appears often in her writing and needs clarification. Mrs. Rosoff explained that it is an exchange of energy with the keyboard generat- 18 ed at the chair seat. in this context Whiteside speaks of a "balanced, flowing power," and this implies a power which produces a musical phrase, i.e. flowing, rather than a power which produces single notes. It is clear that she is relating rhythm not to single note values but rather to phrasing and the ongoing form or destination of the music.
In the closing paragraphs of this introductory chapter she defines the pianist's problem succinctly:
The pianist's problem is to produce a phrase that has all the simplicity as well as the grace, balance, and charm of the instruments whose tone is produced by a steadily flowing current of breath or bow.1®
In succeeding chapters she elaborates on specific physical problems which interrupt this flow of power and gives an analysis of what she calls the playing mechanism.
Many drawings of the mechanism (hand, arm, fingers, shoul der) illustrate her technical suggestions for playing.
Later she declared this book to be obsolete, possibly for two reasons. Ten years later she was to read Todd's The
Thinking Body which provided information on how the body functions in motion. This study, combined with her own 10 observations and constant experimentation, transformed her ideas about piano technique. Furthermore, and more importantly, she came to realize that emotion and rhythm were the prime motivators of the body, and, hence, piano technique, rather than the reverse. The emotion created the rhythm which became integrated with the body. Whereas the physical mechanism of piano playing is analyzed in her first book, later works emphasize how rhythm and body work together to create a unified musical statement.
Entries in her diaries in the early 1930's offer some valuable insights into her developing philosophy. In
November, 1930, she advises her students: "Keep close track, all of you, of your flowing rhythm when playing.
Once the power is started, keep it a rhythmic flowing thing."20 a year later she writes:
I am struggling with this matter of rhythm. I know that when the musical phrase creates a rhythmical pattern in the body, then and then only will the piano be played with the subtlety of the instruments that have a stream of uninterrupted power. I know that thing in my experience. When my stream of power flows in accord with the emotional reaction to the beauty of the phrase, not the physical outline of the notes but the musical outline of the message, then the whole becomes a graceful thing with beauty in it.21
This was a giant step forward in the evolution of her thinking. She had now related that elusive "stream of uninterrupted power" to a rhythmical pattern in the body created by a musical phrase. The entire phrase structure which she was later to term "rhythm of form" created or 11
produced a "rhythmical pattern in the body" which she later
called "basic rhythm." The initial motivator of the rhythm
was the emotional reaction to the beauty of the phrase.
This statement formed the core of Whiteside's philosophy
and is basic to her definition of rhythm. She often
defined rhythm through the use of effective imagery: what a child feels when it bobs up and down to a passing band
playing a spirited march. What motivates the child's
physical response to the music, that is, the bobbing up and
down? The child has an emotional reaction to the musical
phrase (the melody it hears) and then sets up a "basic
rhythm" (the bobbing up and down) in response to what it
hears, thus allowing it to feel the music. The child does not react to the "physical outline of the notes" (the note
velues) but rather the "musical outline of the message"
(the phrase of form), that is, the whole of it.
Another sentence in this statement revealed her certainty about what she was saying: "I know that thing in
my experience." These are not just intellectual concepts, for she proved them through her own teaching and playing experiences.
In her address to the Music Teacher's National Associa tion in 1938, she expressed herself clearly as she stressed the importance of rhythm and distinguished between two
types: "the rhythm of form and the rhythm of note values." 12
Two elements are the fundamental factors in learning a musical skill: the auditory image and feeling of rhythm. They are completely fused when the instrument is a perfect medium for emotional expression. That fusion of the auditory image and the feeling of rhythm should be the goal in all teaching.... It is important that there is a clear under standing that two rhythms are always present in music: the rhythm of form and the rhythm of note values. The rhythm of form carries the legato feeling, the continuous telling of the story. The rhythm of articulation is the rhythm of separate movements. Playing most easily represents the creative musical ideas when the rhythm of form, the legato feeling, is the outlet for the surge of emotion. Let the body experience the lilt of the phrase before the attention is riveted on accuracy in hitting the right keys. The rhythmic experience that involves the torso as well as the hands lays a foundation for both beauty and ease.22
By the late 1930's, therefore, Whiteside had formed a definition of "rhythm of form," and she was certain that the body must experience this "rhythm of form." In this statement she specifically mentioned the role of the torso in experiencing this rhythm, reiterating how beauty and ease in playing were related to how the body was able to feel the rhythm.
Chapter II will include a study of Whiteside's mature works: Indispensables of Piano Playing and Mastering the
Chopin Etudes and Other Essays. Her definitions of basic rhythm and rhythm of form will be discussed as well as the role of the upper arm and torso in implementing the rhythm.
Her "tools for learning" will be examined in order to understand how she taught the music in regard to her concepts of rhythm and form. REFERENCES
^Roger C. Boardman. A history of theories of teaching piano technic (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1954), p. 195-200.
^Reginald R. Gerig. Famous Pianists and their techniques. New York: Robert B. Luce Inc., 1974, p. 469-479.
3Joseph Prostakoff. The essence of Abby Whiteside. The Piano Quarterly, Summer 1984, 22_ (126), p. 34-40.
4Sophia Rosoff. What's wrong with our piano playing. Keyboard Classics, November 1984, 4_ (6), p. 46-47.
^Abby Whiteside. Mastering the Chopin Eludes and other essays. Edited by Joseph Prostakoff and Sophia Rosoff. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969, p. 2.
interview with Sophia Rosoff, New York, New York, Spring 1987.
^Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 2.
8Abby Whiteside. Indispensables of piano playing. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1955, p. ix.
^Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 2-3.
^Rosoff, Interview
Uprostakoff, The essence of Abby Whiteside. P. 34.
12Gerig, Famous pianists. P. 469-470.
13Abby Whiteside. The pianist's mechanism: A guide to the production and transmission of power in playing. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1929, p. 1
14Ibid., p. 2.
15Ibid.
13 16Ibid., p. 3.
17Ibid., p. 4-5.
^®Rosofff Interview
1!JWhiteside, The pianist's Mechanism. P. 7.
20Abby Whiteside. Diary entry for November 5, 1930 report to the friends of the Abby Whiteside Foundation 1981-82, p. 1.
21Ibid., p. 2.
22Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 166. CHAPTER II
RHYTHM AND FORM IN PIANO PLAYING
Definitions of Basic Rhythm and Rhythm of Form
The term "rhythm" holds a myriad of meanings for the musician, and much has been written about it as an intel lectual concept. Curt Sachs' Rhythm and Tempo, perhaps one of the most exhaustive works, traces the history of its meaning and is most useful to the scholar.
Whiteside, however, knew that a performer must be able to internalize a concept of rhythm and make it work for him to produce a meaningful musical statement. She explains her concept of rhythm:
I feel strongly that rhythm should never be used for meter and note values (although they are part of the large rhythm), but should be reserved for that continuous undulating action which, once started, is impelled to carry the entire musical performance to its close.*
It is clear that she was not thinking of rhythmic patterns (groups of note values) nor meter (organization of beats) when she referred to rhythm. Rather, it was a physical process, a continuous motion which carries the music to its destination. She often explained her concept of rhythm by offering imagery: the swaying and push-offs of an ice skater, the swaying bodies of first-chair
15 16 orchestra men/ the art of a juggler with his impeccable timing. A group of people clapping to the singing of a folk song provides a useful piece of imagery. The claps themselves represent the beats or the meter; however, the swaying of the body which accompanies the clapping, the physical motion which takes place iii between the claps and includes the claps would represent the rhythm itself, i.e., a continuous motion from the beginning of the music to its close.
This physical response to the music which she called
"basic rhythm" represented something quite specific at the • keyboard. In the glossary of Mastering the Chopin Etudes the editors explain that Whiteside used the terms rhythm and basic rhythm interchangeably and defined them as
"...the continuous activity in the arms and torso which control the total physical apparatus as the performer plays a composition."2 For the pianist this is quite a revela tion because a definition of rhythm has been expressed in purely physical terms at the keyboard.
Whiteside often gave another definition of rhythm which can be applied by all musicians: "Rhythm is an emotionally involved power which, in response to an auditory image, moves in a balanced, centered, lilting way towards a distant musical goal."3 This definition will be clear only if there is an understanding of Whiteside's terminology, 17 including such words as "power," "auditory image," "goal," etc.
The term "power," as explained in Chapter I, referred generally to an energy exchange with the keyboard similar to the role of the breath in wind playing or the bow in string playing. However, as Whiteside's experimentation and analysis progressed, she was to change her mind several times as to where power originated; was it initiated by the torso or the upper arm? Prostakoff writes: "The word power...refers to the controlling role the upper arm can and must play constantly during the entire performance."4
However, as Rosoff further explained^ for a period of time
Whiteside thought that power was initiated with the upper arm. Later, however, she returned to her original idea that power was generated by the torso but projected into sound by the upper arm which can progress horizontally along the keyboard. Both Prostakoff and Rosoff would agree that the term power had to do with the overall coordination of the body. Prostakoff expands his definition of power to include the interdependence of timing and coordination:
It refers not only to the greatest muscular potential, but also where it lies in the body, and above all how it is to be involved in the action of piano playing. After all, we can influence the nature of coordination—the degree to which various levers act in total ensemble. Deft timing is essential. The slightest change in the coordina tion, and for all practical purposes, it is not the same coordination.^ 18
Power, then, is a specific coordination, one which involves precise timing. Therefore, an "emotionally involved power" is a coordination which involves the emotions. The emotions in response to the music heard (that is, the
"auditory image") set up a rhythm (basic rhythm) in the body which ultimately and totally affects the coordination of the performer.
Two important points essential to Whiteside's philoso phy emerge from this definition of an emotionally involved power. First, the coordination of the pianist is primarily affected by the rhythm, and, second, the rhythm is affected by one's emotional response to the music. This linking of emotion and rhythm are at the very heart of Whiteside's philosophy, for she emphasized that no rhythm was truly compelling unless it was driven innately by one's emotional reaction to the music. This, in turn, set up a basic rhythm, which once employed, allowed the natural coordina tion of the body to produce a beautiful phrase, one which moved in a "balanced, centered, lilting way."
The rhythm moves toward a "distant musical goal," i.e., a musical destination. In referring to musical destina tion, Whiteside often used the term "rhythm of form," which described the phrase-by-phrase progression of the music to its conclusion, a phrase-wise rhythm. She distinguished between "rhythm of meter," which refers to the organization of beats within the measure and the division of beats, and 19
"rhythm of form," a larger rhythm encompassing meter and moving from phrase to phrase producing the inherent struc ture and form of the composition. She writes:
The rhythm of note values—meter—is a part of the larger rhythm of form. This rhythm of meter is taken care of in the process of articulating details. But it is the basic rhythm of form—of the musical idea as a unit—which is the educator, the interpreter, the coordinator, and the creator of beauty in a performance. This rhythm must be installed before any performance can ripen into its fullest beauty. With this basic rhythm in command, fresh impressions of the meaning of the music never cease to appear.6
The role of the orchestral conductor is probably the best image of "rhythm of form." The conductor of a fine ensemble often does not conduct beats or meter, but rather conducts in broad outlines of the music, providing sweep and gesture and thus producing the rhythmic momentum.
Whiteside believed that through the rhythm of form the musical meaning of the composition unfolds and overall interpretation is controlled. This overall interpretation included what she stressed were "...the two great factors through which interpretation is expressed: dynamics and nuances of time....But what the artist does in between striking keys will very definitely influence the succeeding tones in dynamics and timing.She did not feel that the pianist could color his tone; therefore, the interpretation was built through dynamics and the timing of the phrase
(rhythmic nuance), both of which were controlled by the larger rhythm, the rhythm of form. She concludes: 20
On the printed page there are indications of rhythm of meter, note values, a few remarks, necessarily vague, dealing with mood, tempo, and marks of intensity for delivery of power. But every sensitive performer knows that two accents are rarely played the same way, although they look exactly alike. There must be a factor somewhere which is not present on the printed page and cannot be indicated; but, it is the factor responsible for the variation produced, which we, the audience, so clearly hear in the two performances. That factor, I feel sure, is the rhythm of form—the rhythm of the musical idea.8
Finally, she cautions against stressing a physical action which produces details (rhythm of meter):
But, the physical production of details is not identical with the physical production of the basic rhythm of form, which underlies all the notes of a musical composition. A natural coordination would have a chance to assist in the production of details if the larger motivation came first. With details first and always stressed, there are innumerable pitfalls for any complete use of understanding of a rhythm of form, and, certainly, every block which could prevent nature's coordina tion is present, although nature's coordination is the only one which will provide the subtle balance in activity necessary for creating great beauty. Trust the printed page for pitch, but trust only a surging rhythm for the emotional expression which can govern rhythmic nuance and dynamics.9
Tools for Learning with a_ Rhythm
Whiteside disliked the words "method" and "technical approach" when referring to her teaching philosophy.
Therefore, she developed what she called "tools for learning." These included a specific physical approach, the role of the top arm and torso in implementing a basic rhythm, as well as other activities for producing a rhythm: 21 outlining, learning a meter by subdividing a time unit, and splashing. These tools are described on pp. 26-39.
The Role of the Top Arm and Torso
Whiteside believed that rhythm was a physical activity created in response to an emotional stimulus. She defined rhythm as that "continuous undulating action" which, more specifically, refers to the "...continuous activity in the arms and torso which control the total physical apparatus as the performer plays a composition."10 This definition states clearly that the arms (top arm or upper arm) and torso are responsible for the total control of the rest of the physical apparatus (forearm, hand, fingers). Further, and most importantly, she maintained that all movement begins at "center" (torso, upper arm) and moves to periph ery (hand, fingers). When Prostakoff wrote that Whiteside
"...abandoned many precepts which are largely accepted to this day in the pianist's world,"11 he was referring in part to the "fingers first" philosophy held by so many piano teachers. Whiteside, in discussing techniques other than fingers, writes:
The distance of the keyboard could not be covered, nor the hand be placed in playing posi tion, without the combination of the turning of the top arm with the flexion and extension of the forearm, as well as the twisting of the two bones in the forearm (rotary action). These are actions which are automatically blended and used naturally, unless teaching superimposes a straight jacket. ...The activity involved in these "other tech niques" has been unheeded because of the emphasis 22
generally placed on the finger technique. It should have greater attention than fingers because fingers are only the periphery of the total activity involved in playing. The action at periphery cannot promote the blended coordination demanded for virtuosity.12
This "blended activity" she referred to is primarily the role of the torso and top arm in playing.
Whiteside offers specific information concerning the role of the torso. In a sitting position, the chair seat offers resistance to the muscles and bones of the pelvis upon which the torso rests. Whiteside explains: "For the pianist the muscles under these ischial bones [of the pelvis] create activity in the torso...."13 The sitting posture, by its very nature, limits movement. However,
Whiteside says: "...it is exactly the same rhythmic response to the music which is so natural in dancing and skating that is needed for a thrilling performance at the piano—a response throughout the body."14
She explains that the torso can bounce up and down when contracting the muscles of the pelvis: a sort of "dance of the pelvis." This dancing becomes literally the rhythm of the music for the pianist. The torso can also sway in all directions, and create a rhythmic response to the music.15
She concludes:
Any or all of these movements may constitute the activity which expresses the rhythmic and emotional response to the music in conjunction with the delivery of power....The activity of the torso as a fulcrum for the articulating of tone is creative rhythmically—because it is absolutely a part of the activity of the top arm. "Sit in the 23
driver's seat and hold the reins" is good imagery for fulcrum activity. Being well seated in the driver's seat is the only way to implement the holding of the reins. But it does not mean a stodgy sitting—rather an alive, active part of the whole performance.16
In summary, she stated that the activity of the torso i£ the rhythmic response to the music, acting as a conduit for the emotional response of the performer to the music heard
(the auditory image). The torso can bounce up and down or sway in any direction and should not be "held" or in any way constricted.
Although this freedom of movement at the chair seat is felt acutely by the performer in a very real rhythmic sense, it is a subtle movement which would rarely be obvious to the audience or onlooker. Only in the case of a fortissimo chord, when the performer may lift his body off the bench, would the torso action be completely obvious to the audience. What iss obvious to the audience, however, is the propelling forward motion of the music moving in a
"balanced, lilting way." According to Whiteside, this movement is what produces a simple, beautiful, and charming statement of the music.
The other function of the torso is that it acts as a fulcrum for the constant activity of the upper arm (or top arm). The definition of a fulcrum, "a support, or point of rest, on which a lever turns in a moving body,"*? applies here. The torso, then, acts as a support for the lever, 24 the lever being the upper arm which can move in all directions.18
Whiteside assigns specific functions to the top arm or upper arm (as she later called it). The upper arm, i.e., the part of the arm above the elbow, produces the full arm action and also acts as a fulcrum for the forearm. She states that: "First of all, the upper arm is the radius of activity of the mechanism which gauges distance and delivers power to the key."*® The upper arm is the center of activity for the whole playing apparatus: the torso, forearm, hand, and fingers. Because it is the center, it must determine the distance on the keyboard (finding the key) and initiate the action of striking the key. She also explains the upper arm's ability for continuous action or horizontal movement:
Because it operates through a circular joint it possesses that unqualified blessing for the pianist: continuity in action. By means of this continuity in action, it produces the movement which initiates the fundamental phrase-wise rhythm—the counterpart of the musical idea. It does this by actually controlling key-drop and tone for important musical tones, and, in between these musical stepping stones, acting as a fulcrum for the forearm.^0
Because the upper arm operates through a circular joint
(the shoulder girdle), it is able to produce a continuous, horizontal movement along the keyboard. This, in turn, produces a smooth, phrase-wise progression of the music, free from what Whiteside called "separate initiations of power" which cause "bumps" in the long phrase line and far 25 too many climaxes in the music. The upper arm's abilities are what, she believed, makes playing look so effortless:
By its response to the aural image, the rhythm of the phrase can become fused with the aural image— the end aim of all playing habits. It can achieve this balance because it strides from one important tone of the phrase to another, it produces an activity which is continuous and outlines the phrase as a whole.21
She emphasized that the pianist, like the singer or the string player, must have a physical counterpart for the production of a phrase-wise progression: "...an activity which emphasizes direction from the first to the last tone of the phrase...."22 The upper arm is ideally suited for such activity because it is connected to the torso through the dorsal muscles. Furthermore, the upper arm acts as a fulcrum for the forearm which is involved in the "in- between notes," that is, the fast articulations.
Whiteside declared that never was the isolated movement of any part of the physical apparatus necessary. Her
"blended coordination" involves the torso acting as a fulcrum for the upper arm which in turn acts as a fulcrum for the forearm. The whole mechanism (torso, upper arm, forearm, hand, and fingers) work as one in response to an emotional rhythm.
Prostakoff describes the whole process with a very useful piece of imagery immediately familiar to everyone—a baseball pitcher in action: 26
The torso first rears back, with the upper arm immediately following. Then the torso swings forward, and the upper arm, using the momentum of the torso as well as its power as a fulcrum, sweeps forward; and in its turn becomes the fulcrum for the forearm and the hand. It is this total coordination which propels the ball to its target; it is one sinuous, continuous action, depending upon deft timing. The impulse to throw the ball or to hit it with a bat—in other sports with a racket or club—does not start in the hand. No one would dream of just watching the hand or just the ball, the bat, the racket or the club; we watch the whole body of the player. But the student, the pianist, the critic, listening to the great artist, by and large tend to watch only the hands and fingers in the hope of discovering the secret of the per former's skill.23
Outlining
Whiteside firmly believed that a way of practicing must be found which emphasized phrase-wise production. One effective method which she discovered she called pulsing, scanning, or outlining. This was simply a way of practic ing the music by omitting some of the notes. She states that: "Pulsing must be a reading that instinctively goes to the important tones and creates with those tones a starkly simple but beautiful line of musical progression.
It must involve the emotional reaction to the music."24
Simply stated, outlining was to include the important tones, leaving out the modifiers or passing tones, but not leaving out the emotional response to the music. In fact, she emphasized that the outline, if anything, should intensify one's emotional response to the music. Pulsing, she stated, "is a means of feeling the music—nothing 27 else."25 This was achieved through the use of a basic rhythm which used the important pitches as "stepping stones," thereby creating a keen perception of the overall structural form and associating "the emotional reaction to the music primarily with that form."26
Following is a musical example and an explanation of how it might be pulsed or outlined to create a basic rhythm and rhythm of form. Ex. 1 contains the first five bars of the Chopin Prelude in G major, op. 28, no. 3. The intro ductory two-bar phrase might be outlined as shown in
Outline A. The outline should use the tempo indicated by the composer in order to maintain the character and mood of the piece. Whiteside recommends that a smooth continuous movement be maintained; this means that one should not stop to correct mistakes. The performer should repeat Outline A several times, sensing the movement of the upper arm and the temporal and spatial distances between the important pitches G and D. It is necessary to feel the swaying motion of the torso as part of the physical activity as well. All notes in such an outline are usually played in a short, bouncy staccato to allow for speed. 28
Ex. 1: Chopin, op. 28, no. 3, bars 1-5.
Vivace firuttii-Imh-x N't
ieee\eromcnte
[f& l^rrrrR-^
Outline A.
7ffC 7- \ ^ T ? r r ? u r y;
Prostakoff and Rosoff explain that the student is not / to count the beats between the important tones nor to play the omitted tones in one's head, but only to "feel" the space between the important tones kinesthetically, as one might do in an improvisation.27 After feeling completely comfortable with Outline A, the performer should play
Outline B, which produces the shape of the musical line and introduces a dance-like character. This allows the body to 29 sense the music and sets up a basic rhythm which produces the character of the piece.
Outline B.
Whiteside explains the importance of physical activity when outlining:
Remember the reason for outlining is to enhance the basic rhythm in the torso. Make a swinging continuity the one imperative achieve ment—not accuracy in key hitting....Once started with the outlining, let it dance—accuracy or no accuracy—until the rhythm possesses you, and you feel a compelling desire to move with the music.
But, above all, be active. Learn to know you have a torso when playTng... The ears cannot turn the trick alone—a rhythm must help them out, and a real rhythm means physical activity.28
In this Prelude, the bass line, of course, is the only line at the beginning of the piece? however, in the outline of any piece the bass is extremely important. Whiteside calls the bass a "powerful ally of rhythm of form" and reminds the performer to always give it concentrated attention.29
After producing Outline B with a truly compelling basic rhythm and with the torso activity suggested by Whiteside, 30 one should begin to add the details or the modifiers (this will be referred to as Mfilling-in"). Since Outlines A and
B have established a basic rhythm, many different outlines are possible at this practice stage. Outline C fills in the last beat of each measure of the bass line, and Outline
D adds the important pitches of the right hand in bars 3-5 of Ex. 1 while retaining the bass line of Outline B.
Outline C.
£
^ V f y
Outline D.
#• 7 I ? etc.
'Pi 7. T T £fe- - 7' 3 T t t
At this point the performer can make the outline quite spontaneous, adding details (filling in) or omitting notes by going back to Outlines A and B. As long as the basic rhythm is maintained, one can alternate between Outline A and Outline C, filling in 16th notes one beat at a time 31
(see Outline E). The measure is generally filled in from the last beat back to the first beat, because Whiteside felt this approach provided momentum and drove the phrase forward.
Outline B.
Then:
f Play as f written t t cm • flrffm rff
As the filling in process continues, the rhythmic momentum must be maintained, and the performer must not stop between the various outlines. If the ear becomes confused, one must simply return to Outline A and continue the physical movement until the basic rhythm becomes clear enough to start the filling in process once again. The idea is to keep the body moving and "feeling" at all times and not to stop the motion. Prostakoff suggests that an outline should be practiced even after all the notes are learned in order to "build up the desired continuity in the ear and the body."30
The advantages of an outline become readily discernable after an initial experience with it. At first reading, the piece can usually be played at the intended tempo, thereby 32 enabling one to maintain the character and mood of the piece and creating an appropriate emotional response to the music from the onset of the learning process. Outlining trains the ear to "listen ahead" and allows the pianist to establish a close association between the notes not written next to each other. This practice stresses the horizontal movement of the music, i.e., the musical destination or the phrase-wise progression.31
Outlining reinforces the basic rhythm in the body.
This is accomplished by the swinging action of the torso which allows the basic rhythm to unfold. Outlining also develops "an awareness of the large actions of the upper arms in tracing the large progressions both within a phrase or from phrase to phrase...."32
Whiteside concluded that being successful with an outline would produce an emotional reaction which creates an aliveness in activity from chair seat to keyboard, a unified activity of body and arms, i.e., that "blended coordination" which she believed to be so important.33 in summarizing the importance of outlining she states:
It is always the basic structure of the music which needs the most cultivation. When it is sturdy and authoritative, the details can be added without damage to the strong rhythmic force which is the reaction to the musical statement as a whole. This relationship of simplicity to com plexity (large form to details) is an absolute necessity both for musical grace and for a balanced coordination.34 33
Learning a Meter by Subdividing a Time Unit
This learning tool stresses the importance of musical destination in learning a rhythmic pattern. Whiteside explains:
An integral factor in a rhythm is that it is going forward: its essence is destination. It is possessed of a follow through. It never stands still. It creates relationships by this going forward to a destination.35
Whiteside believed that learning meter by counting simply related tones to what had preceded them, rather than relating the tones to what was to follow. The solution to this problem was to find a process whereby the larger time unit (it could be a measure or just a long note value) could be heard first and then be subdivided, thus naturally propelling the meter forward.
The destination points of the larger time units (these could be first beats if the time units were measures) she called "rim tones." She suggested playing the rim tones and allowing the whole body to "initiate distance," i.e., to allow the body to feel the distance between the two rim tones. Pattern 1 serves as an illustration? the C and F are rim tones. Whiteside recommends rocking from one rim tone to another. She says: "...let the sidewise swing of the torso bring the hand in contact with the keybed—ignore all activity except the swing of the torso."3® 34
Pattern 1.
£
It is necessary to repeat the rim tones many times
until they sound and feel synchronized. Once this has been
achieved the details or "fill-ins" of the meter may be
added (Pattern 2). The hands can play the fill-ins
together or one hand can continue the rim tones while the
other plays the fill-ins (Pattern 3); then the hands can be
reversed. This whole process should continue without
interruption with both hands often returning to the rim
tones (Pattern 1).
Pattern 2.
f/Nf i 1 ! . J* J J H... c • — —©*— M 1* f —e- * —1® V 4 f— -f-— £H= —1-
£. 35
Pattern 3".
£ m
Obviously, many variations of meter and fill-ins
(rhythmic patterns) are possible as shown in Patterns 4 and
5. In a teaching situation the patterns can be first played by the teacher, setting up the aural image for a beginning student. Once the rim tones are established, the student may be able to improvise some fill-ins in addition to imitating the fill-ins of the teacher. In fact, this exercise might be good preparation for a short improvisa tion.
Pattern 4. 36
Pattern 5.
Whiteside suggested that one always return to the rim tones between each variation of the fill-ins, and she emphasized that there should be many more repetitions of rim tones than of fill-ins. It is imperative that the swaying motion of the torso be continuous because the swaying body produces the feeling of when to land on the next rim tone, i.e., the distance is gauged by the body. Counting in between rim tones is unnecessary because the body and the aural image become fused. When this occurs, artistry begins. Polyrhythms such as two against three (Pattern 6) are learned efficiently using this tool. Pattern 7 shows the entire procedure for practicing a polyrhythm: C and G are played first in both hands, then the right hand continues rim tones while the left hand plays the fill-ins, then both hands once again play rim tones, followed by the right hand playing the fill-ins. This procedure of reversing the rim tones and the fill-ins between the two hands is continued until both rhythms have been thoroughly ingrained in the 37 body and in the ear. The actual two against three pattern can be "slipped in," followed by the whole procedure being repeated. Rim tones should always be played many more times than the fill-ins. Pattern 6. mm L. mu Pattern 7. Repeat many times; Then: /jP\ a J. J 5 da capo s' m 6 Splashing This is a simple technique used to achieve what Whiteside called an "emotional rhythm." She explained that splashing was one more tool for achieving an exciting performance and reducing inhibitions: All my life I have remembered the virtuosity and abandon of my performances on the window sill before there was a piano in the house. Because I have been teaching most of my life and struggling to find the answers to 38 achieving an exciting performance, I have thought, 'If only there were a way to capture and preserve that childlike abandon and delight in performance while an equipment for playing is in progress. What a tremendous step ahead we should be in achieving our goals 1*37 Using a basic rhythm to provide for the emotional outlet, tone clusters are played with abandonment ("splashed") all over the keyboard, always with the five fingers poised or in "readiness" while the upper arm moves anywhere around the keyboard. Any rhythmic pattern can be used or improvised. For a student who already has a clear aural image of a particular piece but is not ready to reproduce it accurately, splashing may be a very good first step to learning. Tone clusters using the full range of the keyboard may be splashed using the rhythmic patterns, dynamics, and mood (including tempo) of the piece. The splashing can become progressively more accurate aiming for the necessary positions, but it must never break the musical momentum or interrupt the musical destination. A beginning student may be able to use splashing as an introduction to improvising. Playing glissandos up and down the keyboard is a variant on this learning tool, teaching continuity of motion and instilling the sense of going forward (rhythm of form), while using the upper arm and torso to achieve both. Whiteside concludes: All teachers should be concerned with learning how to use an exciting rhythm at the beginning—not after every other habit has been formed that could make it difficult to use a rhythm. Splashing chords with abandon all over the keyboard in an improvisational manner, using rhythmic patterns and getting closer and closer to the related keyboard positions, when imitating a bravura piece, seems to be a real clue to the problem.38 REFERENCES 1Abby Whiteside. Indispensables of piano playing. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1955, p. 24 2Abby Whiteside. Mastering the Chopin £tudes and other essays. Edited by Joseph Prostakoff and Sophia Rosoff. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969, p. 198. 3Ibid. ^Joseph Prostakoff. The essence of Abby Whiteside. The Piano Quarterly, Summer 1984, 32^ (126), p. 34. 5Ibid. ^Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 45. 7Ibid., p. 137. ®Ibi<3., p. 138. 9Ibid., p. 139. 10Ibid., p. 198. ^Prostakoff, The essence of Abby Whiteside. P. 34. 12Whiteside, Indispensables of piano playing. P. 31. 13Ibid. ^•^Ibid. 15Ibid., p. 32. 16Ibid., p. 32-33. 17"Fuicrum," The Random House dictionary of the English language: College edition. Laurence Urdang, editor in chief. New York: Random House, 1968, p. 534. !8whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 116. 40 41 ^Whiteside, indispensables of piano playing. P. 33. 20Ibid. 2^-Ibid. 22Ibid., p. 33-34. 23Prostakoff, The essence of Abby Whiteside. P. 34. 24whiteside, Indispensables of piano playing. P. 146. 25Ibid. 26Ibid., p. 147. 2?Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 193. 2®Ibi<3., p. 56. 29 Ibid.f p. 57. ^Oprostakoff, The essence of Abby Whiteside. P. 39. 31Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 192. 32Ibid. 33 Ibid.f p. 56. 34 Ibid.f p. 61. ^Whiteside, Indispensables of piano playing. P. 127. 36Ibid., p. 130. 3?Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes. P. 154. 3®Ibid., p. 156. CHAPTER III APPLICATION OP THE TOOLS This chapter contains five excerpts selected from the piano repertoire which present rhythmical and technical problems. Whiteside's tools are used in the analysis and solution of the performance problems. Excerpt 1 is from the coda of the second movement of the Schumann Fantasy, op. 17, a notoriously difficult section and an especially fine example of how the upper arm and torso work together to produce a basic rhythm and rhythm of form. The technical demands of the large leaps occurring simultaneously in both hands are further compli cated by the rhythmic figure itself: • The 16th notea which start the pattern are slurred to the 8th notes (often across bar lines), and this figure is relentlessly repeated for 25 measures, later expanding to octaves. The new phrase always begins in the middle of the measure (on beat three) and it is clear that, although the 16th notes start the rhythmic pattern, the accent is heard on the 8th note following on the first beat of the measure. 42 43 Excerpt 1: Schumann, Fantasy, op. 17, 2nd mvt., bars 232-238. Moltopiu mosjo ^ & L •£& "mile rp rt ft rf 8: Outlines 1A and IB indicate the musical "stepping stones," i.e. the important notes in the passage, and establish a basic rhythm. Outline 1A sets up the 16th note thirds on the bottom of the leap, and Outline IB estab lishes the 8th notes on the top of the leap. Both outlines should be played many times until a basic rhythm is firmly established. Once this has been accomplished, the filling in process may begin (Outlines 1C and ID). 44 Outline 1A. /^TTT. z=s IS 7- fr 7 7 ? y 7 ? 2 m 'h\\ 7'tr| 7 7- T 7'=f= r f 7- tk ^ I* T 7 7lj^=£ ? ? y- t± §/i, i i T 3=5 Outline IB. 1= 7 7 _j 7 7 1 " 7 7 7 ? k 7 ^ 7 3-Jfcr-^ =4s 3==Z= ¥ 4=^ 3=£ 1 * C »t I 7 ? rj: etc. a Outline 1C. fi-Hryi n _••. J? j v . ' ki ' * 7 J 7* 7 i,t ' i X* etc, T T T f Lf T y f Ta _:-f 7. t 7. *C ^ • /• / 1 fe-.. 45 Outline ID. M The technical problem of the leaps is particularly well handled by Outline ID. The distance is taken by the upper arm, always aided by the torso. The basic rhythm creates the physical and emotional momentum which "powers" or facilitates the leaps. Repeating this step many times, the performer can make subtle adjustments of balance for pitch accuracy. Once the basic rhythm and pitch accuracy are secure, the rest of the details may be added one step at a time (Outlines IE, IF, and 1G). Outline IE. 4ft- 33 f ,t , r. i *e=¥ etc. 1 f 1 Hi 1 [J: 46 Outline IF. fc* A', /ff , t T f „ ft , (\ f (1 «=£ etc. f) * 1,7 r T Outline 1G. /T *E etc. is 1^B= ~7 f 1 *T In summary, the Whiteside approach always begins with the largest units, that is, the phrase-wise progression (rhythm of form) and proceeds to details. This creates a rhythmic gesture inherent to the specific composition being played. After the rhythmic gesture is completely integrated physically and emotionally, the filling-in of details begins. In most traditional methods of musical learning and practicing procedures, exactly the opposite is true. The details are slowly learned and built up to create a phrase or group of phrases, i.e., a note-to-note learning process. Excerpt 2 is a passage from the "Preambule" of Schumann's Carnaval. The problem is one of cross rhythms; 47 the left hand provides a steady downbeat on the first beat every two bars against which a cross rhythm on beats 2, 3, and 1 is played in every bar of the right hand part. Excerpt 2: Schumann, Carnaval, op. 9, "Preambule,11 bars 27-35. tempi* ff fl t j j | | •J • 3 v ^ V \ cf 5 A basic outline (the series of outlines follow a procedure similar to that of excerpt 1) which stresses the downbeats must be established initially. Outline 2A (showing the downbeats every two bars) stresses the tonic pitches in the bass and indicates that the patterns in the left hand are organized in two-bar units. Outline 2B adds 48 the cross rhythms in the right hand, maintaining the two- bar unit. Outline 2A. a55 I !T Outline 2B. AV-y, r v f r to" M r IfT 4—1 1- t 1 £ b=*=*= —__— ——— - Outline 2C begins the filling-in process. Downbeats are played in every measure because the cross rhythms need the stabilizing element of the primary accent. Outline 2D adds the opening bar of the excerpt (for the left hand only) and the other places where it occurs in the bass line. Outline 2E adds all the opening bar motives for the right hand except where both hands play the motive a beat apart (bars 27, 31, and 35). Outline 2F completes the rest of the left hand, still omitting the right-hand motives in 49 bars 27, 31, and 35. The final outline should complete the rest of the passage omitting only the grace notes and expressive markings; these should not be added until everything else is very stable and accurate. Outline 2C. i ? i I5=3= =f=t t Outline 2D. J ? y 15 I ±3= t tiLll£ 3=fc §= r ffl i & Outline 2B. S3 jL-A. w etc. r'rVi 3=Sfc £ ^ t 1 J 1 I f w 50 Outline 2F. *T~. "i 1 fllUn - i 'n* Tftr i * s) -4- i— —»— k etc. a-^7.. ^ . J * f , f \> r q A A comparison of the outlines for these first two excerpts indicates that the procedure for each is quite different. In Excerpt 1 (Schumann Fantasy) the first two basic outlines represent two very different patterns: the thirds on the bottom of the leap versus the single notes on the top of the leap. In contrast, the second excerpt (Schumann Carnaval) offers two basic outlines which are related; Outline 2B is really an addition to Outline 2A. Another distinction between the procedures for Excerpts 1 and 2 is the order of the filling-in process. Excerpt 1 fills the four-beat unit in reverse order; last beats of each group are filled first, and so on. In the Excerpt 2 series of outlines this procedure is eliminated because the problem of the cross rhythms must be addressed first and foremost. Thus, there is never an arbitrary manner in which outlines are to be applied, nor is there an arbitrary ordering of the filling-in procedure. The performer's instincts must always be considered, the only requirement 51 being that a basic rhythm is set up at the beginning, sensing the role of the upper arm and torso to create a larger rhythm of form. In the basic outlines of these two examples, there is plenty of "temporal space" in which to feel the progression of phrases. At this stage, also, the emotions become integrated with the basic rhythm. This is extremely important and sets the stage for the learning process which is to follow and ultimately affects the final interpretation. The basic rhythm need not always begin on first beats nor always on first stresses in the phrase, either. As Whiteside stated, rhythm does not involve meter, but rather a constant physical, undulating motion of upper arms and torso in piano playing. Excerpt 3 illustrates these concepts by offering different rhythmic problems, thereby requiring different solutions. Excerpt 3 is a passage from the first movement of the Samuel Barber Piano Sonata, bars 35 through 41. These 4 5 10 seven bars offer metric shifts ( , , ), tempo 4 8 8 changes (espressivo, in bar 37, stringendo in bar 39, and a tempo in bar 41), and subdivisions of the quarter note (16ths, sextuplets, triplets, doubly dotted 8ths followed by 32nds). Polyrhythms occur in almost every measure, as does a particularly troubling motive which has stresses at both the beginning and end of the figure J o« "fff\ J >• 52 Excerpt 3: Barber Piano Sonata, 1st mvt.: bars 35-41. ^ if ^ r-~-— , l>. expressive) f t , it*.">gendo (, a tempo -M '7 1 Upon closer examination the excerpt seems almost improvisatory in its character. Three rhythmic motives unify this transitional passage: 1) MJ- a>(^ , and 3))) or I J An accurate aural image of the motives can be accomplished by "splashing" the three motives all over the keyboard in any sequence. During the early stages of the splashing process, no pitch accuracy is needed. Therefore, improvisation using the three rhythmic motives is suggested. As the patterns begin to become more familiar, it is necessary to return to the score and 53 incorporate the patterns in the order which is notated on the page; the hands may trade off because reading the polyrhythms at this point may be too difficult. Because pitch accuracy is not necessary, two things are being accomplished at this splashing stage: a basic rhythm and an emotional reaction to the music. Splashing patterns anywhere and everywhere on the keyboard should be continued, and dynamics and tempo changes as indicated in the score may be added. When the basic rhythm and rhythm of form are firmly established, pitch accuracy may be accomplished through a series of outlines. Again, the order of the filling-in process of the following outlines may be decided by the pianist. Outline 3A works with the m)motive which happens to fall on beat one of every measure in addition to other beats in bars 39 and 40. Since this pattern falls on first beats, it is a good choice for a first outline, as it creates a rhythm of form allowing the body and ear to feel and hear the ongoing phrase-wise progression. 54 Outline 3A. 0 0 0 \1 n n n n n EE ¥ * j_i 3 7 7 |i-l-l J ^ V T if** A i£ 7 7 Si j < i i •« ia * Tl s~9 m -f IS f l J ^ 0 t t i £ =J± i J J i -i s3=i??ir* 033 E* i Outline 3B uses the rhythmic motive or its variants. Outline 3C uses the sextuplet motive ff[f f f . After these three outlines have been practiced, any combination of motives may be added and a gradual filling- in of details may be continued. It is necessary to keep the underlying basic rhythm going at all times with a return to any of the three basic outlines when needed. Without stopping in between the various filling-in stages, all the details should gradually be added. Rhythmical accuracy should be attempted only after the fill-ins have been completed. At this point the rhythm of form, firmly established in the body and the ear, will provide the 55 framework for the intricacies of the polymeters, poly- rhythms, and tempo changes. Outline 3B. c ? ?— —7 7 7 -A—Jw ¥—ftr1 1 (tfr , Ji i— —t— _g i L_£ i X £— • j r i •5 i T n w +* «•» -f c ' M -g—i 2—?- f r— —2—I—. . 4 T p "f* ^ &— nf=Fir •* T 10 m —f— \J 1 ' —6 —5— -ff < 4u •# fO mm __ £3EE-? 7""1 £ -ft— Outline 3C. »r, f i -3—t £ !t u z zL3=2: l£ b f~\ »•• -» ru itTr i i rrt /ri fiVri * -i [h - 1 MINI—1111 ^L •» = A S (h? 3 ii *• 1 7 ? 114? T 1 •> 7 Tl nP 56 Excerpt 4, the Chopin Prelude in d minor, op. 28, no. 3, provides an excellent study in polyrhythms. At first glance, the pianist might wonder how it is possible to "fit" 28 notes (bar 14) into one 6/8 bar, especially at an "allegro appassionata" tempo. The technique used for learning a meter by subdividing a time unit may be applied here. 57 Excerpt 4: Chopin, op. 28, no. 24, bars 1-17 Allegro appiissionulo « 'to. # 'to. Because all the preludes use repetitive rhythmic patterns, a basic rhythm is obvioue and easy to outline. In Excerpt 4, Outline 4A uses the bass tones on the strong beats. Once the basic rhythm has been established, the specific problems in bars 13 and 14 should be addressed; this can be accomplished by first playing the "rim tones" (Outline 4B). Outline 4C consists of the basic rhythm in the left hand plus the rim tones in the right hand. After this is learned/ a second step may be added to this outline by adding a right hand glissando on the white keys to the left hand basic rhythm; the glissando simulates the scale movement, providing the feeling of physical continuity of the upper arm when the scale itself is being played. Outline 4A. m Outline 4B. 59 Outline 4C. t-Z~. 7 *7 r ? 7 7 £ 1 Y g J adding the etc. glissando:. -k-T—•? 17 *71 .r ? 7 7 -7 7 7 > 7 77- J J Whiteside liked the glissando scale and often suggested its use because she felt it strengthened the kinesthetic sense of upper arm involvement in a scale and provided the sense of musical destination or goal. She writes: "...Play a number of glissando scales where the horizontal progression completely dominates the operation. It is this horizontal action, the feeling of progression along the keyboard, which produces the feeling of form.* The tempo used when playing the glissando scale might be somewhat faster than the tempo of the actual scale, but this is not a problem at this stage in the learning process. The sense of horizontal movement and musical destination, rather than rate of speed, are the goals. Outline 4D shows a series of steps to complete the filling-in process with many repetitions of individual steps. Steps 1 and 2 dispense with the glissando scale, and Step 2 fills more of the left hand patterns along with rim tones in the right hand. Once the rim tones and left *Abby Whiteside. Indispensables of piano playing. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1955, p. 133. 60 hand patterns are physically and aurally secure, Step 3 adds the right hand glissando scale to the left hand details. After many repetitions, the right hand scale with the conventional fingering may be added. In between adding details, only the rim tones in both hands should be played. The complete sequence of steps follows (Outline 4D). Outline 4D. Step 1 Step 2 Repeat many times Step 3 •* Step 4 —Repeat many times Step 5 Step 6 P'play R.H. as written,/ etc. f Step 7 Step 8 • Step 9 Play as written 61 Excerpt 5 contains three phrases (the second and third are variants of the first) from the second movement of Beethoven's "Tempest" Sonata, op. 31, no. 2. Slow move ments nearly always present interpretive problems and are a challenge of the first order in holding the attention of the audience. Beautiful playing with true rhythm of form, i.e., a musical destination, will always meet that chal lenge. Once again, the creation of a basic rhythm will help provide the solution. The three phrases ( bars 1-4, 43-46, and 51-54) are shown here because each phrase facilitates the learning of the other two; Beethoven himself has written variants on bars 1-4 (bars 43-46 and 51-54); bars 1-4 serve as an "outline" for bars 43-46 and 51-54. Excerpt 5: Beethoven, op. 31, no. 2, 2nd mvt., bars 1-4, 43-46, 51-54. Bars 1-4: Adueio. 62 Bars 43-46: V -tefcs-1 1 .4 4' — Bars 51-54; * % * The usual first step of playing the first beats of bars 1-4 (Outline 5A) provides the ear and the body with the feeling for the spatial and temporal distances; these distances seem very long indeed. All ornaments should be eliminated until the last stages of the filling-in process. The horizontal movement of the upper arm aided by the torso should be sensed between the first beats of each measure. The ear and the body should have a sense of the ongoing musical destination, thus creating the rhythm of form so essential for the interpretation of a slow movement. 63 Outline 5A. 4- r- 'frh E M f f 1 ^ P 7 * t . V 7 l - < ^—3—i—i— \J\h j f 7 I 7 ri— / 7 7 t i i i \ T Outline 5B uses bars 43-46, eliminating the short ~ notes, dotted rhythms, and ornaments. Outlines 5A and 5B should be played one after the other with many repetitions, until the rhythm of form is thoroughly felt. Outline 5B. m etc. vy*, } i EE 4 I When Outline 5B is very secure, then bars 51-54 are ready to be learned. Returning to Outline 5A? only first beats should be played in each measure; then, as the right hand pulses the meter (Outline 5B), the left hand fills in only the last beat (Outline 5C). The remaining details for the left hand are filled in as the process of repeating 64 Outlines 5B and 5C continues. Final details containing ornaments and dotted rhythms are added last. Outline 5C. r * y. b .3 . J A J -hf— — • etc. 1 / t i in l M Ufo H- *T ' r * The results of this learning process are invaluable. Having used the basic structures or skeletons that the composer provided, the performer can achieve the goals of a long, horizontal line and musical continuity. CONCLUSION This paper has dealt primarily with Whiteside's concepts of rhythm and form and their relationship to one another. Although the connection has not been a tradition ally accepted one, Whiteside has presented a strong case for its vital and important role for the performing artist. She, however, is not alone in her thinking. Cone discusses their interrelationship: ...valid performance depends primarily on the perception and communication of the rhythmic life of a composition. That is to say, we must first discover the rhythmic shape of a piece—which is what is meant by its form—and then try to make it as clear as possible to our listeners.... Such a comprehensive form can be made clear in perfor mance, however, only by virtue of another prin ciple: that the whole is more important than any of its parts.1 Langer concurs with this view: The commanding form of a piece of music contains its basic rhythm, which is at once the source of its organic unity and its total feeling. The concept of rhythm as a relation between tensions rather than as a matter of equal divisions (i.e. meter) makes it quite comprehensible that harmonic progressions, resolutions of dissonances, directions of "running" passages, and "tendency tones" in melody serve as rhythmic agents.2 What Whiteside was able to discover from her study of the relationship between rhythm and form proved to be highly innovative. First, she offered a definition of 65 66 rhythm which can be expressed in purely physical terms at the keyboard. She called rhythm "that continuous activity in the arms and torso which control the total physical apparatus as the>performer plays a composition." She was then able to find practice techniques to implement it. Second, Whiteside insisted that the body worked as a unified whole to produce sound in piano playing; she referred to this as a "blended coordination." She ab solutely rejected the notion of independence of fingers in order to play and felt that this concept would produce isolated articulations or what she called: "separate initiations of power" which would destroy the long musical line or phrase-wise progression of the music. Gerig, in summarizing Whiteside's approach, describes accurately her thinking but casts his vote for traditional methods: The case which Abby Whiteside built in Indispensables of Piano Playing for total bodily involvement and interrelated action is a brilliant one and should be of great interest to the piano student....But it still must be considered,...that an individual playing movement is most efficient in terms of control over velocity, tonal intensity, and legato when its lever, the finger, moves independently under its own muscular power against a fixed base that exerts no influence upon the lever.3 Miss Whiteside would have disagreed most vehemently with this statement. Perhaps Whiteside's most important contribution, and certainly an original one, concerned her definition of rhythm which related it to emotion. She defined rhythm for 67 all musicians when she stated that rhythm is an emotional ly involved power which, in response to an auditory image, moves in a balanced, centered, lilting way towards a distant musical goal. She understood that emotion was what originated a rhythm, and this she called "emotional rhythm." This emotional rhythm was then experienced by the total coordination of the body to produce a beautiful and compelling performance. Rosoff describes the whole procedure: It is the body as a whole that transfers the idea of the music into the actual physical production of music, which must be centrally controlled by the ear. An emotionally activated, exciting rhythm is the only means by which the entire playing mechan ism can be brought into action. It's one's emotional response to the aural image that makes one move in a particular way, and that's what makes the coordination.4 Whiteside taught that the musician must use emotion to create an exciting rhythm which in turn would allow his natural coordination to express the music. This concept of emotional rhythm was uniquely hers and provides an invalu able learning tool for the musician. REFERENCES ^•Edward T. Cone. Musical form and musical performance New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1968, p. 38-39. 2Susanne K. Langer. Feeling and form: A theory of art. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953, p. 129. 3Reginald Gerig. Famous Pianists and their techniques New York: Robert B. Luce Inc., 1974, p. 478. 4Sophia Rosoff. What's wrong with our piano playing. Keyboard Classics, November 1984, 4_ (6), p. 47. 68 APPENDIX Whiteside's Terminology 69 70 Auditory image: the music which is heard by the performer/ and, therefore, what he responds to when playing. Basic rhythm, rhythm, rhythm of form; used interchangeably by Whiteside when defining rhythm as a physical process, a continuous motion which carries the music to its destina tion. Rhythm of form or basic rhythm is a larger rhythm encompassing meter and moving from phrase to phrase producing the inherent structure and form of the composi tion. She distinguished between this and rhythm of meter which she described as the rhythm of note values or separate articulations. Whiteside often referred to rhythm of meter as the "details" of the music. Blended activity: describes the total coordination of the body mechanism (torso, upper arm, forearm, hand, fingers) to produce sound in piano playing. This principle opposed the notion of isolation of movements in piano playing. Center or body center: the torso and upper arm in piano playing. The periphery is the outer part of the body or the fingers in the case of piano playing. Fill-ins or filling in: the modifiers or the details which are gradually added in Whiteside's outlining procedure. Sometimes she referred to filling in as "tucking in." 71 Outlining: a way of practicing the music in which only the highlights or musical stepping stones of the piece are played. In Whiteside's earlier works she sometimes referred to it as pulsing or scanning. Power: in the early writings a general term used to describe the energy used at the keyboard to produce a musical phrase similar to the role of the breath in wind playing or the bow in string playing. In later writings, the term became more specific, meaning the energy generated by the torso at the chair seat to produce sound. Rim tones: the destination points of larger time units. The time units could be first beats of measures or the first part of a beat if it were subdivided. Splashing: tone clusters which are played with abandonment all over the keyboard using the rhythmic patterns of the piece being studied. Top arm: the part of the arm above the elbow, also called the upper arm. BIBLIOGRAPHY Published Materials Books and Articles Cone, Edward T. Musical form and musical performance. New York: W.W. Norton, Co., 1968. Gerig, Reginald R. Famous pianists and their techniques. New York: Robert B. Luce Inc., 1974. Glasford, Irene J. Rhythm, reason, response for the musician, pianist, teacher. Jericho, New York: Exposition Press, 1970. Langer, Susanne K. Feeling and form: A theory of art. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953. Meyer, Leonard B. Emotion and meaning in music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956. Ortmann, Otto. The physical basis of piano touch and tone: An experimental investigation of the effect of the player's touch upon the tone of the piano. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., J. Curwen & Sons, Ltd., 1925. . The physiological mechanics of piano technique: An experimental study of the nature of muscular action as used in piano playing, and of the effects thereof upon the piano key and the piano tone. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, & Co., Ltd., 1929. Prostakoff, Joseph. The essence of Abby Whiteside. The Piano Quarterly, 1984. 3j2, (126), p. 34-40. Rosoff, Sophia. What's wrong with our piano playing. Keyboard Classics, 1984, £ (6), p. 46-47. Sachs, Curt. Rhythm and tempo. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1953. 72 73 Todd, Mabel E. The thinking body: A study of the balancing forces of dynamic man. New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1937. Whiteside, Abby. Indispensables of piano playing. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1955. • . Mastering the Chopin Etudes and other essays. Edited by Joseph Prostakoff and Sophia Rosoff. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969. . The physical sensation comes first. Edited by R. Sabin. Musical America, 1951, 2A (16), p. 25. The pianist's mechanism: A guide to the production and transmission of power in playing. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1929. Music Barber, Samuel. Sonata for Piano. New York: G. Schirmer, 1950. Beethoven, Ludwig van. Sonaten: Band II. Edited by Louis Koehler and Adolf Ruthardt. New York: C.F. Peters, (n.d.). Chopin, Frederic. Preludes. Edited by Ewald Zimmerman. Muenchen: G. Henle Verlag, 1968. Schumann, Robert. Carnaval, op. 9. Edited by Harold Bauer. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1944. Schumann, Robert. Fantasia, op. 17. Edited by Clara Schumann. New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, (n.d.). Unpublished Materials Dissertation Boardman, Roger C. A history of theories of teaching piano technic (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1954). Dissertation Abstracts, 1955, ljj, p. 272. (University Microfilms Publication No. 10,621). Interview Rosoff, Sophia. New York, New York. Spring, 1987. Report Whiteside, Abby. Diary entry for November 5, 1930. A report to the friends of the Abby Whiteside Foundation, 1981-82.