Nikolas Rose
Experts of the Soul1
Nikolas Rose
nf n : In d n l b r l n d r t h p t l t h n G ll h ft n d W t n h t h p h l h h n n ntb hrl h ht, n ht n r nbl f d l t n l h r r h z. . d r v n d r br b z r l , nd rn h n th h n S t n, n h d n n ür r hr b n führ n. In d tr rd n n W d r t llt, d G b rt d r "S l n n n r " nd d r n St ll n n v r h d n n z p l t h n Arr n nt v r t nd n rd n önn n. h l , rd r nt rt, h fft b r h nb r Ind v d n, nd t ltb r nt r nd v d ll ä , nt r tützt A t r tät t th h th r p t h r ründ n nd t llt n th h hn l z r rfü n , t d r d t n S lb t d r Ind v d n f r t rd n nn. K nnz h n d r "t hn " d r h l nd ntr n h t d r r bl t l b r l r r t n v rb nd n, d t d An pr h v n r v th t, t n l tät nd A t r r n. rn r h b n d K nnz h n d t n für d n ärt n ll h ftl h n U t lt n pr z n "O t r p ".
S r : In th l b r l d r t p t l t t f "th t", p h l l xp rt h d t lf nd p n bl , n t nl n th r l t n f d n fr th f t r t th f l , b t l n th th l t rd n t h h t z n l v th r l v . h p p r t t pr h nd th b rth f th " n n r f th h n l" nd th r pl th n d ff r nt p l t l rr n nt . h l , t r , nd v d l h r l l bl , nt r bj t v p th t r n bl , nd rp n th r t th n th th r p t r t n l nd pr v d n th l t hn l f r th h p n f t n lv . h f t r f th r hn f p h l r ntr n ll l n d t th pr bl t f l b r l d r h h t v rn thr h pr v , r t n l t nd t n . h l h v pl t n f r th rr nt tr n f r t n n th t f "E t rn E r p ".
It was, I believe, Joseph Stalin who refer- grounded in a claim to truth, asserting techni- red to writers under his brand of socialism as cal efficacy, and avowing humane ethical vi- `engineers of the human soul'. In the liberal, rtues. Whilst the notion of professionalization democratic and capitalist societies of „the implies an attempt to found occupational West", the task of engineering the human soul exclusiveness an the basis of a monopolisation has fallen to a different sector - to professio- of an area of practice and the possession of an nals imbued with the vocabularies, the exclusive disciplinary base, expertise is hete- evaluations, the techniques and the ethics of rogeneous. It amalgamates knowledges and psychology. Whether it be at home or at work, techniques from different sources into a in marketing or in politics, in child rearing or complex 'know-how'. The attempt to ratify in sexuality, psychological expertise has made the coherence of this array of procedures and itself indispensable to modern life in such forms of thought is made retrospectively, and societies. How should this phenomenon be characteristically not by deriving them from a understood? single theory but by unifying them within a I suggest that we should not answer this pedagogic practice. question in terms of the evolution of ideas, the The notion of expertise enables us to appliance of science or the rise of a profession, distinguish between the occupational advan- but in terms of expertise. I use the term „ex- cement of a particular professional sector, the pertise" to refer to a particular kind of social spread of a particular mode of thought and authority, characteristically deployed around technique, and the transformation of practices problems, exercising a certain diagnostic gaze, of regulation. For the social consequences of
3. Jahrgang Heft 1/2 91 Exp rt f th S l psychology are not the same as the social Making psychology technical consequences of psychologists. Psychology is a `generous' discipline: the key to the social From the perspective of expertise, our ana- penetration of psychology lies in its capacity lysis of the proliferation of psychology connects to lend itself freely' to others who will `bor- with a number of other reflections on trans- row' it because of what it offers to them in the formations in social arrangements and forms way of a justification and guide to action. of authority in European societies over the last Hence psychological ways of thinking and century. our focus shifts from psychology acting can infuse the practices of other social itself to the modes in which psychological actors such as doctors, social workers, mana- knowledges and techniques have grafted gers, nurses, even accountants. Psychology themselves onto other practices. Psychology enters into alliance with such agents of social is seen as offering something to, and deriving authority, colonising their ways of calculating something from, its capacity to enter into a and arguing with psychological vocabularies, number of diverse 'human technologies'. The reformulating their ways of explaining nor- term 'technology' directs our attention to the mality and pathology in psychological terms, characteristic ways in which practices are or- giving their techniques a psychological colo- ganized to produce certain outcomes in terms ration. It is precisely though such alliances that of human conduct: reform, efficiency, edu- psychology has made itself powerful: not so cation, cure, or virtue. It directs analysis to the much by occupational exclusiveness or mono- technical forms invented to produce these polization but because of what it has provided outcomes - ways of combining persons, truths, for others, on condition that they come to think judgments, devices and actions into a stable, and act like psychologists. reproducible and durable form. But the notion These alliances do not simply provide psy- of a human technology is not intended to imply chology with a means to gain its hold on social an inhuman technology - one that crushes and reality, as it were, by proxy. They also provide dehumanises the essential personhood of tho- something for the doctors, nurses, social wor- se caught up within it. Psychology has become kers and managers who enter into psychologi- enmeshed within such technologies, in part, cal coalitions: those engaged in the prolifera- because it answers to the wish to humanise ting practices that deal with the vagaries of them, to make them adequate to the real nature human conduct and human pathology and of the Person to be governed. seek to act upon it in a reasoned and calculated Unlike the ancient professions, psycholo- form. Psychology promises to rationalise these gy has no institution of its own: no church practices, to systematise and simplify the ways within which to redeem sin, no court of law in which authorities visualize, evaluate and within which to pronounce judgment, no ho- diagnose the conduct of their human subjects, spital within which to diagnose or cure. Psy- and conduct themselves in relation to them. In chological modes of thought and action have purporting to underpin authority by a coherent come to underpin - and then to transform - intellectual and practical regime, psychology practices that were previously cognized and offers others both a grounding in truth and legitimated in other ways - via the charisma of some formulae for efficacy. In claiming to the persona of authority, by the repetition of modulate power through a knowledge of sub- traditional procedures, by appeal to extrinsic jectivity, psychology can provide social aut- standards of morality, by rule of thumb. It hority with a basis that is not merely technical finds its social territory in all those dispersed and scientific but 'ethical'. encounters where human conduct is probte-
92 h l nd G h ht Nikolas Rose matized in relation to ethical standards, social The social vocation of psychology and its judgments or individual pathology. What is it status as expertise is intrinsically bound to that psychology can offer to such encounters? such questions. For it was through the forma- tion of a specifically psychological expertise, and through the construction of institutional Making individuals who are calculable technologies that were infused by specifically psychological values, that individual difference Marx, Nietzsche, Weber, Lukacs, Haber- Warne scientifically caiculable and mas and Foucault each, in their different ways, techni-cal administrable (Rose, 1985; 1988). A suggested that calculation was central to the psychological knowledge of individual diffe- social arrangements and ethical systems of the rences did not emerge from a mysterious leap capitalist, bureaucratic and democratic socie- of the intellect or from laborious theoretical ties of North West Europe and North America, and scientific enquiry, but neither did it merely not only in the domination of nature, but also answer to the demand that capitalist control of in relation to human beings. We have entered, the labour process be legitimated, or spread it appears, the age of the calculable person, because of its eleetive affinity with a rational whose individuality is no longer ineffable, caiculating „spirit of the age". lt needs to be unique and beyond knowledge, but can be understood as an „institutional epistemology" known, mapped, calibrated, evaluated, quan- (Gordon, 1987), Born within the mundane tified, predicted and managed. organizational practices of those social appa- For those who take their cue from Marx, it ratuses constructed in so many European sta- is in the workplace and in the activity of tes in the late nineteenth century that sought to production that the rise of calculability is to be organize persons en masse in relation to par- grounded, in the capitalist imperative of mana- ticular objectives - reform, education, cure, gement, prediction and control of labour. For virtue. Schools, hospitals, prisons, reformato- those who take their cue from Weber, calcu- ries and factories acted as laboratories for the lation is an inherent part of rational administ- isolation, intensification, and inscription of ration, bound up with the desire for exactitude, human difference. They were simultaneously predictability, and the subordination of sub- locales for observation of and experimentati- stantive or ad hoc judgment to the uniformity on with human difference. Knowledge itseif ofarule. In each of these cases, the calculability needs to be understood as technique, rooted in of the person is seen as the effect or symptom attempts to organize the environment accor- of a process that has its roots elsewhere. But ding to certain values. And truth becomes what is at stake should not be seen as belonging powerful to the extent that it becomes techni- to the order of effects. One should investigate cal. more directly the practical conditions and social The psychological „test", in all its forms, is arrangements that made it necessary and pos- the paradigmatic technique of the caiculable sible for the human individual to become person, for visualising and inscribing calculable. Through what procedures of in- individual difference in a caiculable form. The test is scription, differentiation and cognition did the a tiny but all pervasive diagram of a certain knowledges and procedures emerge which combination of power, truth and subjectifi- would make of the human being a caiculable cation: tests and examinations render indivi- entity? How did this caiculation come to ap- duals into knowledge as objects of a hierarchical pear, not the result of disputable value choices and normative gaze, making it possible to or social goals, but of objective criteria, arising qualify, to classify and to punish (Foucault, out of scientific investigation, and made 1977, pp.l84-5). The invisible, subjective through technical rather than political proce- world of the individual can now be visualised dures? and represented in ciassifications, in figures
3. Jahrgang Heft 1/2 93 Exp rt f th S l and quotients. The psychological test thus techniques of attitude measurement and the plays a crucial organizational rote within the attitude survey open the social actions of in- caiculative attitude that has become Zentral to dividuals to systematic planning and mana- all those disciplinary' institutions that are the gement by authorities. The notion of the group other normalising' side of liberal democracy, enables thought to grasp and administer a institutions where individuals are to be human domain that inhabits the architectural governed in terms of their individuality, in such a space of the factory, the schoolroom, the ho- way as to maximise their organizational utility spital and the office. The notion of public and utilise their powers in a calcutated form. opinion and the technique of the opinion poll Critics of psychology often portray its uti- open a relation between political authorities lisation of tests and numbers as the antithesis and those they govern that goes beyond the of humanity and democracy, reducing the requirement that political leaders periodically person to a mere number. But one dimension seek a democratic mandate through an electi- of the „power of psychology" lies in its „hu- on that can only acclaim or condemn. mane" capacity to shift judgments about per- In each case, the aspiration is that psycho- sons from a sphere of values, prejudice or rule logical expertise can produce techniques by of thumb to the sphere of human truths, equality which authority can be exercised in the light of of standards, cogentiy justifiable choices and the personal commitments, values and moti- objective criteria of efficacy that should reign vations of those subjected to it. In a liberal in a democracy. Psychological expertise ren- society, authority is only effective and legiti- ders human difference technical: judgment mate to the extent that it is exercised in the light can appear to answer only to the demands of of a knowledge of those who are governed. natural differences and human truths.
Making spaces that are manageable Making authorities who are ethical
Psychology is often criticised for its indivi- Psychological expertise promises some- dualism. But psychology also makes possible thing to those who have the responsibility of a technology of spaces and relations, coming wielding a power over others. On the one hand to infuse all those practices where authorities it enables them to assemble their various tasks have to administer individuals in their collec tive and activities within a certain order and to existence. What is it that psychology offers to subject them to a consistent set of calculations. those charged with the administration of group On the other, it promises to 'ethicalise' the life? powers of authorities from business consul- Psychological expertise makes inter-sub- tants in search of profits and harmony to mi- jectivity calculable, enabling the calculated litary men in search of efficient fighting forces. supervision and administration of collectivities. In this combined promise of rationality and Social space has thereby been opened to cali- ethicality, psychological expertise can promise bration and management (Miller and Rose, to make authority simultaneously artful and 1988; Rose, 1989; Miller, 1989). Whether via wholesome. the notions of individual attitudes, of public Psychology grafts itself onto practices of opinion, of the human relations of the work- law, punishment, management, parenthood place, of the psychodynamic relations of the through its promise to combine efficacy and organization - those who are charged with the utility with humanity and truth. In installing responsibility for administering the social itself within the self-guidance systems of the existence of individuals may redefine their manager, the parent, the social worker, psy- task in psychological terms. The language and chology turns the authority into a psychologi-
94 h l nd G h ht Nikolas Rose cal calculator - one who visualises the factory the mundane activities of daily decision ma- or the family in psychological terms, analyses king in the factory or in the family. its strengths and weaknesses in psychological This points to a characteristic that gives vocabularies, and makes decisions according psychological technologies a general political to a psychological calculus. Those in authority significance within liberal democratic techni- are offered ways of deliberating about, jud- ques of government. The seduction of the ging, organizing and simplifying the multitu- psychological enables 'private' domains such de of decisions that confront them. No longer as the business enterprise and the family to be are the various activities of the manager or the regulated by means of, rather than in spite of, parent merely an array of tasks that happen to their autonomy and responsibility. Psycholo- coincide within the remit of the decision ma- gical expertise is dissem inated not only through ker. These tasks can be linked up, related, the activities and ministrations of experts explicated in terms of knowledge, made accor- themselves, but also through school curricula ding to certain formulae and adjudicated in and educational courses, radio and television terms of justified criteria. Whether instructing, programmes, popular books, magazines and managing, curing, punishing, educating or re- advertisements. The norms and vocabularies forming, one can first „understand", via a promulgated confer a new of visibility upon hermeneutics of the soul conducted in psy- the workings of the family or the factory and chological terms, one can then „diagnose" new ways of identifying its malfunctions. according to a cogently justifiable system of Certain features become visible, certain notions classification, and finally one can „prescribe" are used to judge them, certain vocabularies a response via a calculated knowledge of sub- are installed to renderorganizational or familial jectivity and techniques for its transformation. life into speech in the form of problems re- But it is not merely that psychological quiring solution. Now mothers, fathers, mana- expertise is „simplifying" . This, after all, gers, bosses can themselves take on calculati- could be said of any other form of expertise to ons and make judgments in these terms. And, the extent that it renders a diverse assemblage when problems get too great for self-regulati- of issues cognizable within a single explana- on, they can consult the experts to seek to tory space. Psychology offers also an ethical overcome the anxiety formed in the gap bet- means of exercising authority, one that is not ween what they are and what they want to be. based upon an external truth - be it divine right The 'private' domains of the family and the or collective good - but on a truth internal to the factory can thus be normalised though the person over whom it is exercised. Exercising anxiety of its internal authorities without bre- mastery over others in the light of a knowledge aching their formal autonomy: 'private' aut- of their inner nature makes authority almost a hority is bound into `public' values by means therapeutic activity. The possibility emerges of psychological expertise. that the decisions made by authorities can be Psychology does not simply ally itself with aligned with the best interests of those over authorities in private domains by promising to whose lives they will affect - be they worker, solve their problems. In „applying itself" to prisoner, patient or child. This ethical-thera- such problems it transforms their terms. In- peutic transformation is one aspect of the forte dustrial accidents become a matter of the hu- that bonds diverse social authorities to psy- man relations of the workplace. Profitability chological expertise and makes it so powerful. becomes a matter of releasing the self-actua- It also explains the seductive promise held out lising potential of the workforce. Naughty by psychology to those who will exercise children become a matter of the emotional authority. It gives a new kind of human and heritage of the parent's own childhood. Career moral worth not merely to the gross and evi- advancement becomes a matter of self-confi- dent wielding of power over others, but also to dence, and self-assertiveness. Marketing be-
3. Jahrgang Heft 1/2 95 Exp rt f th S l comes a matter of segmenting consumers by into oneseif and ones life. For the allure of their psychological profiles, and advertising a psychology is that the ethical pathway for matter of linking your product with the desires authority is also an ethical pathway for the self. of those who must come to purchase it. Each of these problems now becomes inconceivable in other than psychological terms. Working on our selves The application of psychological expertise to a domain itself generates new ways of Psychological languages and judgments construing ex istence as potentially problematic. have the capacity to graft themselves into the Thus one sees the correlative emergence of ethical practices of individuals - their ways of normality as something to be achieved and as evaluating themselves in relation to what is risk as something to be calculated and admi- true or false, good or bad, permitted or for- nistered. The retro-direction of the psycholo- bidden. Ethics here is understood in terms of gical gaze can identify problems in potentia specific `techniques of the seif', practices by and hence generate prophylactic strategies for which individuals seek to improve themselves their preemptive solution. In the shift of pro- and their lives and the aspirations and norms blematization from pathology to normality, that guide them. Many have commented upon normality itself is rendered as the fragile out- the ways in which contemporary practices for come of the successful averting of risk. Ex- the interpretation and improvement of the seif pertise offers to turn chance into certainty: the have achieved a psychological coloration, production of normality can itself become an operating according to psychological norms endeavour suffused with psychological cal- and in relation to psychological truths (Rieff, culation. Normality is to be produced by a 1966; Lasch, 1979, 1984; Rose, 1990). Psy- permanent modulation of deliberations and chological languages and evaluations have decisions by psychology in the light of a calcu- transformed the ways in which we construe lation of risk. and conduct our encounters with others - with In this process, a new kind of relationship our bosses, employees, workmates, wives, is established between the psychological ex- husbands, lovers, mothers, fathers, children perts and those who consult them. Whether and friends. Each mode of encounter has been they be managers, parents or patients, their re-configured in terms of personal feelings, relation to authority is a matter neither of desires, personalities, strivings and fears. Psy- subordination of will nor of rational persuasi- chological techniques have come to infuse, on. Rather it has to do with a kind of discip- dominate or displace theological, uroral, bodily, leship. The relation between expert and client dietary and other regimens for bringing the is structured by a hierarchy of wisdom, it is self to virtue or happiness, and also those held in place by the wish for truth and certainty, deployed for reconciling the self to tragedy or and it offers the disciple the promise of disappointment. The experts on hand to guide selfunderstanding and seif improvement. It is not us through the conduct of our lives are by no merely the promise of professional advance- means all psychologists. But, increasingly, ment that attracts business people, social wor- they deploy a psychological hermeneutics, kers, doctors, police officer and so many others utilise psychological explanatory systems and to psychologically informed training courses recommendpsychological measures ofredress. in managerial skills. Not is it merely the hope The ethical technologies deployed within that, once schooled in psychological vocabu- this regime are, of course, heterogeneous. laries, techniques and ways of calculating one Nonetheless, the technology of the confessio- will be able to simultaneously do a good job nal is perhaps most significant. It characterises and do good. The insight conferred by the almost all systems of psychotherapy and coun- psychologisation of one's job is also an insight selling. It also provides a potent technical form
96 h l nd G h ht Nikolas Rose that has come to install itseif in a range of other are conducted - and their consequences. If we practices where the conduct of personal life is have become profoundly psychological bein- at stake, from the doctor's surgery to the radio gs, it is not that we have been equipped with a `phone in', from the social work interview to psychology, but rather that we have come the frank interchange of lovers. For Michel think, judge, console and reform ourselves Foucault, confession was the diagram of a according to psychological norms of truth. particular form of power (Foucault, 1978). Confession has been joined by a range of The truthful rendering into speech of who one other psycho-technologies of the self, from is and what one does - to one's parents, ones behaviourial techniques for teaching the arts teachers, ones doctor, ones lover - was both of existence as social skills to bioenergetic identifying - in that it constructed a self in techniques of bodily therapy. The details are terms of a certain norm of identity - and less significant than the mode of operation of subjectifying - in that one became a subject at psychological expertise that is involved. It is the price of entering into a certain game of not only that the truths of psychology have authority. become connected to our practices of the self, To speak the truth of one's feelings and with the notions that happiness and success desires, to share' them as the saying goes, is can be achieved through the engagement of the not merely the rendering audible of the inar- seif in a psychological regime of therapeutic ticulate murmuring of the soul. In the very remodelling. It is also that a psychological procedure, the confessing subject is identified: ethics is intimately tied to the liberal aspirations the „I" that speaks is to be - at least when of freedom and autonomy. It promises a system „insight" has been gained „ - identical with the of values freed from moral judgment - its „I" whose feelings, wishes, anxieties and fears norms answer not to an arbitrary moral or are articulated. One becom es, at least in poten- political code but only to the demands of our tia, the subject of one's own narrative, and in nature and our truth as human beings. It does the very act itself one is attached to the work of not try to impose a new moral self upon us, but constructing an identity. In the same process to free the self we truly are, to make it possible as the subject affiliates him or herself to such for us each to make a project of our lives, to an identity project, he or she is bound to the fulfil ourselves and shape our existence accor- languages and norms of psychological exper- ding to an ethics of autonomy. tise. For the words and rituals that govern these Critics tend to view the rise of the thera- confessions are those prescribed by an autho- peutic as a symptom of cultural malaise: of the rity, albeit one who has replaced the claims of pervasive individualism of modern western god and religion with those of nature and the culture; of the decline of religion and other psyche. transcendental systems for imparting meaning Some contemporary psychologists interpret to quotidian existence; of the transformation the outcome of such processes, in which in- of familial authority and the rise of narcissism; dividuals scrutinise, interpret and speak about of the loss of the old solidities in a post-modern themselves in a psychological vocabulary, in world in flux. But a different approach is terms of the „social construction" of the Per- suggested by the prominence which contem- son (eg. Shotter and Gergen, 1989). I am porary psychological ethics gives to the norm agnostic about such ontological claims. It is of autonomy. Contemporary rationalities of not so much a question of what people are, but government also attach considerable value to of what they take themselves to be, the criteria notions of individual liberty, choice and free- and standards by which they judge themselves, dom as the criteria by which government is to the ways in which they interpret their problems be calculated and judged. Perhaps the potency and problematize their existence, the authori- of psychological expertise in advanced liberal ties under whose aegis such problematizations democracies can be related to the rise of social
3. Jahrgang Heft 1/2 97 Exp rt f th S l arrangements that presuppose human indivi- upon a claim to rationality opens up a vast and duals to be committed to shaping a meaning auspicious territory which expertise can col- for their lives through the maximization of a onise. personal lifestyle. The ethical technologies Second, liberal democratic problematics within which psychological expertise is so of government depend upon the creation of deeply enmeshed provide a means for shaping, `private' spaces, outside the formal scope of sustaining and managing human beings that is the authority of public powers. Yet the events not in opposition to their personal identity but within these 'private' spaces - notably 'the promises to produce such an identity. Psy- market', 'the organization' and 'the family' - chological expertise should be seen, perhaps, are construed as having vital consequences for as a necessary reciprocal element of the poli- national wealth, health and tranquillity. The tical valorisation of freedom. Janus face of expertise enables it to operate as a relay between government and privacy - their claims to truth and efficacy appealing to, Psychological expertise and liberal go- on the one hand, to governments searching for vernment answers to their problems of regulating eco- nomic, industrial or familial life, and on the There is a particular salience to an inve- other hand to those in authority over these stigation of the relations between the political private spaces - be they industrialists or parents rationalities of freedom and the growth of -attempting to manage their own private affairs psychological expertise at the present time. efficaciously. The societies of „Eastern Europe" are currently Third, liberal democratic problematics of attempting to cast off their allegiance to the government are autonomising, they seek to political problematics of Marxism-Leninism govern through constructing a kind of regula- and to the associated regulatory technologies ted autonomy for social actors. The modern of the party apparatus, the central plan and the liberal self is `obliged to be free', to construe ethics of social duty and collective responsibi- all aspects of its life as the outcome of choices lity. In their place, they look to the economic mode amongst a number of options. Each and industrial technologies and expertise of attribute of the person is to be realized through „the West" in order to re-construct their eco- decisions, and justified in terms of motives, nomic orders on the principles of the market, needs and aspirations of the self. The techno- competition and enterprise. But the experien- logies of psychology gain their social power in ce of „the West" might imply that there is also liberal democracies because they share this a relationship between liberal democracies ethic of competent autonomous selfhood, and and expert technologies of a different sort. because they promise to sustain, respect and This would be a relationship between political restore selfhood to citizens of such polities, problematics articulated in terms of indivi- They constitute technologies of individuality dualism and freedom and the expertise of the for the production and regulation of the indi- psy sciences, in particular of psychology. vidual who is free to choose'. Three broad themes are important in ex- The rise of psychological expertise, that is amining this relationship between psycholo- to say, is intrinsically bound to the problematics gical expertise and liberal democratic forms of of liberal democratic government, of governing government: rationality; privacy and auto- through privacy, rationality and autonomy. nomy. First, in liberal democratic societies the Hence it is appropriate to ask, in this era of exercise of power over citizens becomes le- social transformations, what role did the psy- gitimate to the extent that it claims a rational chological technologies play under command basis. Power is to become painstaking, calcu- economies and in planned societies. And will lating and justifiable. This dependence of power the transition to what may be described, at a
98 h l nd G h ht Nikolas Rose rhetorical level, as market societies, require as S. Whim ster & S. Lash (eds.), Max Weber: Rationality its necessary corollary not just the importation and Modernity. London: Allen and Unwin. Lasch, C. (1979). The Culture of Narcissism. New York: of the material technologies of liberal de- Norton mocracy but also their human technologies - Lasch, C. (1984). The Minimal Self: Psychic Survival in the engineers of the human soul that are the Troubled Times. New York: Norton. other side of what we have come to term Miller, P. (1989). Calculating selves and calculable spaces. Paper presented at Workshop on Controlling Social freedom. Life, European University Institute, Florence, May 1989.
M ll r , P. & Rose, N. (1988). The Tavistock programme: Anmerkungen governing subjectivity and social life, Sociology. Rieff, P. (1966). The Triumph of the Therapeutic. Lon- 1. This is a revised version of a paper delivered at the 9th don: Chatto and Windus. Cheiron-Europe Conference, Weimar, 4 - 8 Septem- Rose, N. (1985). The Psychological Complex: Psycholo- ber 1990. gy, Politics and Society in England 1869-1939. Lon- don: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Rose, N. (1988). Calculable minds and manageable indi- viduals. History of the Human Sciences. Literatur Rose, N. (1989). Social Psychology as a Science of Democracy. Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of Cheiron Europe. Goteborg: Cheiron. the Prison. London: Allen Lane. Rose, N. (1990). Governing the Soul: The Shaping of the Foucault, M. (1978). History of Sexuality. Vol. 1. London: Private Self. London: Routledge. Allen Lane. Shotter, J. & Gergen, K. (eds.) (1989). Texts of Identity. Gordon, C. (1987). The soul of the citizen: Max Weber London: Sage. and Michel Foucault on rationality and govemment. In
Zum Autor: Nikolas Rose is Professor of Sociology and Head of the Department of Sociology at Goldsmiths' College, University of London. He is coordinator of the History of the Present Research Network, an international network of rese- archers whose work has been influenced by the writings of Michel Foucault. He is the author of The Psychological Complex: Psychology, Politics and Society in England, 1869-1939 (Routledge, 1985) and Governing the Soul: the Shaping of the Private Self (Routledge, 1990), and joint editor of The Power of Psychiatry (Polity, 1986). He is currently writing a social and intellectual history of the Tavistock Clinic and Tavistock Institute of Human Relations and researching changing forms and strategies of political power. Anschrift: Department of Sociology, Goldsmiths' College, University of London, New Cross, London, SE14 6NW, Großbritannien.
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