126 Music, Race, and Culture penitentiary in Huntsville,Texas.While asmall audienceattendedthe 1938 performance broadcastfromaprisonadministrator’s office,bythe time of thefourthanniversarybroad- castin1944, the›free-world‹whites-only audiencehad swelledto1.280.Prisonofficials insisted that themusical educationofinmates hadasalutaryeffectontheir vocational training in preparationfor theiremployment in thewar industries.Myresearchsuggests that inmatesviewedthe airshows less as an expressionofpatriotism, than as avehicle for earlyrelease from asystemthatwas farfromideal.

Elizabeth Amelia Hadley (Clinton, NY) »Marian Had Opened the Door …IKept it from Closing Again.«

»I am here andyou will know that Iamthe best andwillhearme[…].The colorof my skin or thekinkofmyhairorthe spread of my mouthhas nothingtodowith what you arelistening to.« , Time 14th January19851

Leontyne Price’sascendancytoprimadonna assoluta wasframedbythe CivilRights,Black Power,and BlackArts Movements.Althoughher name maybeabsentfromthe rosters of activism in either movement, shewas lyricallyand majestically openingdoors to houses both nationallyand internationally; enablingother peopleofcolortoenter.Price’s wordsand deedsmanifestadeliberatecommitmenttoinspire anew generation of vocal- ists to enterthe gilt-encrusted, hallowedhallsofopera. Mary Violet Leontyne Pricewas born andraisedinsegregatedLaurel, , where peoplewere proud of theirBlack heritage.Price waspopularamong Blackand WhitepeopleinLaurel, where both communitiesnurtured herdesiretopursueanopera career.Excellencewas Price’sweaponofchoicefor combatingdiscrimination.Price, knownfor herquiet dignifiedcomportment, encounteredand candidly addressed racial inequities throughout hercareer. Although thenationwas cognizantofthe threatstoand eventual assassinations of Mal- colm X andthe ReverendDr. Martin Luther King Jr., fewwere awarethatPrice’s life was imperiledthroughouther preparation to open thenew Metropolitan OperaHouse at Rocke- feller Center in 1966,because shewas aBlack womansinging on theopera stage, alocale tacitlyacceptedasthe dominionofWhite divas. Priceperformed in defianceofimpending danger to herlifewhile predominately whitecritics andaudiences subsequentlycelebrated herasthe primadonna assoluta. Indeed,she introduced , thefirst centuryEgyptian

1 Michael Walsh, »WhatPrice Glory, Leontyne!«,in: Time Magazine 14th January1985, p. 67. Hadley: »Marian Had Opened the Door …IKept it from Closing Again.« 127 queentocriticalacclaim in ’s Antony andCleopatra,aworkexplicitlycommis- sioned forthe openingofthe newMetropolitan OperaHouse at LincolnCenterin1966. Leontyne Price’sculturalachievementsinaEuropeanart form andher contributions to theadvancement of AfricanAmericans in theopera worldinthe face of adversity meted outbyawhite hostilesociety,concurrentlywiththe CivilRights,and male-dominated BlackPower andBlack Arts Movements as mise en scène arethe focusofthisdiscourse. Howdoesone achievethe titleof›absolute‹ when yourcompatriots continuallyplace ob- staclesinyourpath? Thetitle of this essay is derived from remarks made by Pricepay- inghomageinrecognition of herdebt to (1897–1993).Aglanceather childhood communityand significantcontributorstoher maturation will gleansomeper- spective of Leontyne Price’sBlack conscientiousness. Mary Violet Leontyne Pricewas born 10th in Laurel,Mississippi,in apredominately Blackcommunity that nurtured herself-confidenceand encouraged her musictalents from childhood.Her mother,Kate(Baker) Pricewas amidwife,and herfa- ther,James A. Price, acarpenter,employedatthe localsawmill,bothsanginthe choirat St.Paul’sMethodist Church.Consequently, Leontyne wasfrequentlypresent duringchoir rehearsalsinadditiontoattending church on Sundays. Leontyne’s earliest recollection of musicwas listening to hermothersing»in alovelylyric sopranovoice as shehungthe laundrytodry.«2 As atoddler,Leontyneperformed concerts on herdollpiano forher mother whorecognizedher proclivityfor music, andhired alocal musicteacher to teach Leontyne pianowhenshe wasthree andhalf, fortwo dollarsalesson,orinexchangefor launderingclothes.3 Leontyne excelled in pianoand playedfor thechurchchoir when she wasolder.AlthoughPrice wasbornand raised in segregated Mississippi,she received sup- port,love,and respectfromboth, Blackand Whitecommunities. Leontyne’s Aunt,EverlinaGreer,was amaidfor 40 yearsinthe home of ElizabethWis- nerChisholmand Alexander Chisholm, an affluentfamily, locatedinawhite suburb of Laurel. Leontyne occasionallymet herAuntthere,and whilewaiting,sangand playedwith theChisholmdaughters.Subsequently, theChisholm’semployedLeontynetoperform re- citals at theirsocialgatherings,duringwhich Mrs. Chisholmwas thepiano accompanist. Eventually, Leontyne wasindemandtosingatsocialeventsthroughouther community. TheChisholms respectfully soughtthe Price’spermissiontocontributetoLeontyne’sad- vanced vocallessons, andupontheir sanction,her »two families«, as shereferredtothem, continuedtoassistLeontyneemotionallyand financiallythroughouther academictenure at Juilliard, andlater,duringher operacareer.4 Priceemerged from Laurel to attend histo- ricallyBlack CentralState CollegeinWilberforce,Ohio, whereshe wasencouraged by BlackAmericanvocalist, actor, andpolitical activist,PaulBustill Robeson (1898–1976). Theseinsularcommunities were instrumental in molding apositiveaffirmation of her presence, andself-esteem. If shewere thetargetofaracialincidentinLaurel, it wasquietly taken care of withoutincidentorknowledge to her. Forexample:

2 »A VoiceLikeaBannerFlying: Leontyne Price«,in: Time Magazine 10th March1961. 3 Ibid. 4 HelenOrmsbee,»Leontyne Price’sBess Caps HerLucky Year«, January1955. 128 Music, Race, and Culture

Leontyne’s firstbig concertwas scheduledbythe Chisholms in theauditoriumof theLaurelHigh School, whichwas namedafter Mrs. Chisholm’sfather. When some grumblings rose around town aboutaNegro singinginthe auditorium of the whiteschool, theChisholms rentedthe city auditorium andthe concertwas held there before asold-outhouse.Proceedswenttoalocal Negrohospital.5

Yearslater,Mrs.Elizabeth Chisholmexplained thehandlingofthe incident, stating»we didn’t want to clutterupher mind with worries aboutthingslikethat.«6 ThePrice andthe Chisholmfamilieshad agreed from agesix that Leontyne wasaspecial person born with a gift,and shelteredher from adversarial activities so shecould focussolelyonattaining her dream, andbothfamiliesspent alifetimesupportingher spirituallyand financially, and providingevery opportunity to assist herinachieving herobjectives.Eventhe Chisholm children,Jeanand Peggyagreedtofewer Christmasgifts in order to contribute to the Leontyne operafundestablished in theirhome. They remained closefriends to Leontyne Price, andattendedher performances throughouther career.Price’s earlyinteraction with Robeson,and thepolitical activism of hermotherand father as membersofthe National Associationfor theAdvancement of ColoredPeople(NAACP)inLaurel, unequivocally forged herpolitical consciousness. Pricewas popularamong teachersand classmatesinHigh Schoolwhere in additionto singingshe wasacheerleader anddrummajorette.After graduationfromHigh School, in pursuitofateachingdegreeinmusic,she attended Historically BlackCentral StateCollege. Upon hearingher sing,however,Robeson encouraged hertopursueavocal career beyond theundergraduatelevel. Toward that end, Robeson held abenefit performancewiththe proceeds allocated to Price, theChisholmfamilyprovided additionalfinancial supportand Juilliard’sSchoolofMusic awardedher afour-year scholarship where shestudied from 1949–1952. At Juilliard, Pricebegan vocalstudy with former concertvocalistFlorence Page Kimball.Their alliance transcendedteacher andstudentrelationshipand blossomed into awarmfriendshipofmutualrespect,duringwhich Kimball became Price’sdevoted teacher,coach,and friend untilher deathin1977. Pricestudied theclassics, contemporary Frenchsongs,and operaroles.Kimball primed Priceto»sing on yourvocal interest,not on theprincipal«,and on howtodress forperformances. Pricecharacterized theirassocia- tion as »T he most importantrelationshipofmylife. […] Like sex,itwas pure chemistry.«7 TheCivil Rights Movementwas in dress rehearsal forthe second American Revolution when Pricecompleted Juilliardand made herpublic entrance as avocalistonthe Broadway stageinApril 1952.After leavingthe nurturingenvironmentsofLaurel, CentralState College, andJuilliard,Price begantotourthe duringwhich shepersonally experienced societal inequities of ›Jim Crow‹. WhileAudiences from TexastoChicago em- braced herperformances, shewas concurrentlyrelegated to segregated hotels, restaurants,

5 JayMilner, »A Little Girl From MississippiMakes Good«, in: Herald Tribune. 6 Ibid. 7 Michael Walsh, reportedbyNancy Newman,»Leontyne Price: What PriceGlory«,in: Time Maga- zine 14th January1985. Hadley: »Marian Had Opened the Door …IKept it from Closing Again.« 129 andtravelingfacilities. Segregationbegan to erode at theconclusionofPrice’s international tours(1953 –1954),whenthe United States SupremeCourt,inanow historical case, com- pelled by theCivil Rights Movement, ruledunanimously that separate facilities by race wereunconstitutionalinBrownv.Board of EducationofTopeka (1954). Priceknew, that »Marianhad opened thedoor« of theMetropolitan OperaHouse in 1955,and assumedroles with afervor to keep that door »from closingagain.« Price’sper- formance as Mistress Ford in GiuseppeVerdi’s duringa1952 Juilliardproduction, prompted American andmusic critic,VirgilGarnett Thomson, to offerher the role of St.Cecelia in hisopera Four Saints in ThreeActs (1934) at theInternational Arts FestivalinParis,and in NewYorkthe same year (1952).Predicatedonher performance in this opera, IraGershwincasther as Bess with WilliamWarfieldasPorgy,and as Sportin’ Life, in hisopera, Porgyand Bess (1935).The production toured the United States catapultingitintoAmerica’s best-loved opera; realizingGershwin’sdream, that it »appealtothe many rather than to theculturedfew.«8 Theall-Black castgarneredthe production critical acclaim eludedin1935, culminating in atwo-yearinternational tour, sponsoredbythe United States’State Department, that includedVienna, ,London, Paris, andRussia. Price’scriticalacclaim as vocalist washeraldedwithher characteriza- tion of Bess,described as »the incarnationofsensuality«inthe national andinternational production,importuning extended performancedates.9 Duringaten-yearbarrage of theworld’s greatstages, Pricecontinued in challenging operaenterprises winningcriticalacclaim.Her debutrecital wasatNew York’s Town Hall in thepremiere of Samuel Barber’s with thecomposer as heraccompanist in 1954;debuts with CharlesMunch,and theBostonSymphony, andEugene Ormandyand thePhiladelphia Orchestrain1954; andshe performedGiuseppeVerdi’s (1871),for the firsttimeatChicago LyricOpera in 1955.10 Threeyears afterher Chicagodebut(1955), renownedConductor,Herbertvon Karajanwho exclaimedthather voice »gave himgoose pimples«, casther as theEthiopian princess,Aida, at theViennaWienerStaatsoperin1958. Twoyears later, her1960performance as Aida at Teatro allaScala prompted oneItalian critic to exclaim»Ourgreat Verdiwould have foundher theideal Aida.«11 Consequently, Priceportrayed Aida at Verona, , CoventGarden,the Städtische Oper Berlin,and othervenues. GiuseppeVerdi’s Aida would become hersignature opera. In theUnitedStates, Pricewas thefirst AfricanAmericantosingopera on television, accomplishing this tour de force thesameyearRosaParks,secretary of theMontgomery, Alabamachapter of the NAACP incitedthe Montgomery BusBoycott (1955–1956), when sherefused to relinquishher seat to awhite person.Encounteringformidableopposition, andcancellations from localaffiliates, Pricedebutedtriumphantlyinthe titleroleofGia- como Puccini’s (1900), in theNationalBroadcasting Company’s(NBC)1955produc-

8 »ItAin’t NecessarilyAppealing«,in: TheToronto Star 11th April1999. 9 AllenHughes, »AnotherMajor Step forLeontynePrice«, January1961. 10 SusanHellerAnderson,»Leontyne Price–Still theDiva«, in: TheNew York Times 7thFebruary 1982,sec.2,p.1. 11 »StunningLastRole ShowedthatPrice CanStill HitPeak«,in: TheSan DiegoUnion-Tribune 7thJan- uary 1985,p.D-6. 130 Music, Race, and Culture tion.Price said of this experience, »casting aNegro in therole[…] createdquite arumpus […].Bess wasagood preparationfor Tosca[…] both were strumpets, only Toscadressed better.«12 Nationalcriticalacclaim from this production,assuredher successivetelevision engagementsfor several yearsthereafter(1955 –1958, 1960,1962, 1964). Price’smeteoricar- rivalasanopera singer beganin1957, thesameyearReverendDr. Martin Luther King Jr. inauguratedThe Southern ChristianLeadership ConferencechampioningAfrican-Am- erican equity,whenshe appeared with theSan FranciscoOpera CompanyasMadame Lidoine,the devout Mother Superiorinthe United States première of French composer, FrancisPoulenc’s LesDialogues desCarmelites (1954),where shecontinued to performreg- ularly forthe next 14 years(1957–1959, 1960–1961, 1963,1965, 1967,1968, 1971). Racism proscribedher idol,MarianAnderson, from gracingthe stageofthe Metropolitan OperaHouse untilher vocalefflorescence haddiminished, andracismpostponed Price’s entrance.AlthoughPrice’s achievements meritedearlier entrée,she nevertheless,arrived at theMetropolitan OperaHouse duringher vocalprime.Price continuedtopracticeher craftand hone herskillsinchallenging rolesinconcerthallsnationally, andinrenowned operahousesinternationally, such as theViennaPhilharmonic(1959), andthe Teatro alla ScalainMilan (1960) becoming thefirst Blackwoman to sing aprincipalrolethere.13 After receivingcriticalacclaim throughoutEurope, generalmanager,Sir RudolphBing, offered Leontyne PriceacontractwithNew York’s Metropolitan OperaHouse in 1960.Binghad abettedMarianAndersoninunravelingthe segregated velvetropeamidstridentoppo- sition by inviting hertosingatthe Metfiveyears earlierin1955. Leontyne Pricemade herlaudableentrancethere in 1961 as Leonora, anoble lady in Verdi’s (1853), thesameyearthe Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)dispatchedintegratedgroupsof youthdesignatedas›FreedomRiders‹, throughout theSouth to challenge systemicseg- regation in transportation.Bythe time theCivil Rights movement peaked,withthe now historical marchonWashingtonD.C.inAugust1963, protesting racial discrimination, demanding jobs,and supportfor civilrights legislation, Pricehad alreadyforayed through thedoors of theonerousMet,inVerdi’sopera.Her performanceon27January 1961 aug- mented theranksofthree otherBlack artists( RobertMcFerrin, Matti- wildaDobbsand ) whoprecededher in major rolesatthe Met, sinceMarian Andersonunboltedthe doors. Pricesaidofher debut, that »Itwas thefirst operatic moun- tain Iclimbed,and theviewfromitwas astounding,exhilarating, stupefying.«14 Onecritic assertedthat:

HerLeonora provedtobearemarkableportrayal of awoman in whom digni- ty struggledwithdesperation andinwhomgrief somehowshone more movingly through aprofoundsense of repose. Theamalgam of qualitiesmade herfourthact aria »D’amor sull’ali rosee«adramaticaswellastechnical triumph.Itwas perhaps themostwildlyapplaudedmomentofthe present Metseason.15

12 »LeontynePrice,her ›Annus Mirabilis.‹« Source andwriterunknown. 13 SusanHellerAnderson,»Leontyne Price–Still theDiva«, in: NewYorkTimes 7thFebruary1982, p. 1. 14 On her1961Metropolitan Operadebut,in: NewYorkTimes 31st December 1984. 15 »A VoiceLikeaBannerFlying: Leontyne Price«,in: Time Magazine 10th March1961, p. 1–4. Hadley: »Marian Had Opened the Door …IKept it from Closing Again.« 131

Price’sperformance elicited an unprecedented42minuteovation that manifestly secured herplace as oneofthe Metropolitan’s leadingsopranos. From thebeginning of hercareer, Priceardentlytackled some of themostmusically dif- ficult, diverse andcomplexcharactersinopera.Her firstseason’srepertoirealsoincluded Cio-Cio-SaninPuccini’s (1904),Donna Anna in Wolfgang Amadé Mozart’s (1787) andLiù in Puccini’s (1926) in additiontoanational debuttourwiththe Metropolitan,several European bookings at , , Wiener Staatsoper,Altes Festspielhaus, Salzburg,and studio recordings.Inacomparativeassess- ment of herLeonora andCio-Cio-San,aTime Magazine critic wrote,

Butterflyshe unveiled[…] was, in contrast to herLeonora,acreaturethatlived on thesurfaceofemotion –tentative,vulnerable butnever mawkish. In thelastact, when SopranoPrice enactedthe difficultsuicide with adignity that many afamed sopranoisunabletomuster, Cio-Cio-Sanceasedtobeaquaintlypatheticfigure andbecamewhatshe rarelyis–atruly tragic one.16

Shewentontoassume theroleofCio-Cio-San in Milanand Vienna.LeontynePrice opened thefollowing season as MinniinPuccini’s La fanciulladel West,alteringhistory once again,asthe firstBlack to open aseasonatthe Metropolitan OperaHouse,and most significantlyfor hervoice anddramaticskills. Concurrentwithintercontinental re- citaltours,opera debuts,and performances under theconductorship of worldrenowned Maestros, Pricefulfilled several engagementswiththe NBC-TV OperaCompany includ- ingPaminainDieZauberflöte (1956);and Donna Anna in Don Giovanni (1960);made sev- eral recordings,signedanexclusivecontractwith RCA in 1958,and musiceditors and criticsdesignatedher Musician of theYearin1961. At theclose of 1964,President Lyndon Baines Johnsonawarded Leontyne Pricethe Presidential MedalofFreedom,the highest American civilian honor, expressingthat»hersinging hasbroughtlighttoher land.«17 Pricecommanded an estimated$1.500and $2.500 foreachperformance by 1964,and was in constant demand as critic WilliamBenderreported:

Operatic directorsthe worldover either buildtheir plansaroundLeontynePrice thesedaysorwishtheycould.WhenRudolf Bing of theMetropolitan Operaand Herbertvon Karajanofthe Vienna StateOpera plan theirschedules,theywantto know when Miss Priceisavailable andwhattheycan gether to sing.Atthe Met, forexample,she is astarattractionduringthe currentgalaWorld’s Fair season, with four performances of threeroles in twoweeks –the female leadsinAida, Don Giovanni andIlTrovatore. Andonthe Met’sannualspringtour, whichwillresume afterthe World’sFairgala, shewilloccupyanequallyeminent position.18

Afteradecadehiatusfrom Butterfly,Price returned to theMetropolitan as Cio-Cio-San in 1973 andagain,receivedpraise. »Shewas just as emotionallyshatteringasshe used to

16 Ibid. 17 »Diva’s Date With Destiny: Leontyne PriceOpens NewMet«, in: Ebony December 1966. 18 WilliamBender, »LeontynePrice:PortraitofaPrima Donna«, May1964. 132 Music, Race, and Culture be in thepart, andatthe endofthe eveningthe curtain callswentonfor more than half an hour.«19 Some criticslapsedintoracialasidesintheir critiques, buttheir finalwords were of praise,inspiredbythe caliberofPrice’s performances.The followingtwo excerpts areindicativeofambivalent reviewsofPrice’s operatic endeavors. Thefirst,after describ- ingher home anddivulging thenameofthe street on whichshe residesinGreenwich Village, continues»It wasinNew York that Miss Pricegot herfirst twobig breaks–a role in ’sFourSaints in ThreeActsand thepartofBess in thefamous 1952 –1953revivalofPorgy andBess.She gotthembecause shewas aNegro [emphasismine],but it is hard to see howsuchasingercould have been stopped,regard- less of herrace.«20 Thelatterdiscussion is less overt, butthe subtextreveals an analogous ambivalence:

Thesopranotranscendsthe outwardtrappingsofthe role.She is obviouslynever goingtolookveryJapanese, although shehandles thestylizedmovement dictated by theJapanesestage director,YoshioAoyama, smoothly enough.Whatshe hasis herown extraordinarydignity andaninwarddramaticpower that floodsthe stage andisalmostpalpable.21

Theprofessionalism with whichshe executed herperformancesfromher nascencemade her aforce with whichtoreckon. Regarding Price’svoice,the NewYorkTimes critic concludes:

Then there is thePrice voice,often like velvet, butmoreoften used fordramatic purposes with an intensitythatoverwhelmsthe listener. Whereitwas called for, thesopranocould sing with acharming playfulness,and shehas always been amu- sicianly artist.There wasalovelyradiancetoher singinginthe first-actloveduet, butone remembers best thedeath scene, as thevoice varied from ableak,hollow soundtothe most searingtones.Thiswas agreat,heartbreakingperformance.22

Leontyne Priceforged aheadwithacaptivating performanceasAida, thesameseason (1961),for which Time Magazine vividlyreported:

SopranoPrice’s triumph at theMet,asitoften hasbeenelsewhere,was herAida. Moving aboutthe stagewithfelinegrace,passing with akindofvisceral instinct through moodsthatwere supplicatingand menacing,aggressiveand sweet, she achieved oneofthe greatAidas of operatic history. Sustainingall of theperfor- mances wasthe voice,unfurlinglikeabrightbannerfromthe stageand through theopera house.23

Priceconcludedher firstseasonatthe oldMetropolitan as Liù, theslavegirlinTurandot, andDonna Anna in Don Giovanni.Withher establishedrecord, Leontyne Pricewould

19 RaymondEricson,»Triumph forMissPrice:SopranoGives EmotionallyShatteringPerformance in Met’s›Butterfly‹«,in: NewYorkTimes September1973. 20 WilliamBender, »LeontynePrice«, May1964. 21 RaymondEricson,»Triumph forMissPrice«. 22 Ibid. 23 »A VoiceLikeaBannerFlying«,in: Time Magazine 10th March1961. Hadley: »Marian Had Opened the Door …IKept it from Closing Again.« 133 be thelogical choice to open theNew Metropolitan OperaHouse at LincolnCenter. Consequently, twelve yearsafter herpublic debut, RudolphBingselectedLeontynePrice to open theNew Metropolitan OperaHouse starringasCleopatra in Antony andCleopatra, anew operabased on Shakespeare’splayofthe same title. Samuel Barber wascommis- sioned by theMetropolitan to create theworkfor this magnificentoccasion. Emblematic of herreverencefor thosewho hadprecededher at theMetropolitan,Price mused, »the ghosts from theold house–Caruso, Flagstad –all thosefolks –havemoveduptown, too. When I’dlookupatthe gold ceiling, there they’d be, swingin’ around,sayingtome, ›Lee, youmess it up andwe’lltakecareofyou!‹«24 Leontyne Pricehas mentored andservedasrolemodel to numerous peopleofall ages, colorand gender.MartinBernheimerprovides an analysis of EthanMordden’s critique of Price’ssignificanceindicatinghis recognitionofthe multiple facets of Price’simportance as role modelcommentsonher exquisitemusicality, as well as herracialsignificancein operainhis acclamation,that:

Price›came Metwardinadistinctlyracialatmosphere, andhas remained theworld’s residentblack sopranoever since‹.Hecallsher a›role model foryoung blacksingers […] an exampleofhow to do justicetoopera andoneself,how to spendcommitment andtakeone’s time‹. When it comes to describing Price’svoice,however,Mordden choosesastylistic rather than aracialdefinition: ›her Verdiantimbre,soauthorita- tive that it hasbecomethe soundaroundwhich modern Verdians navigate‹.25

Pricemodestlyassumesthe responsibility of mentoringwhile eschewingself-aggrandize- ment.Itisthrough theexchangeofstories recounting interactions with Ms.Price or her recordings that others learnofher gracious generosity in mentoring. Frequently young peoplefortunate to be in heraudienceappropriate Priceasrolemodel unbeknownsttoher. Mezzo-sopranoDenyceGravesrelates apersonalexperiencethatexemplifiesLeontyne Price’simportasrolemodel in thelives of young operaaspirants.Gravestells:»When I wasinhigh school,aclassmate andIdiscoveredLeontynePrice.Welocked ourselvesin aroom. We cutall ourclasses.Welistenedtoher sing Pucciniarias over andover and over andover.And Iwas so proud of her.«26 Graves shares that initiallytheywereunfami- liar with heropera repertoire, they only knew whoLeontynePrice wasand that she»sang songsand andall kindsofstuff that we were workingon, andweidentifiedwith that.And Ithought,Someday I’mgoing to be like Leontyne Price. Shewas theone.«27 Baritone Jubilant Sykes, avocalistwiththe London Symphony Orchestra, whosereper- toireconsistsofOld American Songsand TraditionalSpirituals, declares, »I wasinjunior

24 Leontyne Price, on firstperformance in newMetropolitan OperaHouse,in: Life 30th September 1966. 25 Martin Bernheimer, »Yes, But AreWeReallyColour Deaf?«,in: Opera 1985.Quotedin: Ethan Mordden, Demented:The Worldofthe PrimaDonna,New York 1984. 26 http://www.beautyinmusic.com/artist_pages/denyce_graves_d.htm21. 04.2009. Cf:RobertWilder Blue,»denycegraves.com:The 21st CenturyDiva.« US OperaWeb:Online Magazine DevotedtoAmerican Opera Spring2002. 27 MarilynMilloy, »Diva [DenyceGraves]«, in: Essence September1996, p. 84.BylinebyDenyceGraves. 134 Music, Race, and Culture high when Iwenttosee Leontyne Pricesing[…].She wasdoing some Mozart ariasand then shedid some spirituals andIwent, ›Wow!‹«28 Lyric--, Reri Gristrecallsthatsomeofher colleagues,withthe exception of George Shirleyand Leontyne Price, were unkind to herduringher earlydaysonthe operastage;she reminisces:

I[…] rememberamomentinSan FranciscoinUn BalloinMaschera […] with the great, greatLeontynePrice.Leontynewas agreat stagefriendand awonderful colleague. Istill chokeupatthe sounds this womanwas capableofmaking. AndI hadthe privilegetostand on thestage with herasshe sang.29

Priceperformed with world-renownedconductors, amongthem, Herbertvon Karajan, , ZubinMehta,, ErichLeinsdorf,Eugene Ormandyand FritzReiner; in sold-out operahousesthroughoutthe worldgarneringextendedovationsatCovent Gar- den,TeatroallaScala,Fredric R. Mann Auditorium,Tel Aviv,Israel, andWienerStaats- oper.One critic impressed by Price’srenderingofStrauss lieder duringaperformance in Mexico,wrote »the masterful German dictionalone wasenoughtomakethe voice teachers in theaudience(andthere were many!)sit up andnudge theirnearbystudents.«30 Accordingtothe accoladesfromher colleagues,administrators, conductors andevenstage- hands, herkindness andconsideration forotherssurpassesher vocalachievements. Herlegacyofexcellence, combinedwithher vocalbeneficence,augmentsher magni- tude,and ensconces herinopera historyasanextraordinaryrolemodel forfuturegen- erations primarilyfor children of color, butfor allchildren. Priceacknowledged theim- portance of role modelsfor Blackchildrenlivinginahostile societyearly in hercareer by presentingrecitalsatPublic elementary Schools, where sheintroduced thechildrento Italianarias,adaptingVerdi’s Aida into achildren’s story, whichshe read to elementary school children in .31 Thestory told from Aida’s perspective, that of ayoung Ethio- pian princess whoisbored in thepalaceand wandersoff in search of excitement,onlyto be captured andenslavedbyEgyptians.Aidaisproud andbeautiful,and when herfa- ther angrilydenounces heraslave forher disobedience, sheexclaims, »I am notand will neverbeaslave to anyone. Iamthe princess of Ethiopia, andIhave never forgottenmy royal blood.Mydutytoyou andtomycountry will always be firstinmyheart!«32 This poignant storyisbeautifully illustratedwithBlack peopleincolorful Africangarments. Thecharacter is indicative of Ms.Price,inher pride, humility,and discipline. Thebook itself serves as arolemodel forchildrenofcolor. It is alovestory;itstresses theimpor- tanceofloveofself, countryand parents.

28 ErrolNazareth, »Good Reason to be Jubilant SykesSet on Living up to HisName«,in: TheToronto Sun 3rdOctober 1997,p.58. 29 Robert WilderBlue,»: OneofaKin«, in:»American Operaatthe Met: Part II.« USOp- eraWeb:Online Magazine DevotedtoAmericanOpera.Vol.3,N.1.Spring2003. http://www.usoperaweb. com/2003/spring/grist.htm21. 04.2009. 30 CandaceA.Magner, »CheersGreet Leontyne Price«,in: LosAlamosMonitor September1989. 31 RaymondEricson,»HarlemPupilsHearLeontynePrice«, in: NewYorkTimes 20th December 1968. 32 Leontyne Price, Aïda As Told by Leontyne Price,New York 1990. Hadley: »Marian Had Opened the Door …IKept it from Closing Again.« 135

Duringone visitwithelementaryschoolchildren, agroup of insistent youngsters man- aged to inveigleanexplanation on why Aida washer favorite. Priceexplained:»When I sang Aida […] Iusedthe most importantplusthatIhave. Youhaveit; Ihaveit: this beauti- fulskin. When IsangAida, my skin wasmycostume.«33 Leontyne Priceprovides a»story- teller’s note«atthe endofthe book sharingthe significance this operahas in herlife. She confides that shebelievesAidatobea»portrait of herinner self,« andcontinues:

Shewas my best friend operaticallyand wasanatural formebecause my skin was my costume. This fact wasapositiveand strongfeelingand allowed me afreedom of expression, of movement, andofinterpretationthatother operatic heroinesI performeddid not. Ialwaysfelt, whileperforming Aida,thatIwas expressingall of myself –asanAmerican, as awoman,and as ahuman being. Vocally, therolewas perfectlysuitedtomyvoice in everyrespect –lyrically, dramatically, andintimbre. Therolepresented no difficulties andbecause my voice wasinfused with theemo- tionsIfeltabout Aida,Isangwithvocal ease andgreat enjoyment.34

Wordsofhope, encouragement, andcommentstoinculcate self-esteem aredispersed throughout hercompassionate discussionswithchildren. Pricehas given benefitrecitalsfor the NAACP, compositions of Scarlatti, Mozart,Wagner, Rachmaninov, andStrauss,concludingwith›spirituals‹atCarnegie Hall, PensionFund, shehas appeared in television commer- cialsinsupport of theUnitedNegro CollegeFund(UNCF). Acriticpresent at her1976 NAACP recitalpublishedthather »art is acontinuingtreasure; that sheisanAmerican, trainedinthiscountry,addsartisticlustertothe Bicentennial.«35 Shehas facilitatedben- efitsfor Harlem SchoolofThe Arts;first MetBoard Member’s arts in school project devotedtoproviding an affordable culturaleducationtoHarlemchildren; andbenefitsfor theUnitedNegro CollegeFund(UNCF).36 Priceevenparticipatedinabenefit concert forthe University of Mississippi,the institutionthathad formerly deniedher admission.37 Leontyne’s characteristic, excellence, charm andconfidencecan be attributed to her Laurel,Mississippi community, although segregated,bothBlack andWhite provided a loving,safeand supportive placethatenabled hertogrow, thrive andpursueher dreams. Thereasons areevidenced in astatement articulated by herbenefactor, Mrs. Elizabeth Chisholm, whorepliedtoacritic: »I do notconsidermyselfaSouthernliberal or anything like that […] this couldnot have happened to just anyone.Ithad to happen to an individual. It hadnothing to do with whethereitherofusisgreen,blueoryellow.Leontynehas given me farmorethanIhavegiven her.«38 PricereturnstoLaurel,where shevisitsschools to

33 Anthony Tommasini, »LeontynePrice ReadsHer Book Versionof›Aida‹and Singsfor Schoolchil- dren.«,in: TheNew York Times May30th2000. 34 Leontyne Price, Aïda As Told by Leontyne Price. 35 SpeightJenkins,»APriceless American Treasure«, in: NewYorkPost May1976. 36 »Diva’s Date with Destiny: Leontyne Priceopens newMet«, in: Ebony December 1966. 37 Bill Zakariasen,»This PriceIsRight:CelebratedSopranoKnowsHer MusicalMind!«, in: TheDaily News 14th September1982. 38 JayMilner, »A Little Girl From MississippiMakes Good«, in: Herald Tribune. 136 Music, Race, and Culture talk with teachersand students.She encouragesthe children to completetheir education andsharesher life’s experience as inspiration.39 Sheseizedthe opportunity as public figure to denounce racism,refusingtosingin Atlantauntil thetaxis,restaurants andhotelswere desegregated;40 articulated hercogni- zanceasatoken in thebusiness,frequentlypraised othervocalists,and paid homage to her predecessors, especiallyMarianAnderson, whom sheembracedasrolemodel,perform- ingatConstitutionHall in 1982 sponsoredbythe Daughtersofthe American Revolution, 43 yearsafter they refused Marian Andersonthe useofthe hall,stating that:»Herexample of professionalism,uncompromisingstandards, overcoming obstacles, persistence, resil- iency, undaunting spirit andwillinspiredmetobelieve that Icould achievegoals that oth- erwise wouldhave been unthoughtof.«41 Price’sreverencefor Blackculture andmusic,and herpride as an American areindicativeinher contention that

Blackfolklore[…] is so much apartofthe entire heritage of this country. It is the spiritualheartbeat of America. From it trials have been withstood,problemshave been solved,roots have been strengthened, progress hasbeenmade. If Ican accept thechallenge of doing theGermanLiedorthe Frenchchanson,Ialways insist that audiences listentoour exquisitefolklore. There is no reason why awhite artist can’t sing spirituals either,for that matter […] Iamachauvinistabout American artists […] becauseIthink we areextraordinaryprofessionals.Ithink nationalisminmusic hasbeenoutgrown. Iamnot speaking only of myself becauseIamofadarkerhue, butofall Americanaartists whoare readilyacceptedall over theworld singingthe musicofmanycountries.42

Leontyne Price’slifeexample is hercontributiontoall.Her repertoireiscomprisedof thegreatestclassical musicinthe worldincluding Italianarias,Germanlieder, French chansons, andoperaticpieces, by theworld’s greatest composersVerdi, Puccini, Handel, Mozart,Schubertand Strauss, butshe concludedher recitals andconcerts with traditional Negrospirituals, amongthem SwingLow,Sweet Chariot, Witness and Ride on King Jesus. Acriticreferencingone of Price’sCarnegieHall concerts describesthe ambiance as »fas- cinating to watchLeontynePrice turn twothousandstaidconcertgoersintoclapping, stomping witnesses forJesus;she does it often.«43 Shemay nothavetaken to thepavement, brandishingprotestplacardsinoppositiontoracism, butshe aself-identified »barrier- breaker«was indeed,engaged in rigorouscombat,wieldingexcellenceand perfection as herweapons,tokeep thepathwayscleared andthe doorsopenedfor others to enterthe hallowedgilt-encrustedopera andrecital halls. Duringanera of segregationand racial turmoil, Price’sgrand talent andcomportmentenabled hertoassume principalroles, customarilyassignedtowhite vocalists, oppositewhite menand womensuchasPlacido

39 »Diva’s Date with Destiny«. 40 RaymondEricson,»HarlemPupilsHearLeontynePrice«, in: NewYorkTimes 20th December 1968. 41 Richard Green, byline, »Music,Civil Rights WorldsMourn Anderson«, in: Associated Press 8thApril 1993. 42 FreemanGunter, »LeontynePrice:The VoiceofPassion«, in: Mandate,June1985. 43 Ibid. Sherinian: The Development of Dalit Consciousness 137

Domingo,,,FrancoCorelli,and MarilynHorne,singing in Italian, German andFrenchlikeadenizen. Leontyne Priceexitedaseloquentlyfromthe Metropolitan Operastage as Aida,justas shehad entered24years earlier, as Leonora, in excellentvoice.The velvetvoice of course, richer,wiser andseasoned. Critic,Donal Henahan, enumerated that this wasPrice’s »193rd Metropolitan performance(44 as Aida)« rhapsodizedthat»in hermosttaxingaria, »Opa- tria mia«, there were powerfulreminders of thePrice that we rememberbestand want to remember, aPrice beyondpearls.«44 At curtain, acaptivatedaudienceoffourthousandap- plaudedfor almost ahalfanhour(approaching the42minutes duringher debut)withaddi- tional millions watching alivetelecastfromLincoln Center on Thursday,3rd January1985. This is hergift, avoice designated »the Stradivarius of sopranos«,45 that is passionately illustriousofbeauty, andawoman whohas demonstratedagenerosity that hasinstilled children of all ages with self-confidenceand joy. Though we cannolongersee the assoluta in grandperformance,her voiceisimmortalizedonmorethanone hundred recordings,recordalbums, videotapes andcompactdiscs; and18Grammyawardsfromthe NationalAcademy of RecordingArts andSciences. Price’slifelongactivitiesare character- ized by andfortified with pride, gratitude,and grandhumility. Narratives regarding the positiveinfluencePrice’s performances have on young audiences arelegion, mine included. Initiallywewere captivatedwithher comportment, andthenmesmerizedbyher voice that made us believeall things were possible. Thetimbre,toneand beauty of Price’svoice in- fusedwithmeticulousenunciation in foreign languages, even if we didnot know what she wassaying, transportedusfromour immediateenvironmentstoplaceswecould dreamof andendeavor to reach.

Zoe Sherinian (Norman, OK) The Development of Dalit Consciousness through Tamil Christian Folk Songs: Global Implications

Christian Dalits in Indiahaveturned to folk musicthatincorporatesChristian ethics of equality,justice andsharingwhile drawingfromempoweringaspects of Dalit goddess reli- gion to create apoliticallycharged Christiantheology andmeans to reformculturalnatio- nalism. In this paper, Ianalyzedthe interplaybetween Dalit theology,socialactionand the

44 Donal Henahan, »Met Opera: PriceSings in Farewell«,in: NewYorkTimes January1985. 45 Roger Cooper Horst,»Leontyne Price–Voice of theMillennium« NPRN (The Nebraska Public RadioNetwork) BroadcastFeaturesLeontynePrice.3rd February 2001.