Thermal Comfort Conditions in Outdoor Urban Spaces: Hot Dry Climate -Ghardaia- Algeria

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect

Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215

4th International Conference on Countermeasures to Urban Heat Island (UHI) 2016 Thermal Comfort Conditions in Outdoor Urban Spaces: Hot Dry Climate -Ghardaia- Algeria

Islam Boukhelkhala , Pr. Fatiha Bourbiab

a University of Larbi Ben M’hidi, Oum El Bouaghi, 04000, Algeria b Laboratoire Architecture Bioclimatique Et Environnnement, Constantine, 25000, Algeria

Abstract

One of the great challenges facing our generation of scientists is how to mitigate the effects of urban heat island. This problem become more and more important for the wellbeing of man. The aim of this study is to enable designers to produce comfortable outdoor spaces. Many researchers believe that the causes of the microclimatic variation in cities are linked to urban geometry, and the effect of shade trees. The main aim of this paper is to discuss and assess the impact of the geometry and shade trees on the open spaces climate, in Ghardaia (hot dry climate) –Algeria.

©© 20162016 The The Authors. Authors. Published Published by Elsevier by Elsevier Ltd. This Ltd. is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility ofthe organizing committee of the 4th IC2UHI2016. Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the 4th IC2UHI2016

Keywords: Urban heat island; open space geometry; outdoor thermal comfort; vegetation.

1. Introduction

The habitat, much more than a basic unit in the town, it is a multifunctional space. It ensures safety and shelter against the elements, but it is especially the place of human relationships, the place where the feeling is the desire for better living together where share. Housing is in a more limited sense of where we distinguish one from another and more [1].

Corresponding author. Tel.: +213 661 86 42 80; fax: +213 31 97 56 16. E-mail address: [email protected]

1877-7058 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the 4th IC2UHI2016 doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2016.10.025 208 Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect occurs when city temperatures run higher than those in suburban and rural areas do, primarily because growing numbers of buildings have supplanted vegetation and trees [2]. The main causes of the different microclimatic conditions in cities are linked to urban geometry, which influences incoming and outgoing radiations as well as surface material properties. Hence appropriate urban planning and design, could play important roles in preventing, or mitigating the negative effects of urbanization [3, 4]. In hot climate, increased temperatures lead to decreased thermal comfort in urban areas. This has a negative effect on the well-being of people and could have negative social and economic consequences, e.g. less use of urban space. Deteriorated outdoor climate conditions also lead to worse indoor comfort and use of active acclimatization mainly air conditioning [5]. The reduction of vegetation, the increase of thermally massive and non-porous surfaces, the presence of drainage systems, the emission of heat and pollution contribute to altering the urban microclimate [6,4]. This makes environmental designers responsible not only for the internal conditions of the buildings but also for the external climatic environment created by those buildings. Most of the literature reviewed shows that the first control mechanism against the climate is the city layout. The update researches suggest that careful planning; design and attention to the climatic forces, can significantly improve the urban environment from both the human comfort and the energy use perspective. Open spaces in cities have a large variety of forms and surface characteristics. The microclimate of these spaces are influenced by several parameters such as the urban geometry, the vegetation, the water levels and the properties of surfaces [7,8]. The main objective of this research is to evaluate the thermal comfort level of the urban open spaces located in the city of Tafilelt (Ghardaia, Algeria). The tools used in the simulation are the numerical microclimate model ENVI-met 3.0 [9], and COMFA [10]. Several techniques based on bioclimatic architectural criteria have been analyzed, in order to improve the microclimate in an outdoor space and propose a set of climatic guidelines for architects and planners.

Nomenclature

UHI Urban Heat Island COMFA Comfort Formula SVF Sky View Factor PMV Predicted Mean Vote TB Thermal Balance M Metabolic Heat Rabs Heat due to Terrestrial and Solar Radiation. Remit Heat due to Radiation emitted by the person. Evap Heat dissipated by evaporation. Conv Heat gained or lost by convection

The COMFA method mainly consists of the following basic formula expressing the energy budget of a person in the outdoor environment [10].

Budget = M + Rabs - Remit - Evap – Conv (1)

Table 1. The human comfort feelings related to the budget values

Budget W/m2 Description BUDJET -201 Very cold -200 BUDJET -120 cold -120 BUDJET -50 cool -50 BUDJET +50 Comfort Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215 209

+50 BUDJET +120 warm +120 BUDJET +200 hot +201 BUDJET Very hot

2. Presentation of the Site (Case Study)

The investigation was conducted in city of Tafilelt (Ghardaia, Algeria) located at (32.48° North and 03.67° East). This city characterized by Islamic architecture, reported to hidden spiritual elements. Its Islamic architecture expresses a common vision of the sacred and of the divine; it connects the community of believers to god [11]. The climate of the Ghardaia city is hot and dry in the summer with an average temperature of 38°C occurring in July. The average air temperatures recorded reach a maximum of 40°C and 42°C, with occasional peaks of 46°C that occurs at about 15:00. The humidity is relatively low, it varies between 23% and 27% during some periods of drought and it can reach the minimum rates between 2 and 6%. The intensities of solar radiation on the region are very high; the horizontal solar radiation is important, it can reach 1040 Wh/m² between June and July. The wind is dry and hot steering north - east with an average speed between one and 2.5 m/s. The study area is located in the central parts of the city, and characterize by Islamic art in an arid area that has mission to remember the god as well as keep the intimacy indoor units [12]. The selected site corresponds to different geometric configurations of the urban streets. These are characterized by the buildings height to street width ratios (H/W). A specific SVF value will determine the particular solar radiation received, and consequently the different temperature values at each site. In fact, the degree of sunlight penetration depends on the direction of the streets; the width, length, and height of the surrounding buildings. The SVF of the different stations are presented in Table 2.

Fig. 1. Plan of the site (case study)

3. Geometry Analysis

The street geometry has an important effect on the urban climate modifying the air temperature near the ground as well as the surface temperature [5]. The relationship between building height and street width is considered as the main contributor of the heat island effect in the cities [3]. The selected site represents different geometry of the urban canyons, the station selection is based on a course that passes through several outdoor spaces (plot and urban canyon) of different shape and orientation, this choice is based on several criteria (SVF, RATIO, Orientation, Vegetation, Albedo ....). This diversity of sky view factor determines the different solar radiation received. Actually, the sun penetration depends on the direction of the streets, the width the length and the height of the surrounding buildings. 210 Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215

When the long axis of the street is pointing east-west, the solar access to the façades of the buildings is identical to the ground of the streets, meaning that direct solar radiation does not touch the ground. On the contrary, when the axis of the street is pointing north-south, the sun does penetrate the first floors in the winter period for just a couple of hours at noon on account of the obstructions by buildings on the east and west [5].

Table 2. Schematic determining the geometry of the stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

N STATION CHARACTERISTIC SVF RATIO H/W

Small square designed 1 for the people - SVF= 0.88%

It serves as a passage 2 for the vehicle; the floor is completely in - SVF= 74.8% concrete and bitumen.

Oriented East-West, H/L = 3.75 characterized by ratio 3 H / L = 3.75, and SVF = 24.1, the floor SVF= 24.1% covering is by stone and concrete.

It has the same H/L = 3.40 characteristics as the 4 station 03, except the orientation (north - SVF= 26.4% south).

Asphalt street, it has H/L = 0.78 the same orientation as 5 the station 4 but H / L different (0.78). SVF= 58.7%

H/L = 2.22 Oriented East-West, 6 characterized by its ratio H / L = 2.22, and SVF= 17.6% FCS = 17.6, the soil is sandy.

Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215 211

4. Discussion and Results

4.1. Scenario A

The measurements recorded with DELTA OHN -HD32.3 in a several stations well defined on June 2013 as shown in Fig 2. The recorded air temperature, present a slight difference between every station and are close to the temperature of the weather station. However, on the afternoon, a significant amount of heat restored by the ground, and wall surfaces, which directly caused an elevation of the air temperature in all measurement stations.

45 STATION METEO

(°C) STATION01

L'AIR STATION02 35 DE STATION03

30 STATION04

STATION05 25

TEMPERATURES STATION06 20

HEURES

Fig. 2. Diagram of air temperature.

The evaluation of outdoor thermal comfort for these six considered stations were done using the two methods PMV which is measured and TB presented by the budget, which is calculated from the COMFA method [10]. The calculation was performed for summer season (15 of Jun 2013 conditions), the weather conditions are very hot and dry. A comfort evaluation was performed for the “references stations” by determining the number of usable thermal comfort hours per day that can be suitable for people’s comfort. The following tables (Table 3 and 4) show the results of TB and PMV on six stations during 13 hours of calculation, the blue boxes show the effective hours for thermal comfort and red boxes show the extremely hot hours were the thermal conditions are critical.

Table 3. (TB) Table 4. (PMV) Hour BUDJET (W/m2) Hour PMV 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 06 :00 68,34 74,64 71,85 96,92 89,11 69,16 06 :00 -0,35 -0,31 -0,02 0,10 -0,03 -0,05 07 :00 78,24 82,14 94,50 90,88 76,69 93,13 07 :00 -0,06 -0,07 0,32 0,11 0,02 0,21 08 :00 79,78 148,37 154,43 108,71 117,89 151,65 08 :00 0,19 1,52 2,16 0,91 0,58 1,51 09 :00 137,20 164,10 180,48 126,31 131,88 184,36 09 :00 1,42 1,98 2,82 0,96 0,83 2,63 10 :00 144,65 215,36 197,52 141,83 147,95 220,35 10 :00 1,92 2,16 3,60 1,64 1,65 3,15 11 :00 161,50 321,45 300,79 150,61 256,97 266,36 11 :00 2,15 6,16 6,19 1,97 3,86 3,89 12 :00 182,53 274,96 305,83 190,61 333,89 328,96 12 :00 3,22 6,41 7,10 4,17 4,81 5,65 13 :00 196,85 545,98 363,41 336,26 407,54 442,03 13 :00 3,32 7,75 7,53 7,19 8,11 7,52 14 :00 269,78 675,40 364,08 272,28 404,93 620,90 14 :00 3,90 8,20 6,69 3,83 6,71 8,21 15 :00 319,95 596,60 389 280,63 278,40 637,03 15 :00 3,28 8,63 6,47 4,08 3,95 6,25 16 :00 256,75 508 401,69 267,07 331,82 615,89 16 :00 3,40 6,53 7,11 4,15 3,75 7,02 17 :00 226,72 355,93 290,61 217,74 244,06 286,64 17 :00 2,60 4,20 3,94 2,91 2,86 3,11 18 :00 202,73 248,44 259,50 225,34 227,47 243,56 18 :00 1,90 3,56 3,26 2,64 2,54 2,59 19 :00 169,37 189,18 203,79 196,40 205,92 221,38 19 :00 1,58 1,89 2,20 2,20 1,95 2,00 N of 3 h 2 h 2 h 4 h 3 h 2 h N of 3 h 2 h 2 h 4 h 4 h 2 h hoursCOMFORT 22% 15% 15% 29% 22% 15% hours 22% 15% 15% 29% 29% 15% HOT TOTAL= 16 h for all stations TOTAL= 17 h forCOMFORT all stations VERY HOT HOT VERY HOT 212 Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215

The critical hours (red color) appear especially at stations 2, 3 and 6 with fewer hours of thermal comfort throughout the day, with only 2 hours of comfort. This is caused mainly by the lack of shading and the high incident of direct solar radiation. The low reflectivity of the ground and wall surfaces help in increasing the people discomfort, which means gaining more heat. In the three stations (2, 3, 6), the discomfort remains for a large period of the day (9 hours) of thermal stress. While stations 1, 4 and 5 represent more comfort compared to the others stations between 06 and 10 am. This because of the short duration of solar radiation caused by the street orientation which is north-south (S4) rather than east-west (S6) [5]. The SVF is high in station 2 (74.8%) compared to the other stations, this also help in increasing surface and air temperature leading to a thermal discomfort. Accordingly, to the cited results, Eliasson [13] found surface temperature to be statistically correlated to the (SVF) and Mills and Arnfield [14] found that as street canyons become increasingly narrow, they become increasingly isolated in terms of heat exchange with the atmosphere.

4.2. Scenario B

One can observe in scenario A, that a more open and exposed nature of open urban spaces lead to an increase in the daytime air temperature. This effect can be moderated by controlling the SVF, including vegetation, improvement in the morphology and the albedo. Therefore, the Envi-met3 software was used to simulate and assess the external thermal comfort. Using (PMV) and (TB). The change and the combination of the parameters cited above as mentioned in tables, can lead to the improvement of the microclimate compared to the existing situation.

Table 5. SVF variation

Alternative Real case improved case

Reducing the SVF

Creating galleries and reducing the SVF

increase in the height of south wall

Table 6. Vegetation

Real case improved case

1 - Choose local species of deciduous trees type that fits with the hot climate. 2- Position of the trees must be south orientation. 3 - Introduce small trees which not exceed 10 m height.

4-The geometry of the tree is characterized by a small height with an average width of the tree. 5- Trees with a quite dense foliage. 6 - The spacing of 8 m between trees could be benefit for

the shading effect without obstructing traffic.

Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215 213

We can also increasing the albedo of walls and roofs up to 0.9, Increasing albedo of the asphalt pavement in Station 2 and 5. Two values were retained (0.7)-(0.9) corresponding to light concrete and white marble that will lower the temperature of the air, reducing the absorption of solar radiation, replace also the concrete pavement by the grass. All the parameters listed above were combined to improve the thermal comfort level in the studied stations. The results of the simulation using ENV-met 3 are shown in the Fig. 3.

A B

Fig. 3. Air temperature variation scenario A and B.

This study demonstrates that in a hot arid environment, thermal comfort can be enhanced by the geometry of the street, orientation, vegetation, building materials and albedo. Development of urban design for the arid is needed by achieving the objectives of thermal comfort, energy saving and reduction of the urban heat island through an urban design high quality environmental in time (management) [15]. Microclimatic variability can be also the result of anthropogenic sources. A resulting problem for urban design, is that generalized models are of limited use in helping to assess local conditions to inform design [16]. The tables below show the results of BUDJET and PMV for six stations after improvement.

Table 7. The number of comfort hours (BUDJET) Table 8. The number of comfort hours (PMV) Hour BUDJET (W/m2) Hour PMV 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 06 :00 109,49 110,62 108,86 112,50 110,26 108,80 06 :00 0,47 0,17 0,76 1,20 0,58 0,64 07 :00 53,10 70,94 81,54 86,18 75,70 66,68 07 :00 0,54 0,03 0,44 0,63 -0,22 0,13 08 :00 97,85 88,15 90,15 97,61 95,71 87,90 08 :00 0,95 0,58 1,10 1,06 0,76 0,83 09 :00 101,31 101,34 101 105,68 101,68 100,55 09 :00 0,88 0,92 1,51 1,46 0,99 0,95 10 :00 113,27 108,83 113,07 116,82 115,31 112,44 10 :00 0.97 1,00 1,92 1,85 1,56 1,60 11 :00 117,29 118,48 119,78 122,00 124,73 118,07 11 :00 1,94 1,75 2,65 3,78 1,91 2,30 12 :00 139,99 137,43 137,34 142,04 140,27 137,15 12 :00 2,20 2,27 2,86 3,30 2,25 2,66 13 :00 151,87 147,58 148,01 151,92 150,39 148,39 13 :00 2,57 2,49 3,22 3,28 2,50 3,00 14 :00 154,67 153,66 153,43 155,25 155,31 153,85 14 :00 2,57 2,44 2,67 3,00 2,30 2,43 15 :00 157,41 156,33 156,83 157,99 158,05 157,07 15 :00 2,60 2,48 2,60 3,00 2,37 2,47 16 :00 156,31 155,11 156,65 157,15 157,19 155,59 16 :00 2,67 1,94 2,45 2,87 2,16 2,34 17 :00 136,99 133,63 136,46 139,29 138,55 133,18 17 :00 3,17 1,78 1,92 2,54 1,90 1,74 18 :00 116,99 123,63 116,46 119,29 118,55 123,18 18 :00 2,78 0,98 1,33 1,96 1,59 1,00 19 :00 107,99 102,34 105,40 109,71 107,94 103,97 COMFORT 19 :00 0,66 0,65 0,59 0,89 0,95 0,61 N of 8 8 8 8 8 8 N of 6 7 4 4 5 6 hours 62 % 62 % 62 % 62 % 62 % 62 % HOT hours 47 % 54 % 31 % 31% 39 % 47 % TOTAL= 48 h for all stations VERY HOT TOTAL= 32 h for all stations

214 Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215

The tables below show the difference in the PMV and the increasing number of useful time for thermal comfort between the 1st and the 2nd scenario:

Table 9. The number of comfort hours (Scenario A) Table 10. The number of comfort hours (Scenario B) Hour PMV Hour PMV 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 06 :00 0,47 0,17 0,76 1,20 0,58 0,64 06 :00 0,25 0,22 0,63 0,07 0,65 0,46 07 :00 0,54 0,03 0,44 0,63 -0,22 0,13 07 :00 1,99 2,24 0,00 0,62 0,16 2,39 08 :00 0,95 0,58 1,10 1,06 0,76 0,83 08 :00 09 :00 1,93 2,87 3,3 1,12 2,95 3,15 0,88 0,92 1,51 1,46 0,99 0,95 09 :00 1,95 3,22 3,78 1,52 3,29 3,65 10 :00 0.97 1,00 1,92 1,85 1,56 1,60 10 :00 2,56 3,40 4,15 1,98 3,65 3,92 11 :00 1,94 1,75 2,65 3,78 1,91 2,30 11 :00 12 :00 2,39 3,37 4,35 3,91 3,78 4,04 2,20 2,27 2,86 3,30 2,25 2,66 12 :00 3,07 3,51 4,48 4,46 4,09 4,09 13 :00 2,57 2,49 3,22 3,28 2,50 3,00 13 :00 4,44 4,12 5,00 3,39 4,46 4,64 14 :00 2,57 2,44 2,67 3,00 2,30 2,43 15 :00 14 :00 3,29 4,67 5,50 3,14 5,08 5,25 2,60 2,48 2,60 3,00 2,37 2,47 15 :00 4,19 4,9 5,67 3,12 2,7 5,41 16 :00 2,67 1,94 2,45 2,87 2,16 2,34 16 :00 5,44 5,29 5,82 3,11 2,68 5,76 17 :00 3,17 1,78 1,92 2,54 1,90 1,74 18 :00 17 :00 3,36 4,45 2,16 2,61 2,00 4,76 2,78 0,98 1,33 1,96 1,59 1,00 18 :00 2,86 1,38 1,60 1,93 1,57 1,50 19 :00 0,66 0,65 0,59 0,89 0,95 0,61 19 :00 0,88 0,87 0,80 0,89 1,13 0,81 N of 6 7 4 4 5 6 NCOMFORT of 2 2 3 3 2 2 hours 47 % 54 % 31 % 31% 39 % 47 % hours 15% 15% 22% 22% 15% 15% TOTAL= 32 h for all stations - 42% of comfort - HOT TOTAL= 14 h for all stations - 18% of comfort - VERY HOT

The tables above show the improvements of outdoor thermal comfort in the six stations, noting that the average percentage of time comfort for the PMV was 18% before modification and 42% after improvement. Even for Budjet that was 39% before modification became 62% after improvement (¼ benefit from the day in a state of comfort). Field studies have revealed that the microclimatic attributes of the urban tissue vary within any given segment of a city. As a result, the urban tissue both fosters and accommodates distinct microclimatic niches for which we have little quantitative data with which to inform design. These microclimates are partly an outcome of the built density and geometry of urban locations. Both built density and geometry strongly affect solar exposure and airflow within the fabric of the city [17]. Also, the psychic states plays a role in this evaluation, there is a relationship between the inhabitant and the outside environment that little act on the psychic state of the human being [18]. The arrival of new construction materials is not adapted to the original context of the region. So we must create a relationship between the traditional elements of the envelope and the modernity while maintaining this originality of the region [19]. The materials used must be effective in terms of sustainability that have physical characteristics to make it possible to react continuously as the endurance, bending, the resistance to traction, tearing, torsion [20].

5. Conclusion

An environmentally responsive architecture is not a fixed ideal, but an evolving concept to be redefined with project. Education should take a driving role in this evolution. We need to move beyond the technical fixes perpetrated by current practice and start extending the architectural vocabulary towards expressing the temporality of natural and operational cycles in more diverse and creative ways [21]. For making this work, I thought to develop a parametric design tool to generate forms with complex geometry from the exploitation of a large amount of data. The natural metabolic systems can be a solution for transforming into technical solutions for buildings based on principles and methods derived from nature. The building envelope can behave in an intelligent manner with a parametric design to increase the energy performance of the building. The geometry of the envelope elements allows deformations. These deformations are important to decrease the solar contribution, increase the ventilation passive and the energy performance of the building [22]. This research has allowed us to highlight the effect of urban morphology on the outside thermal comfort at Ksar Tafilelt Ghardaia. It dealt the impact of the geometry of the outdoor spaces on the thermal comfort of users. The results of our study indicate that in a hot, arid environment, thermal comfort of a pedestrian can be changed significantly by the road geometry, orientation, vegetation, albedo. The variation in the ambient air temperature, surface temperature, Islam Boukhelkhal and Fatiha Bourbia / Procedia Engineering 169 ( 2016 ) 207 – 215 215 humidity and the wind speed can be moderated according to several features, such as the materials used, the color, geometry, the natural elements such vegetation and water surfaces.

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