UC Merced The Journal of California Anthropology

Title 'The Basket is in the Roots, That's Where it Begins'

Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7qz254p5

Journal The Journal of California Anthropology, 3(2)

Authors Peri, David W Patterson, Scott M.

Publication Date 1976-12-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California 'The Basket Is In the Roots, That's Where It Begins'

DAVID W. PERI and SCOTT M. PATTERSON

EDITOR'S NOTE: The senior author. provide one of the most important basketry David W. Peri, is a member ofthe Olamentko elements used by the Pomo (Hudson 1893:567- band of Bodego Miwok and Assistant Profes­ 568; Chesnut 1902:314). Baskets made from sor of Anthropology at California State Col­ sedge form the basis for much of the Pomo's lege, Sonoma. The Bodega Miwok are located reputation for excellence in basketry, allowing in Sonoma County. for a fineness and evenness of stitch that is by some standards without equal anywhere HE renown of Pomo basketry in the (Hudson 1893:562, 576; Purdy n.d.: 19; Curtis T ethnographic literature has been based 1924:57; Kroeber 1925:144, 147). Samuel almost exclusively on form, fineness and Barrett (1908:137) observed: evenness of stitch, symmetry, design, and, to a lesser extent, technique. Pomo basketweavers, The fine woody fibers make it possible to however, have continually stressed that an dress sewing elements down to a size hard­ ly larger than that of a fine thread, and it is essential part of learning the art of basketry is from this material that almost all of the learning the art of root collection. One of the very finest Pomo baskets are chiefly made. biggest complaints about new weavers, Indian and non-Indian alike, is as follows: 'They don't V. K. Chesnut (1902:314) wrote that baskets want to learn how to dig and prepare those made from sedge "are known technically as roots. They can't call themselves weavers until 'root baskets' and are the strongest, most they learn how to do that.' This paper durable, and most costly that are made." maintains that the cultivation of basketry roots Discrepancies arise in the Pomo ethno­ is a significant factor in the superior reputation graphic literature as to the species of Carex, or of Pomo baskets. According to a celebrated sedge, used as basketry elements. Some Dry Creek weaver, 'the basket is in the roots, authors record only one species (Hudson that's where it begins' (Fig. 1). Consequently, 1893:567; Purdy n.d.:2l), while others record we explore here the processes of basket sedge two or more being used (Chesnut 1902:315; collection (i.e., cultivation) that the Pomo Mason 1904:443; Barrett 1908:137; Merrill practice.' We also include the characteristics 1923:236). and qualities that weavers use in assessing As a sewing element sedge roots were first sedge roots and comment on sedge root idenfified by J. W. Hudson (1893:567). He exchange and value.^ reported only one species, "slough grass" "kah-hodm," and identified it as Carex SEDGE IN LITERATURE mendocinoensis (1893:567-568). In Chesnut's (1902:315) work, the first The rootstocks of sedge (Carex sp.)^ discrepancy, and the apparent cause of all JOURNAL OL CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. I. 'The basket is in the roots, that's where il begins.' THE BASKET IS IN THE ROOTS 19 future problems of identification, arose when Chesnut (1902:315) and is not of concern here. "ka-ho6m" was recorded as Carex barbarae. Because the confusion in the literature Chesnut made no mention of C. mendocinoen­ between C. mendocinoensis and C. barbarae sis or why he recorded ^'kah hoom" (now cannot be resolved based solely on the written ka-hom) as C. barbarae. The possi­ literature, and because Barrett's data concern­ bility that Chestnut was correcting Hudson's ing his unidentified Clear Lake species are misidentification is supported by the fact that insufficient for identification, ethnobotanical Chesnut (1902:314fn) cited the authority upon fieldwork is needed. which his identifications were based, whereas According to the botanical literature Hudson did not. (Munz and Keck 1968:1429), Carex is the This unresolved confusion was perpetu­ largest genus of flowering plants in California ated by later authors, some of whom recorded and, with its more than 1000 species, one ofthe only C. tnendocinoensis as the principal largest in the world. Though hybridization is species (Purdy n.d.:2l), others recording only common, it has been rarely observed or C. barbarae (Mason 1904:443; Barrett 1908: reported in California. Munz and Keck record 137), and still others recording both (Merrill 144 species in California; of these, 3 are 1923:236). introduced, 15 extend beyond North America, Carl Purdy (n.d.:21), writing in 1901-1902, and 21 are endemic to the state. recorded ''ka-hum'' or ''Carex mendocinoen­ The discussion of Carex in Munz and Keck sis" as the most important of the basketry (1968:1436-1468) reveals interesting data on its elements, apparently having used Hudson's extensive distribution in California. Of the 29 (1893) earlier work. plant communities recorded (Munz and Keck Barrett (1908:137), without citing the basis 1968:12-18), species of Carex occur in all but of his identification, recorded the use of C. four.'^ Carex grows in all types of soils, alkaline barbarae. No mention was made of C or acidic, barren or fertile, marshy or dry, and mendocinoensis. occurs from sea level to the timberless Sierran Edith Merrill (1923:236, 230) reported that peaks, with Carex haydeniana growing at both C. mendocinoensis and C. barbarae were 13,600 feet maximum elevation. Some species used by the Pomo as a wrapping element, with are of wide occurrence while others are quite C. barbarae recorded as one of their "chief restricted. Of all the species recorded, Carex materials." Her sources for C. mendocinoensis rossii has the widest range, from sea level to must have been Hudson (1893) and/or Purdy 12,400 feet; however, sedge is conspicuously (n.d.), because her study was based solely on absent in the arid desert regions and the pubhshed sources (Merrill 1923:216); her lodgepole pine forests. source for C. barbarae must have been Chesnut (1902) and/or Barrett (1908). It SEDGE TRACTS should be noted that she apparently misap­ plied Hudson's (1893:568) common name Though Carex is widespread and common "slough grass" to C. barbarae (1923:236). in Pomo territory, not all sites where it occurs Two additional unidentified species are are used as sources of basket roots. According also discussed in the ethnographic literature. to older basketweavers, tracts of sedge were One of these, occurring in the vicinity of Clear widespread before the turn ofthe century, and Lake, was reported by Barrett (1908:137); the most Pomo tribelets had a local source of other, Carex vicaria, found in Round Valley roots. outside of Pomo territory, was recorded by The terms 'tracts' and 'beds' are used here 20 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY to reflect a Pomo point of view in that they (1893:568). Today's most preferred tracts refer only to those sites known to be used. yielding the highly prized river roots occur in Basketweavers divide tracts into one of two Mahilkaune Pomo territory along Dry Creek, types: 'river root tracts,' typically growing Sonoma County. An elderly Dry Creek weaver along the Russian River and its tributaries; and recalls that these tracts were used at least as 'coastal root tracts,' growing along water early as 1875.' The oldest ofthe basketweavers courses closer to the coast. These geographical remember Dry Creek as being the most divisions overlap and refer not to individual continuously and most extensively used area in species of Carex but to many species growing the Russian River basin. Indians from in the same general region. For example, Mendocino, Lake, and Sonoma counties use, coastal sedges are also found along the Russian when given a choice, the Dry Creek tracts River as far upstream as Guerneville, Sonoma exclusively. Today's most preferred coast root County. A third type of sedge tract may tracts occur along the Navarro River, possibly exist in the Clear Lake region (see Mendocino County. Barrett 1908:137); however, our fieldwork to Although there is no record in the date has not confirmed this. ethnographic literature on private ownership Within coastal and river root divisions, of sedge tracts among the Pomo, many there are three types of beds: 'sand root' beds; basketweavers todayestablish informal'claims' 'dirt root' beds; and heavy clay beds. Sand root on certain beds through extended usage, beds consist principally of sand, and are the though they make no attempts to prevent most preferred because they yield the whitest others from using these sites. One Ukiah Pomo roots, which are used in the finest baskets. weaver stated that 'in the early days' the loca­ Sand root beds occur in both coastal and river tions of sedge tracts were kept secret: 'They tracts though principally in coastal tracts. Dirt only tell their relatives.'^ After being dug, roots root beds consist of a mixture in varying were coiled and carefully concealed in the bot­ proportions of loosely-compacted sand and tom of a burden basket; the women then re­ soil. It is said that these roots grow faster than turned home, pretending their digging sticks those found in sand because ofthe additional were walking sticks. Dry Creek women were nutrients available in the soil of dirt root beds. apparently unconcerned with concealing the Dirt root beds occur along stream and river whereabouts of their preferred tracts, and said bands in low bottom land and yield a less- that people who were 'stingy' with the locations preferred colored root, from off-white to of new tracts would lose their luck in find­ brown. Dirt root and heavy clay beds are most ing roots. commonly found in the river region. Heavy Basketweavers today find themselves clay beds consist of highly-compacted soil excluded from their sedge beds by fences and characterized by the absence of sand and the trespass laws. This reduced access is a sore presence of clay. These beds are recognized but point among weavers, since they are required not used because, even with extensive use, they to either 'sneak around' to use the few good only yield short, kinky roots. Heavy clay beds local tracts or travel great distances to other usually occur above the flood plain and are sites. Such enforced activity constitutes not associated with springs. only a physical hardship and inconvenience for In both the coastal and river regions, there these elderly women, but an economic are a number of preferred tracts. The earliest hardship as well, since the resulting increase in record of a preferred tract, a river root tract, travel expenses reduces profits from the sale of located near Hopland, appears in Hudson baskets. THE BASKET IS IN THE ROOTS 21

In addition to being denied access to rhizomes. After this original rhizome has collecting tracts, weavers must contend with established a new plant, it turns black with age the continuing problem of tract destruction. and rots away completely in a few years. The earliest recorded description of the Tract Maintenance destruction of a sedge bed is that of one near Hopland: An essential ingredient in the development . .. before the thrifty rancher found the true and maintenance of sedge root tracts is the value of this rich alluvium in hop culture recognition and modification of environmen­ the [Indians] from rancherias far and near tal conditions vital for yielding the finest roots. would come and gather these preferred It seems reasonable to suggest that in pre- roots [Hudson 1893:568]. contact times, because sedge root elements Tracts continue to be destroyed by gravel min­ were essential in subsistence technology and ing operations (see Allen 1972:19), flood ceremonial basketry, weavers maintained control, and commercial, agricultural, and tracts to insure predictable supplies. In modern industrial development. times, though the emphasis of basketry is primarily a commercial one, tract maintenance THE COLLECTION PROCESS is no less important. Collectors are faced with a delicate Weavers possess intimate knowledge ofthe problem: they must obtain an adequate root different functions of the sedge root systems supply and at the same time insure the tracts' (Fig. 2). 'Basket sedges'are'everlasting plants' continued viability. To accomplish this, (perennial), with grass-like triangular stems weavers today use a collection strategy that reproduce both with flowers and through regulated through supernatural sanctions and spreading rhizomes. The mature or "parent taboos that is compatible with the reproduc­ plants" have two separate root systems: one tive mechanisms of sedge. Proscriptions, consisting of rootlets or 'foundation roots' that taboos, and the weavers' specialized knowledge grow vertically into the soil, supplying water ofthe requirements of sedge insure not only the and minerals; the other comprising rhizomes survival of the plants but also the supply of and yielding 'basketry roots.' These rhizomes roots as well. For example, sexual and or 'runners' grow to form an underground root menstrual taboos serve in part to regulate the network that firmly 'anchors the plant,' number of days available for collecting, reducing the erosional effects ofthe rivers and thereby reducing collection pressure on the streams along which it grows. The roots of tracts. sedge plants with multiple runners are called The earliest record of tract maintenance 'family roots': the longest root is the husband, and "primitive agriculture" was presented by the next longest is the wife, and the shorter Mason (1902:443): roots are the children. The new season's growth are 'spring roots' Mr. Coville draws attention to a bit of primitive agriculture . . The Pomo women and are recognized by sharply pointed tips or insist that the toughest and finest roots can 'spurs.' The second season's roots are called be obtained only at certain spots. Uncon­ 'ripe roots,' referring to their maturity for sciously they have been making this true by basketry purposes. In later years, if not means of their digging sticks and clam collected, a rhizome will sprout and come to shells, during all the years loosening the ground and removing weeds. the surface, eventually growing a mature crown of foliage, foundation roots, and its own The removal of rocks, branches, other roots. JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 2. Sedge collecting at a preferred site along Dry Creek, Sonoma County. and debris from beds results in a loose, There is no need for the beds to be left homogenous soil that allows free expansion of fallow to restock the roots, as the plants "will the roots. Competition from extraneous plants make runners again next spring and [the roots is eliminated by 'weeding them out' (see Mason will] be good in the fall" (Theodoratus et al. 1904:443; Allen 1972:19). 1975:174). Basketmakers know that if they In frequently cultivated or 'easy digging' carefully dig out the older roots, leaving the beds, the roots are removed before they have spring runners behind to mature, that sedge the opportunity to become tangled. In beds beds can be harvested on a yearly basis without cultivated infrequently, obstructions cause danger of depletion. roots to grow bent or 'kinky.' These beds are When digging, weavers are careful to 'kinda hard digging' because they contain roots replant short pieces of roots and accidentally from several seasons, which usually become unearthed young plants, and have at times tangled. In beds rarely or never cultivated, the transported these to other locations for the soil has a tendency to become compact, and establishment of new tracts (cL Theodoratus et generally contains an abundance of extraneous al. 1975:173). Transplantationof other types of debris. These beds, characterized as 'rough plants has been recorded for areas of digging,' yield very short, thick, kinky, and California (see Bean and Lawton 1973:xxvi); tangled roots. With frequent and continued however, its practice is of unknown antiquity culti\ation. all sand and dirt root beds can in among the Pomo. time yield finer sedge roots. Basketweavers recognize that improper THE BASKET IS IN THE ROOTS 23

digging techniques are detrimental to the beds. just like having worms in your body; those According to weavers, there is definitely a right worms look just like those short roots.' The way to dig sedge roots. Because of this, they are Ukiah Valley doctor and weaver does not reluctant to bring inexperienced individuals to observe menstrual restrictions; 'This is modern their favored spots. Today, the collection times and I'm a modern Indian. It doesn't pressure on the preferred beds is very high, as affect me. I've my own rules, I'm different that they are few in number and basketry classes are way.' growing in popularity. Basketmakers agree Menstruating women are said to be more that students must learn the collection process susceptible to rattlesnake bite if they dig for before they are considered weavers; therefore, roots: 'Those snakes are attracted by that waste collecting trips are required as part of the blood, they'll bite that woman.' A Dry Creek curriculum. Non-preferred beds are used for weaver has said: the training of novices in cultivation and There are restrictions on handling sedge collection in order to preserve preferred areas. roots because 'the women are afraid of the By using less preferred beds to train weavers, snakes.' A snake may have crawled over basketmakers are able to 'thin out' the tangled the root while it was in the ground, causing roots and, in time, to develop these beds into the weaver to become ill and require a doc­ preferred tracts. tor [Theodoratus e/fl/. 1975:179]. In summary, through cultivation of sedge All collectors agreed that in earlier times beds, weavers increasethe quantity and quality sexual abstinence was observed before and ofthe roots in addition to extending the size of during root collection. 'If a man sleeps with a tracts. As long as sedge beds are cultivated, woman, his thing will get like those roots; it they supply a predictable and probably looks funny, the women won't go around him indefinite resource. anymore, that's his punishment,' remarked a Cloverdale Pomo woman. She also com­ Collecting Restrictions mented; 'Those roots will get jealous if they [the collectors] do that [have intercourse], Today sedge gathering is not considered a they'll go to somebody else, and you'll have wholly secular activity; for many weavers it is those other people's luck.' "spiritual" (Theodoratus et al. 1975:179). The singing doctor from Ukiah sings as Highly specific, supernaturally sanctioned instructed by the 'spirit' before collecting her "rules" exist in two different stages of the roots. She also 'prays' for others before they collection process—those in force before collect to protect them from snakes, especially leaving for the beds and those in force while rattlesnakes. collecting. The extent and degree of observ­ Other observances are reported for the Dry ance varies with different individuals (Theo­ Creek Pomo: doratus et al. 1975:179). It seems reasonable to While digging for sedge, a consultant was suggest that in earlier times ritual restrictions asked the Dry Creek name for the plant, were more extensive and more widely observed and replied: "LU tell you when we get back than today. home, if I tell you now they will go back on All weavers except one Ukiah Valley me," meaning she will not have any more luck in locating roots [Theodoratus et al. woman, who isalso a singingdoctor, agree that 1975:178]. menstruating women and 'their men' have never been allowed to collect roots, and that One Cloverdale woman remarked: 'You violation of this rule results in sickness: 'It's shouldn't brag about your roots before you 24 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY have 'em, you're going to come home with an Chesnut (1902:317) recorded that river empty sack if you do that.' She also stressed the roots were collected during the summer and importance of complimenting or 'talking good early fall. According to Allen (1972:18), in about the roots.' She considered it proper to referring to roots two or more seasons old,^ exaggerate the length of roots so as not to sedge is collected "generally in early spring." A offend them even though they may be short: Ukiah Pomo weaver, referring to river roots,* 'Sometimes those roots test you, they come up has commented that "sedge grass roots are at short to see how you're going to talk about their best in the fall of the year, about them, hear what you're going to say. If you talk October"; however, "it is possible to cut these good about them they'll come up long.' She roots any time of the year . . ." (Newman also stated that roots dug after dark will turn 1974:7). According to Theodoratus et al. black, and if collectors eat acorn bread while (1975:176): collecting, the roots will turn 'dark like the Dry Creek Pomo basketmakers have re­ bread.' One Upper Lake woman and her family cently reported that the 'old timers' gath­ abstained from drinking water while collecting ered sedge 'after the first rains in the fall, roots. when the ground loosens up.' The roots at Another weaver (a Cache Creek sucking this time of the year are 'seasoned up ripe, doctor) observes the following rules: it's not too fresh.' In recent years, sedge root has been gathered during all seasons, though winter weather makes collection She only collects the roots in the morning difficult. hours when it is not raining, and eats no food prior to gathering. After she collects the roots, it is washed off in the creek and is Our discussion with basketmakers regard­ washed again when she returns home ing the collecting season led to the following [Theodoratus p/a/. 1975:179], conclusions: (1) Sand root beds are best collected from late summer to the first rains in Some weavers are said to have more luck in the fall, when the spring growth is mature. digging the roots than others. Luck is acquired (2) Dirt root beds are best dug after the early by observing the rules for collecting, Certain fall rains when the soil has loosened up: 'The individuals also own special songs which bring digging's easier then.' Basketmakers also luck. Angelica is carried by some to 'make 'em agreed that today, with access to sedge beds lucky for the roots,' as well as to protect them limited, 'Anytime is the best time, dig them while collecting. whenever you get the chance.'

Collecting Seasons Collection Method

The season for collecting sedge roots varies Root digging is often a family affair, with between coast and river root tracts. Within men, women, children, and old people river root tracts, the collecting season also participating (Fig. 3). Many times'they'd make varies between sand and dirt root beds. Such a big trip of it, camp a week at a good spot,' variation may also exist within the coastal root with everyone collecting and the men doing the tracts, although this is yet undetermined. 'heavy work.' The time for collecting river roots was In the early days, a fire-hardened, single- reported by Hudson (1893:568) as follows: pointed, hardwood digging stick was used to During the summer months and even into loosen the soil and expose the roots. The the fall, as long as the rising waters would earliest description of sedge collection by the permit [access to the beds] . . . Pomo was reported by Hudson in 1893: THE BASKET IS IN THE ROOTS 25

Fig. 3. A young weaver learning about sedge plants. 26 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Armed with a clam shell in one hand and a be drawn easily through the soil and when short stick in the other, he takes a bunch of a root is reached, the tool is so constructed this grass as a starting point, and lays bare as to minimize damage to either the root or its radiating roots. Selecting the best of the parent plant. It is used to scratch the these, he grasps the root between the first soil from around the parent plant to and second toe, and gently lifts it a little, expose where the runners lie. Once a to indicate its hidden course under the sand runner is found, it is carefully traced by to the next bunch. This fact ascertained digging the soil away from either side until the clam shell scoops out, while the stick the end is reached. The runner is then carefully loosens all stones or hardened firmly grasped and pulled directly up­ earth in its path, till soon a little trench wards. The parent stock and the root some three or four inches deep, uncovers separate easily [Theodoratus et A/. 1975: the beginning of this kah hoom gem. The 176]. work is slow and careful, lest the sharp edge of a rock cut or bruise the tender fiber, Though modern tools have replaced those whilst in the rear like a ship's rudder the described by Hudson, the techniques as well as guiding foot and protecting toes keep pace the approach to collection remain the same, [Hudson 1893:568-569]. namely, to obtain sedge roots while insuring Older basketmakers are familiar with this the continual productivity of the beds. collection method, but are unable to contri­ Other tools are also used in collection (i.e., bute additional details. cultivation). Spading forks are sometimes used Tools used in root collection have changed by men to thin out a patch if the roots and since Hudson's time. The digging stick was plants are particularly dense from lack of first replaced by the crowbar, and later cultivation. As a rule, digging tools with flat the tire iron. The crowbar was said to be prongs or blades are avoided, since they tend to too heavy and cumbersome: 'It tired the men cut the roots. Newman (1974:8) recently out too soon, it was even harder digging for recorded the use of a "small garden fork" for the women.' The tire iron quickly found digging sedge roots. Allen (1972:18) recorded widespread acceptance, as it is lighter and the use of a trowel; however, other basket- more efficient than the crowbar. Allen (1972: makers regard it as awkward and prone to cut 18) noted that a "three-pronged curved fork the roots. was used in the old days, and a similar steel One of the differences observed between fork for digging can be used today." Other older, experienced basketmakers and those of basketmakers refer to these as 'grubbing less experience is the individual's posture while hooks.' They consist of three equally spaced digging. More experienced individuals sit and pointed prongs, attached like a hoe blade, while digging to make their work easier. Less at right angles to a handle (Allen 1972:18). The experienced individuals stand bent over while length of the handle and the overall weight of digging: '1 guess they're embarrassed to sit like the 'hook' vary with different individuals. us old Indians.' Experienced basketmakers When basketweavers find a hook that's 'right associate stooping with 'kinky' roots: 'They'll for them,' they tend to favor it above all others. get kinky roots standing that way.' Other In addition to the grubbing hook, "your hands comments were: 'You get too tired standing and fingernails also help a lot in separating a that way'; 'That's the way white people dig long root from the soil (Allen 1972:18)." their roots.' The method of sedge root collection using It was observed that those who stand dig by modern tools has been described as follows: hoeing and chopping rather than by gently The space between the prongs allows it to digging: 'You can tell when somebody's been THE BASKET IS IN THE ROOTS 27 digging who doesn't know how, they chew up 1893:569) could now be collecting 60. Men the ground and tear up the roots.' who formerly gathered 10 roots per day Basketmakers say that men do not have (Hudson 1893:569) could now collect 30. enough patience to 'dig out the roots. When they get tired, they cut them off anywhere. ROOT QUALITIES They don't dig them out all the way. They start out good, but you know how those men are.' Five interrelated qualities are recognized A review of Hudson (1893:569-570) by basketmakers in assessing sedge roots: revealed a seeming contradiction between the length, color, straightness, strength, and number of root coils collected per day in the pliability. The importance of these qualities 1890s and today. He observed that in a good varies according to the intended use of the day's work a man will collect ten roots, and a basket, which in turn determines the basketry woman will often double this amount. He technique required. recorded that their roots were usually four or Root length varies, depending upon where five feet in length, depending upon the the plant occurs. Roots under 15 cm. are condition of the soil and the disposition of the generally avoided: 'They're not good for much; collector, and that the "sphttings from two too short.' As a rule, the longer the root, the roots make a coil convenient to handle" better. Sand beds yield the longest roots; the (Hudson 1893:569-570). A good day's work longest observed during our fieldwork was would then yield five to ten coils per day. over 2 m. and was dug in Dry Creek, Sonoma However, basketmakers today report that'one County. Sand roots over 1.75 m. are not good day's digging' in a preferred tract yields uncommon, but the average length is between 'three or four coils.' This seeming contradic­ 60 and 90 cm. tion is resolved by the fact that there is no The color of sedge roots varies from white standardized root count in a coil, and that to pale lemon (Hudson 1893:573), to cream- modern coils are substantially larger than colored (Hudson 1893:569), to tan, to a rich those reported by Hudson. brown. The term 'white roots' refers to roots The structure and efficiency of the pure white in color. This term is also applied to grubbing hook appears to have revolutionized the whitest ofthe cream-colored roots. Though root digging. This tools allows greater ease of all colors of sedge are used, white is by far the manipulation and greater soil moving capaci­ most preferred. Sand beds produce the whitest ties than were ever possible with a digging roots, their color being attributed to the 'white stick. The three prongs of the cultivator can be color of the sand.' Dirt roots are a rich brown, compared to having the efficiency of three reportedly taking on the color ofthe dark soil. digging sticks simultaneously, and it would 'Old roots,' regardless of the soil they grow in, therefore represent a three-fold increase in are also brownish in color. effectiveness over the digging stick. It seems A rich brown color is additionally associ­ reasonable to estimate that the cultivator could ated with 'under the leaf roots,' which typically reduce digging time up to one-third of that occur along stream beds in well-shaded, moist required by either digging sticks or tire irons. areas under trees. After a sufficient leaf cover In other words, a root formerly uncovered with has developed, the sedge roots grow above the the digging stick in 30 minutes (Hudson ground and 'run under the leaves.' The color of 1893:569) could now be uncovered with the under the leaf roots, like dirt roots, is brown. cultivator in only 10 minutes. Women who This is attributed to the brown color of the once gathered 20 roots per day (Hudson fallen leaves. 28 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Straightness is an important root quality seasons old, large in circumference, and brown because it affects root strength. Roots growing in color. These old roots have specialized uses. in beds that contain obstructions in the soil Each new season's growth is 'spring roots' and have a tendency to kink or bend: 'The root goes is gathered in the fall. As a rule, approximately along until it comes to a hard place, then it 15 cm. near the tip are removed because of turns and makes a kink.' It appears that roots softness. Immature spring roots,'young roots,' seek lines of least resistance and grow are avoided because the inner tissue is too soft straighter in soil that they can easily penetrate. and easily broken. As new growth matures in These kinky or bent roots are the least the fall, this soft tissue becomes dense and preferred because the kinks must be cut out, woody, i.e., 'gets seasoned.' yielding a series of lengths rather than a single There is no doubt that basketmakers long root. Additionally, each kink causes a recognize different types of sedge roots and are weak spot, which is compounded to the point aware of the special properties of each. They of breaking when the root is split and cleaned. consider these properties in the weaving In addition to their proneness to splitting technique, in the preparation of the element, unevenly, the split sections are narrower at the and in the subsequent use of the basket (cL point of the kink, and the overall section needs Merrill 1923:228). to be sized to the width ofthe kink. Oftentimes Sand roots, because of their color, are used the kink can be reduced by'thinningit out,' i.e., for the fine coiled ceremonial or gift baskets reducing the width and thickness ofthe overall (see Theodoratus et al. 1975:171), since these element. Although the result is a fine, thread­ whitest of roots are preferred as background to like root, when used as a sewing element the the black or red designs. White is also the kink causes an uneven stitch that does not preferred background for twined gift baskets. lie flat as 'straight roots,' and is therefore 'White roots' are used in feather baskets where avoided in the finer-coiled baskets. In the the inner surface is readily apparent, e.g., in majority of instances, the bent section of the 'sun baskets' and plate form baskets. Because root is simply cut out, resulting in two shorter these baskets are used in ceremonial exchanges pieces. As one weaver commented, 'You only and as offerings, it is important to use only the go through all that work if you're hard up finest of roots. for roots.' In earlier times, a basketmaker of any Roots that are particularly short and kinky repute would strive to have all her baskets are called 'old-lady roots.' 'When the ladies get made from the whiter sedge roots. When asked old, they get shorter and bent over. That's how why, since with age and use all sedge roots these roots get their name.' Kinky roots are baskets darken, a basketmaker recently told us more preferred over the old-lady roots because that the basket will darken evenly all over and the sections between the kinks are longer. will not 'spot,' i.e., not darken unevenly. In general, the more pliable roots are Dirt roots, because of their color, are used preferred; however, the lack of pliability can to to repair older baskets whose elements have some extent be compensated for by splitting, darkened with age and can be used on either sizing, and soaking. Coast roots are said to be twined or coiled baskets, being especially by far the most pliable of the roots. preferred for the latter. Dirt roots tend not to Age affects length, strength, pliability, and be used in fine baskets; however, they can be color. The ideal age for roots is between one used in baskets where the elements are and three years. Age as a selective factor in concealed by feathers. Dirt roots are not used, collection usually refers to roots three or more however, in 'sun baskets' or plate form feather THE BASKET IS IN THE ROOTS 29 baskets where the inner surface is readily of baskets woven with coast roots is their visible. inability to be used with water for any length of Although longer roots have a more gener- time, since the elements break up into aUzed use in Pomo basketry, shorter roots individual fibers. One basketmaker has are also used. The short, straight sections reported that coast roots were not used for between the kinks of the old lady roots and cooking baskets or 'mush baskets.' kinky roots are used for making miniature River roots, in contrast to coast roots, are baskets; however, longer roots are preferred known for their dense, tough strands which for these miniatures since 'the baskets go faster' range in color from white to tan. These tough (i.e., they do not require as much weaving elements yield very strong and durable twined time). Shorter roots require continual sizing and coiled baskets. They require compara­ and replacing of new sewing elements as they tively lengthy soaking to soften, but the fibers become too short: 'For those little ones, longer do not break apart and are therefore suited for roots are best; you can go all the way with one most purposes. River roots are more widely or maybe two roots.' Another use of shorter available and used than coastal roots and are roots is for the white contrast between the far more common in modern Pomo baskets. black design elements: 'Sometimes you need just a few white stitches—those short ones are EXCHANGE AND VALUE good for that.' Shorter roots are also used in repairing coiled baskets. Although sedge occurs throughout the Old roots, because oftheir age, are'thicker' Pomo and adjacent territories, this did not or larger in circumference than other roots. preclude exchange for roots, though Davis The shortest and thickest of these are called (1966) recorded none. Since certain types of 'chubby roots.' Because old roots are 'wide sedge not found locally are preferred for when you split them,' they yield a wide, strong specific basketry techniques, exchange is 'flat root.' Because of their pliability and required. Today, exchange becomes even more strength, flat roots are particularly well-suited important as preferred tracts in local areas for use on plain twined work baskets: 'They become destroyed or access to them is denied, make a strong weave, a strong basket.' Also, forcing weavers to travel to new beds or to the wide elements obtained from flat roots purchase roots. 'make the weaving go fast.' Old roots become Hudson (1893) recorded the value of sedge fibrous with age and, for this reason, are only in terms of clam shell disc beads and other soaked a short time. If oversoaked, they tend basketry roots. It seems reasonable to advance to split apart into fibers. Old roots are brown the hypothesis that sedge roots formed a part and, like dirt roots, are used to repair old age- of the intra- and inter-tribelet exchange system darkened baskets. of the Pomo. Coastal roots, due to their pliability, are Since 1893 there has been a gradual increase preferred by some weavers for use in miniature in the price of sedge coils (Table 1). The period baskets: 'It makes weaving the tiny stitches just before and after the turn of the century was easy.' Because of flexibility ('you can cinch it a period of intensive selling or trading of up tight'), coastal roots are also preferred for baskets by Pomo weavers for money and/or lattice and other twined weaves, i.e., close goods. Pomo baskets were in great demand by twining that demands a rigid warp material ethnographers for museum collections, serious and a very flexible woof (cf. Merrill 1923:229). collectors, and those who collected because it According to weavers, the major drawback was stylish for the times (Mason 1904:187- 30 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 1

THE VALUES OF SEDGE ROOTS'

Date of Value Amount of Sedge Roots Equivalent Value Source

1893 5 bunches 100 clam beads Hudson (1893:572) sm. bunch bullrush 6 bunches redbud 1899 1 bunch 65 clam beads Mason (1900:347) c. 1900 1 coil 50'^ Cloverdale Pomo c. 1920 1 coil $1.00 Cloverdale Pomo c. 1940s 1 coil $1.25 Dry Creek Pomo 1962 1 coil $5.00 Cloverdale Pomo 1970s 1/2 of a cleaned root 25^ to 50'= Kashaya Pomo 1/4 coil $5.00 Cloverdale Pomo 1 coil $20.00 Cloverdale Pomo 1974 1 coil $15.00 Cloverdale Pomo 1975 1 coil $20.00 Cloverdale Pomo 1 coil of "coast roots" $35.00 Cache Creek Pomo 1 coil $25.00 Coyote Valley Pomo 1976 1 coil $25.00 Cloverdale Pomo

188). The rise in prices between 1893 and 1920 California State College, Sonoma reflects this interest and, possibly more Rohnert Park important, is indicative of the decreasing Foundation for Educational Development number of preferred sedge beds. Weavers are California State College. Sonoma forced to go outside of their local areas to Rohnert Park purchase or trade for roots. According to weavers, the years before World Wars I and II NOTES marked a low point in the sale of baskets and sedge coils. The post-war period brought a 1. All information contained within single quota­ tion marks and not cited comes directly from renewed interest in the sale and collection of consultants. These quotation marks only appear Pomo baskets. According to weavers, this was the first time the word or words are used. also the period of extensive land development that contributed to the demise of collecting 2. We conducted the initial research for this paper as part of a contract (DACW07-75-C-0022) with tracts. Reduction in the number of preferred the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco tracts and the declining number of experienced District, in association with an Environmental weavers brought about rising prices for sedge Impact Statement forthe Warm Springs Dam-Lake coils and subsequently the baskets themselves. Sonoma Project, Sonoma County, California. When recently asked about the prospects for Other principals involved in the overall research (an the future in terms of sedge root and basket ethnographic survey ofthe Dry Creek Mahilkaune prices, a weaver replied: 'Like the white people Pomo, see Theodoratus et al. 1975) included say nowadays, prices are going up.' Dorothea J. Theodoratus and Clinton M. Blount. THE BASKET IS IN THE ROOTS 31

Ethnobotanical research for this paper was California Publications in American carried out intermittently from September, 1974, to Archaeology and Ethnology 7:134-308. March 1976, and involved participant observation Bean, L. J., and H. W. Lawton and interviewing. Pomo basketweavers from Dry 1973 Some Explanations for the Rise of Cul­ Creek, Ukiah, Upper Lake, Cache Creek, Clover­ tural Complexity in Native California dale, Stewart's Point, Potter Valley, and Coyote with Comments on Proto-Agriculture Valley were consulted. We acknowledge here their and Agriculture, /n Henry T. Lewis. Pat­ patience, understanding, and wealth of knowledge terns of Indian Burning in California: and offer our sincere appreciation for affording us Ecology and Ethnohistory. Ramona: the opportunity to learn from them. To Dave Ballena Press, pp. v-xlvii. Fredrickson, for his gentle but firm prodding, without which we would still be in the field, our Chesnut, V. K. appreciation. From Shirley Silver, though not a 1902 Plants Used by the Indians of Mendo­ basketweaver, we have also learned much. Without cino County, California, Washington: her "nudging," editorial pencil, support, and Contributions from the U.S. National patience, we would still be at the typewriter. Our Herbarium 7(3):295-408. appreciation to Sid Stafford, Santa Rosa Junior Curtis, E. S. College, for his fine photographic work. 1924 The North American Indian. Norwood: 3. Sedge or Carex as used here refers to only those The Plimpton Press. Vol. 15, pp. 55-70. species of sedge whose roots are used as basketry (Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corpor­ elements by the Pomo. ation, New '^'ork, 1970). 4. Carex is not found in: Shadscale Scrub, Alkali Davis, James T. Sink, Lodgepole Forest, and the Joshua Tree 1966 Trade Routes and Economic Exchange Woodland (Munz and Keck 1968:14-16, 18). Among the Indians of California. In Aboriginal California: Three Studies in 5. Information from consultants has been related, Culture History. Berkeley: University where possible, to the modern designations of of California Archaeological Research specific Pomo tribelets. Where the information has Facility. not been specified, it may be construed to have general applicability for all of the Pomo tribelets. Hudson, J. W. 1893 Pomo Basket Makers. Overland Month­ 6. The phrase 'in the early days' as used by ly 21(126):561-578. consultants refers to some time before 1890. Kroeber, A. L. 7. Personal communication with Elsie Allen 1925 Handbook ofthe Indians of California. (January 27, 1976). Washington: Bureau of American Eth­ 8. Personal communication with Molly Jackson, nology Bulletin 78. January 27, 1976. Mason, Otis T. 9. Coils as used here consist of cleaned and split 1900 The Hudson Collection of Basketry. root elements. American Anthropologist 2:346-353. 1904 Aboriginal American Basketry: Studies in a Textile Art Without Machinery. REFERENCES Washington: Report lor the LIS. Na­ Allen, Elsie tional Museum for 1902. 1972 Pomo Basketmaking: A Supreme Art Merrill, R. E. for the Weaver. Healdsburg: Nature- 1923 Plants Used in Basketry by the California graph Publishers. Indians. University of California Publi­ Barrett, S. A. cations in American Archaeology and 1908 Pomo Indian Basketry. University of Ethnology 20:215-242. 32 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Munz, P. A., in collaboration with D. A. Keck Reprinted by the Mendocino County 1968 A California Flora, with Supplement. Historical Society, Ukiah, Berkeley: University of California Press, Theodoratus, D. J„ D, W. Peri, C, M. Blount, Newman, S. C. ^^^ ^- ^- Patterson 1974 Indian Basket Weaving. Flagstaff: North- '^VS An Ethnographic Survey of the Mahil- land Press kaune (Dry Creek) Pomo, Contract No. DACW07-75-C-0022 of the U.S. Army Purdy, Carl Corps of Engineers, San Francisco n.d. Pomo Indian Baskets and Their Makers. District.