How Reading Recovery Teaches the Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction and More Mary Anne Doyle University of Connecticut

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Fall 2003 How Reading Recovery Teaches the Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction and More Mary Anne Doyle University of Connecticut

Salli Forbes University of Iowa

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Recommended Citation Doyle, Mary Anne and Forbes, Salli, "How Reading Recovery Teaches the Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction and More" (2003). Curriculum & Instruction Faculty Publications. 30. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/ci_facpub/30

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at UNI ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Curriculum & Instruction Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of UNI ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Teaching How Reading Recovery Teaches the Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction and More National Reading Panel Recommendations—and Beyond Mary Anne Doyle, University of Connecticut Salli Forbes, The University of Iowa

Consequently, the influence of these reports extends to schools and reading programs nationally. The purpose of this article is to review Reading Recovery in light of recommendations for early reading instruction detailed in the reports. Understandably, these recommendations are now held by national and state education policy makers as para- mount for instructional programs offered beginning readers. In most instances the Panel’s instructional recommendations must be accounted for in order to secure federal and state Mary Anne Doyle Salli Forbes funds for reading programs. School administrators, classroom teachers, In 1997 Congress called for the direc- pertaining to selected topics of begin- and parents may tor of the National Institute of Child ning reading instruction. Their goal very well query Health and Human Development was to glean implications for begin- Reading (NICHD), in consultation with the ning reading instruction based on sci- Recovery Secretary of Education, to convene a entific evidence. national panel to assess the status of The NRP reported its findings research-based knowledge, including in two documents the effectiveness of various approaches published by the to teaching children to read (NICHD, NICHD (2000a, 2000a, p. 1). The resulting 14- 2000b). These member National Reading Panel reports, the basis for (NRP or Panel) included reading information on read- researchers, representatives of colleges ing instruction cur- of education, educational administra- rently being dissemi- tors, a classroom teacher, a parent, nated by the United and a medical doctor (Yatvin, 2002). States Department of The work completed by the NRP Education, served as the involved identification and meta- theoretical foundation of analyses of the experimental and the No Child Left quasi-experimental research literature Behind Act of 2001.

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teachers about the inclusion of the have no importance or that The Panel’s screening process recommended elements in the assess- improvement in those areas identified experimental and quasi- ment and instructional practices of would not lead to greater read- experimental studies. For several top- Reading Recovery. This article ing achievement. It was simply ics, the number of studies identified addresses those concerns and details the sheer number of studies was sufficient to allow the Panel to how the essential elements for begin- identified by Panel staff relevant conduct statistical meta-analyses. For ning reading instruction are presented to reading…that precluded an those topics for which there were too in Reading Recovery instruction. exhaustive analysis of the few studies to meet the established research in all areas of potential criteria for a meta-analysis, the NRP Before presenting specific details of interest (NICHD, 2000a, p. 3). conducted more subjective, qualitative Reading Recovery instruction relative analyses of the research (NICHD, to the recommendations of the NRP, One especially important area that 2000a). we will review how the NRP estab- was apparently beyond the scope of lished the topics studied, the five the Panel’s work was the role that In discussions of the findings, the essential elements the panel identified, writing plays in children’s develop- NRP report emphasizes the significant and how the panel selected the ment of literacy (Yatvin, 2002). benefits of instruction in the five research reviewed. We will also present Nevertheless, the Panel chose to exam- essential elements for learners of vary- the definition of reading they adopted ine questions relative to these five top- ing abilities. Therefore, the recom- for their work and detail how recom- ics as “they currently reflect the cen- mendations for classroom programs mendations for classroom programs tral issues in reading instruction and are proposed by the Panel as essential, were identified. reading achievement” (NICHD, not only for regular classroom teach- 2000a, p. 3). ing, but equally for children with reading difficulties. However, the Five Essential Elements The topics and essential elements were Panel did not focus specifically on The NRP investigated research in assigned to subgroups that reviewed early interventions for at-risk learners three areas of reading competence that and analyzed carefully selected and did not seek to identify recom- they identified as essential for reading research in order to identify effective mendations of alternative instruction- instruction: alphabetics, fluency, and instructional approaches for classroom al procedures for students having dif- comprehension. In relation to these applications. Studies that were includ- ficulty learning to read. three areas, the Panel detailed the five ed in the analyses met the Panel’s “rig- essential elements listed below: orous research methodological stan- In contrast to the approach of the A. Alphabetics dards” and “had to measure reading as Panel to generalize from research done 1. Phonemic Awareness an outcome” (NICHD, 2000a, p. 5). with a wide range of learners to the Instruction For the purpose of identifying appro- needs of students having difficulty 2. Phonics Instruction priate studies, the Panel adopted a learning to read, Marie Clay designed B. Fluency definition of reading that included Reading Recovery specifically for 3. Fluency Instruction “several behaviors such as the follow- those children who struggle with ini- C. Comprehension ing: reading real words in isolation or tial literacy instruction. She cautions 4. Vocabulary Instruction in context, reading pseudo-words that that the instructional procedures in 5. Comprehension can be pronounced but have no Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Instruction meaning, reading text aloud or silent- Teachers in Training (Clay, 1993) are ly, and comprehending text that is not recommended for classroom pro- The NRP explicitly recognized that read silently or orally” (NICHD, grams. Rather, they have been trialled these elements are not an exhaustive 2000a, p. 5). The additional criteria and evaluated empirically with that list of important factors in learning to for selection were that the studies had specific subset of the general first- read: been published in refereed journals grade population identified as at risk The Panel’s silence on other and that the studies focused on chil- of failure in first-grade classroom pro- topics should not be interpreted dren’s reading development in the age grams (Clay, 1993). This article does as indication that other topics and grade range from preschool to not recommend using procedures Grade 12.

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designed for Reading Recovery instruction in a classroom setting. Reading Recovery teachers understand that this caution derives from the research base of the Reading Recovery program and that generalizing beyond the population studied is inappropri- ate. Reading Recovery was designed with a clearly articulated definition of successful reading. Clay writes that reading is “a message-getting, problem- solving activity which increases in power and flexibility the more it is practised” (1991, p. 6). Therefore, “within the directional constraints of the printer’s code, language and visual perception responses are purposefully It is in writing that the learner segments language and attends to discrete phonemes directed by the reader in some inte- in the act of recording messages. grated way to the problem of extract- ing meaning from cues in a text, in and taught in the Reading Recovery tions to read or spell words” sequence, so that the reader brings a intervention. In the spring 2004 issue (NICHD, 2000a, p. 7). Conse- maximum of understanding to the of this journal, we will address the ele- quently, the two recommended ele- author’s message” (Clay, 1991, p. 6). ments of comprehension and vocabu- ments are This definition is based on many lary development. In both articles we 1. phonemic awareness instruc- research studies of successful readers will also describe an additional essen- tion (e.g., Clay, 1982, 1991, 2001; Imlach tial element identified by Clay (1991, 2. phonics instruction & Clay, 1982; Ng, 1979). The theory 1993, 2001): the element of strategic acknowledges both the complexity of processing. Our certain belief is that Understandings and instructional rec- the successful reader’s behaviors and development of this element, a sixth ommendations relative to these areas the complexity of instructional pro- essential element, allows young read- are complex, and development of a grams needed for struggling readers. ers the capacity to learn and use the reader’s facility with these elements is The work of the NRP and the work other five essential elements. not simply linear. For, while phone- of Marie Clay differ in the definitions mic awareness is considered basic, it is of reading held, in the populations of Alphabetics: Phonemic not a single concept (Cunningham, learners studied, and in the practice of Awareness and Phonics 2000), meaning that while it con- generalizing from the research to all tributes to initial understanding of the readers and learners. These are impor- Alphabetics alphabetic principle, it may not be tant differences to bear in mind while The general term alphabetics refer- fully grasped until the child has considering the discussion of instruc- ences the alphabetic principle of our learned to read and write. tional procedures detailed below. written English language. Written words are comprised of letters Phonemic Awareness Instruction This article presents information (graphemes) that represent the sounds Phonemic awareness refers to the about alphabetics (phonemic aware- of language (phonemes). Briefly, child’s abilities to recognize that spo- ness and phonics) and fluency, as they phonemic awareness is considered ken words are comprised of discrete are described in the NRP Reports of basic to this understanding, and sounds (phonemes). Phonemes are the the Subgroups (NICHD, 2000b), and phonics instruction “entails teaching smallest units of sound in a word or details how these elements are assessed students how to use letter-sound rela- syllable. The word mat contains three

Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 3 Teaching

blending tasks (Adams, 1990). According to both Adams and Williams (1995), the most difficult tasks, the phonemic awareness tasks, seem “to develop only after instruction in word recognition has taken place” (Williams, 1995, p. 185). And it is the difficult phonemic awareness tasks that correlate highly with success in beginning reading (Adams, 1990; NICHD, 2000b; Williams, 1995). In general, the relationship between phonemic awareness and reading is complex. Research has revealed that for children who develop phonemic awareness early, through preschool language and literacy experiences, this Reading Recovery teachers incorporate attention to developing each learner’s early phonemic awareness correlates phonemic awareness and ability to analyze the discrete sounds of words in the with success in beginning reading writing component of the lesson. Explicit instruction, based on assessed needs, is (Adams, 1990). While this finding offered daily. seems to support the need for phonemic awareness training prior to begin- phonemes (/m/ /a/ /t/), the word little • “hear and create rhyming ning reading instruction, additional contains four phonemes (/l/ /i/ /t/ /l/), words research confirms that reading and and the prefix re- contains two • hear and create alliterations writing instruction also develop phonemes (/r/ /e/). In spoken English, • segment the flow of speech phonemic awareness, particularly if individual phonemes in word and syl- into separate words (concept the teacher is deliberate in attending lable production stream together, or of word) to this capability (Adams, 1990; are coarticulated; it is therefore very • hear syllables as ‘chunks’ in Juel, 1991). difficult to hear them distinctly. The spoken words Children acquire facility in using the understanding required of the learner • separate spoken words into sounds of their language as they in relation to phonemic awareness onsets and rimes (e.g., c-at; acquire oral language competence. tasks is analytic knowledge, that is, dr-ink) They manipulate and combine understanding that phonemes are • phonemic awareness: segment phonemes to produce comprehensible “abstractable and manipulable” spoken words into phonemes utterances: words, phrases, and sen- (Adams, 1990, p. 65). These are com- (e.g., c/a/t and d/r/i/n/k) and tences. Because their primary focus is plex tasks. blend phonemes into words” the communication of meaning, they (p. 93). Phonemic awareness is best defined as do not give specific attention to dis- one aspect of phonological awareness, The order of Chapman’s list corre- crete phonemes (the individual isolat- which entails “the awareness of vari- sponds to the level of difficulty associ- ed sounds). Facility with the sounds ous sound aspects of language (as dis- ated with phonological awareness of language exists “prior to entry to tinct from its meaning)” (Chapman, tasks in other discussions (see for school but not in the form needed by 2003, p. 92). Chapman (2003) details example, Adams, 1990). Young chil- the reader” (Clay, 1991, p. 322). In the various abilities expected of young dren can hear syllables and identify order for “the child to discover that children relative to phonological the onsets and rimes in words and syl- the single syllable which he hears real- awareness, or the sound aspects of oral lables more readily than they can deal ly contains three different sounds language, as follows: with phonemic segmentation and requires learning” (Clay, 1991, p. 82).

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Specific instruction is needed to that this test is not a pure measure of child to record the letters that are enable many children to hear the phonemic awareness. What the child known; the teacher writes any letters sounds in words. has learned about spelling, or orthog- the child may not know. As soon as raphy, may also appear in the written the child demonstrates control over “Instruction in phonemic awareness products (Clay, 2001, p. 112). the task of saying the word slowly, involves teaching children to focus on identifying discrete phonemes, and and manipulate phonemes in spoken Instruction in phonemic awareness is locating the positions of sounds with syllables and words” (NICHD, 2000a, presented in “the writing segment of the markers, the teacher shifts to ask- p. 7). According to the NRP, phone- the lessons, under the title ‘Hearing ing for the sounds in sequence (a mic awareness can be developed by and recording sounds in words’” beginning-to-end sound analysis). instruction that helps children (Clay, 2001, p. 22). These procedures “help the child think about the order The procedures used in hearing and 1. learn the letter names, of sounds in words…and help the recording sounds in words develop the shapes, and sounds along child to analyze a new word he wants child’s phonemic awareness by teach- with phonemic awareness; to write into its sequence of sounds” ing the learner to articulate words 2. focus on one or two types of (Clay, 1993, p. 32). Clay explains that slowly, to segment and isolate individ- phoneme manipulations; the procedures used are an adaptation ual phonemes, to identify the position 3. see how phonemic awareness of those suggested by Elkonin (Clay, of discrete phonemes within words, to relates to their reading and 1991), whose work is referenced by analyze the sounds of words sequen- writing (NICHD, 2000b). others (Adams, 1990; Williams, 1995) tially, and to link phonemes with the A further recommendation for class- as a valuable approach to training in letters and letter clusters that represent room programs is that phonemic phonemic analysis. them. These procedures have been awareness instruction does not need deliberately embedded in the writing The Reading Recovery teaching pro- to consume long periods of time to be portion of the lesson (Clay, 2001). It cedures provide a systematic approach effective. Programs lasting less than a is in writing that the learner segments that is directed by the teacher’s close total of 20 hours were found to be language and attends to discrete observation. Initially, teachers estab- more effective than longer programs phonemes in the act of recording mes- lish the task of articulating slowly and (NICHD, 2000b, p. 2-6). sages. The tasks therefore have an moving counters into a set of sound important application and connect boxes (lines outlining a specific box phonemic awareness to real communi- Reading Recovery Instruction for each discrete phoneme) as an aural cation. Ultimately, the child learns The Reports of the Subgroups task, a phonemic analysis task devoid that one way to write unknown words (NICHD, 2000b) suggests the need of letters or print. The teacher models is to analyze the sounds heard. for teachers to assess students’ phone- and directs this activity, accepting mic awareness prior to beginning approximations while working for the Gradually, the child becomes more instruction (p. 2-33). In the Reading child’s coordination of breaking a secure in the sequential analysis of Recovery context, assessments are word into sounds (phonemes) with sounds in words and expands knowl- administered before instruction pushing the appropriate counters. edge of letters of the alphabet (the begins. The Hearing and Recording focus of instruction in the letter iden- Next the teacher applies this process Sounds in Words task published in tification component of the Reading to words the child wants to write in the Observation Survey of Early Recovery lesson). The teacher later the daily stories. The focus is on hear- Literacy Achievement (Clay, 2002) shifts from sound boxes to letter ing the sounds in words, locating the yields evidence of how successful the boxes, a set of boxes with one box for position in the set of sound boxes, child is at hearing discrete sounds in each letter, with a focus on ortho- and representing each phoneme with words and representing them with graphic knowledge. The child is then the appropriate letter or letter cluster. graphemes: letters or letter clusters, or asked to say the word slowly and At first the teacher accepts any sound both. The child is given credit for think about the letters the child in any order and assists the child in every phoneme he represents correctly, would expect to see. even though a word may not be locating its position in the sound spelled conventionally. Clay advises boxes. The teacher encourages the Other researchers have documented

Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 5 Teaching

the power of allowing children to devoid of print; however, the NRP ships and applying this knowledge in explore words and represent sounds Reports of the Subgroups (NICHD, reading and spelling. Phonics instruc- using invented or phonemic spelling 2000b) suggests that “instruction may tion may be described either in terms in writing. Adams (1990) concludes be most effective when children are of the approach used to teach specific that such writing and spelling activity taught to manipulate phonemes with generalizations and rules (e.g., syn- promotes phonemic awareness and letters” (p. 2-6). The Panel advocates thetic, analytic, embedded) or in understanding of the alphabetic prin- phonemic awareness training as a pre- terms of the content covered (e.g., ciple. The Reports of the Subgroups requisite for beginning reading long vowel sounds, short vowel (NICHD, 2000b) states that when instruction. Other researchers suggest sounds, phonograms, etc.). The NRP instruction “involves teaching stu- that advanced phonemic awareness focused on alternative approaches to dents to segment words into skills develop as a result of learning to teaching phonics for their review and phonemes and to select letters for read and write (Chapman, 2003; meta-analysis, and they compared those phonemes, it is the equivalent of Williams, 1995). three types of programs: teaching students to spell words Reading Recovery teachers incorpo- 1. “synthetic programs that phonemically” (p. 2-34). rate attention to developing each emphasized teaching students Hearing and recording sounds in learner’s phonemic awareness and abil- to convert letters (graphemes) words, as taught in Reading Recovery ity to analyze the discrete sounds of to sounds (phonemes) and lessons, engages learners in experi- words in the writing component of then to blend the sounds to ences that create facility with phone- the lesson. Explicit instruction based form recognizable words; mic awareness and the challenging on assessed needs is offered daily. This 2. larger unit phonics programs tasks of segmenting and blending instruction is embedded in lessons that emphasized the analysis phonemes. Most importantly for engaging learners in a range of literacy and blending of larger sub- Reading Recovery teachers, this activ- experiences including letter work, parts of words (i.e., onsets, ity promotes independence in writing word study, and reading and writing rimes, phonograms, spelling and creates a reservoir of new under- continuous texts. From these lesson patterns) as well as standings, including the relationships components, the learner gains impor- phonemes; and between sounds and letters, that can tant concepts (e.g., about language, 3. miscellaneous phonics pro- be further developed and applied in print, text, and phonological aware- grams that taught phonics reading. ness) that support the acquisition of systematically but did this in more complex aspects of phonemic other ways” (NICHD, Summary awareness. Therefore, Reading 2000b, p. 2-132). Recovery instruction provides for both Phonemic awareness is identified by The findings revealed that the three the initial development of rudimenta- the NRP as an essential element of categories of programs were “more ry understandings of phonemic aware- beginning reading instruction as cor- effective than non-phonics approaches ness (i.e., in hearing and recording relational studies have established a in promoting substantial growth in sounds in words) and the ongoing strong relationship between this reading” (NICHD, 2000b, p. 2-132); extension of phonemic awareness abil- awareness and reading performance and yet there was no statistical advan- ities to ensure proficiency in reading. in the first 2 years of instruction. tage for any one of the three In the following section, phonological Phonemic awareness is the awareness approaches over the others. On the awareness, letter work, word study, that spoken words are comprised of basis of these findings, the Panel con- and word analysis are discussed fur- discrete phonemes. This understand- cluded that “systematic phonics ther. ing sets the stage for analyzing sounds instruction enhances children’s success in words to be written (spelling) and in learning to read and…is signifi- for decoding words in text via sound- Phonics Instruction cantly more effective than instruction ing and blending (phonics). Initially, The goal of phonics instruction is that teaches little or no phonics” training may involve manipulating development of the reader’s facility (NICHD, 2000a, p. 9). The Panel sounds (matching, segmenting, delet- with the alphabetic principle, i.e., further explains that “the hallmark of ing, combining) as an aural task understanding sound-symbol relation-

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systematic phonics programs is a individual students, based on elements beyond the individual letter delineated, sequential set of phonic assessment; (e.g., letter clusters, digraphs, sylla- elements that are taught explicitly and • includes alphabetic knowl- bles, prefixes, suffixes). The goal of systematically” (NICHD, 2000b, p. edge, phonemic awareness, Reading Recovery instruction is to 2-89). More detail of the content of vocabulary development and support the reader’s acquisition of phonics instruction is offered in the the reading of text” (p. 16). flexible working systems for process- Put Reading First (Armbruster, Lehr, ing print using all sources of informa- Reading Recovery Instruction. & Osborn, 2003) document that tion. Reading Recovery instruction devel- states ops the reader’s understanding of the Reading Recovery instruction that “Effective programs offer phon- alphabetic principle (the letter-sound builds the child’s facility with the ics instruction that correspondences) and ability to use alphabetic principle begins in early • helps teachers…instruct chil- knowledge of letters and sounds in lessons, is individualized, is presented dren in how to relate letters both reading and writing tasks. This in a well-sequenced manner, and pro- and sounds, how to break spo- knowledge (letter-sound correspon- vides applications of new learning to ken words into sounds, and dences) is but one source of informa- authentic reading and writing tasks. how to blend sounds to form tion the reader may draw from in Readers may begin with very rudi- words; order to read with meaning. Reading mentary skills; however, their knowl- • helps students understand is an active, decision-making process. edge and abilities grow in depth and why they are learning the rela- Therefore, readers may use phonologi- breadth over time. The teaching is tionships between letters and cal information to monitor letter- explicit, and the content is presented sounds; sound correspondences, to search for within the full range of lesson compo- • helps students apply their letter-sound correspondences, or to nents: reading activities (familiar and knowledge of phonics as they confirm letter-sound correspondences novel texts), writing activities, and the read words, sentences, and as needed. However, knowledge of decontextualized activities (letter work text; letter-sound correspondences alone is and word work). • helps students apply what they not adequate. Proficient readers attend The Reading Recovery teacher, learn about sounds and letters to a rich range of information sources trained to be an expert observer and to their own writing; (e.g., at the semantic, syntactic, and proficient planner of appropriately • can be adapted to the needs of word levels) as well as phonological sequenced instruction, controls the specific content of phonics instruction for each child. Instructional goals are focused not only on strengthening the reader’s facility to integrate knowledge of the alphabetic system into networks of processing systems for reading and writing, but also on the acceleration of learning. Therefore, • the child’s skills determine the sequence, • the word segments attended to are those used by good readers at this level of learning to read, • the sequence is ordered by psychological rather than logical factors (Clay, 1993). Readers may begin with very rudimentary skills; however, their knowledge and abilities grow in depth and breadth over time.

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In the Reading Recovery context, the This instruction occurs within the Reading Recovery teachers emphasis of instruction is based on framework of the Reading Recovery give careful attention to assessment and ongoing observations lesson, which was “designed to ensure of the learner. Specific foci change daily coverage of necessary sub- introducing letters of the over time as the reader gains under- component skills or strategies in a lit- alphabet. This instruction standing and demonstrates ability to eracy processing model” (Clay, 2001, is based on assessment and apply new learning independently. p. 221). Studies of the effectiveness of is powerful. In summary, the attention given in this instructional plan confirm that Reading Recovery to developing the the type, order, and sequence of activ- reader’s understanding and application ities in a Reading Recovery lesson of the alphabetic principle (the real keep both teachers and children goal of phonics instruction) is com- involved and interested (Clay, 1985, Consequently, the Guidebook (Clay, prehensive and systematic. 2001). 1993) does not detail a compendium of objectives. It does offer research Systematic Instruction. The depiction The Reading Recovery approaches to findings that teachers take into of systematic instruction offered by developing a learner’s facility with account as they design an individual, the NRP report (NICHD, 2000b) phonological awareness and the alpha- superb curriculum for each child. focuses on the content of the phonics betic principle resonate with the con- These research-based findings confirm program (i.e., a planned, sequential clusions detailed in the panel report set of phonics elements) and the summary. These are as follows: • “that final letters or initial let- approach to instruction (a logical, ters are the starting points for 1. Phonics instruction taught instructional sequence providing a child’s detailed analysis of early is more effective than ample opportunities to practice). This words phonics instruction intro- definition is contrasted with nonsys- • that inflections added to duced after grade one. tematic or no-phonics instruction; words are easy to recognise; 2. The application of phonics however, no further description is • that an early achievement is to skills to text is another criti- given. know that you work left to cal skill that must be taught. right across a word To examine the nature of systematic 3. Teachers need to be flexible • that consonants in the word instruction in Reading Recovery, one in their phonics instruction are quite easy to deal with must note that the model of instruc- in order to adapt it to indi- • that easy-to-hear vowels are tion accommodates a complex defini- vidual needs. somewhat more difficult tion of literacy (detailed previously) 4. Phonics instruction is only • and that there are very hard- and the need to enable each child’s one component of a total to-hear consonants or vowels” rate of learning to accelerate. Reading reading program. (Clay, 1993, p. 47). Recovery teachers apply effective acts 5. Phonics skills must be inte- of strategy and skill instruction as dis- grated with the development Instruction focusing on consonants, cussed by Pearson and Dunsmore of phonemic awareness, flu- vowels, inflectional endings, and the (2000). They do not leave the learner’s ency, and text comprehen- application of the related generaliza- discovery of new knowledge to sion. tions to reading and writing activities chance; rather, they offer substantial 6. The individual tutoring set- correspond to the recommendations assistance to support new learning. ting is an effective venue for of the Panel. The Reports of the They provide explicit lessons (mean- phonics instruction Subgroups (NICHD, 2000b) states ing that they offer models as appropri- (NICHD, 2000b). that “the full array of letter-sound ate), engage learners in guided prac- correspondences (e.g., consonants, However, Reading Recovery method- tice, observe performance, and give vowels, digraphs, final stems, etc.) and ology goes beyond these conclusions, feedback and scaffolding as needed. the application of this knowledge in and the connections are not directly They ask students to apply new learn- reading and writing must be taught” parallel. This is because Reading ing to many reading and writing tasks. (p. 2-99). Recovery instruction accounts for the

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complex prerequisite learning needed for efficient visual analysis, extends the study of phonemic elements beyond the basic letter-sound associations, integrates the use of letter sequences and sound sequences with the full range of information sources available in text in order to develop the learner’s literacy processing system, and includes attention to the power of writing. The following discussion reviews aspects of Reading Recovery instruction relative to developing the beginning reader’s proficiency with the alphabetic principle and visual analysis by presenting the following topics: Magnetic letters are used to facilitate grouping and categorizing activities, impor- • Letter Identification, tant tasks for promoting the rapid discrimination of letters needed for text reading • Word Analysis: Reading and (Clay, 2001). Writing at the Word Level, • Assessment, alphabet. This instruction is based on sound, or a word beginning with the • Early Learning, assessment and is powerful. In addi- target letter. In this way, the child’s • Learning How Words Work, tion to assisting children to acquire a way of knowing and specific item • Making and Breaking, network of information for each let- knowledge are honored without giving • Taking Words Apart in ter—including its identity, its forma- advantage to one instructional Reading, and tion, an associated sound, and aware- approach over another (i.e., the • Writing. ness of how letters form words— approach used in kindergarten to teachers account for the complex visu- teach letters). With this record of the Letter Identification. Letters of the al perception needed for processing child’s known letters, any confusions, alphabet are the building blocks of letters and print and also help chil- and unknown items, teachers individ- written language. Their importance in dren learn how to learn. The evidence ualize instruction building from the early reading acquisition has been of this ability to generalize procedures child’s known repertoire. This individ- confirmed by a range of researchers for looking at and learning letters is ualized approach to instruction is con- who conclude that knowledge of the found in teachers’ daily records. Most sidered more efficient for at-risk learn- letters is the single best predictor of teachers have discovered that while ers than any sequence offered by a success in first-grade reading (Adams, direct instruction of letters is needed curriculum guide (Clay, 2001). 1990; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). early in lessons, they observe that chil- Proponents of systematic phonics The acquisition of letter knowledge dren begin to expand their knowledge instruction stress teaching students to requires learning that entails the visual of letters as they learn how to learn convert letters to sounds and then perception and discrimination of the effectively. blend sounds to read words (NICHD, distinctive features of letters. The 2000a, 2000b). Knowledge of letters Initially, each child’s letter knowledge order of inspection is critical, and the is assumed; however the Panel report is examined using the Letter goal is fast recognition requiring only does not detail procedures for teach- Identification task of the Observation minimal attention (Clay, 2001). For ing letters of the alphabet. Survey. This task presents all letters many Reading Recovery children, this (capital and lower case) in random complex learning is a new challenge. Reading Recovery teachers give careful order. Acceptable responses include attention to introducing letters of the Clay (2001) draws on the research of the correct letter name, an appropriate Goldstone (1998) to explain how dis-

Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 9 Teaching

crimination performance can be dimensional letters, felt letters) and letter level) to search, to confirm, or enhanced by sequencing the letter mediums (e.g., pens, chalk) are sug- to cross-check, and this occurs in both learning tasks from easy to more diffi- gested to allow overlearning and flexi- familiar and novel text reading. cult. Specific considerations suggested bility. Teachers praise children’s attention to to guide the sequence of tasks for a visual information and use of letter Teachers may introduce letter books particular child include the following: knowledge, honoring the partially cor- to help learners notice that letters rect and reinforcing the reader’s notic- • “Children begin with easy-to- form words, to learn the concept of ing. Teachers monitor the growing see letters. initial letter, or to associate initial let- efficiency of the child’s use of letter • Letters will be easy to see in ters with the initial phonemes in knowledge and visual information by isolation. words. Alphabet books personalized analyzing daily running records. • They are harder to see when for each child are used to reinforce let- Finally, letter identification may be embedded within words or ter identification and letter-sound extended after the reading of any within text. associations. book by using magnetic letters or by • A new letter introduced along The attention to developing letter drawing attention to letters in text. with known letters will be knowledge is so important it com- easy to see; two or three new The daily writing activity begins for prises one component of the daily les- letters will make the learning each child with the first lesson, son plan; however, letter work is not much harder. regardless of letter knowledge. This confined to this isolated, decontextu- • Forms that differ most are eas- experience offers a rich opportunity to alized activity. Reading and writing ier to discriminate. reinforce letter formation, utility of activities, which can proceed in spite • Ask the child to group what alternate letter forms (upper and of limited letter knowledge, offer pro- he or she sees as similar. lower case), sound-letter correspon- ductive opportunities to reinforce let- • Match, pair and group things dences, phonemic awareness, and ter identification and related concepts that are similar. understanding that each word is a spe- (e.g., phonemic awareness). • Later, ask the child to find cific sequence of letters. The use of what is different; this is the Embedded instruction occurs when a sound and letter boxes (discussed pre- harder task. It calls for many new story is introduced, and the viously) advances concepts of letter comparisons” (Clay, 2001, teacher directs the child’s attention to use and word formation and the p. 172). use letter knowledge and phonemic awareness of many unique letter awareness (sound and identity) by patterns, e.g., letter clusters and silent The instructional procedures allow asking the child to find “one or two letters. teachers to accommodate for learners’ new and important words in the text needs by using multisensory In summary, in Reading Recovery les- after he has said what letter he would approaches to organize and adjust the sons attention to letter knowledge is expect to see at the beginning” (Clay, process of visual exploration. Applying provided through explicit, systematic 1993, p. 37). As appropriate, the research in the development of per- instruction—in isolation and in the teacher selects the words for this activ- ceptual processes in early childhood, context of reading and writing activi- ity with awareness of the letters and Clay (1991) suggests that teachers ties. This instruction builds from the sounds the child controls. For the provide guided practice in using child’s known repertoire, accommo- child, the processes of saying the movement (of the hand) and language dates for the perceptual learning and word, isolating the initial phoneme, (verbal descriptions) to learn letter abstract understanding that is so easily linking the sound to the letter, and formation, and this fosters remember- overlooked in classroom programs, searching for the visual representation ing. Magnetic letters are used to facili- and links the acquisition of items (let- of the sound or letter is a productive tate grouping and categorizing activi- ters and words) to authentic reading way to apply letter knowledge in read- ties, important tasks for promoting and writing tasks. In Reading ing. Teachers also assist readers to the rapid discrimination of letters Recovery, children gain knowledge of apply their knowledge of sounds or needed for text reading (Clay, 2001). letters (e.g., identification of the sym- letters in reading by prompting them A range of materials (e.g., multi- bols, association of sounds with sym- to use visual information (e.g., at the

10 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 Teaching

bols, links of letters to known vocabu- visual features of words in isolation lary), procedures for learning letters, and in context. A range of items on Explicit instruction ability to discriminate letters rapidly, Concepts About Print reveals features accounts for each learner’s and understanding of how to use let- of print the child attends to and in ter knowledge in reading texts and what order. The child’s control of needs and systematically writing stories. visual scanning abilities for processing builds proficient skills for words and text, concepts of words and Word Analysis: Reading and Writing reading and writing. letters, and ability to attend to print at the Word Level. In addition to in a left-to-right sequence are exam- knowledge of letters of the alphabet, a ined to determine instructional needs. wide range of phonological informa- ing text and to describe the reader’s tion is developed in Reading Recovery The Word Reading task gives a sample use of visual and phonological infor- lessons in concert with growing facili- of the reader’s competence with iden- mation (letters, letter clusters, ty with the full range of knowledge tifying words in isolation. Words rec- words) as well as other sources of sources available in text (features, let- ognized instantly may be considered information. ters, letter clusters, words, language part of the child’s basic sight vocabu- structure, semantics). Instruction is lary, meaning those words recognized Reading Recovery teachers base based on assessment, accommodates without analysis. An examination of instruction on the results of these ini- for individual’s previous learning and incorrect attempts may provide some tial assessments and work with the current needs, accounts for prerequi- indication of the child’s word analysis child’s strengths to increase proficien- site behaviors and concepts, acknowl- skills, including use of initial conso- cy in word-solving skills. Explicit edges the reciprocity of reading and nants, final consonants, medial letters, instruction accounts for each learner’s writing, and shifts the instructional and endings. needs and systematically builds profi- focus from items to strategic process- cient skills for reading and writing. The Writing Vocabulary task yields a ing immediately. sample of words the child knows in Early Learning. For many Reading Assessment. Five tasks of the every detail. Observation of the child’s Recovery children, the Observation Observation Survey assess the learner’s performance and examination of all Survey results will indicate that teach- knowledge and abilities relative to attempts may also indicate the child’s ers must attend initially to developing word analysis. These tasks include concept of a word, letter knowledge, learners’ concepts about print, linguis- Concepts About Print, Writing awareness of letter-sound correspon- tic awareness (the hierarchical struc- Vocabulary, Word Reading, Text dences, left-to-right sequencing behav- ture of language, including sentences Reading, and Hearing and Recording iors, and ability to write using a sound to phrases to words to phonemes), Sounds in Words. The discussion here analysis. and attention to details in print. This is limited to the aspects of these tasks early learning, essential for literacy Further indication of the child’s that pertain to working at the word development and word analysis, “falls awareness of the sounds of words is level, specifically with the visual fea- under the collective heading of gleaned from the Hearing and tures of words and the sounds of ‘Literacy awareness and orientation to Recording Sounds in Words task. This words (see An Observation Survey of print’” (Clay, 2001, p. 137). The asso- measure allows observation of the Early Literacy Achievement, Clay, ciated abilities, including concepts child’s ability to articulate words slow- 2002, p. 129). For lesson planning and behaviors, include the following: ly and to write new words using a purposes, numeric scores on these sound analysis. • “how to assemble stories measures are not as informative as the • that print can be written teacher’s observations and analyses The child’s use of visual information • that attention must follow the of the child’s recorded behaviors, in reading is assessed by analyzing rules of direction responses, and actual written prod- error and self-correction behaviors on • that symbols have only one ucts. running records of continuous text orientation reading. This process allows teachers Several of these tasks provide indica- • how to switch out to the page to examine how the reader is process- tion of the child’s facility with the and back to the head

Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 11 Teaching

The acquisition of these concepts and control of letters, digraphs, clusters, The attention to onset abilities is essential for efficient read- prefixes, suffixes, root words, and and rime in making and ing and the ongoing development of multisyllabic words. Specific instruc- word analysis skills. For those children tional procedures develop abilities to breaking procedures results needing more instructional support, perceive and scan print appropriately, from research confirming specific suggestions are detailed in the to make sound sequence analyses of that good readers read in Guidebook (Clay, 1993; see for exam- spoken words, to perform sequential chunks, meaning they ple, Learning to look at print, analyses of visual symbols, and to Learning about direction, Locating coordinate these two sets of operations attach sounds to groups responses, Hearing and recording (Clay, 1993). In the process, children of letters (Gibson, 1965). sounds in words, and When it is hard learn how words work. They gain to remember). awareness and control of generalizations that they apply to analyze unfa- This brief review of early learning miliar words in their reading and in highlights aspects of the reading • how to work with complex their writing. information and come to deci- acquisition process that are more com- sions” (Clay, 2001, p. 137). plex than may be indicated by pro- “Children need experience with words grams designed to teach beginning in text and words in isolation; words In addition to these basic understand- readers letter-sound associations in in continuous text favours learning ings, the reader must learn to focus order to sound out words. Reading about word probabilities while words attention on print (where to look, Recovery instruction accounts for this in isolation favours learning about let- what to look for, how to fixate, how complexity, especially as it relates to ter sequences” (Clay, 2001, p. 171). to move eyes across print) and to struggling readers. While the learner’s attention may be process symbols in sequence (Clay, directed to word study across the les- Learning How Words Work. Phonics 2001). son, specific focus on word work instruction, as emphasized by the occurs “when making and breaking Reading Recovery teachers engage NRP, stresses the acquisition of words in the letter identification sec- children in the reading and writing of sound-symbol relationships and the tion of the lesson, after familiar book complete, meaningful messages from use of this knowledge in decoding reading, during the reading of the new the first lesson. From these carefully successfully in reading and spelling book, after the new book” (Clay, planned experiences, most learners correctly in writing. Reading Recovery 1993, p. 48). Writing activities also gain control of the basic print con- instruction gives direct attention to provide opportunities to focus on cepts as well as the appropriate direc- building extensive knowledge of the working with words. tional schema (left-to-right movement letters of the alphabet (e.g., visual per- and scanning) and the ability to ception, identity or letter name, and Making and Breaking. Teachers search visually in sequence (e.g., word sound as discussed previously) and engage learners in working with words by word or letter by letter). “Saying focuses attention on the use of letter in isolation as soon as the learner has and reading a few words across a line sounds in both reading and writing gained control of approximately 15 to helps the learner to work with order. tasks. However, the sounds of letters 20 letters (Clay, 1993, p. 44). This Writing a few words helps establish represent only one constituent of work becomes the focus of the letter both letter and word order, and more words (or language) that Reading identification component of the lesson generally establishes the importance of Recovery students learn and use. and is referred to as making and sequence” (Clay, 2001, p. 169). Activities with words across the breaking. Initially, the learner manip- Successful reading also involves con- Reading Recovery lesson build exten- ulates magnetic letters for known trolling sound sequences in sentences, sive phonological awareness that words, “taking them apart into com- words, syllables, and letter clusters includes discrete phonemes (single let- ponent letters and reassembling them” (Clay, 1991). The procedures of hear- ters or sounds), onset and rime, and (Clay, 2001, p. 229). The teacher ing and recording sounds in words syllables. As a result of explicit and reinforces that words are constructed lead directly to a sequential analysis of systematic word study, learners gain of letters and demonstrates that words phonemes within words.

12 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 Teaching

can be taken apart and reconstructed the learner is attending to and letter by letter or in letter clusters gaining from the teacher’s demon- As the child gains more (e.g., inflectional endings) or in strations. understanding of how chunks (e.g., manipulating onsets and Gradually, the teacher engages the rimes). It is relatively easy for most words work and more child in working with harder analo- children to draw on their oral lan- awareness of the range gies. The child continues to manipu- guage abilities to break words at these late magnetic letters, to work with the of phonological elements easy-to-find breaks (letter clusters and known flexibly, and to gain important through making and chunks), and this activity facilitates generalizations for analyzing words. the ability to work with words (Clay, breaking activities, the The anticipated result for the learner 1993). teacher supports the is acquisition of “the complex associa- The attention to onset and rime in tions between sound sequences and child’s application of this making and breaking procedures letter sequences that enable us to information. results from research confirming that become fluent readers of three cate- good readers read in chunks, meaning gories of words in English: they attach sounds to groups of letters 1. “those with sound sequences (Gibson, 1965). Examples are an, with what the child knows, teachers that can be predicted from ight, ent, etc. Therefore, these proce- prompt readers to search, to monitor, the letters…[e.g., mat, crash] dures establish phonological identities and to cross-check using initial and 2. those with alternate letter- for units of letters and sounds larger final letters, including inflectional sound correspondences… than the single letter or single endings, by saying: [e.g., read, bow, circus] phoneme and help to make word 3. those that are better ‘What do you expect to see at analyses in reading more efficient. described as orthograph- the beginning?’ “The perceptual and cognitive chal- ic…[e.g., night, know]” ‘…at the end?’ lenges are to attend to detail in print, (Clay, 1993, p. 46). ‘…after the “M”?’ to have maximum opportunities to ‘It could be…, but look at the construct or act on the task, to attend In general, the procedures used in [t]’ (Clay, 1993, p. 41). to order (that is, sequences of letters), Reading Recovery for developing Teachers incorporate attention to the and, increasingly, to phonemes, pat- word analysis skills extend beyond the alphabetic principle by asking the terns, clusters, syllables and words, for application of phonics, which focuses child to go from the first letter to its the speeding up of processing” (Clay, on discrete letter-sound associations, sound when looking at print, to go 2001, p. 229). and develop the reader’s facility to apply a wide range of linguistic and from a sound to the expected letter As the child gains control of the phonological information. The result when anticipating words in text, and action of making and breaking words is a sophisticated understanding of the to go beyond the initial letter to use and with the use of “clusters of letters alphabetic principle and both the more grapheme-phoneme information and chunks of sound” (Clay, 1993, knowledge and strategies to analyze (e.g., final letters) by asking “What p. 45), the teacher introduces the use and identify words of varying difficul- else could you check?” (Clay, 1993, of analogies to analyze unfamiliar ty, including irregular and multisyl- p. 48). words. This process is initiated by labic words. Occasionally, the teacher demonstrates using predictable letter-sound the use of letter knowledge during sequences, the specific letter clusters Taking Words Apart in Reading. reading by giving the sound of an ini- known by the child. The teacher Teachers foster the visual and phono- tial letter for a challenging word. And, bases instruction on analyses of the logical analysis of words in text from for the child who has mastery of child’s known words and known letter the earliest lessons. In both familiar sound-to-letter correspondences but clusters revealed in both reading and and novel reading, the strategic use of does not demonstrate ability to ana- writing activities and also observes the reader’s knowledge of letters and lyze simple words sequentially, the the child closely to confirm what letter sequences is reinforced. Staying teacher may write the word letter by

Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 13 Teaching

letter on the blackboard, supporting and “selects texts…which not only known word to generalize the spelling the child’s articulation and blending draw upon working systems that the of a new word, calling on the child to to read a word that fits the context, child has in place, but also challenge make analogies, a process that is also a e.g., c-, cr-, cr-ash (Clay, 1993). these to change” (Clay, 2001, p. 96). productive reading strategy. Again, the So books are selected carefully to writing experiences are used to rein- As the child gains more understanding allow the child to use and extend liter- force the study of how words work of how words work and more aware- acy processing skills, including the use and the development of strategies for ness of the range of phonological ele- of visual information. analyzing words. ments through making and breaking activities, the teacher supports the Writing. “It is in the writing part of “The power to construct or generate child’s application of this information. the daily lesson that children are unknown words comes from having a The teacher may prompt the child to required to pay attention to letter personal writing vocabulary” (Clay, use what he knows to solve the detail, letter order, sound sequences 2001, p. 24). Therefore, teachers use unknown word by analogy by asking: and the links between messages in oral the child’s writing experiences to select “‘Do you know a word like that?’ ‘Do language and messages in printed lan- high-frequency and helpful words to you know a word that starts with guage” (Clay, 1993, p. 11). Teachers take to fluency. This means the child those letters?’ ‘What do you know support learners in composing and practices writing the target word that might help?’” (Clay, 1993, p. 49). recording a complete message. In the repeatedly in order to produce it flu- process, the learner attends to the ently with a minimum of attention The teacher may scaffold the child’s details of print (e.g., letters, clusters, (Clay, 1993, p. 30). Over time, the ability to take words apart in reading words) and the conventions of written child acquires a personal core of by providing concrete demonstrations. language (e.g., word order, use of known words that includes a wide The teacher may construct the word upper- and lower-case letters, direc- range of different exemplars from part with magnetic letters or divide tional constraints). which the child can generalize to spell the word in print with a masking unfamiliar words. card. The child may also find that The range of procedures used to using a masking card on his own facil- develop the child’s ability to record itates his visual analyses of unfamiliar messages correctly develops and Summary words in text (Clay, 1993). enhances both phonemic and phono- The NRP (NICHD, 2000a) states logical awareness. As discussed previ- that phonics instruction is an essential More work on taking words apart and ously, the use of sound boxes supports element of beginning reading instruc- developing proficiency in using the the learner in hearing and recording tion. Their meta-analysis revealed that process of analogy to read new words sounds in words sequentially and phonics instruction “enhances chil- may be provided following the read- extends understanding of phoneme- dren’s success in learning to read ing of any books. The teacher uses grapheme correspondences. When let- and…is more effective than instruc- paper or a whiteboard and selects ter boxes are introduced, the child tion that teaches no phonics” examples for illustration from the text. acquires refined understanding of the (NICHD, 2000a, p. 9). In summary, Activities may include adding, sub- complex relationships between sounds phonics instruction “stresses the tracting, substituting letters, or mak- of the language and the way words are acquisition of letter-sound correspon- ing analogies to solve an unknown written. The child gains awareness dences and their use in reading and word. The objective is to extend the and proficiency with unique ways of spelling” (NICHD, 2000a, p. 8). child’s ability to analyze unfamiliar spelling English words, including the Reading Recovery instruction words quickly so that the reading is use of silent letters and irregular accounts for this skill development not slowed down. spellings. These experiences with (single letters/sounds) and extends the The teacher continues to assess the words in writing build a reservoir of learner’s use of phonological elements child’s facility to process visual and known elements that may be tapped from discrete phonemes to onset and phonological information in text read- when analyzing words in reading. rime and to syllables. Students acquire ing by analyzing daily running generalizations for analyzing the range As appropriate, the teacher may records. The teacher bases teaching of words they encounter in texts and prompt the child to recall and use a decisions on this analysis of behaviors choose to write in their stories.

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This discussion has reviewed proce- trolled so that it becomes automatic ly thrown, dures used by Reading Recovery and very fast. “Automaticity involves • to a well-known old teachers to develop the beginning the processing of complex information response in most contexts, reader’s proficiency to analyze words that ordinarily requires long periods of • and later, known in any proficiently in both reading and writ- training before the behavior can be variant form. ing contexts. Instruction is systematic, executed with little effort or attention” The second journey is: based on assessment, and tailored to (NICHD, 2000b, p. 3-7). • moving from very slow, each learner’s specific needs. • to very fast production or Although Reading Recovery instruc- Phonemic awareness, phonological very fast recognition meas- tion addresses the areas of fluency awareness, letter knowledge, letter- ured in thousandths of a emphasized by the Panel, the instruc- sound relationships, control of a range second (or milliseconds)” tional suggestions of the NRP of phonological elements (clusters, (p. 20). (NICHD, 2000b) are appropriate for inflectional endings, spelling pat- classroom or group instruction rather Clay’s clear description of the develop- terns), and understanding how words than the one-to-one situation. The ment of automatic visual recognition work are developed in concert with one-to-one instructional setting of or responding to printed forms (let- real reading and real writing. The Reading Recovery affords the teacher ters, letter clusters, or words) provides goals include but also extend beyond the opportunity to monitor and guide an overall map for progress. decoding to learning how to learn. the student’s fluent responding and Teachers support the development of Fluent responding, or automaticity, is phrased reading daily on every book the reader’s strategic literacy process- something that is taught from the read in the lesson. ing systems that allow the learner to very beginning of a child’s series of continue to gain competencies Reading Recovery instruction includes lessons, even in Roaming Around the through ongoing reading and writing work on extending a meager knowl- Known. Clay (1993) instructs the activities. edge of words which emphasizes the teacher to importance of fluent responding. Clay go over what he [the student] explains that “a glimmer of recogni- Fluency knows in different ways until tion in either reading or in writing is a The NRP (NICHD, 2000b) defines your ingenuity runs out, and beginning out of which knowledge of fluency in reading as “the ability to until he is moving fluently the word can emerge through many read a text quickly, accurately, and around this personal corpus of contacts in different settings” (1993, with proper expression”(p. 3-7). responses, the letters, words and p. 27). Reading Recovery teachers cre- Fluency, according to the Panel, messages that he knows how to ate opportunities for students to includes automatic word recognition, read or write (p. 12). rapid use of punctuation, and rapid encounter and work on the words Although there are times when we ask determination of where to place they are learning in many contexts in a child to recognize a word in isola- emphasis and to pause. many parts of the lesson. The teacher is careful to observe that students tion, much of the practice of word The NRP states that readers must develop fluent responding to the recognition in Reading Recovery les- develop automaticity in word recogni- words they know. Clay (2001) sons occurs while reading continuous tion if they are to be fluent. The term describes the two journeys that letters, text. This is consistent with the rec- automaticity does not apply to things letter clusters, parts of words, and ommendations of the NRP (NICHD, which were always fast and easy. It words take in terms of the child’s 2000b) as well. refers to mental processes that origi- learning: If fluency were just a word nally were performed slowly and with recognition phenomenon, then a great deal of attention, but which “The first journey is: having students reviewing and are carried out quickly and with little • from being new, rehearsing word lists might attention after they have been learned • to only just known, make sense. Although there is and brought under control. Word • to working to get a solu- some benefit to isolated word recognition is just such a complex tion, recognition study of this type, process that must be learned and con- • to easily produced but easi-

Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2003 15 Teaching

In addressing fluency, the NRP report did well. Was the reading done The teacher teaches for (NICHD, 2000a, 2000b) stresses the at a good pace, or was it slow, fast visual recognition and importance of reading expressively as or too fast? Are things in bal- well as automatic word recognition. ance in your judgment? Is he for phrasing all along the Reading Recovery teachers teach for reading groups of words togeth- child’s path of progress. expressive reading daily from very er in a phrased way? Attend par- Moving up a gradient of early in the child’s literacy develop- ticularly to change over previous texts carefully chosen ment. Shortly after the child develops readings (p. 61). correct directional responding and the In every lesson Reading Recovery with this child’s strengths child can make a voice to print match teachers monitor how a child’s reading in mind, the student without the use of the finger to point sounds on yesterday’s new book and to each word, the teacher can start to makes continuous progress record a brief description of the sound teach for expressive reading. “Before in reading fluency and of the reading on the running record long the teacher can begin to require sheet. phrasing. the child to read groups of words together, using the phrasing that is Another area of agreement between natural in normal speech, and the the NRP and Reading Recovery is the understanding that fluency develops the evidence is that such train- intonation of normal conversation” over time with instruction and prac- ing is insufficient as it may fail (Clay, 1993, p. 21). An entire section tice. The NRP (NICHD, 2000b) to transfer when the practiced in Chapter 4 of the Guidebook (Clay, describes the findings reported by words are presented in a mean- 1993) is devoted to the understanding Samuels (1979), ingful context (Fleischer, of and procedures to teach for phrasing in fluent reading (expressive read- Jenkins, & Pany, 1979). Such data reveal a gradual, con- ing). Teachers encourage students to Competent reading requires tinuous improvement in reading read familiar texts quickly and expres- skills that extend beyond the speed in which only the begin- sively, and they teach for phrased single-word level to contextual ning and end points could be reading on familiar and novel text reading, and this skill can best justifiably characterized as ‘slow’ whenever possible. be acquired by practicing read- or ‘fast’. Reading speed, like ing in which the words are in a The NRP recommends several infor- other aspects of fluency or other meaningful context (p. 3-11). mal measures which teachers can use automatic behaviors, shows gradual or incremental improve- Thinking of reading as word reading to assess fluency. All of the measures ment through practice (p. 3-8). only is too simplistic. Reading involve recording oral reading of students at their instructional reading Recovery teachers understand that During a child’s series of lessons the level. One of the recommendations is readers must direct their attention to speed with which he reads increases as the running record (Clay, 2002). In many different sources of information, his learning expands and his visual An Observation Survey of Early Literacy including the meaning of the story recognition of known letters, letter Achievement (Clay, 2002) there are and episode within the story, the lan- clusters, and words becomes faster. specific recommendations for record- guage structure just read, pictures The teacher teaches for fast visual ing how the reading sounded each within the story, phrases, words, word recognition and for phrasing all along time a running record is taken. Clay parts, clusters of letters, and letters. the child’s path of progress. Moving tells the teacher, “Ask yourself, ‘How Readers also learn how these various up a gradient of texts carefully chosen did that reading of continuous text sources of information are related. with this child’s strengths in mind, the sound?’ Then add a comment about The complexity of the learning that a student makes continuous progress in the sound of the reading at the foot of beginning reader must do cannot be reading fluency and phrasing. “It takes the Running Record page” (p. 60). explained by a simple theory of word time to develop fast control of many Clay explains, reading, but certainly, fluent word subparts of a complex whole so that it reading is a part of the more complex Comment on what the reader operates smoothly and fluently” (Clay, reading process. 1993, p. 52).

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A Sixth Essential Element student to use the new information in which cannot be easily discerned by In this article we have emphasized context within the same lesson. an observer. Clay sometimes refers to three of the essential elements identi- Reading Recovery teachers make deci- strategic activity as reading work. fied by the National Reading Panel: sions about what to teach based on When working with emerging readers, phonemic awareness, phonics, and observations of the student’s current “some of this reading work is signaled fluency. We have examined each of abilities—what the child is currently by behaviours teachers can observe these elements and described how applying while reading and writing. and record” (Clay, 2001, p. 128). The they are taught in Reading Recovery. The teacher expects to see the child ability to observe those behaviors in It is problematic to think of these ele- apply the new learning immediately, emerging readers provides teachers ments in isolation. Successful reading since the new knowledge is just with the opportunity to teach for the requires that the reader develop a sys- beyond the edge of the child’s current development of effective processing in tem in which these elements play a knowledge. Reading Recovery. part. The reader must develop an effi- The teacher cannot directly teach the If the processing is to develop into an cient processing system to become a child how to use the new information. efficient system, the reader must have successful reader. The teacher may demonstrate, opportunities to use the processing The sixth essential element can be explain, or prompt, but it is the child system frequently on continuous text. identified by several terms: strategic who must incorporate the new infor- The system will change in two ways if activity, reading work, effective pro- mation into existing knowledge and it is developing well. It will develop in cessing, integration, or assembling learn how to use it flexibly. The effectiveness so that the reader is able working systems (Clay, 2001). teacher chooses carefully what, when, to read ever more challenging texts, Although these terms might not be and how to teach something new to and it will become faster so that it is used interchangeably, they most cer- the child, constantly bearing in mind increasingly more efficient. Both of tainly all address the in-the-head that the child needs to develop self- these changes allow readers to expand processes which must begin early and regulation of the learning involved. their knowledge and capabilities in all develop over time as the reader gains Reading Recovery teachers monitor aspects of reading, including phone- proficiency in reading. Phonemic and teach for the reader’s development mic awareness, phonics, fluency, com- awareness, the ability to use phonics of self-regulation. prehension, and vocabulary development. knowledge, fluent reading, demon- The notion of applying new learning strating comprehension of what is is important but not comprehensive read, and the expansion of known enough to explain the complex and In the Next Issue… vocabulary are outward manifestations powerful processing system which suc- We will address the elements of com- of the developing inner processing cessful readers develop. Clay (2001) prehension and vocabulary develop- system. explains that the term strategic activity ment. The sixth essential element will be explained in terms of those ele- The Panel emphasizes the importance refers to what goes on in any of of teaching children how to apply ments. With these two articles the aspects of processing which Reading Recovery professionals will knowledge in any of the five essential Singer proposes, when the brain elements to the act of reading. In have information at hand about how Reading Recovery, teachers value the • picks up information, Reading Recovery aligns with the rec- child’s application of new learning and • works on it, ommendations of the National provide instruction which is closely • makes a decision, and Reading Panel. tied to the use of that information in • evaluates the response. the context of reading or writing con- as well as the overarching tinuous text. Teaching new informa- execution of that sequence tion is done within the context of (pp. 127–128). reading and writing, or if decontextualized for emphasis and clarity, the This processing may be slow at first, teacher provides opportunities for the but it develops into a very fast process

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References Clay, M. M. (2002). An observation survey National Institute of Child Health and of early literacy achievement (2nd ed.). Human Development (2000b). Report Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Thinking and learning about print. children to read: An evidence-based Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press. Cunningham, P. M. (2000). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing. New assessment of the scientific research litera- Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. York: Longman. ture on reading and its implications for (2003). Put reading first: The research reading instruction: Report of the sub- Gibson, E. (1965). Learning to read. building blocks for teaching children to groups (NIH Publication No. 00- Science, 148, 1066–1072. read. Jessup, MD: National Institute 4754). Washington, DC: U.S. for Literacy. Goldstone, R. L. (1998). Perceptual learn- Government Printing Office. ing. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, Chapman, M. L. (2003). Phonemic Ng, S. (1979). Error and self-correction 585–612. awareness: Clarifying what we know. behavior in reading and oral language. Literacy Teaching and Learning, 7 Imlach, R. H., & Clay, M. M. (1982). Doctoral dissertation, University of (1 & 2), 91–114. Juncture, pitch and stress as reading Auckland Library. behavior variables. In Clay, M. M. Clay, M. M. (1982). Observing young Pearson, P. D., & Dunsmore, K. (2000). (Ed.), Observing young readers: Selected readers: Selected papers. Portsmouth, What research reveals about practice: A papers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. NH: Heinemann. summary of research-based understand- Clay, M. M. (1985). Reading Recovery: Juel, C. (1991). Beginning reading. In R. ings about teaching beginning reading. Systematic adaptation to an education- Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & Unpublished manuscript. Lansing: al innovation. New Zealand Journal Of P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Michigan State University. reading research, Vol. 2. White Plains, Educational Studies, 22(1), 35–38. Snow, K., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. NY: Longman. Clay, M. M. (1991). Becoming literate: The (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading diffi- construction of inner control. National Institute of Child Health and culties in young children. Washington, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Human Development (2000a). Report DC: National Academy Press. of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Clay, M. M. (1993). Reading Recovery: A Williams, J. (1995). Phonemic awareness. children to read: An evidence-based guidebook for teachers in training. In T. L. Harris & R. E. Hodges (Eds.), assessment of the scientific research litera- Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. The literacy dictionary, pp. 185–186. ture on reading and its implications for Newark, DE: International Reading Clay, M. M. (2001). Change over time in reading instruction (NIH Publication Association. children’s literacy development. No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Government Printing Office. Yatvin, J. (2002). Babes in the woods: The wanderings of the National Reading Panel. Phi Delta Kappan, 83, 364–369.

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