27th Annual Teaching Public Administration Conference

February 12 -14, 2004 Madison, Wisconsin

Conference Papers 27th Annual Teaching Public Administration Conference

Table of Contents

1. Using Metaphorical Analysis to Communicate Understanding Through Ambiguity –Abbey 2. Putting Organizational Theories to the Test – Allen, Heidemann, Ingles, Mills 3. XHR—Classroom as Organization - Cunningham 4. Using Customer Value to Guide Competitive Higher Education Marketing Strategies – Dunning (ppt) 5. Balancing Outputs and Outcomes: A Survey of MPA Graduates – Evans, Lowery 6. Team-Based Real-Time Case Study Pedagogy: Teaching and Learning How to Analyze Public Policy Problems – Ewalt 7. A Model of Outreach and Partnership: Ohio’s CPM Program – Killian, Coombs 8. Community-based Quality of Life Indicators: A Service Learning Exercise in a Graduate Statistics Class – Lowery 9. Gender and Communication Style: What Public Administrators Know and Need to Know – Mills, Wandell 10. Student Support Services in the Virtual MPA Program - Rosell 11. The Performance of Small Study Groups within the Jordanian Culture – Sarayah 12. Teaching MPA Students Using a Distance Learning Format: Techniques to Promote Academic Integrity – Shetterly, Dunning 13. Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service – Wicks, Stieglitz 14. The Lessons I Have Learned: The Classroom Simulation - Zinner Using Metaphorical Analysis to Communicate Understanding Through Ambiguity Robert F. Abbey, Jr. Associate Professor, Troy State University

It's all a question of a story. We are in trouble just now because we do not have a good story. We are in between stories. The Old Story--- the account of how the world came to be and how we fit into it--- is not functioning properly, and we have not learned the New

Story. The Old Story sustained us for a long period of time. It shaped our emotional attitudes, provided us with life's purpose, and energized action. It consecrated suffering, integrated knowledge, guided education. We awoke in the morning and knew where we were. We could answer the questions of our children. We could identify crime, punish criminals. Everything was taken care of because the story was there. It did not make men good, it did not take away the pains or stupidities of life, or make for unfailing warmth in human association. But it did provide a context in which life could function in a meaningful manner.

We are between stories. A fundamental shift in basic beliefs and assumptions about the nature of things and the human condition is going on. Because those beliefs and assumptions are among the foundations of human existence, when they change, radical shifts in individual values and societal conditions will follow.

Morgan (1980) presents a strong case that science of all kinds, whether nominalist or realist in its basic orientation, is primarily metaphorical. It is through the use of metaphor that scientists seek to create knowledge about the world. The metaphors which theorists choose as a basis for detailed theorizing usually derive from very fundamental, and often implicit, core assumptions about ontology and human nature. In selecting different metaphors for elaborating their theories, they implicitly commit themselves to an epistemological position which places the emphasis upon particular kinds and forms of knowledge. Debates about epistemology largely hinge around the advocacy of different kinds of metaphoric insight as a means of capturing the nature of the social world. As

Morgan (1980) has argued, these differing ideological perspectives are inherent in the different kinds of metaphors which are used to tie specific theorizing to root views of reality.

This approach to understanding reality has been used by Jones (1982) and Gregory

(1988) to understand the nature of physics. Toffler (1980) employed the metaphor of waves (first, second, third) to explain the evolution of civilization and provided a way to envision the future; this metaphor was then adopted by Maynard and Mehrtens (1993) and applied to the business sector as the fourth wave. Tides were utilized by Light (1997) to explain the “reforms” associated with administering to the public. Hateley and Schmidt

(1997; 2000) have used the metaphors of peacocks, pigeons, and penguins to explore the nature of diversity and stereotyping. Terry (1997) applies the theater metaphor as an aid in understanding public administration. MacKenzie (1998) provides the most powerful use of metaphor when he describes his corporate life as “orbiting the giant hairball!”

Ozzie Smith (“The Wizard of Oz”) (2002) uses the metaphor of a baseball to describe and understand his life and his rise to ascendancy in baseball itself. Using the concepts and principles advanced by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and separately by Morgan (1980; 1986), students are challenged to conceptualize their organizations using the metaphors advanced by Gannon (2004). The appendix to this paper describes the requirements for a term paper in an organizational behavior course.

This paper will explore the use of metaphorical analysis to understanding organizations in general (see Figure 1) and to understanding organizational behavior in particular.

Examples will be drawn from student papers and shared as a possible way to teach communication of understanding of organizations through ambiguity. Bibliography

Gannon, Martin. (2004). Understanding Global Cultures: Metaphorical Journeys Through 28 Nations, Clusters of Nations, and Continents. 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gregory, Bruce. (1988). Inventing Reality: Physics as Language. New York, NY: John Wiley.

Hateley, Barbara, and Schmidt, Warren H. (1997). A Peacock in the Land of Penguins: A Tale of Diversity and Discovery. 2nd Edition. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

Hateley, Barbara, and Schmidt, Warren H. (2000). Pigeonholed in the Land of Penguins: A Tale of Seeing Beyond Stereotypes. New York, NY: AMACOM.

Jones, Roger S. (1982). Physics as Metaphor. New York, NY: New American Library.

Lakoff, George, and Johnson, Mark. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Light, Paul C. (1997). The Tides of Reform: Making Government Work, 1945-1995. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

MacKenzie, Gordon. (1998). Orbiting the Giant Hairball: A Corporate Fool’s Guide to Surviving with Grace. New York, NY: Penguin Putnam.

Maynard, Herman B., Jr., and Mehrtens, Susan E. (1993). The Fourth Wave: Business in the 21st Century. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

Montague, Susan P., and Morris, Robert. (1975). “Football games and rock concerts: the ritual enactment of American success models,” in W. Ahrens (Ed.), The American Dimension: Cultural Myths and Realities. Port Washington, NY: Alfred Publishing, 32- 52.

Morgan, Gareth. (1980). “Paradigms, metaphors, and puzzle solving in organizational theory,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 605-622.

Morgan, Gareth. (1986). Images of Organization, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.

Morgan, Gareth. (1993). Imaginization: The Art of Creative Management. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Ortony, Andrew. (1975). “Why metaphors are necessary and not just nice,” Educational Theory, 25, 1, 45-63. Putnam, Robert D. (1995). “Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital,” Journal of Democracy, 6, 1, 65-78.

Smith, Ozzie. (2002). Speech prepared for his July 28, 2002, induction to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, Cooperstown, NY.

Terry, Larry. (1997). “Public administration and the theater metaphor: the public administrator as villain, hero, and innocent victim,” Public Administration Review, 57, 1 (January/February), 53-61.

Toffler, Alvin. (1980). The Third Wave. New York, NY: William Morrow. Appendix 1

METAPHORICAL ANALYSIS OF ORGANIZATIONS

Term Paper

Undoubtedly, you have had recent experiences with numerous organizations. This exercise will assist you in identifying differences in organizations from a multiplicity of metaphorical orientations. In effect, for this assignment you are being asked to think specifically about organizations you have been associated with recently, develop your own conceptual metaphorical model for looking at their characteristics, and think more specifically about the managerial functions in each of these organizations. You probably already know a great deal more about organizations and their management that you think. This exercise should be useful in getting your thoughts together.

Step 1: Select an organization in which you have been involved or with which you have had recent contact.

Step 2: Analyze this organization (a) using any of the metaphors described by Gannon (1997; 2001) or (b) develop a metaphorical analysis of your own using the principles described by Morgan (1980; 1986; 1993).

Morgan, Gareth. (1980). Paradigms, metaphors, and puzzle solving in organization theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 605-622.

Morgan, Gareth, 1986: Images of Organization. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Morgan, Gareth (1993). Imaginization: The Art of Creative Management. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Step 3: Write your term paper based on your reasoned response to Step 2. This term paper is to consist of twelve to sixteen typed, double-spaced pages (3000-4000 words). Figure 1 Network of Basic Assumptions Characterizing The Subjective-Objective Debate within Social Science

Subjectivist Objectivist Approaches to Approaches to Social Science Social Science 6 5 4 3 2 1

Core reality as a reality as reality as a reality as a reality as a reality as a Ontological projection of social realm of contextual field concrete process concrete structure Assumptions human construction symbolic of information imagination discourse

Assumptions man as pure man as a social man as an actor man as an man as an man as a about spirit, constructor; information adapter responder Human Nature consciousness, a symbol creator a symbol user processor being

Basic to obtain to understand to understand to map contexts to study systems, to construct a Epistemological how patterns of process, change positivist science Stance Phenomenological social reality is symbolic Insight; created discourse revelation

Some Favored transcendental language, game, theater, culture cybernetic organism machine Metaphors accomplishments PUTTING ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES TO THE TEST:

An Explication of William Langewiesche’s American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center

Marilyn Allen, Erik Heidemann, Brett Ingles and Janet Mills

Abstract

Masters of Public Administration (MPA) students at Boise State University who enrolled in an organizational theory class during the spring semester 2003 read William Langewiesche’s American Ground: Unbuilding the

World Trade Center (2002) in addition to two textbooks. In small teams, students analyzed American Ground using organization theories they had encountered during the course. In this paper, we present analyses of

Langewiesche’s narrative using theoretical perspectives of: (1) organizational structure, (2) decision-making, (3) power and politics, and (4) organizational culture. We conclude with an assessment of the value of these theories for their efficacy in explicating Langewiesche’s narrative.

Introduction

On September 11, 2001 (9/11) a stunned world watched the destruction of the World Trade Center. As the nation struggled to assimilate the news of this tragedy, a group of public and private sector organizations formed a new organization—a loose coalition that took on a series of shifting missions at Ground Zero. William

Langewiesche, an international correspondent with The Atlantic Monthly, gained almost unrestricted, around-the- clock access to Ground Zero where he freely roamed “the pile” and attended meetings of engineers, city officials, construction companies and consultants during the clean-up effort. He published a series of three articles in The

Atlantic Monthly (July/August, September, and October 2002) and in November 2002, these were published as a book. Essentially a narrative, American Ground provides stories from the inside circle of Ground Zero—stories previously unavailable to the public. It contains accounts of day-to-day operations at the site, and describes interactions that occurred among firefighters, police, engineers, and other mid-management city administrators, elected officials, construction companies, and construction workers as they coped with the shifting pile and the shifting politics.

For students and scholars of public administration and organizational theory, American Ground reads much like an extended case study in need of a rich subtext of theoretical explication. During the spring semester of 2003, MPA students in an organizational theory class at Boise State University read American Ground in addition to Organization Theory: A Public Perspective (Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson 1997) and Classics of Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 2

Organization Theory (Shafritz and Ott 2001). They worked in teams to analyze Langewiesche’s book using theories they encountered in the course.

In this paper, we analyze Langewiesche’s narrative using theories of organizational structure, decision- making models, power and politics and organizational culture, and we evaluate these theories for their efficacy in explicating Langewiesche’s work. We include two appendices for the benefit of readers who are unfamiliar with

American Ground: Appendix 1 provides an overview of the book, and Appendix 2 lists the names and titles of people mentioned in American Ground.

Organizational Structure: From “Chaos” to “Crude Management Structure” to “ Pile Improvement Project”

The terrorism of 9/11 created an exigency for the United States in general and for New York City in particular. An exigency is a situation that demands prompt action and response, and a close read of

Langewiesche’s account American Ground reveals that three exigencies contended for action and response following the fall of the World Trade Center (WTC). The first was to find and rescue survivors; the second was to recover the dead; and the third was to clean up the mess. We hypothesize that actions and responses to these exigencies occurred in stages, that one exigency predominated during each stage, and that the actions and responses to the exigencies generated differing organizational forms. We do not suggest neatly packaged stages unfolded, nor do we suggest crisp and clean organizational structures prevailed. Rather, our purpose is to analyze actions and responses to the exigencies through the lenses of established organizational theory.

Stage 1: Initial Response (9/11 and a few days beyond). When the Twin Towers collapsed, New York citizens from disparate backgrounds moved toward the disaster, rather than away from it. Stockbrokers, shopkeepers, artists, and workers with hard hats and union cards joined firefighters, police and construction workers in response to the first exigency: Find and rescue the survivors. They attacked the debris by hand and formed bucket brigades, replicating one of the oldest fire ground technologies. Other players on the scene also did what they knew how to do.

Among the other players were the two top officials of New York City’s Department of Design and

Construction (DDC), a small agency charged with supervising municipal construction contracts. Ken Holden,

DDC Commissioner, and Mike Burton, DDC Lieutenant, made their way to police headquarters mid morning and found "a chaotic hall filled with officials struggling to get organized” (Langewiesche 2002, 88). In an empty room Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 3

beside the hall, Holden and Burton found a telephone and began making calls. They arranged to bring in light towers, alerted heavy construction companies to be on stand-by, enlisted DDC personnel, and organized the arrival of engineers. “No one asked them to do this, or told them to stop” (Ibid.). Police guarding the perimeter of the pile prevented Holden and Burton from entering the site until late afternoon. Nevertheless, by mid-afternoon, they had already arbitrarily divided the site into quadrants and assigned each quadrant to a construction company—having had no direct look at the scope of the destruction. They bypassed ordinary bidding procedures and hired construction companies they had worked with in the past—companies that responded immediately and worked for the duration without adequate insurance.

For the first few days, operations were out of control and ineffective. There was more motion than action—and nothing reflected the normal U.S. emergency-response system. FEMA and the Corp of Army

Engineers, tight, hierarchical, paramilitary and military bureaucracies, and their cadre of disaster clean-up companies were not at the deconstruction site. It just didn’t occur to anyone to call FEMA. The prevailing ethos in and around New York was “this is our disaster” (69) and “this is not out of our realm” (95). New York City officials embraced the disaster, believing that the City had the professional expertise, the equipment and the connections to handle it.

An intriguing question lingered over the site during the first hours: Who was going to run this emergency operation? The most obvious candidate was the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (Port Authority) the wealthy bi-state agency that built, owned and operated the WTC and maintained its executive offices there.

However, the Port Authority offices were destroyed, and 75 employees killed, rendering it unable to provide leadership. The next obvious candidate was New York City’s Office of Emergency Management (OEM).

However, the OEM lost its headquarters too, when Building Seven fell, and senior staff at OEM strategically limited their involvement to logistical support. A least likely candidate for managing the recovery effort was the

City’s Department of Design and Construction (DDC). But, the rapid, tactical responses by Holden and Burton, and their just-do-it attitude, placed them in what was to become an unscripted leading role in the unbuilding of the

WTC.

In the early days of pandemonium, a loose organization of a sort existed, if we accept Gortner, Mahler and Nicholson’s definition of “a collection of people engaged in specialized and interdependent activities to accomplish a goal or mission,” (Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson 1997, 2). City employees and a patchwork Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 4

citizenry comprised the collection of people. Their goal or mission was initially obvious: Find and rescue survivors. Lest this organization be mistaken as a classical one, let us be clear. Unity of command, chain of command, and scalar principles were non-existent (Fayol 1916; Weber 1922). Though differentiated, the organization sorely lacked integration and coordination (Gulick 1937). No one best way was evident for finding and rescuing survivors or for pulling away debris on the dangerous pile; and, the response by individuals and organizations was as much driven by raw emotion as it was by rationality (Taylor 1916). Although New York City had a vast bureaucracy—including the OEM —it had no preconceived plan for responding to a disaster of this magnitude. At best, a unity of direction was inherent in the exigency that guided those working at the site and around it (Fayol 1916). This organization likewise fails to meet the requirements of modern structural theories as articulated by Bolman and Deal (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 28). Systems of rules and formal authority were bypassed and the control and coordination key to maintaining organizational rationality were missing. No best structure existed, given the uniqueness of the situation, although over time, a structure took form and developed to satisfy the changing exigencies present there.

Stage 2: A Crude Management Structure (9/11 through late October). On the evening of 9/11, available

New York City officials gathered in the cafeteria of Public School 89 (PS 89) for a meeting the OEM had arranged. Present were representatives from the DDC, the Fire Department New York (FDNY), New York Police

Department (NYPD), and the Department of Sanitation, along with engineers, construction executives, and other construction company employees. The tenor of this meeting differed from the chaos of the day at the police station and two important resolutions were made. First, Mayor Giuliani scrapped the City’s existing organizational charts, wiping out OEM’s authority to manage the emergency, and putting the DDC in charge. Second, the group formulated its first strategy: Replace volunteers with firefighters, police, structural and civil engineers and unionized construction workers. No legitimate appointments to any positions were made and no formal organization was drawn up. Nonetheless, within three days, “a raw form of organization” emerged, with DDC’s

Lieutenant Mike Burton in charge and Peter Rinaldi from the Port Authority manning PS 89 logistics

(Langewiesche 2002, 112).

After September 12, Burton led the twice-daily meetings in a kindergarten room at PS 89.

Representatives from as many as twenty government agencies showed up for these meetings, including: the

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Health, the Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 5

Medical Examiners Office, and even the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) law enforcement division. Other important players also attended: engineers from the Port Authority and the private firms of Thornton & Tomasetti and LERA, the World Trade Center’s original designers; construction executive

Bill Cote; firefighters Sam Melisi and John O’Connell, who specialized in collapsed building and rescue operations; and experts like Marty Corcoran, a marine-construction manager.

Time dictated everything on the pile and in these PS 89 meetings. There was no time to form committees, draw up plans, distribute memos, hold formal meetings with agendas, or use a chain of command for decision- making (Langewiesche 2002, 112). Meetings were informal and frank, with electronic recording devices banned and sketchy checklists sufficing as minutes. People identified problems, proposed solutions and were expected to take tough criticism for either their performance or their suggestions. Langewiesche reported that a new social contract replaced rank and resumes: Only the ability to provide what was needed now mattered (Ibid.,113). A perplexing problem confronted Burton and Rinaldi for several weeks: the sagging slurry wall on the south side of the site threatened to collapse and to flood Ground Zero and PATH, the underground train system linking New

York and New Jersey. As Burton and others considered their options, they felt the earth move as structures beneath them collapsed. Likewise, they felt the pressure of City Hall, as officials around them demanded reassurances that could simply not be given. With as much objective data as possible, and as many expert opinions as he could garner, Burton prevailed in his own decision. Five days later, the dirt piled higher and higher and the wall, having drifted twelve inches, stopped—without collapsing.

During this stage, Mayor Rudolph Giuliani was the high profile political spokesman for New York City, and to most Americans, it probably appeared that the NYPD and the FDNY were in charge. In reality, a complex, dynamic set of relationships was developing in the crude management structure at PS 89—a structure that reached out across the pile. A few men with forceful personalities and latent leadership abilities—who were able to find balance within themselves—gained the greatest influence. They were discovered by others, asserted themselves as leaders, and called for others to lead, as well.

How then might organizational structure theorists characterize the raw organizational form that

Langewiesche described? Classical and modern structural theories offer little explanation; even descriptions of matrix, team-based and project organization fall short, as these require planning, assignments, and definition

(Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson 1997, 100-101). One modern structural theory, however, is useful to our analysis. Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 6

Burns and Stalker (1994) (Ibid., 204) suggest that organic systems, in contrast to mechanistic systems, are appropriate for changing conditions. It is difficult to imagine a situation with more dynamic conditions than

Ground Zero, and many of the attributes of organic systems prevailed at PS 89 including authority by consensus, network structure, informality, free flow of information for problem solving, continual adjustment and redefinition of individual tasks, and decision-making discretion. Burns and Stalker’s description of the extensive spread of commitment to the concern certainly fits Langewiesche’s observation that workers believed wholeheartedly that they were righting a wrong, and so put in long hours and slept little (Langewiesche 2002, 10).

Contingency theories claim that organizational structure may be based on technology, environmental circumstances or needs for continual learning (Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson 1997, 102-3). The technologies for finding and rescuing survivors differ from those for recovering the dead, and both of these differ from cleaning up the mess. Hence, technology-based theories help us understand the conflicts among players at the pile. Perrow’s classification (1967) of organizational technologies is especially useful (Ibid., 106-108). Rescue and recovery efforts called for a flexible, polycentric structure—one in which workers would have discretion to devise new procedures on a case by case basis, depending on the condition of the debris and the entrapped victim. The clean- up effort, by contrast, called for a flexible, centralized structure. The pile with its fires burning below and its precarious perch of debris constantly threatened to collapse or explode, rendering routine work, as construction engineers knew it, nearly impossible. The struggle between technologies, at its base, was a struggle among players whose purposes were in conflict.

We venture to say that the structure of the Ground Zero organization developed from its fundamental need for continual learning (Ibid., 116). Examples of personal learning technologies described by Peter Senge

(1990) were abundant during September and October. Team learning, for example, was evident in the twice-daily meetings at PS 89: Those who showed up entered into a “thinking together,” (119) as Senge would call it, and recognized patterns of interaction that undermined or supported learning. Langewiesche described a new social form that replaced rank and resumes, one in which only the ability to provide what was needed now mattered

(Langewiesche 2002, 113). Shared vision was evident at Ground Zero; New Yorkers took ownership of the disaster, showed unfailing confidence that they had the expertise and resources to respond effectively, and believed wholeheartedly that they were righting a wrong. This super-ordinate vision united workers on the pile, while their membership in various tribes, and beliefs about which exigency should be responded to, tore at the Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 7

underbelly of any unity. In addition, skills of personal mastery were evident as several individuals coped with the threat of the slurry wall collapsing. Burton, a mid -management administrator for the City of New York, and engineers Rinaldi, Tomasettii and Tamaro, sought objective reality as best they could. All were socialized as professionals to value the reduction of uncertainty and the minimization of risk. Rinaldi summarized their plight:

“There’s no clean, easy solution” (Ibid., 130). At this point, all but Burton faltered in their confidence and succumbed to pessimism, anticipating a worst-case scenario. Burton, however, demonstrated a degree of personal mastery—but not necessarily comfort—in taking risks and persevering with action in the face of uncertainty, ambiguity and possible further disaster. He simply asserted, “Keep the backfill going” (Ibid.). Fortunately, he was right.

Stage 3: Late October and Beyond. The third stage of the unbuilding process—late October and beyond—involved increasingly routine procedures, although the pile itself continued to present variability. As the third exigency, clean up the mess, intensified, so did the resistance of firefighters, their families and their widows who remained firmly grounded in the second exigency—recover the fallen firefighters. Conflict erupted on

November 2 with the “Battle of the Badges” (155) between police and firefighters. Demonstrations, protests, fist- fights, arrests, and marches to City Hall occurred that day to pressure Mayor Giuliani to back down on the engineering effort so firefighters could bring their brothers home (149-154). Annoyed that firefighters had played hero roles for the media to the exclusion of everyone else working at Ground Zero, Mayor Giuliani determined to rein in the FDNY. He declared clearly that the FDNY, NYPD and Port Authority Police Department would have to participate in a joint command with the DDC, that access to the pile would be restricted, and that new procedures would be implemented. To brief firefighters and their families about the direction of the clean up and further recovery efforts, Mayor Giuliani held a meeting on November 12. A panel of leaders stood ready to offer rational explanations of operations, but was met with a tirade of arguments, complaints and accusations as wives and widows vented relentlessly.

These events, then, ushered in a third stage of organizational structure at Ground Zero—a stage

Langewiesche identifies as a “pile improvement project” (173). Those in the inner circle at the site referred to

Mike Burton as the “Trade Center Czar” (201) and likened the unbuilding tactics to open pit mining. Efficiency intensified. Workers installed a controversial access road, and construction companies moved to 24-hour shifts and learned technological approaches from each other. Burton assigned the DDC’s Assistant Commissioner for Special Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 8

Projects, Lou Mendes, to roam the pile to bring order and discipline. Mendes served as a one-man organizational layer between Burton and Rinaldi at PS 89 and the construction companies working on the pile.

What do organizational structure theories contribute to our understanding of the third stage of organization at Ground Zero? Classical principles of scientific management inadequately describe how efficiency was approached on the pile. Bias for action and total quality management processes, on the other hand, more effectively reflect the move toward efficiency (Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson 1997, 101; Peters and Waterman,

1982). Managers and workers collectively examined their processes and the conditions on the remaining pile to determine what to try next. An informal, semi -permanent team prevailed at the top in the twice-daily meetings at

PS 89. Its membership varied with the problems that arose and the expertise that was necessary to solve them

(Ibid., 101-102).

Perrow’s classification (1967) of organizational technologies would predict that a flexible centralized structure would develop, given the technological imperatives of the third stage: Such was the case as the NYPD, the Port Authority Police Depart ment and the FDNY were eased out of Ground Zero, and the DDC assumed greater centralized authority (Ibid., 106).

During the third stage, we observe further evidence that the organizational structure at Ground Zero was rooted in the need for continual learning. Examples of two personal technologies Senge (1990) identified as critical to learning organizations became evident: systems thinking and mental models. It was increasingly possible to comprehend what was left of the pile, and therefore to engage in systems thinking. As a consequence, interdependence between construction companies tightened, and pressure for cooperation between them mounted.

Second, evidence of mental models being revised was apparent as Burton and Cote shared cold beers on

November 12 after the confrontational meeting with firefighters and their families. They contemplated how their involvement at Ground Zero was a consuming professional experience, rather than a personal one. Open to the tirade of emotion by widows and wives of firefighters, Burton and Cote challenged their own deeply ingrained assumptions and generalizations to understand how others believed their actions were wrong, or even wicked

(Langewiesche 2002, 169). Burton realized that he would need to keep his ambitions in check and that “America does not function as a dictatorship of rationalists” (Ibid., 170).

Running through all three stages of the Ground Zero organization were issues Gortner, Mahler and

Nicholson (1997, 94-99) describe as part of the contemporary debate on organization design: centralization- Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 9

decentralization, differentiation and integration, and the basis for departmentalization. From the initial chaos and the near anarchy responses, through the development of a crude management structure fraught with conflict, to transformation of the pile to the hole, the Ground Zero organization moved toward greater centralization of authority in its organizational structure. Nonetheless, there is equally compelling substantiation that workers on the pile exercised abundant autonomy well in to the third stage—a necessary and desirable feature given the vicissitude of conditions on the pile (Langewiesche 2002, 27).

The structure of the Ground Zero organization remained relatively flat for the duration, with few vertical layers: Holden at the top, running interference and procuring resources on his cell phone; Burton, calling together ad hoc groups of experts and conducting meetings; Rinaldi, manning headquarters; police and fire departments coordinating their own; and construction companies tending to their quadrant of the mess. Burton appointed Lou

Mendes to supervise the construction companies, while Holden fought City Hall’s attempt to bring in the San

Francisco-based civil engineering firm, the Bechtel Corporation, as an additional management layer between the

DDC and the construction companies (Ibid., 200). This was not a complex organization. Nevertheless, horizontal integration remained problematic in the first two stages of the unbuilding process. Pre-existing New York City departments acted in their realms of legitimacy, each competing with the others to tender their programs, policies and expertise—and to further the interests of their departments and disparate organizational cultures.

In summation, classical and modern organizational structure theories do not provide an adequate explication of Langewiesche’s accounts of the unbuilding of the WTC, partly because of the time in which these theories were developed. We assume that the classical theorists simply could not have conceived of a disaster of this magnitude or the speed with which individuals or organizations could respond. Modern theories, still rooted in rationality and the search for a best structure, also fail us, except for Burns and Stalker’s description of organic systems. More germane to the analysis of organizational structure are technology-based organizational theories and self-designing, or learning organization theories. Other theoretical perspectives—decision making , and power and politics, and organizational culture—significantly increase the depth and richness of our understanding of the tales Langewiesche tells of Ground Zero.

Decision-making Models: Explaining the Hodgepodge of Ad Hoc Decisions at Ground Zero

Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 10

Another theoretical perspective useful for explicating Langewiesche’s narrative is decision-making models. In the previous section, we concluded that classical and modern structural theories, with rationality as their critical assumption, failed to adequately account for the organizational realities at Ground Zero. A close look at decision- making models equips students with the theoretical tools to understand why structural theories are inadequate and indeed unrealistic. In this section, we present various decision-making models to analyze events in the unbuilding of the WTC.

The Rational Choice Model. The rational choice model holds much sway among social choice theorists

(Shafritz and Ott 2001, 309). Essentially, this model suggests that organizations and their members follow a sequence of steps in a rational fashion, evaluating possible outcomes and consequences along the way, eventually arriving at an optimal choice. It rests on several assumptions, the first being that players in the organization share a unified goal or mission, and this shared objective channels behavior within the organization: “behavior is not accidental, random, or rationalized after the fact; rather, purpose is presumed to pre-exist and behavior is guided by that purpose” (Ibid.). Next, an evaluation of the available alternatives takes place. This presumes a perfect dissemination of information, a lofty assumption in itself. Theorist Jeffrey Pfeffer (1981) notes that Herbert

Simon’s (1957) “bounded rationality,” which acknowledges the limited resources at disposal in the quest for information, along with the limited capacities of humans to discern such information, attempts to remedy this theoretical deficiency (310). From this set of alternatives then, cost-benefit analyses are performed against all available options. After such assessments are made, the optimal selection is made which “maximizes the social player’s likelihood of attaining the highest value for achievement of the preferences or goals in the objective function” (Ibid.).

Because this is the dominant theory among scholars, it is largely assumed that this is the way things work in the normal bureaucratic world. But the aftermath of 9/11 was anything but normal. The utter chaos and sheer pandemonium afforded “rational” players little choice to follow a systematic set of procedural steps. A simple passage from Langewiesche aptly sums up the failure of the rational choice theory to explain bureaucratic decision-making and its influences of power and politics: “In other countries clear answers would have been sought before action was taken. Learned committees would have been formed, and high authorities consulted.

The ruins would have been pondered, and a tightly scripted response would have been imposed. Barring that, soldiers would have assumed control. But for whatever reason…little of the sort happened here, where the learned Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 11

committees were excluded, and the soldiers were relegated to the unhappy role of guarding the perimeter, and civilians in heavy machines simply rolled in and took on the unknown.” (Langewiesche 2002, 12).

Given the tactical reponses of various city departments on 9/11, we conclude that the rational choice model itself is irrational—at least in this emergency situation—due to the assumptions it makes about bureaucratic structure and decision making. Pfeffer acknowledges this: “the rational model of choice implies the need for substantial information processing requirements… [that] may be unrealistic or unattainable in some cases…”

(Shafritz and Ott 2001, 311). Hence, at a time when information was scarce (such as the difficulty associated with being unable to locate WTC blueprints), scattered (the plethora of players who possessed structural knowledge of the WTC, and those like Sam Melisi), and not altogether reliable (the uncertainty surrounding the structural integrity of the slurry wall or the amount of poisonous gas being circulated from the mangled air conditioning system), the rational choice model is thus insufficient to explain the power and politics which determine decision making (Ibid.).

The Bureaucratic Model. Unfortunately, the bureaucratic model offers no better theoretical underpinning. While it recognizes the limits of bounded rationality, it substitutes “procedural rationality” in its place (Ibid). This model relies on many of the same assumptions as the rational choice typology, except that it further constrains flexibility (in the name of ameliorating the problem of uncertainty) by introducing standard operating procedures (SOPs) as a means of dictating behavior. But, as was repeatedly and abundantly made clear throughout the unfolding of events, SOPs were worthless: “…the imposition of conventional order on these ruins was formalism or a fiction, and unnecessary… (Langewiesche 2002, 27). In recounting the initial mayhem and confusion at the first command center at police headquarters, Langewiesche notes that, “one of the deputy mayors there had formally been given the task of coordinating the construction response, but with little idea of how to proceed, he had done nothing at all.”(Ibid., 88) SOPs did not dictate how to act in this crisis.

In what is the reader’s first glimpse into a much-needed assumption of power, Burton, “faced with the urgent need to get crews and heavy equipment onto the job, bypassed ordinary bidding procedures and made some immediate choices…”(89). Furthermore, noting the manner in which Burton and Holden supplanted the OEM and marshaled the forces of New York’s construction industry to respond, Langewiesche ponders, “None of this reflected the normal operation of the U.S. emergency-response system” (94). If the rational choice model is Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 12

insufficient to explain the behavior of these players, then the bureaucratic model is equally inadequate, as there was nothing “standard” about this operating procedure.

The Political Model. Because there was no overarching objective or goal among all players at the pile, we come nearer to an organizational, decision-making apparatus that can explain power and politics in the political model. This model recognizes the seminal limitation of the rational choice model: a unified purpose driving player behavior. Instead, Pfeffer (1981), quoting Baldridge (1971) (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 25) notes that political organizations are pluralistic, with “various interests, subunits, and cultures…conflict is viewed as normal or at least customary…[and] action does not presuppose some overarching intention…” (Ibid., 313). Thus, barring no unification of purpose among players, inconsistent decisions will result (314). Consider the most divergent sets of interests at the WTC site: the firefighters and their union sympathizers, whose central focus was recovery of their dead; the police, who controlled the crowds and wanted to keep the firemen in check; and Burton, Holden, and

City Hall, whose interests were in deconstructing the pile and returning the city to normalcy as soon as possible.

To further elucidate this theory, Burton and Holden made an inconsistent decision when they allowed the firefighters to continue their rescue operations, despite the fact that they would likely find no survivors and that they had become a nuisance on the site. Fearing violence and upheaval, they were allowed to remain.

While this model of decision-making comports to the unbuilding of the WTC more than the rational, it nonetheless has inadequacies. While the players need not have a unified purpose for action to predict their behavior, it is implied in this theory that each subunit (firefighters, police, engineers) have “preferences and intentions which are consistent across decision issues” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 313-4), suggesting that there be no dissension among their individual ranks. This was not entirely the case either. As will be discussed when we examine organizational culture, while Giuliani sought to hunt down, fire, and arrest protesting firefighters and ironworkers, Holden refrained from going bloodhound, primarily fearing mass rioting at the pile, but also “to protect Giuliani from himself, and the nation from Giuliani, and to keep the recovery effort on track”

(Langeweische 2002, 153). This makes the anarchy model of decision-making more attractive.

The Anarchy Model. This decision-making model assumes there is no overarching goal and further posits that there is no “consistency or consensus over behavior” among the subgroups either (Shafritz or Ott 2001,

313). However, despite the plausibility and attractiveness of this model, an organizational structure took shape in the third phase of deconstruction and proved to be very efficient, suggesting that certain subgroups may have Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 13

altered their goals to conform to those of City Hall. This theoretical shortcoming leaves only consideration for some model in between the political and the anarchy.

The Garbage Can Model The garbage can model (Cohen, March and Olsen 1979) fits the bill. Like the political and anarchy models, this method acknowledges the uncertainty in decision making brought about by inadequacies of knowledge, and, according to Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson (1997, 239), “serve[s] as a forum for individual and group expression of conflict, values, myths, friendships, and power.” Citing Cohen, March and

Olsen, Pfeffer (1981) provides an apt analysis of the model: “decision points are opportunities into which various problems and solutions are dumped [into a decision-making garbage can] by organizational participants” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 312). The decisions that emerge “reflect shifts in the goals, beliefs, and attention of participants.

Goals are defined—to the extent that they are ever clearly specified—only in the process of considering particular proposals and debating whether to accept or reject them” (Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson 1997, 240).

Criticisms of the garbage can model center around the lack of case studies to test its usefulness (Ibid.).

Nonetheless, Gortner, Mahler and Nicholson, citing Olsen (1979, 83-85) assert that this model is “most accurate under conditions of change, when organizational goals and opportunities are most ambiguous…[and] under conditions of organized anarchy” (Ibid.).

Hence, this model, while not perfect, is the most satisfactory in explaining the hodgepodge of ad hoc decisions that flowed from the divergent set of WTC players, their personalities, the cultures of their organizations, and their sets of interests. Each party devised solutions reflecting those that would normally be expected to emerge from their respective organizations, and each did so in ways that left a stamp on the legacy of the unbuilding.

Most assuredly, elements of all the decision-making models, even those not discussed here, can be found in the deconstruction of the twisted mass of steel and concrete formerly known as the WTC. But all are lacking in some fashion, and leave much to be explained, save for the garbage can model. Because it is a relatively young theory, it receives limited consideration in organizational theory literature. This may be due to the model’s dearth of experimental measurement. Nonetheless, we find that the garbage can model, no matter how young or untested, most sufficiently explains how order was somehow wrought from such chaos and by what means.

Ironically, perhaps the tragedy of 9/11 was the chance that was needed to put this theory to the tes t.

Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 14

Power and Politics: The Vacuum of Formal Authority and Vicissitudes of Action and Resistance

In the previous section, we examined the paradigms of decision making, as they pertained (or did not pertain) to the unbuilding of the World Trade Center. This consideration facilitates a better understanding of power and politics in decision making. These theories help explain aspects of human behavior that cannot be deciphered with the structural theories that are so prescriptive. In essence, theories of power and politics provide the conceptual glue that bonds various elements of the unbuilding process. They explain how culture evolves, which determines an organization’s structure, which in turn describes what kinds of decision-making methods are used. In this section, we examine power through the lenses of legitimacy, coalitions, dependency and coercion and how politics influences and relates to each.

Legitimate Power. As was previously asserted, by all measures of bureaucratic reasoning, the Port

Authority should have been in charge of cleanup operations at the site, and would have, had their administrative apparatus not been vaporized in the structures’ collapse. Likewise, the OEM was incapacitated and thus unable to effectively lead the emergency response.

The DDC, through Holden and Burton’s quick decision making, filled the power vacuum, assumed control of the situation and set forth a chain of events which put them in charge simply by chance: it was “given the lead for the simple reason that its two top officials…had emerged from the chaos of 9/11 as the most effective of the responders…only the DDC seemed capable of moving ahead” (Langewiesche 2002, 9; 69).

But Jeffrey Pfeffer (1981), and John French and Bertram Raven (1959) assert that once power becomes legitimate, it becomes authoritative (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 305; 323-4). “There was no golden moment in which

Holden and Burton were placed definitively in charge. Rather, there was a shift of power in their direction that was never quite formalized and, indeed, was unjustified by bureaucratic logic or political considerations”

(Langewiesche 2002, 118). Yet Giuliani, as any skillful politician would, saw what was working and, in what many viewed as a smart decision, decided to “scrap the organization charts…and allow the DDC to proceed”

(Ibid., 66). Although never officially sanctioned or recognized by the firefighter unions onsite (164), presumably because of their different organizational goals, they too understood who was in charge organizationally. If not, it surely became evident to them when Giuliani unleashed his ire and rage among their ranks when they protested the reduction of their presence on the pile—at the urging of the DDC. Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 15

Pfeffer also theorizes that the more authority is exercised, the more legitimacy is gained, and the more decision makers’ power is strengthened. As this occurs, he notes, certain norms of behavior develop which indicate the acceptance of this influence (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 306). The twice-daily meetings at PS 89, the expected level of productivity from the excavating crews at the site, and the deferential bestowal of fear and unquestioned authority given taskmaster Lou Mendes serve as fitting examples.

External Coalitions. The only wrench thrown into the gears of this theoretical machine was the firefighters’ union’s “refus[al] to submit to civilian authority” (Langewiesche 2002, 164). Henry Mintzberg

(1983) would classify this as influence from external coalitions. Even though comprised of players internal to the process, unions are artificial, collective entities that exert influence as an entity peripherally (Shafritz and Ott

2001, 356).

Expert Power. What French and Raven term “expert power,” and what Mintzberg describes as a

“dependency” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 325; 354) account for the architectural firm LERA’s involvement in the demolition. The company, which built the WTC, had a long history with the site. It had been the main Trade

Center consultant for thirty years and was the primary responder after the 1993 bombing. After the collapse of the towers, LERA possessed the only surviving blueprints of the complex—“and it was careful to hand over just what was needed” (Langewiesche 2002, 30-31).

According to Mintzberg, control of a “resource, technical skill, or body of knowledge, any one critical to the organization” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 354) will empower an individual (or in this case, a firm) to command influence in the organization. Holden and Burton did not initially contract with LERA to act as the main consultant for the project, even though they had the necessary expertise, but instead relegated them to serve as a consultant to the consultants on an ad hoc basis (Langewiesche 2002, 30), consistent with the inputs and decisions of the garbage can model of decision making. But when it was discovered that it was the guardian of the original

WTC plans, LERA’s participation became in Mintzberg’s words (1983) “essential, concentrated…and nonsubstitutable” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 354). Thus, power in this case was gained by virtue of others’ needs.

Politics as Power. Pfeffer (1981) notes that, “if power is a force, a store of potential influence through which events can be affected, politics involves these activities or behaviors through which power is developed and used in organizational settings…politics is the study of power in action” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 307). In addition to all of the aforementioned parallels to power the various organizations and subunits considered, it is worthy to Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 16

examine the distinct notions of power experienced by individual characters in American Ground. With these in tow, it becomes easier to interpret the political struggles that beleaguered the unbuilding.

Unintentionally falling into the theoretical bureaucratic snare of which sociologist Robert Merton (1957) forewarned (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 107), Burton harnessed this new power he acquired and increasingly strengthened his sphere of authority: “When he went to work for the DDC, in 1996, it was not to take refuge, as so many do in government, but to gain experience in wielding power…he had not the slightest thought of advancing his career. Nonetheless, by the end of the first week it was impossible to ignore that a great opportunity had arisen here. People already were calling him a “czar,” and the press had picked up on the metaphor, and at the twice- daily meetings he was wielding more power than he had thought possible before…”(Langewiesche 2002, 114-

115).

Firefighter Sam Melisi, experienced power revelations of a different sort: “the power surprised and plagued him to the end; he did not think of himself as a leader, and in other circumstances he probably would not have been one. Nominally he was always just a fireman…he rose to it [power] uncertainly, but gradually assumed the all-important role of mediator.” (Ibid, 22-23).

Coercive Power. Pfeffer avers that politics involves “activities which attempt to influence decisions over critical issues…in which there are differing points of view” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 307). French and Raven

(1959) note that coercive power is “based on the perception that person one has the ability to inflict psychological or physical pain if person two is not obedient and loyal.” (Gortner, Mahler and Nichols on 1997, 321). Such coercive power was exercised by the firefighters on site and in their skirmish with the Mayor’s office, triggering a manifestation of politics (Langeweische 2002, 131-2; 151). Giuliani followed up with some coercive power of his own. Upon learning of the protest, the he commanded Holden to hunt down the ironworkers and firefighters involved and fire them (Ibid., 152). Fearing mass upheaval at the pile, Holden delayed implementing the order and stalled ambiguously, in the hopes that Giuliani’s hotheadedness would recede. In the meantime, the Mayor had several firefighters hunted down and booked on charges of “criminal trespassing,” the leaders of the two firefighters’ unions among them (Ibid., 153). One of them, a twenty-eight year veteran of the department, remarked “They’re putting me through the system like I’m a thug.” A union spokesman also criticized the Mayor this way: “The mayor fails to realize that New York City is not a dictatorship, where if you don’t like what a union Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 17

is doing you can just go and lock up a union’s president. The message being sent from City Hall is that if you don’t agree with this administration, we will get you” (154).

Power and Organizational Culture. The culminating fire of politics was fanned by the buildup of power bases between both the firefighters and the city administrators charged with demolishing the site. The emergent culture at Ground Zero came to a head-on collision with the longer-established culture at City Hall (which also had a unified purpose—deconstruction and return to normalcy), and the Mayor responded swiftly and with little regard for dissension. Edgar Schein (1993) writes that, “we know of groups, organizations, and societies where cultural elements work at cross purposes with other elements, leading to situations full of conflict and ambiguity” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 373). This, he cites, can be due to: “Insufficient stability of membership, insufficient shared history of experience, or the presence of many subgroups [emphasis ours] with different kinds of shared experiences…some of these subcultures will typically be in conflict with each other, as is often the case with higher management and unionized labor groups…each of us belongs to [so] many groups that what we bring to any given group is influenced by the assumptions that are appropriate to our other groups” (Ibid., 373-75).

Each group at the pile had divergent interests and they brought with them the baggage of their own organizations’ culture, and each was simply too asynchronous to avoid political conflict—“power in action” (Pfeffer 1981).

Unlike the myriad theories attempting to predict and explain decision-making, the numerous conceptions of power and politics fit into the eventful structure of American Ground rather nicely. Power and politics can be envisaged in any organization, but seem especially evident in the sheer magnitude and salience of this case study.

Moreover, what becomes clear is that, while power and politics emanate from the various decision-making structures employed, they are very much influenced by an organization’s culture. This discussion catapults us into our next section.

Organizational Culture: The Emergence of a Unique, Temporary Culture at Ground Zero

Organizational culture theories provide us with yet another set of conceptual tools for examining

Langewiesche’s narrative—tools that allow us to examine some of the less tidy aspects of Ground Zero. These theories suggest that intangible and unobservable phenomena underlie organizational actions including values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, behavioral norms and patterns of behavior (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 361). An organization’s culture is fundamentally “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 18

and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” (Shein 1993). By working and learning together, organizational members create a culture that is unique and different than other organizational cultures (Schein 1993; Cook and Yanow 1993).

Our analysis begins with a recognition that four intact “tribes” worked at Ground Zero: firefighters, police, engineers, and construction workers. Second, we examine the tensions that mounted between the tribes, and the inevitable clashes that took place. Third, we contend that both individual and organizational learning occurred. Then, we describe key aspects of the unique organizational culture that developed at Ground Zero.

Component Cultures: Firefighters, Police, Engineers and Construction Workers. There is no doubt that the principal groups involved in the deconstruction process had very different cultures. The firefighters, as described by Langewiesche (2002), were a group of “brawny, square-jawed men,” (157 ), “straightforward guys”

(147) who were “normally brave” (156), and whose jobs demanded “mental willingness and hard physical labor”

(Ibid.). A defining characteristic of the firefighter culture was the intense loyalty firefighters showed each other.

They were, after all, “initiates in a closed and fraternal society who ate together at the station houses, and shared the drama of responding to emergencies” (147). The police were similar to the firefighters in many ways. They wore uniforms and badges, and they too had an intense loyalty to each other. However, for the police this loyalty was forged through partner relationships, and police loyalties tended to be more dyadic than system wide. Not surprisingly, then, the police showed more respect for rules and order, which meant they were less likely to take unnecessary risks or avoid orders. One example of a policeman’s lack of imagination and strict adherence to rules occurred when an officer arrested a man who explained he was swimming from New Jersey to New York City to go help the victims. In sharp contrast to the cultures of firefighters and the police was the culture of the DDC engineers. Their focus on risk-reduction, probability analysis, and careful examination of facts characterized them as cautious, conservative and rational. They were accustomed to working independently, and hence typically eschewed risk-taking. Next, card-carrying union employees of the various construction companies were accustomed to working on government contracts where lunch breaks were ample and mechanical difficulties would lead to hours of inactivity. They had the reputation of not caring about their jobs beyond their paychecks

(180), and of expecting clear commands from their supervisors (178). Finally, it is clear that the private-sector construction companies were used to working independently of one another—not working cooperatively. When

AMEC’s equipment broke down at Ground Zero, they simply stopped their work and waited for new equipment to Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 19

arrive—presumably having no thought of asking Bovis or Tully to lend them what they needed until theirs arrived

(176).

The Battle of the Badges: Tribal Warfare. Not surprisingly, when these very different organizational cultures had to work together at Ground Zero, conflicts ensued. On 9/11 police and fire departments staked out their own command centers several blocks apart . Both tribes were in communication within their own ranks, but not with each other. They quarreled over turf and even operated separate bucket brigades that day. “This tribalism festered and soon infected the construction crews, too…” (155-156).

As the weeks passed, resentments, pressures, and the constant presence of the dead caused extreme tensions to boil over among the tribes of workers and City Hall. Firefighters were convinced that the DDC’s attempts to expedite the cleanup of the site would prevent them from finding the bodies of their brethren, leaving them to be unceremoniously dumped at the Fresh Kills landfill on Staten Island. The sentiment was expressed by one firefighter who told a newspaper reporter, “The city may be ready to turn this into a construction project, but we are not.” (147). After Mayor Giuliani informed the firefighters that they would no longer have free access to the site, about 500 of them protested. As they attempted to move onto the site, the police stopped them—as they were charged to do. A scuffle ensued, fist fighting escalated, and numerous arrests were made not only that day, but in the days that followed. Mayor Giuliani was livid and did not seek conciliation (153). While bumper stickers outside the site proclaimed “UNITED WE STAND,” dissension on the pile threatened a full-scale social implosion

(154).

In hindsight, it was easy to see the “Battle of the Badges” coming. Shaken by the terrorism and feeling insecure, people in the U.S. felt the need for heroes. “The dead firemen certainly fit the bill,” Langewiesche observed (157). Firefighters were idolized with the full force of modern publicity (69). This publicity affected them: “The image of ‘heroes’ seeped through their ranks like a low-grade narcotic. It did not intoxicate them, but it skewed their view” (158). Firefighters took on an “ unspoken tribal conceit…the deaths of their own people were worthier than the deaths of others—and…they themselves, through association, were worthier too.” (156). This was exemplified by the painstaking effort they took when searching for their fallen comrades. Work on the pile would often come to a complete halt when a body of a firefighter was found and the utmost delicacy would be taken to remove it. Police, who had also lost many of their own, resented the undue publicity given to firefighters and the privileged regard firefighters showed for the bodies of their dead. Though the construction workers were Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 20

not involved in the melee, they too resented the firefighters’ hero status. The DDC engineers, charged with the task of pushing firefighters, police and construction workers ahead in the unbuilding effort, further escalated the turf wars. Each tribe was clearly operating outside its comfort zone. For a time, only one belief united those at the pile—the belief they were righting a wrong.

Learning: Individual and Organizational. Some theories focus on individual learning as a critical aspect of organizational culture (Senge 1990; Louis 1980), whereas others focus on organizations as cultural entities that learn in groups and through group activities (Cook and Yanow 1993; Schein 1993). In describing learning organizations, Senge (1990) identified five personal learning technologies or disciplines that individuals must develop in order for organizations to tap the expertise and commitment of their members (Gortner, Mahler and Nicholson 1997, 118-119). In our earlier analysis of organizational structure, we pointed out examples of these disciplines in use.

Another theory that focuses on individual learning addresses the experiences of newcomers in organizations (Louis 1980). Newcomers typically experience “change” between their old setting and culture and the new setting and culture; “contrast” between the roles they played in their old organization as compared to the roles they are expected to play in the new one; and “surprise” at the disconnect between their anticipation of the new organization and the way things actually are. Those who came to work at Ground Zero surely experienced extraordinary change, contrast and surprise. As newcomers, they experienced the emotional toll of working around bodies and body parts, the physical toll associated the long hours, and the mental toll of danger lurking with every step on the pile. These common experiences undoubtedly contributed to some level of cultural identity. But

Langewiesche provides particular evidence of newcomer experiences, as well.

Take Marty Corcoran, for example, the marine construction manager with Weeks Marine in New Jersey who made his way to the meeting in the cafeteria of PS 89. He described his initial reaction to Ground Zero, “It was unbelievable. There are ten thousand meetings going on…The OEM has lost everything—it’s like all their preparations were thrown out the window. Now you have OEM, you have the Fire Department, you have EMS, you have Salvation Army, you have all these billions of people involved, and you’re sitting at a cafeteria table trying to discuss something with all these distractions going on around your head. It was insane.” (108-109).

Corcoran found Burton and shared his idea—barging debris to Fresh Kills instead of hauling it over land. He later reflected to Langewiesche that talking to Burton, “[I felt] like I was speaking another language to him. The last Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 21

thing he wanted to hear was some marine contractor coming in with ideas and schemes.” (110). Already, officials at PS 89 had realized that “this was not Oklahoma City, where cattle still graze close to downtown, and empty space is everywhere” (Ibid.), so Corcoran’s plan was plausible to them. When he learned the site had been divided into quadrants and assigned to construction companies, Corcoran was surprised, but adjusted quickly, “If these were the rules of the game, you just had to figure out how you were going to play by them.” (109). What mattered was speed and physical progress, an aspect of the new culture that Corcoran not only grasped, but could offer.

More surprises came for Corcoran as he recognized some distinct advantages in the highly decentralized organization: For a few days, he was busy “inventing solutions to problems as they arose” (111) in the same manner as Holden and Burton. Corcoran acclimated quickly to the new culture.

Langewiesche describes many men who were thrust into new roles at Ground Zero and experienced contrast between their old and new roles. He describes Peter Rinaldi from the Port Authority, who supervised consultants from PS 89. “I met him at the start, when he seemed tentative and out of place, and I watched him through three seasons to the end, by which time he had become, both above and below ground, the one man everyone turned to for an opinion.” (26). Sam Melisi, a firefighter with experience in collapsed building and rescue operations, had talents that actualized in October and November as he assumed an important role as mediator between the multiple opposing forces on the pile (23). Evidence of Holden’s and Burton’s newcomer experiences abound within the narrative, but more notable was Langewiesche’s account of the contrast in their relationship prior to and after 9/11. The author describes them as “an unlikely duo” (65) and an “awkward pair”

(66). Holden, “the DDC’s shrewd and intellectually sophisticated commissioner” (65), and Burton, the slightly younger one, “aggressively climbing the ladder of social and material success” (66) had not had an easy relationship over the years due to personality differences (111). In the face of 9/11, however, the two men “forgot their differences and stood back-to-back, inventing solutions to problems as they arose” and shared the feelings of urgency and fatigue that characterize the battlefield experience (Ibid.). By the end of the first week, when people were calling Burton “Trade Center Czar” and he was heady with his newfound power, Burton gave some self- aggrandizing interviews, intimating that Bill Cote, his college roommate, and the four main contractors had been called in by New York City because they were his friends (113). Holden redressed Burton about this, threatening to fire him if he ever gave such an interview again. “Burton acted contrite, and may truly have appreciated

Holden’s warning,” Langewiesche wrote. Holden’s discipline at this point helped Burton refocus his priorities. Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 22

We turn now to a discussion of “organizational learning” and “double-loop learning.” Cook and Yanow

(1993) regard organizations as cultural entities that “learn” in groups and through group activities, because groups engage in activities that cannot be performed by individuals; and, Argyris and Schon (1978) describe “single-loop learning” (recognizing error due to departure from established procedures or goals) and “double-loop learning”

(recognizing error due to outmoded procedures or goals, and the need for change). A poignant example illustrates the transition from individual to organizational learning and the difference between single loop learning and double loop learning. Early on 9/11, Burton ordered a half-mile of sidewalk bridging to protect people from falling glass—he simply could not comprehend that the towers had fallen (Langewiesche 2002, 89). Later in the day, when the police permitted Holden, Burton, and others to walk the pile, the severity and vastness of the disaster—and the unprecedented problems it posed—became evident (Ibid., 90-91). Not only was sidewalk bridging outmoded—even ludicrous—so were most other ordinary procedures and goals in the minds of individuals. Action and invention at every level would be necessary, and traditional hierarchies would break down, along with established protocols. The enormity of the destruction made the final goal of “a clean hole” remote and difficult to understand (13). Individuals were entirely unable to involve themselves in all of the activities on the pile—or even be aware of them. Therefore, the knowledge that was required to unbuild the fallen WTC did not rest with individuals, but with the organization as a whole. Another less poignant but illustrative example also demonstrates that organizational learning and double-loop learning occurred. Although Holden and Burton divided the pile into quadrants on 9/11 and assigned construction companies to each, it was entire construction companies, not individuals, who grappled with ways to remove the rubble when the neatly marked boundaries between them became obscure. All had to learn as collectives, learn from the other companies, and learn how to collaborate with each other and the DDC.

Schein (1993) suggested that organizational culture develops in groups with a stable membership and a history of shared learning. From shared experiences, individuals begin to form a set of shared assumptions about the way things operate or why things happen the way they do. Consider David Griffin, the “token Southerner”

(184) from North Carolina, a demolition expert who decided to go to New York on a whim (187). What makes

Griffin so interesting is that he approached demolition in a way that was foreign to New York construction workers. When they came in contact, they learned that there was more than one way to tear down a building.

Griffin used a wrecking ball on Buildings Four and Five after “juicing them up” (189)—a dangerous procedure Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 23

involving pre-cutting the internal structures of the buildings. His crews toppled a skeletal wall by arranging five grapplers side by side and pulling on cables bolted to the top; they rocked the wall, broken at its base, until it toppled. He also brought down the Marriott ruins, when DDC engineers had concluded there was no safe way to do so (190). Griffin put an excavator directly on top and wrecked it from above. Overall, Griffin’s tactics were faster and cheaper than New York City’s standard incremental deconstructions. Griffin’s presence indicates how an infusion of new ideas can positively effect organizational change and organizational learning.

The Organizational Culture at Ground Zero. Describing the organizational culture at Ground Zero is a formidable task, considering that organizational culture is implicit as well as explicit, unconscious as well as conscious, and is largely based on intangibles that are hidden yet unifying (Shaftritz and Ott 2001, 361). From

Langewiesche’s narrative, we glean these indications of organizational culture: (1) an action orientation; (2) a penchant for autonomy and independence; (3) simultaneous loose-tight properties; (4) a proclivity toward dispute; and, (5) a pervasive and palpable masculinity.

An action orientation, as described by Peters and Waterman (1982) was an underlying value and behavioral pattern we observed throughout Langewiesche’s book. Doing something—anything—was the norm.

Peters and Waterman (1982) suggest that a “bias for action” is facilitated by organizational fluidity; rich communication; a series of pragmatic actions; small, short-term ad hoc task forces; and freedom to experiment.

All of these were in evidence at Ground Zero. To wit, Holden and Burton established a fluid, flexible organization that remained nimble. Its simple form, with few administrative layers, was key. Holden was on his cell phone for nine months, garnering resources and buffering Burton’s operation from political attack. Only during the pile improvement stage of the clean up did a supervisory level—in the person of Lou Mendes—separate Burton and those at PS 89 from workers on the pile. Rich communication took place in the frequent, informal, open, and inclusive meetings at PS 89 (113), with Rinaldi’s continuous presence at PS 89 (26), and during Burton’s walks around the pile twice daily and once at night (171). Langewiesche reports, “Holden and Burton responded tactically, with no grand strategy in mind” on 9/11 (88). Such pragmatic actions continued for the duration. Burton assembled and disbanded small groups of experts for specific and limited purposes, including: the group that took the walk on 9/11 (90); the team that descended into the debris and floods in search of Freon and its source at the chiller plant (19-34); and the group that addressed the threat of the sagging slurry wall (119-131). Until the pile Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 24

became the hole, work at Ground Zero became rougher and more complicated, rather than less so (171). Therefore, most of the work was more experimental and improvisational than routine.

The penchant for autonomy and independence is reflected in Rinaldi’s recognition that “…the imposition of conventional order on these ruins was a formalism or a fiction, and unnecessary. Progress was made instead in the privacy of a thousand moments, on loose, broad fronts, by individuals looking after themselves and generally operating alone” (27). Indeed, this is how twenty men descended into the pile to search for the chiller plant. This independence and autonomy may also be glimpsed in the image of the distraught firefighter with the wild eyes who told Holden, “I’ve got two friends out there. And I’ve got my son buried right in here,” and then wandered off with his shovel, and climbed down into a hole, disappearing into the rubble (70).

“Simultaneous loose-tight properties” described by Peters and Waterman (1982) were evident at Ground

Zero. Unifying those who managed the city and those who worked on the pile were beliefs that included a localized ownership of the disaster (69), a conviction that New York City had the resources to take care of it (95), and a passion that they were righting a wrong (10). Some of the power and politics reflect the struggle between

City Hall and the DDC with regard to the “loose” part of the equation. Even with Holden operating as a boundary spanner, City Hall’s tolerance of those working on the pile was frequently strained. When discipline floundered on the pile November 2, Mayor Giuliani had firefighters arrested and demanded that Holden identify and fire the ironworkers who had demonstrated with the firefighters (151-152). Holden and Burton’s procrastination on this action protected Giuliani and potentially prevented a full-scale rebellion. Much later, in the spring, City Hall backed bringing in the Bechtel Corporation, a San Francisco-based civil engineering firm, as an additional management layer between the DDC and the construction companies (200). Holden aggressively opposed this attempt at tightening the operation, indiscreetly dubbing this a “sweetheart deal” (201). When Mayor Michael

Bloomberg took office, he put Holden “on ice” (Ibid.)—his status in managing the DDC and the Trade Center operation was moved to a transition basis. Later, Bloomberg reappointed Holden when the press printed favorable reports of his contributions.

The proclivity toward dispute that was a part of the Ground Zero culture has been well documented in our discussion of component organizations that rubbed elbows on the pile. In addition to the public, dysfunctional dramas, other disputes served more constructive ends. In the meetings at PS 89 where participants identified Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 25

problems and proposed solutions, arguments and criticism were expected to evaluate alternatives and choose the best possible actions (112).

Finally, the culture at Ground Zero was pervasively and palpably masculine. Using Joan Acker’s (1992) theory of gendered organizations as our rubric, we note first that “gender division” is indisputable; most of the people who worked on the pile were men (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 392) . Langewiesche (2002) mentions only one woman working in the inner circle—“a pugnacious woman,” at that—Becky Clough, a DDC manager. He mentions only two women in support roles, a Red Cross volunteer (126) and a consulting psychologist (191), but we assume that less gender division prevailed in support service organizations on the perimeter. Second, Acker claims that the “creation of symbols and images” in organizations frequently involves gendering (Shaftritz and Ott

2001, 393). The media idolized firefighters as national heroes, and some responded by “grandstanding…striking tragic poses, and playing themselves up” (Langewiesche 2002, 69). Our earlier discussion of the distinct culture of firefighters as “brawny, square-jawed men” (157) who took unnecessary risks with reckless self-abandonment provides further masculine symbolism. One firefighter tried to climb a twenty-foot chimney in the unstable rubble

(33), others jumped suddenly into newly opened debris holes, climbed on unstable cliffs or stood for hours in smoke and dust, refusing to wear their respirators (71). This risk-taking behavior became widespread among those who worked at Ground Zero and is exemplified in a yelling match between David Griffin, the demolitions expert from North Carolina, and a fire chief. When a large section of steel unexpectedly fell, the fire chief rushed up to

Griffin and asked where the safety zone was. To this, Griffin answered, “Chambers Street,” which was the site’s outer-perimeter line. Langewiesche observed, “The fire chief got the message. Most people eventually did. Risk was the very nature of the Trade Center operation” (191). A psychologist attributed this excessive risk-taking behavior to survivor guilt, but Langewiesche thought it looked like a simpler form of grief or a creative, courageous impulse “linked to the need for action and improvisation and personal freedom” that emerged at the

World Trade Center site—something that the culture at the site demanded (72).

Acker would also have us examine “interactions between individuals” as a further means to identify gendering processes at work in an organization (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 393). Here we find rich data indeed to illustrate the enactment of masculinity. First, consider Lou Mendes, a DDC supervisor. His style was to stand toe- to-toe with other big guys on the pile and systematically lose his temper: “He would take on self-respecting men and ridicule and scold them as if they were delinquent children.” (175). When construction firm AMEC had a slow Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 26

down in its operation, Mendes launched a vitriolic attack, humiliating them and threatening to throw them off the job. Similarly, when another construction firm, Bovis, experienced a lag in productivity, Mendes again expressed his outrage, belittling their work as “a circus” (177-178). A field supervisor tried to explain the problem as a lack of clear command, and asked for charts to show how authority should flow. Mendes went ballistic: “Charts! A goddamned chart! We’ve got charts coming out the ass. We’ve got charts of charts! We’ve got charts to make charts!” (178). Mendes swore, taunted, blamed, name-called, and made fierce demands. “I want guys pushing trucks! Today! Tonight! Trucks! You got it?” (179). “Okay, Lou,” was the response, “Tonight I’ll read them the riot act. We’ll see what happens.” Mendes got the last word in, “Push them, Charlie. They’re not made out of wax”

(180). Mendes was considered “a good and necessary man” (177).

In another example, engineer Pablo Lopez stopped by Thornton-Tomasetti one day, and was offered a session with a consulting therapist the company had retained to assist its employees. Irritated that she asked him to close his eyes and imagine a safe place, he launched into a sarcastic, mocking tirade with Langewiesche the following day: “I mean, where’ve you been lady? I live in New York City, and there’s an anthrax scare going on!

I go home, and my wife is ironing the mail! And where is it I work? It’s underground in the World Trade Center.”

(191). His harangue was an assertion of masculine ethos, and a refutation of anything that smacks of femininity.

Langewiesche interpreted, “He lived at the center of the world because he liked the action…He wasn’t searching for safety. He didn’t need to close his eyes, or to make himself comfortable. He didn’t need the teddy bears that volunteers kept handing out. And he wasn’t afraid of the dead.” (192).

Yet another point of gender enactment lies in the emotionally expressive behavior of the wives and widows of firefighters at the meeting Mayor Giuliani called on November 12. A panel of leaders including Burton,

Cote, a fire commissioner, and the medical examiner, was prepared to brief firefighters and their families about the deconstruction operations and recovery efforts. This rational, information-sharing meeting ended with an outburst of raw emotion. The women yelled and railed at the medical examiner, calling him a liar, when he rose to speak.

They said they didn’t even want to hear from Burton—whom they dubbed Mr. Scoop and Dump —when he tried to speak (166). Their tirade of feminine anger and tears contrasts sharply with that of the firefighters on the pile whose masculine expression of grief morphed into excessive risk-taking behavior and a dogged determinism to recover and their honor their dead as heroes. Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 27

A final example of gender in interaction: “The Red Cross volunteers were unusually gentle with people in the food lines—presumably because they had been told that conditions on the pile were traumatic and they believed that the workers required comfort.” (127). Langewiesche characterizes them as a kinder, gentler folk, fulfilling supportive, femin ine roles, regardless of whether they were women or men. Gender, as socially constructed masculine or feminine, does not always correlate with biological sex.

Acker (1992) points to a fourth dimension of gendering organizations: “the internal mental work individuals do to construct the correct gendered persona” (Shafritz and Ott 2001, 393). Though we do not have access to the internal mental work of those we met in American Ground, we do have Langewiesche’s descriptions, and those allow us to speculate. Becky Clough comes to mind as an immediate, if brief example. She apparently succeeded in creating a masculine persona, appropriate for a DDC manager; “pugnacious” is hardly descriptive of femininity. Sam Melisi also comes to mind. As a firefighter with experience in collapsed building and rescue operations, he had also worked in the construction industry before becoming a firefighter. Langewiesche describes

Melisi as a gentle, effacing, altruistic man (22-23), a small, wiry man, with “a disarming way of suggesting his opinions rather than asserting them.” (96). Melisi also tended to be shy, a trait that distinguished him in the

“wolf-pack world of the Trade Center site” (96). He exuded a unique moral authority: “This authority translated into the power to ma ke suggestions that others were willing to follow.” (22). By mid-November, people were calling him “Saint Sam” as he assumed the role of mediator among the bickering tribes on the pile (23). He stated clearly to Langewiesche, “My only allegiance is to the people who lost their lives—to their families. The best we can do is try to retrieve as many people as we can in the most human fashion.” (146-147). In the end, however,

Melisi came under attack by firefighters and their families for his mediation efforts—his willingness to listen to their opponents with empathy and understanding. They felt betrayed, and used Melisi as a scapegoat (202).

Langewiesche’s characterization of Sam Melisi is complex. Melisi’s persona departs from the hyper- masculine image of the hero firefighters at Ground Zero, and features attributes and abilities traditionally associated with femininity. With these gendered attributes, he nonetheless wielded moral authority and power, traditionally the domain of masculinity. In addition, he is consubstantial with construction workers, as well as with firefighters. Such complexity leads us to pose theses questions: To what extent was Melisi’s gendered persona correct for the role he played at Ground Zero? That is, had Melisi been more like the other firefighters in Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 28

temperament and physique, would he have been as successful a mediator? Unfortunately, the organizational theory literature in our texts does not provide us with sufficient gender theory to allow us to answer these questions.

All told, organizational culture theories provide us with a set of conceptual tools for making sense of irrational, destructive human behavior as well as the profoundly effective learning that took place in individuals, groups and the Ground Zero organization as a whole.

Conclusion

Because so much of formal organization theory is grounded with rationality as the critical assumption, we find that much of it—classical, structural, systems, and rational choice—is insufficient to explicate how this organization functioned and acted the way it did. What we are left with is the postulation that it is the more contemporary theories of structure, decision-making, power and politics, and especially organizational culture that provide us with the richest explanatory power.

Specifically, design or contingency theories, with their organic emphases on flexibility and continual learning, best help us to make sense of organizational structure at Ground Zero. They also allow us to recognize the dialectical tension between the move towards centralization of authority and the continual need for decentralization, local autonomy and individualism. Above all though, we see that these theories optimally describe why the organization emerged as flat, nimble, and responsive to change and uncertainty.

It is also this recognition of uncertainty that leads us to assert that the garbage can model is the strongest to account for the decision-making structure used by the DDC to clean up the disaster and return the city to a state of normalcy. Essentially, inputs from experts and stakeholders were tossed into a “garbage can” of ideas, and the outputs that emerged were what were needed at the time. The lack of rationality in this situation simply allowed for nothing else.

We also find that, consistent with the literature on the subject, power and politics are not mutually exclusive. Power is manifested in different ways and for different purposes, but is inextricably linked to politics, no matter what form employed. Politics is merely the vehicle through which power is exercised, and American

Ground provides a rich depiction of it in action.

Finally, it is our assertion that organization culture is a most powerful lens through which we can really understand how and why things happened at the pile the way they did. These theories account for individual and group behavior and transformations that lead to organizational learning, and allow us to describe how irrational Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 29

processes make this happen. Inasmuch as shared learning affected the structure of the unbuilding organization, it also shaped the culture that emerged. From the component subgroups that erupted into tribal warfare, to the sense of emptiness felt when the last steel girder was ceremoniously hauled away, it is this knowledge of organizational culture that allows those of us external to the intricacies of the situation an insider’s view.

Clearly, the events of that fateful day in September of 2001, and those that followed, tested the very limits of established—and not so established—organizational theory. What we find overall is that 9/11 is not a neat, tidy textbook example that fits nicely into a theoretical pigeonhole. Organizational structure, decision making, power and politics, and culture of the WTC unbuilding process can best be explained through a diverse set of theories.

This conceptual patchwork is reflective of the organization that emerged from the wafting smoke and mangled mass of steel at the WTC. Yet despite the loose-knit structure and informality of the organization—a situation that defied theoretical convention—it saw to efficient completion a titanic engineering feat—both structural and social—unparalleled in modern times.

Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 30

Appendix 1 An Overview of American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center

Part 1: The Inner World

“The Inner World” was published in July/August 2002 in The Atlantic Monthly. The narrative begins with the collapse of Twin Towers at the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 and a description of the damage to the Port Authority Trans-Hudson Line (PATH), an underground commuter railroad linking New York and New Jersey, as well as the rubble that sunk into the six-story subterranean structures that had been mostly parking garages. Langewiesche pans out to report the damages to other buildings, a fallen pedestrian bridge, and streets that buckled. He depicts the air pressure waves and the winds that dispersed clouds of powder over the terrain. The first hours were apocalyptic: Firefighters, police, and volunteers assembled bucket brigades to remove debris in a frantic search for survivors. Amidst the ineffective action of countless well-meaning individuals, little information was available and rumors abounded.

Who was going to run this show? Certainly not New York City’s Office of Emergency Management

(OEM); though prestigious, it was not prepared to deal with the disaster. Nor was the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the official bureaucracy responsible for overseeing the World Trade Center. Though a bi-state, multi-jurisdictional organization with considerable power and influence, its executive offices in the World Trade

Center were destroyed and many of its employees were killed.

In the authority vacuum of 9/11, Kenneth Holden, Commissioner for the New York City Department of

Design and Construction (DDC) and his Lieutenant, Michael Burton, acted independently, just as others, doing what they knew how to do. They responded tactically, organizing the arrival of expert engineers and heavy equipment, bypassing ordinary bidding procedures. By nightfall, Holden and Burton had set up heavy equipment and lights, divided Ground Zero into four quadrants, hired four construction companies (Turner, AMEC, Bovis, and Tully), and assigned each to a quadrant of the pile. “They did not ask permission to do this —nor, at first, did anyone pay much attention to their work,” (Langewiesche 2002, 66).

After dark on 9/11, available city administrators met in the cafeteria of Public School 89 and Mayor

Giuliani made a back-room decision to scrap existing organizational charts, bypassing the city’s Office of

Emergency Management, to allow the DDC to proceed. City administrators agreed to a crude management Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 31

structure that night: Replace volunteers with firefighters, police, structural and civil engineers, and unionized construction workers.

The DDC was hardly a contender for managing the clean-up effort and Holden and Burton were uneasy partners. The DDC, as a small, obscure city department with 1,300 employees, was charged merely with overseeing municipal contracts, and, indeed, its reputation extended no further than contract administration.

Nevertheless, Holden and Burton emerged as the most effective of those who responded to the initial chaos, and they directed what happened on the pile for the next nine months.

Langewiesche ends part one anthropomorphizing the pile as a living thing: “The pile was an extreme in itself. It was not just the ruins of seven big buildings but a terrain of tangled steel on an unimaginable scale, with mountainous slopes breathing smoke and flame, roamed by diesel dinosaurs and filled with the human dead. The pile heaved and groaned and constantly changed, and was capable at any moment of killing again. People did not merely work to clear it out but went there day and night to fling themselves against it. The pile was the enemy, the objective, the obsession, the hard-won ground” (Langewiesche 2002, 72).

Part 2: The Rush to Recover

“The Rush to Recover,” published in the September Atlantic Monthly, opens with accounts of American

Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, then focuses on tactical operations on the pile. We learn background information about Holden and Burton, and their unlikely, uncomfortable partnership, as well as their tactical responses to the terrorism on 9/11. Burton acted quickly, establishing a phone tree to alert the city’s construction industry to be tapped later in the day. By afternoon, Holden and Burton had brought in Richard

Tomasetti from the engineering firm Thornton-Tomasetti, along with some tough construction guys. Police blocked their access to the site until 5:30 p.m. when the group finally walked around the site, focusing on how to lift the steel to uncover survivors and how to clear a path to get equipment to the ruins.

We meet Sam Melisi, a fireman experienced in collapsed building and rescue operations, and sense his mediating influence on other firefighters. There are hints of growing tensions between firefighters and police, and between uniformed city employees and the engineers guiding operations. We meet Marty Corcoran, a marine- construction manager with the New Jersey-based Weeks Marine. Corcoran caught up with Burton in the PS 89 Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 32

cafeteria the evening of 9/11 to share his ideas and schemes for getting the debris from the site to the Fresh Kills

Landfill on Staten Island. He proposed that barges could carry the rubble—they were already set up to accommodate the task. Burton gave his approval. Later, we meet George Tamaro who oversaw the construction of the slurry wall for the Port Authority, and we worry with him as he plans the salvage of the slurry wall that threatens to break and flood New York’s underground.

After three days of operation, “a raw form of organization” had emerged, with the DDC leading the clean-up effort (Langewiesche 2002, 112). Headquarters were a kindergarten room PS 89, a convenient location where mostly large men sat on tiny chairs, or stood, to plan tactics, coordinate work on the pile, and struggle with the politics of competing organizations and their demands—and the actions of public officials. Peter Rinaldi,

Engineer with the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, manned PS 89 logistics; Chief Engineer Frank

Lombardi dispatched him there while he himself worked out of the Port Authority’s headquarters in New Jersey.

Also on hand was construction executive Bill Cote. In twice-daily meetings with 20 or more government agencies represented, Holden, Burton, Rinaldi, and Cote coordinated efforts and planned tactics. By late October, the operation became a “joint command” between firefighters, police, and the DDC. Risk-taking on the pile was high and dangers ever-present.

Forty downtown blocks of unstable surface with craters, caves, cliffs and remnants of the World Trade

Center were visible, while underground, fires burned September through January, causing progressive collapses in the pile until spring. A slurry wall holding New York Harbor at bay threatened to break, and fears of poisonous gases leaking from the pile might have been the final images of “The Rush to Recover,” but Langewiesche chose instead to end part two with serenity and irony. He paints the picture of a four-inch blanket of snow that covered the pile. “There was something about the snow—its majestic indifference to human events—that seemed to provide perspective on what was happening here” (Langewiesche 2002, 141).

Part 3: The Dance of the Dinosaurs

“The Dance of the Dinosaurs” is ultimately about the grace of the large equipment that pulled apart the debris. The machines were the stars—they seemed to become living things in the hands of their operators. Big- armed animals clawed at the pile and pulled out steel girders and columns. Large trucks hauled these away on newly created roads to bulky barges. The barges carried some 1.5 million tons of ruins from the 17 acres Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 33

destruction site some 26 miles to Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island for inspection, sorting, and burial on 176 acres. Others carried the steel girders and columns to New Jersey where they were sold in the recycle market.

Langewiesche likens the recovery tactics to open pit mining. He recalls the gridlock on the roads, the lack of focus, and the excessive risk-taking and free-for-all emergency responses that continued.

Equally fitting to the title “The Dance of the Dinosaurs” is Langewiesche’s account of the tribal fighting between firefighters and police on November 2, marked by demonstrations, protests, arrests and marches to City

Hall to pressure Mayor Giuliani to back down on the engineering effort so firefighters could bring their brothers home. A group of ironworkers, likely union-sympathizers on their breaks, joined the fray and appeared on national television. Giuliani demanded their arrest—an action that Holden and Burton sensed could lead to full- scale rebellion on the pile.

Mayor Giuliani called a meeting on November 12 so that a panel of leaders (David Schaumburg, medical examiner, a fire commissioner, Mike Burton, and Bill Cote from one of the construction companies) could brief firefighters and their families on the deconstruction operations and recovery efforts. Essentially, this rational, information-sharing meeting precipitated an emotional tirade of arguments, complaints and accusations. Widows vented relentlessly, dubbing Burton “Mr. Scoop and Dump” and shouting “Liar, liar” in response to the medical examiner. Burton and Cote retreated from the meeting to consider how the project was a consuming professional experience for them rather than an emotional one: They had not lost friends or family and they had not dwelled on the tragedy. Moved by the suffering of the widows, they saw how others believed their actions were “wrong, even wicked” (Langewiesche 2003, 169). Though Burton would be dubbed “the Trade Center czar,” he realized that night over a cold beer with Cote that he would need to keep his ambitions in check, and that “America does not function as a dictatorship of rationalists” (Langewiesche 2003, 170).

Most controversial is Langewiesche’s report of the arguments that broke out when a fire truck containing jeans was discovered three months after the fall of the Twin Towers. This discovery “greatly exacerbated the frictions on the pile” (Langewiesche 2003, 217) and Langewiesche included this incident because he refused to depict firefighters as heroes more than any other group of workers. The pile was “union ground,” and its workers—firefighters, police and construction workers—were fully human. A few looted, a few loafed, but most responded mightily. Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 34

The May 30, 2002 Closing Ceremony was short, with no speeches. An honor guard accompanied a steel column on a flatbed truck from the bottom of the hole as it was taken away. Bagpipes played as firefighters, NYC and Port Authority police, engineers, construction workers, families of the dead and politicians watched silently.

This was Mayor Michael Bloomberg’s design for a solemn tribute, just five months into his term.

By mid-summer bare earth covered the site, and man-made hills stood out at the Fresh Kills Landfill. The last of the steel columns and girders were sold, primarily to China and India —to foreign markets where recycling costs are lower than in the United States, and where labor and environmental rules are more relaxed. In describing the fate of the steel wrestled fro m the ruins of the World Trade Center, Langewiesche introduces an ironic twist:

“It was a strangely appropriate fate for these buildings. Unmade or remade, whether as appliances or cars or simple rebar, they would eventually find their way into every corner of the earth” (Langewiesche 2001, 205). Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 35

Appendix 2 Names and Titles of Persons Included in American Ground (in order of their introduction)

Kenneth (Ken) Holden Commissioner, New York City Department of Design & Construction

Michael (Mike) Burton Lieutenant, New York City Department of Design & Construction · “Trade Center Czar” who oversaw practical details of the World Trade Center cleanup

Bill Cote Construction Executive

John O’Connell Collapsed Building Specialist

Sam (Saint Sam) Melisi Fireman with experience in collapsed building and rescue operations · Mediated conflicts between firefighters and police

Peter Rinaldi Engineer, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey · Assigned to cleanup effort at the World Trade Center Richard Tomasetti President, Thornton-Tomasetti Group, Inc. · Firm specialized in the evaluation and analysis of the World Trade Center site

Richard Garlock Structural Specialist with LERA · Worked for Trade Center’s original designer, Leslie E. Robertson · Led exploration of chille r plant to search for potentially hazardous Freon

Frank Lombardi Chief Engineer, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey · Worked from New Jersey offices

W. Gene Corley Engineer from Chicago · Investigator of building failures

Rudolph (Rudy) Mayor of New York City Giuliani

Apollo Hernandez Driver for Kenneth Holden

Marty Corcoran Marine Construction Manager · Suggested removing debris by barges

Pasquale Buzzelli Engineer, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey · Rescued dramatically

Genelle Guzman Clerk, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey · Rescued after being trapped for 27 hours with serious injuries Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 36

George Tamaro Engineer · Underground specialist who oversaw construction of slurry wall for the Port Authority

Andrew Pontecorvo Front line engineers who investigated slurry wall and Pablo Lopez

Lou Mendes Assistant Commissioner for Special Projects, New York City Department of Design & Construction

David Griffin Demolition consultant for standing buildings · From Greensboro, North Carolina · Hired by Bovis

David Schomburg Medical Examiner assigned as principal liaison to Trade Center

Michael Bloomberg Mayor of New York City

TURNER, AMEC, Construction companies that oversaw the cleanup of the Trade Center BOVIS, TULLY · TULLY was a family-owned New York City paving contractor with lots of equipment

Putting Organizational Theories to the Test 37

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XHR—Classroom as Organization Paper to be presented at the Public Administration Teaching Conference University of Wisconsin, Madison February 2004

Bob Cunningham UT-Knoxville

In XHR the instructor sets out the structure, and the students implement the system. The class is an organization, and organization’s product is learning about organizations and how HR relates to the organization. The students operate the system—take attendance, plan the lessons, deliver the lessons, allocate the time among various classroom activities, perform the evaluations, record the grades, mount grades and assignments on the web, and strive to create and maintain an effective learning environment.

When one enters an ongoing organization, learning the ropes can be challenging, but trying to learn and operate an organization by reading a rulebook is difficult, especially where everyone is new, when people don’t know each other, and no one knows the norms. Students walk in expecting a typical class; but that standard mindset does not operate in this class.

Immediately, students are divided randomly into 12 permanent teams. Students number off 1 through 12. My usual class numbers between 35 and 55 students, so each team has 3-5 members. Team members get to know each other, and as I circulate in the room each team selects out of a hat a slip of paper on which is written a group responsibility. At this point each team consults the syllabus to learn its tasks. (The syllabus is below.) Most teams have to interact with other teams in order to carry out their responsibilities. For example, “Staffing” must get names and contact information for each member of each group; “Communications” needs that information for the website. “Individual” needs the names to develop a list to take roll and for off-campus mentoring; and “Reading” uses that information to create the reading committees. Meanwhile, “Planning” must organize the teaching sequence for the first half of the semester, and work with “directing” to make the best use of each minute of each class period. “Management theory” decides how it will open and close each class. At this early point on the first day each group is trying to figure out what it should be doing, sort out priorities, locate the groups with which it must act jointly, and make those collective decisions. Students are just beginning to learn what the class is about or what they are supposed to be doing.1

At the next class period “Informal” must plan and deliver an icebreaker exercise for people to get to know each other, and must plan the class party. “Communications” must take pictures of each group and mount these on the class web site, identifying each person.

As we know, assessment is important in both the workplace and the classroom--what gets measured gets done. Some of the measurements are the usual. Attendance is taken; presentations

1 In our registration system I have access to the class list with e-mails a couple of weeks before the beginning of the semester. I send the students the syllabus and ask them to study it. Not all students check their university e-mail regularly, and those that do may download but not read the syllabus. Students who register just before classes begin may not have received the e-mail..

1 are graded; groups reflect on what they have learned. Every two weeks there is rank order peer evaluation, without ties, both within groups and between groups. The criterion: Which individual/group has contributed most toward the success of the group/class? The outstanding individuals or groups will do more than their assigned responsibilities in order to distinguish themselves. Because some groups have subtle, quiet responsibilities, to get noticed at all, they must draw attention to themselves, or get relegated to the bottom of the totem pole every two weeks when the peer evaluations occur.

Things don’t always get done; people make mistakes. In this complicated, highly interdependent system, mistakes of omission and commission cannot be avoided. The message is to figure out what must be done now to deal with the situation, to learn from it, push on, and try to improve. Another challenge will soon be upon you.

What happens which is different from the usual classroom. Confusion and anxiety among students. They need to be calmed down. I tell them that most people will make good grades. Sometimes I ask students who have had the class previously to come to the first class and help out. Some students are excited about the different format. After they adjust to the initial chaos most students like it because they are in charge.

After the first month there is a palpable shift in class mood, which can be a challenge for the teacher who has a need to be in control. Students come to learn the system, develop a routine, and pay less attention to the teacher. The teacher diminishes in importance as the students become confident in running the system. The teacher still has “position power,” and has a general feel for how things are going, but does not know everything that is happening because in this flat organization the students are communicating more with each other and less with me. I feel out of the loop, which is probably not a lot different than the CEO of any organization, who is supposed to be in control, but may not understand what is happening below. Since most of us preach devolvement, flat organizations, and participative management, this gives us the opportunity to practice what we preach, and see how it feels.

Student comments: “I learned to delegate and trust others” “It was an honor to work with my group” “It began in ambiguity and ended in trust” “Failing at first will only mean more success later”

I have been doing this for four years, and there is no going back for me. I don’t teach all classes like this, just this one undergrad senior HR class. This would be fine in the MPA, but my classes are too small. If I had 30 or more students, I could do it there. The students learn how an organization feels. They make mistakes and see the consequences. They see the connection between the readings and the practice. I adapted this from a business school Organizational Behavior class. Any class can be taught this way, although I think all classes in a program should not. After a couple of these, students need to get into small groups to work on real challenges with public organizations.

Specific Comments

2 Peer evaluation is important. I encourage them first to set up criteria within the group on how they will evaluate each other, then make these rankings as a supervisor in the “real world” Students resist evaluating their peers, particularly inside the group. They attempt to circumvent this by rotating the rankings. I threaten to lower their grade if they are caught rotating. Peer evaluation is painful.

To take risks, students need to feel secure that venturing from their typical behavior will more likely benefit than harm them. I reinforce by memo saying that those who work hard will earn A or B. In my first experience I tried de-emphasizing grades. This worked OK, but some slackers slipped through, and the teaching of concepts was not so well done.

The motivators are different. The rank ordering creates competition. Students cannot ask, “What do I need to do to get an A?” because I don’t know. There is no “floor” that the student can find and depend on for a guaranteed top grade. Just as in the workplace, the student or group must work to distinguish self from others by convincing others on their outstanding performance. Motivation emerges from the structure. This difference needs regular reinforcement through comments and memos.

I think the instructor should take a low profile, but still be very involved to be sure the organization is operating effectively. The “Effectiveness” group serves as an executive board, and it is important that that group work well. Last year I took a hands-off approach, and for the first time did not attend the effectiveness meeting. That was a mistake. The Effectiveness group had some internal issues, and halfway through the semester, the class floundered. I confronted the class, and they responded by electing their own President and executive committee, which rescued the organization. However, the class became the typical organization in which the executive committee did more work than everyone else, and many class members sat back and let them do it. The elected executive committee made the organization work through personal relationships rather than assigned roles.

SYLLABUS PS-440 Management and Human Resources, Tuesdays 3:40-6:20 Bob Cunningham -- 1008c McClung Tower, 974-7050, [email protected] Office hours: W 2:30-3:30, by appointment, or whenever I am in

Welcome to PS-440, aka XHR1!! The purpose of this class is to learn how organizations function so that you will be able to work effectively in an organization. By involving yourself, you will come to appreciate the challenges of managing an organization’s Human Resources and keeping an organization on track.

You will learn by doing, as well as by reading and listening. You will manage the organization, and you will teach HRM-related concepts to this class. XHR1 is a flat organization, not much hierarchy. The instructor is a hands-off senior manager, everyone else is both a middle manager and a front-line employee. All decisions follow the rules laid down in the syllabus, made by consensus, or imposed by the senior manager. Roger Putzel, Business Professor at St. Michaels College in Vermont, put a lot of effort into designing the concept upon which XHR1 is based.

3 (Check out his website at www.xbforum.com.) This is pretty much a paperless class. Communication occurs by e-mail and via the class web site.

You must learn to operate this system, just as if you were a new manager at General Motors, The Gap, McDonalds, the Department of Defense, or The City of Knoxville. The hard part is that everyone else is new to the organization too, so everyone is having to learn the system at the same time. If XHR1 were to work perfectly, everyone would learn and demonstrate the learning. You will soon find out that it won't, because people are human. People don’t automatically follow the rules—sometimes they don’t know what to do, sometimes they don’t want to do what they know needs to be done. Hey, the real world.

You will be VERY confused for the first two weeks, and at least moderately confused long after that. This class is probably like no other you have taken, so put aside traditional notions of memorizing and regurgitating facts. It is different from PS-340 or PS-463 (other classes I teach), although ideas from 340 are applicable. In PS-340, every group usually does the same thing. In XHR, as in the workplace, every group does something different, and the tasks are interdependent. Your group has to do its job on time in order for other groups to do their jobs. One group’s delay can slow the entire system. If a group you depend on doesn’t seem to have done its job, your group may have to talk to them about it.

Making mistakes, and admitting them, is often an important first step in learning. Don't worry about mistakes; pay the price, learn from them, and get on with life. These mistakes are cheap. Repeating the same mistake can be a problem--you aren't learning. You will make mistakes, just as I make mistakes, and all managers make mistakes. If I were afraid of mistakes, we wouldn’t be having this class. This is the fifth time for PS-440 to be taught as an X-type course, and I still have to refer to the syllabus to be sure of all the rules. Some of you will come to know the rules better than I do. The syllabus is not as complicated as Casey Clausen’s playbook, but it is not easy.

To get started, read the syllabus and learn your group’s responsibilities. Share your understanding with others in your group. Decide as a group what your group will do and how you will do it. For next week each group must prepare a 5-minute presentation on its responsibilities. Learn what the other groups do, and how the organization fits together. It is complicated. You need to know the responsibilities assigned to each group because you must grade their performance every two weeks. To evaluate other groups fairly, you need to know their responsibilities in order to decide how well they have performed.

In XHR1 everyone is involved in motivation and assessment, just like an HR manager in the real world. Most of your work involves your presenting group. How can you motivate your teammates to put forth effort in order that the group can perform competently? How well do employees do their jobs? XHR has many small assessments rather than a few large assessments. There is no mid-term or final. A heroic effort at the end won’t bail out a casual performance all along. If you and your group do well all along, you will get a good grade. There are no surprises at the end. Therefore, you will find the motivators a bit different than in other classes. Peer ranking both inside the group and among the groups occurs every two weeks and counts substantially in your grade. You have to convince others in the class that you are making the

4 effort and helping your group and the XHR1 organization. To be sure you get an A, go beyond your job. Figure out something that you can do to make your group more effective, or something your group can do to improve the effectiveness of XHR1. Do it. This is like the real world. You get high ratings not only for doing your job well, but by being creative and going beyond your job.

Groups take turns teaching. In preparing your presentation, the SM will assign some basic reading. Your teaching presentation must NOT cover those items. Each group must find other materials for the topic it is teaching, and make an additional assignment to the class. Consult the library, the web, or the SM for presentation ideas and materials. These materials must be on reserve, on the XHR1 website, or e-mailed to the class at least 15 days prior to the day that you teach. Again, be creative. Being dull is not a winner.

PRESENTING GROUPS: THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES.

PLANNING Plan class activities for each of the 14 weeks of the semester and for each class period. Each class must start promptly at 3:40 and dismiss at 6:20. Usually, beginning week three, two 30- minute group presentations will occur during each class period. If necessary, you can juggle to accommodate one more or one less presentation. Work with each group and with the Directing group on the schedule for each week and for the semester. Plan time for presenting groups and reading committees to meet. It is your joint responsibility with Directing to employ class time productively. An immediate challenge is to assign presentations for the next 3 weeks so that presenting groups can start finding readings to assign to the class members. Presenting groups must assign readings 18 days in advance, which is impossible for the next two weeks, but will be expected starting for Week 4 presentations. For the next class period, part of the time will be spent by having each presenting group explain its role in XHR. Also, Informal must organize an ice-breaker event and a party to take place during class time. For week 3, Assessment will conduct a session on how to write reflections. An ongoing challenge in planning is that the Effectiveness group must have a weekly meeting attended by at least one member from each presenting group. What useful learning activity can you plan for those not attending the Effectiveness meeting?

CONTROL Keep timely and accurate records. Get a system in place immediately. (Excel would be a convenient system.) Your system must be kept separate from the system maintained by Communications, but it would probably be helpful for you to consult with Communications in developing the two systems. You are responsible for assembling the grades and recording them. You do not grade any more than any other group. Everything graded comes to you to be recorded. You keep a copy, make sure Communications has a copy (for the website), so there will be two permanent records available. You need storage capacity on someone’s computer (plus backup) for a directory for each presenting group, each reading committee, and a file for each person. This means a record keeping system and a grading system. Each person in a group gets whatever group grade is assigned. You will implement the grade weighting at the end of the semester, and ensure that points earned are mounted correctly on the web. Reconcile your grades with Communications every two weeks. Report discrepancies to the SM.

5 STAFFING Meet the human resource needs of each presenting group. First day: assemble the following information from each member of XHR1: name, phone number, e-mail, major, class status (Fr, Soph, Jr, Sr, Grad), special skills or interests, mentoring location preference (if any). SM will give you a roll with much of this information on it. However, students who intend to add will not be listed, so you need to get their information. Prepare a distribution list, organized by group, and e-mail it to SM and each XHR1 member within 72 hours. Work with the Reading group to assign members to their reading committees by Jan 20 based on the diversity principle. No more than two members from the same presenting group can serve on the same reading committee. Work with the Reading group on this. Throughout the semester make whatever staffing changes are necessary. Groups should be of uniform size. Discuss your proposals with affected individuals, groups, and the Effectiveness group. A decision by Staffing may be appealed by a member, first to Mediator, and then to SM. Students adding the class will be referred to Staffing for a group assignment and orientation to the class. Every group must have at least one person transfer in and out between Feb 15 and April 1. No personnel changes may be made after April 1. Most of your obvious work comes now and over the next 6 weeks. If you do not find something to do over the final half of the semester, your peers may see your contribution to XHR1 as less significant.

DIRECTING The class should begin at 3:40, and end promptly at 6:20. Make sure each minute of each class period is used effectively. Provide music for 5 minutes or so prior to class. At the start of class turn off the music and call the class to order. Management theory offers its memorable quotation. You need a back-up plan if there is extra time at the end of the day, and you must be prepared to resolve the problem if there is insufficient class time to complete all planned activities. Work closely with Planning and Effectiveness. Directing and Planning must decide what to do if a group is not prepared to present according to the schedule from Planning.

COMMUNICATIONS Effective communications is the greatest challenge in every organization. It is your job to be sure that people have the information they need. Make information available to each member on time. XHR1 is on-line. To learn to use Blackboard two members of Communications must attend the ITC session Wednesday, January 14 or Thursday, January 15, from 10:10 a.m. - 12:10 p.m., in the ITC Teaching Lab, 2412 Dunford Hall. Register for this class online at itc.utk.edu. At the bottom of the registration form is “optional comments.” Indicate that you are in my class and that I have discussed your attending with Rhonda Spearman. Call her at 974-9670 if there are problems. Work with Staffing to assemble the class roll. You will need to organize students by Presenting Group for grading purposes. Your system must be kept separate from Control’s system, but it would be helpful for you to consult with Control in developing the two systems. You must get the website working effectively by January 20. Maintain the website as a useful communications tool throughout the semester. During class on Jan 20, take a picture of each group with a digital camera, put each group picture on the web site, and identify each individual. (I will bring a digital camera to class.) Throughout the semester information should be mounted on the web site within 72 hours after you receive it. Reconcile your grades with Control every two weeks. Report unresolved discrepancies to SM.

6 EFFECTIVENESS Effectiveness is the alter-ego of the SM. Make XHR1 an effective learning organization. Hold a weekly meeting attended by a representative from each presenting group. Suggest ways to improve the effectiveness of XHR1. Report the activities of this meeting to XHR1. Inform Planning and Directing regarding the amount of class time you need. Monitor the website regarding timeliness of postings. People attending the effectiveness meeting serve as an executive board for XHR1. Your group is responsible for keeping XHR1 on track. If XHR1 or any group is not performing effectively, Effectiveness should discuss with SM ways to improve the system, involving Mediator and Staffing if personnel matters are involved. All decisions must be taken by consensus.

INDIVIDUAL Help each person carry out assigned individual responsibilities to the organization. Take attendance and report absences to Control and Communications within 30 minutes after class starts. Also, take attendance at the end of class. If people leave class without checking with you and offering a reasonable explanation, inform Control and count these people absent. Pay close attention to the presentation effectiveness and general interpersonal effectiveness of each member of XHR1. Inform Mediator of opportunities to ensure that everyone is involved and working effectively. Individual also supervises the Public Service mentoring. You will assign people to schools for mentoring, roughly equal numbers to each school. Green and Sara Moore Greene schools have an afternoon program till 6pm; Inskip does not. E-mail the list of assignments to students and to schools. You are responsible for resolving glitches in the mentoring system. Please assign one member to this task and communicate this information so that both students and school officials know the contact person. Check with the schools from time to time to ensure that mentoring is operating smoothly. You will receive three reflections from students on their mentoring experiences, due 2/25, 3/25, and 4/25. Please send a graded copy with your comments and suggestions for improvement to SM and back to the individual. Send grades to Communications and Control. Each school keeps a log book with hours mentored. At the end of the semester check the number of hours mentored and grade accordingly.

MEDIATOR Work to create and maintain a hospitable and effective work environment within and between groups. Mediator is the ombudsman (conflict resolver). Your responsibility is instilling and maintaining interpersonal harmony among people and groups. If there are disagreements or conflicts Mediator must go to the spot and attempt to resolve the issue. If Mediator cannot resolve it, forward the issue to Staffing or to SM. Check regularly with Effectiveness. Mediator tries to anticipate and deal with any issue that may diminish morale in XHR1. Mediator has low visibility because it often must maintain confidentiality; so you must work to find some visible tasks to impress peers. One activity you may wish to consider is after each presentation, e-mail to each presenter describing strengths and suggestions for improvement. [This would not be graded.]

ASSESSMENT

7 Make sure individual and group performance are assessed. Each week each presenting group must submit a reflective memo on its learnings over the previous week. Grading these reflections is rotated among groups. Assessment organizes and supervises the grading. When the rankings and commentary are completed, they are forwarded to Assessment, which checks to ensure that they are done correctly, then forwards the grades to Control, Communications, and back to their source, along with the qualitative comments. Assessment also collects and manages the rank- ordering within and among groups. [Note: any assessment (or rank ordering) must be accompanied by a reason for low rankings. When an individual or group does not perform well, the person or group needs to know what can be done to improve.] Each group must justify its three lowest ranks. Assessment ensures that the process runs smoothly. In Week 3 Assessment will teach the class how to write effective reflections.

READINGS Make sure the readings are read and understood by the entire class and the appropriate presenting group has sent the reading material 18 days prior to their presentation. Work with Staffing to set up diverse reading committees. No more than two members from the same presenting group can serve on a reading committee. Oversee the operation of reading committees. Questions on the readings are sent from reading committees to the appropriate presenting group on Monday for class 8 days later. The appropriate presenting group evaluates the quality of these questions by Friday following their presentation. Questions are graded after rather than before the presentation because the questions may not be appreciated by the presenting group until after class discussion. The grades are sent to Control with a copy to you so that you can monitor the process. Every two weeks peer assessment within reading committees takes place. Check with Control and Communications to ensure that this assessment occurs.

INFORMAL Every organization must meet the social needs of individual members as well as task responsibilities of the organization. Meeting the social or emotional needs for members of XHR1 is your responsibility. Your first assignment is the icebreaker for next week to help XHR1 get to know each other, and to plan and implement a party to take place during class. Talk to Planning and Directing regarding time and length. Make sure everyone knows everyone else by the end of the third week. You have the general responsibility for XHR1 morale, but few specific tasks, which means that you must be creative to show your contribution to XHR1.

MANAGEMENT THEORY Get people to think about theories of organization effectiveness. Open class each day with a memorable quotation relevant to effective management. Explain why this quote is important. You should always be thinking how the theories presented in class relate to practice, and to XHR1. You are responsible for ending class in a significant way. You may do this yourself, or assign another group the task. You oversee the evaluation of the weekly class presentations. You ensure that each group does both qualitative and quantitative evaluations. You may use their comments in your observations on theory. Be sure that the quantitative evaluations are sent to Control and Communications. As you come up with ideas about theory, ask Planning and Directing to give you time on the agenda to discuss these with the class. You are on your own to be creative, and to make unsolicited contributions linking theory to practice.

8 Comments: Just like a work organization, you have loyalty to the group and loyalty to the organization (and you also have to look out for yourself). You must look to both the little picture and the big picture. You cannot be effective by yourself. You have to work with those in your group and with other groups. Some groups have specific assignments; other groups have general assignments. There are advantages and disadvantages to each. The specific assignments may seem to have more work, but it is easier for these groups to receive high evaluations because everyone knows what they do. Groups with fewer specific, less visible assignments may seem to have less work, and may be evaluated lower because they may appear to be doing little. People in low-profile groups must be creative in discovering individual and organization needs that are not being met, and work to meet these needs. This class is more like work than school. You must convince your peers that you are making a contribution to your group and to XHR1. If you aren’t doing much, or if others think you are not doing much, find something worthwhile to do and be sure others are aware of your contribution, or your grade will suffer. The successful young people of the 1980s and 1990s were those who saw opportunities and took risks, perhaps upset some people, did things differently. That will likely be true also in the years ahead. This class offers an opportunity to try crazy ideas. There is a difference between crazy and stupid. A couple of years ago Roger Putzel’s XB class asked him to leave the room, and he did so. They conducted an experiment involving alcohol consumption. The word got back to Putzel; he confronted the class, and those involved faced disciplinary action from the Dean of Students. That was stupid, not crazy. This is not a chemistry, biology, or psych class, and the effects of alcohol are reasonably well-known.

MEMOS In XHR people write a lot of memos. Memos relate directly to the organization’s product, which is learning. The learning cycle of 1-Sensing 2-Reflecting 3-Acting should frame what you write. Emphasis should be on understanding and reflecting on what is observed, and perhaps testing the truth of the reflection by doing. Observing without reflecting is like reciting a grocery list. On the other hand, reflecting without grounding that reflection in sensing (evidence) is wasted hot air. Doing should be connected to observing and understanding to show the practical benefit of theory.

THE FOLLOWING ARE IMPORTANT Evaluation-If you have worked in an organization, you know that you gain recognition in the organization (and therefore good evaluations) by doing your job well. You expand the prominence of your group by doing extra things, going beyond your job description. In XHR each group ranks the effectiveness of each other group. Also, each presenting group ranks the contribution of its members. Just like a real organization, others evaluate you based upon what they think you do. Your reputation is a significant component of your grade. It is more important to impress your peers than to impress the SM. Conflict-Conflict occurs in every organization. Ineffective organizations are consumed by conflict, try to suppress it, or act as if conflict doesn't exist. It’s better to get the conflict out in the open and deal with the underlying issues. Sometimes a facilitator can help, and Mediator has that function for XHR. Secrets in an organization are unhealthy. Learn to disagree without being disagreeable. If you want an easy book to help with this, read the paperback Getting to

9 Yes, by Fisher and Ury. It can’t turn loss into victory, but it can teach you to avoid loss, and to make the best of a situation.

Mentoring: Many organizations, XHR among them, encourage their employees to become involved in public service. Members of XHR will mentor at Green Academy, Inskip, or Sara Moore Greene elementary school for one hour per week, 14 hours in total. Sign in and out at the school each time you mentor. Mentoring involves working with young children individually or in groups. While carrying out the mechanics of assisting the child/ren, you should be attempting to understand each child's obstacles and to find ways to help the child develop skills to overcome those obstacles. You should also be thinking about an appropriate educational policy. Use your management skills to motivate learning. If you wish to sign up for PS-493, directed readings (section #71942), for one hour of credit, you may do so. Completion of your 14 hours of mentoring and turning in acceptable mentoring reflections will earn you an “A” for that one hour. Mentoring is organized and monitored by the Individual Group, and can commence as soon as you receive your mentoring assignment. Students who mentored last semester may return immediately to their prior school. Students will e-mail three reflections on their mentoring experiences to the Individual Group, due 2/25, 3/25, and 4/25. Mentoring reflections are done by individuals. Individual Group comments upon and grades these reflections, keeps them in each student’s file. Grades are sent to Control and Communications. A composite file of reflections and grades is sent to SM by 3/2, 4/2, and 5/1.

Presentations: Know the content of reading assigned by SM and by the presenting group. Understand the principles imbedded in these readings. Expand your resource base by checking other writings on the topic--use the library or Web. Assign readings to the class at least 15 days prior to your presentation. Send it to the Reading group and to Communications for posting on the web, and/or on library reserve. A presenting group will receive questions on the readings from reading committees at least 8 days prior to their presentation. Present principles in ways that teach and maintain the interest of the class members. Be creative in your presentations. Your peers will evaluate how well you do. Respond to the questions from reading committees. Presentations should last one-half hour, unless otherwise arranged (Note: it is difficult to estimate the amount of time a teaching activity will consume. Be sure to have plenty of material, and plan ahead how you will cut, if necessary.) Teaching the material assigned by the SM lowers your grade! Tell us something we don’t know. Engage us in a learning activity. Make it interesting.

Reading Committees: Presenting groups decide the readings, in addition to the assigned material, that they wish to have the reading committees to cover. Reading committees are responsible for reading the text and additional material, then raising issues or questions that arise from the readings that they want the presenting group to address or explain. Reading committees are responsible for sending their comments, issues, and questions to the appropriate presenting group 8 days prior to the assigned presentation day. The quality and usefulness of these reading committee memos are evaluated by the appropriate presenting group.

10 Performance Appraisal: Everyone in an organization, in everything you do, is both cooperating with others and competing with others. You cooperate to get things done, you compete to demonstrate to yourself or others your high level of competence, loyalty, friendship, dedication, or some other virtue. The following are used to assess each person's performance, with weighting indicated: 10% Class and mentoring Attendance 10% Mentoring reflections 20% Presenting group reflection memo, week 2 and each week thereafter 10% Reading committee memos/questions (each week beginning week 4) 10% Presentation assessments – only the second round of these will be graded. 15% Peer assessment among presenting groups every two weeks, commencing week of Jan 27: 11=most helpful to XB; 1=least helpful to XHR 15% Peer assessment by consensus within Presenting groups every two weeks commencing week of Jan 27: X to 1 (from most to least helpful to the group) (X=number of people within the group). 10% Reading committee peer assessment ranking (same process as presentation group)

TO EXCEL IN THIS CLASS/ORGANIZATION YOU MUST CONVINCE OTHERS THAT YOU ARE PERFORMING COMPETENTLY AND SEEKING TO MAKE XHR1 AN EFFECTIVE LEARNING ORGANIZATION. YOU MAY HAVE TO GO BEYOND YOUR JOB DESCRIPTION IN ORDER TO DEMONSTRATE THIS.

Memos are graded 3-2-1: 3=Exceptional, 2=expected, 1=less than expected. No points are awarded if an assignment is not turned in on time. No more than 4 groups can receive the same evaluation. Reasons are given to support each assessment. Weekly group reflection: A reflection on what the group has learned is due Friday Jan 23 and every Friday thereafter. It will be sent to Assessment, which coordinates this activity. Each week a different group will evaluate all memos. Assessors send results back to the authors, to Control, and to Communications to mount on the Web site in an excel file. The assessing group will not write a memo for that week. Reading Committees and Reading committee memos: Reading Committees are appointed by the Staffing and Reading groups to meet during class to discuss the assigned reading and to create questions to hand to the presenting group. Every two weeks there is peer performance ranking. Each reading committee sends to presenting group by Monday 8am its questions, comments, and reflections on the concept to be taught 8 days later. Reading committees are formed prior to Week Two and the questions and comments for week 4 (Feb 3) are due Jan 26. (Presenting groups for weeks two and three will not get questions and comments.) No later than Friday after its presentation, the presenting group assesses the comments and questions received, sending the results to each reading committee and to Readings, Control, and Communications. Remember: In grading reading committee and weekly reflection memos, the grades are 3-2-1-0, and no more than 4 groups can receive the same evaluation. Attendance: Individual group takes attendance within the first half hour and forwards this information to Control and Communications. Individual also takes attendance at the end of class and reports discrepancies to Control.

11 Mentoring reflections: Individual assessment of 3-2-1-0, (no ranking), due 2-25, 3-25, 4- 25. Send your mentoring reflection to Individual. Individual sends qualitative and quantitative evaluations back to each mentor, to Control, to Communications, and SM. Peer Assessment Every two weeks commencing Friday, January 30, each group will rank order the other eleven groups in a single evaluation based upon two criteria: 1-their contribution to the effectiveness of XHR1, and 2-how well the group has contributed to your group’s learning over the past two weeks. Rank the 11 other groups from 11 (outstanding) to 1 (weak). Send this information to Assessment. Every two weeks commencing Friday, January 30, each presenting group and each reading committee conducts an internal peer assessment, rank ordering each member in terms of contribution to the effectiveness of the group and XHR1. Send this ranking to Assessment. (If a group is unable to reach a consensus decision, Mediator will be invited to assist. If Mediator is unable to resolve the issue, staffing will make the decision, which can be appealed to SM.) A FAILURE TO DO TIMELY PEER ASSESSMENT WILL LOWER THE RATING EARNED FROM OTHER GROUPS BY .5 FOR EACH WORKING DAY (M-F) LATE. Bonus points Occasionally, the SM will award bonus points to a group or individual for exceptional service to XB.

WEEKLY ROUTINE ASSIGNMENT DEADLINES: Monday: Reading committees send memos to the appropriate presenting group. Since two groups are likely to be presenting each week, this will mean two memos from each reading committee. The 8-day lead time allows the presenting group sufficient time to respond to issues, comments, and questions, and to adjust their presentation. Friday: Weekly reflection memo due. Readings for class 18 days later must be sent to the Reading group. Groups which presented on Tuesday send their evaluations of reading committee memos to Reading, Control, Communications, and to the groups they came from. Qualitative and quantitative (3,2,1) assessments of the Tuesday presentations are sent to Assessment, Control, Communications, management theory, and the group which presented (second half of semester only). Commencing Jan 30, every two weeks send peer evaluations (individual and group) to Assessment. Assessment calculates the rank of each group, and sends that, along with the individual rankings, to Control and Communications.

Communications mounts grades on the web within 72 hours. Every two weeks Control and Communications reconcile their information and report the situation to SM.

SM learnings from the four previous semesters: Everyone is confused, and confusion diminishes only after struggling to make the organization work. This system shows respect for each student, allowing mistakes at minimal cost; and mistakes provide learning for the entire class. You learn most easily from the mistakes you make. There are a number of effective ways to organize and to behave, and there are some wrong ways. Hiding does not work; if you are invisible, you lose, because a good grade is based upon your becoming known by contributing. I have found that people who articulate opposing positions, while respecting the views of others, are evaluated positively by their peers.

12 Mistakes create some pain, which quickly turns into important learning.

* Calculation of grades from ranks. The top scorer gets the maximum for the category. Every other individual gets a proportional score. For example, if Mary Smith gets 36 on reading committee memos, and the top scorer earned 48, calculate Mary’s grade on reading committee memos as follows: 48/10 = 36/X. X = Mary’s grade out of 10 = 7.5.

13 Troy State University

Using Customer Value to Guide Competitive Higher Education Market Strategies

John E. Dunning, PhD Assistant Professor Department of Public Administration Troy State University

The Situation: Digital technology has transformed the market place Troy State University

The Question: Can you compete with for-profit and out of state universities? Troy State University

The Question: Can you compete with for-profit and out of state universities? Do you have a market strategy? Purpose

To demonstrate the utility of a customer value discipline model to guide competitive market strategies and decisions Observations from the front line:

Not the Coach Not the QB

Just one of the players Approach

• Discuss – The new competitive market place • Conclusions of Three studies – The need for a market strategy • Introduce – The customer value model • Show – Troy State University's experience Preparing for the Revolution: Information Technology and the Future of The Research University (2002)

National Academies Study

Examines the impact of information technologies on the research university and the broader education enterprise

First of Three Studies Conclusions of the Study

• The extraordinary pace will accelerate • Intellectual activities, organization, finances and governing will be transformed • Procrastination is a dangerous course, but avoid making hasty responses to current trends Conclusions of the Study

• Strategies must include: – Ability to assess various courses of action – The opportunity for experimentation – The ability to form alliances with: • Other academic institutions • For-profit organizations • Government organizations The Future of the University in the Digital Age: Testimony to the House Subcommittee on Basic Research

James J. Duderstadt, President Emeritus, The University of Michigan, May 9, 2000

The testimony focuses on the nature of the higher education marketplace as created by digital technology

Second of Three Studies Testimony Recommendations

• Must transform from a faculty centered to a learner centered institution • Must build learning environments that are highly customized and adapt to the needs of the learner • Must be affordable: – The high cost, low productivity paradigm will no longer be tolerated Testimony Recommendations:

• Other themes: – Lifelong learning - the highly partitioned system of education will blend into a seamless web – Diversity - increasing diverse population with diverse needs and goals – Interactive and collaborative learning compatible with the plug and play generation Dancing with the Devil: Information Technology and the New Competition in Higher Education (1999)

Richard N. Katz

The premise of the book is to address the issues around emerging technologies to create programs that can compete with for- profit universities

Third of Three Studies Conclusions (Chapter 5)

• Market forces and technology are converging to deliver many new capabilities – New competition will "cherry pick" offerings that subsidize much of academia • Higher education as a content producer occupies the most potentially profitable niche in this convergence Conclusions (Chapter 5)

• The current advantages that higher education enjoys both in accreditation and reputation may be tenuous – Private industry suppliers have: • Bigger budgets • Better technology • More competitive institutional cultures • More comfort in managing strategic alliances Recommendations (Chapter 5)

• Look to university extension operations as a structural and behavioral model – Have the values, business systems and capabilities • Use a market-sensitive planning based approach Recommendations (Chapter 5)

• The market plan should be three dimensional – The product (discipline & delivery medium) – The market (resident learners, distant learners, degree-program learners, non- degree program learners) – The geographical focus (campus, local, regional, national, global) Recommendations (Chapter 5)

The most important competence is the ability to differentiate among various market niches!

The need for a market strategy Observations from the front line:

If we are to succeed in the competitive market place - why not look at the discipline of market leaders? The Discipline of Market Leaders: Choose Your Customers, Narrow Your Focus, Dominate Your Market

Michael Treacy & Fred Wiersema (1995)

A comprehensive three year study of 80 corporations in 36 markets: Why some achieve market leadership - Why some fail to achieve or sustain market leadership The Discipline of Market Leaders

• The new world of competition: – Different customers buy different kinds of value • Choose your customer - narrow your value focus – As value standards rise, so do customer expectations • You stay ahead only by moving ahead – Producing every improving value requires • A superior, dedicated operating model Dimensions of Customer Value

Cost Benefit Products •Price •Unique features "What we sell" •Reliability •Brand experience

Services •Dependability •Expert advice "How we do •Convenience •Personalized service business" What Consumers Say About Value

Cost Benefit Best Total Cost Best Product "Great prices and "Premium priced, but Products quality" worth it" "A no-hassle firm" "Consumers ask for it by name" Services "Consistency is their middle name Best Total Solution "They are the experts in my business" "Their services are exactly what I need" Customer Value Disciplines

Best Product Product Leadership

Value

Operational Excellence Customer Intimacy

Best Total Cost Best Total Solution Threshold vs. Leadership

Best Product Product Leadership

Product Differentiation

Value Operational Customer Responsive Competence

Operational Excellence Customer Intimacy

Best Total Cost Best Total Solution You Must Choose Only One

• Why? Best Product Product Leadership

Hybrid operations lead to average results: •No clear way to set priorities or resolve conflicts •Allow circumstances to control your destiny •Creates managerial complexity

Operational Excellence Customer Intimacy

Best Cost Best Total Solution Not Choosing = Mediocrity

• Why? Best Product Product Leadership

Different value disciplines require different: •Organizational structures and management systems •Core processes and IT strategy •Organizational culture

Operational Excellence Customer Intimacy

Best Cost Best Total Solution Customer Value Disciplines

Best Product Harley Davidson Product Leadership Nike Sony Disney Mercedes-Benz Intel

Wal-Mart Airborne Express Southwest Airlines Value AT&T Universal Card Nordstrom's Maytag Roadway Logistics Baxter Hospital Supply Operational Excellence Customer Intimacy

Best Cost Best Total Solution Operational Excellence

Culture Disciplined teamwork Process focused Organization Centralized functions High skill at the core Core Product delivery & basic service cycle Processes Build on standard, no frills fixed assets Information Integral to the core processes Technology Aggressively purse new technology Market General population Segment Operational Excellence

Culture Disciplined teamwork Process focused Organization Centralized functions High skill at the core Core Product delivery & basic service cycle Processes Build on standard, no frills fixed assets Information Integral to the core processes Technology Aggressively purse new technology Market General population segmented by Segment (Ed) geography, level/type and delivery Product Leadership

Culture Concept, future driven Experimentation "mind set" Organization Ad-hoc, organic & cellular High skills in loose knit structures Core Invention, commercialization Processes Market exploitation Information Enable cooperation and knowledge Technology management Market Elite group - must have the best Segment regardless of price Product Leadership

Culture Concept, future driven Experimentation "mind set" Organization Ad-hoc, organic & cellular High skills in loose knit structures Core Invention, commercialization Processes Market exploitation Information Enable cooperation and knowledge Technology management Market Elite group - Segmented by income, Segment (Ed) scholarship, legacy Customer Intimacy

Culture Client and field driven Variation: "Have it your way" mindset Organization Entrepreneurial client teams High skills in the field Core Client acquisition and development Processes Solution development Information Linked to customer solutions Technology Knowledge bases built around expertise Market Selected customers based on creating Segment partnerships Customer Intimacy

Culture Client and field driven Variation: "Have it your way" mindset Organization Entrepreneurial client teams High skills in the field Core Client acquisition and development Processes Solution development Information Linked to customer solutions Technology Knowledge bases built around expertise Market Selected customers based on creating Segment (Ed) partnerships, then targeting students Customer Value Disciplines Higher Education Best Product/Premium Price Product Leadership

Value

Operational Excellence Customer Intimacy

Best Total Cost Best Total Solution (Quality & Price) (Partner & Student) Customer Value Disciplines Higher Education Best Product Princeton Harvard Product Leadership Yale Duke Stanford

State Universities Maryland Community Colleges Value Central Michigan For Profits Troy State Saint Leo Operational Excellence Customer Intimacy

Best Total Cost Best Total Solution Customer Value Disciplines

• The value discipline concept can be used: – As an organizational decision tool – To determine market segment – To communicate market strategy – To determine why marketing efforts: • Fail or Succeed Does the Model Work?

Troy State's University College • Market Discipline - Customer Intimacy • Discipline "Inconsistency" – Enrollment Decline • Discipline "Consistency" – Enrollment Growth University College

• Customer Intimacy Discipline – Formed in 1961 to serve the military • Part of education services function • Military determines degrees and delivery • Military and Regional accreditation visits – UC Mission Statement: • Meet the needs of military and government agency civilians, their dependents and • Other adults seeking degrees University College

• Customer Intimacy Marketing Strategy – Select your customers (partners) • Asses their needs • Provide solution • Jointly market to prospective students • Operational Excellence Marketing Strategy – Segment market (geography, degree, delivery) • Target segment based on quality and cost University College

• Atlantic Region – Norfolk & Washington DC Metro Areas • Five graduate degrees • All classes on Military Bases • 40% of students not associated with military – In 2000 enrollments began to decline – In 2001 launched an aggressive marketing campaign University College

• Atlantic Region – Marketing Campaign - Operational Excellence • Radio Spots • Radio Shows "Ask the Expert" • Web based banner ads • Newspaper and magazine ads – Continued Partnership Marketing • Partner publications, information briefings at bases, city departments, and professional association meetings University College

• Atlantic Region Results: – New Student Surveys - • How did you hear about TSU? • All responses based on partnership efforts – Current Status • In class enrollments continue to decline • Most of decline due to on-line enrollments – Conclusion • New marketing campaign not consisted with customer value discipline University College

Graduate - In Class Enrollments

2000 2001 2002 2003 % *Atlantic Region 4423 4137 4039 3407 -.23

*Average of 5 enrollments per student per year University College

• Florida & Southeast Regions – Partnership to form eArmyU (BA/BS) – Partnerships with School Systems (MEd) – Partnerships with Community Colleges (DL) • Graduate DL Center - Troy, AL – World-wide for Military • Marketing Strategy - Customer Intimacy – Partner publications, information briefings, etc. University College

Selected Program Enrolments

2000 2001 2002 2003 % University College 45,356 50,722 53,367 65,461 44 Albany 186 629 741 977 525 eArmyU - 5,234 10,800 12,785 244 Undergraduate DL 1,843 4,775 7,320 9,417 511 Graduate DL 1,923 3,902 4,779 5,876 305 Key Points

• New technology drives the market place: – 8% of the enrollments in 2000 – 43% of the enrollments in 2003 • All growth tied to custom intimacy market discipline • Marketing strategy needs to be consistent with market discipline Conclusions

• Digital technology will transform the higher education market place. • Universities need a competitive market strategy • The discipline of market leaders can apply to universities Conclusions

• The customer value discipline model: – Explains why some efforts succeed while other fail – Can be used as an organizational decision tool – Can easily communicate market strategy to entire organization Troy State University

Using Customer Value to Guide Competitive Higher Education Market Strategies

Thank You! Balancing Outputs and Outcomes: A Survey of MPA Graduates

Karen Evans, Ph.D. and Daniel Lowery, Ph.D. Indiana University Northwest Gary, IN

In Educating Citizens (2003), Anne Colby, Tom Ehrlich, and their colleagues testify in a powerful way to the potential that colleges and universities hold to transform our understanding of citizenship and, indeed, society itself. They note that certain disciplines, including the professional disciplines, have a particular responsibility in this regard, given the nexus between their academic programs and the way in which society is experienced through institutions. Schools of public administration must certainly be included among the professional schools on which this responsibility falls most heavily. Colby, Ehrlich, and their colleagues go on to fault colleges and universities for deficiencies in the way in which program assessments are pursued. They are too often sporadic in nature and rarely encompass espoused outcomes.

In this paper, we discuss the need to assess the effectiveness of MPA programs in general and how the program offered in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs

(SPEA) at Indiana University Northwest (IUN) is now being evaluated. Part of this discussion will relate to a recent change in approach to the MPA adopted by SPEA system- wide. It will also describe the development and administration of a survey of IUN MPA graduates. The survey represents one component of a wide-ranging programmatic assessment that is now underway. Our various efforts have grappled in an intentional way with the question of programmatic outcomes. Although we focus, for the most part, on the rationale for our design and the survey instrument itself, we share a select set of data that was drawn

1 from the initial administration of the survey in order to illustrate its potential as an assessment tool with respect both to program outputs and program outcomes. We begin with a brief review of the literature pertaining to program assessments of this kind. We then describe the development and the design of the survey instrument. This is followed, in turn, by a brief description of the analyses that have been undertaken to date and a preview of other analyses that could be pursued in the future.

Perspectives in MPA Program Evaluation

Although this paper focuses specifically on the development and administration of a survey of MPA graduates in early 2003, our assessment of our MPA program has, in fact, been a multi-year process driven by several factors. This includes, of course, the ongoing need to maintain accreditation with the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and

Administration (NASPAA). Beyond this, however, our work has been motivated by a campus-wide re-prioritization of all graduate and undergraduate programs that was initiated in

2002. Further, in 2003, Dean Astrid Merget initiated a system-wide reassessment of the MPA curriculum in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs, which includes programs located at five campuses.

Our assessment activities have taken several forms. Since August 2001, focused discussions have been conducted in a series of faculty retreats. The issues addressed have included the relationship of our programmatic accreditation process to the Alternative Quality

Improvement Process (AQIP) in which the campus is now participating, the meaning of the term “community of inquiry,” and the nature of scholarly work. The last colloquy drew explicitly on the work of Ernest Boyer (1990). A survey of adjunct faculty satisfaction was

2 administered in December 2001. A survey of undergraduate satisfaction was conducted during the Spring 2002 semester, and the results were subsequently examined in a series of focus groups that were moderated by MPA students under the direction of a faculty member.

The survey of MPA graduates on which this paper is based was conducted in January 2003.

Finally, since the summer of 2003, the faculty has been engaged in a comprehensive reassessment of our MPA curriculum. We have focused specifically on the “competencies” that a graduate requires in order to succeed in his or her career and to make a contribution to society.

As the tools used in the practice of public management change, so must the knowledge, skills, competencies, and approaches of MPA graduates. This is evident in the assessment standards employed in NASPAA accreditation in which technology and ethics are now being given greater emphasis. Because of the importance of NASPAA accreditation to recruitment and retention of both top quality students and faculty, individual MPA programs have maintained consistent core curricula that reflect NASPAA standards (Breaux, Clynch, and Morris, 2003). The value to a program of the NASPAA stamp of approval ensures a periodic revisiting of programs as part of the preliminary self-study for accreditation.

A comparison of program attributes with accreditation standards constitutes one common aspect of MPA reviews in most programs. An effective assessment process, however, requires that these programs be examined from a variety of perspectives. Another approach includes an examination of MPA core courses (i.e., courses required of all students regardless of specialization). This approach has been adopted by Indiana University’s School of Public and Environmental Affairs. The question posed is: “What competencies do our

MPA graduates need in order to engage in successful practice in the public service?” In

3 answering this question, the system-wide School’s policy committee recommended that each campus division evaluate, not so much the course content of the MPA core, but rather the contribution that these courses make to five competencies identified as most significant for today’s practice of public management, namely: globalization; governance; strategic analysis and action; organizational management; and professionalism.

At IUN, the graduate faculty determined that an audit of the core for content was not sufficient. (See also, Roberts and Pavlak, 2002.) A matrix was developed that tracked not only knowledge, which can be equated with substantive course content, but also the skills, abilities, and personal characteristics that are embedded in the program’s goals. This matrix was used to record course content, and, perhaps more importantly, in-class and outside activities and teaching/learning methodologies that contribute to meeting competency goals and the division’s mission. The matrix has served as a jumping off point for faculty discussions about courses and pedagogy that are strengthening our commitments to our students and each other. Although this kind of disclosure can limit the independence of a professor when making major changes in a course, it also contributes a sense of shared responsibility for our students’ outcomes that is rewarding. We are not only becoming a community of scholars, but also facilitating the learning of our students and, ultimately, enhancing the practice of our profession (Newcomer, 2003; Menzel, 2003).

The perspectives described above concentrate on the faculty’s review of the program.

Periodic efforts by faculty to assess and improve the curriculum are necessary, but not sufficient for many reasons. Perhaps the most significant caveat of which we must be mindful is the natural tendency for faculty members to value methods and course components that they feel comfortable using. As change comes to the practice, the methods, and even the

4 substance of some basic courses, must likewise change. We have to be certain that we are not teaching what we have been taught – however long ago – but, rather, that we are up to the challenge of moving with the times and thus teaching what our students need (Fitzpatrick,

2000).

The Survey Instrument

We have learned several lessons while pursuing these various activities, most notably, the need to distinguish in a very clear way between program outputs and program outcomes.

We now recognized that outputs include such traditional measures as units of service (e.g., the number of students enrolled and the number of graduates), conformance to specifications

(e.g., compliance with accreditation standards), and satisfaction. In contrast, outcomes encompass immediate outcomes (i.e., cognitive or affective change), intermediate outcomes

(i.e., behaviors or tangible milestones achieved), and long-term outcomes (i.e., improved life chances or an improved quality of life).

Although we have traditionally measured outputs, including satisfaction, rather than outcomes, our focus on outcomes is appropriate given the transformational nature of MPA programs. Ideally, we do more than issue credentials to practice in the public sector and the nonprofit sector. We employ a transformational technology. When we are truly effective, we transform lives and, in an indirect way through those lives, communities. Our graduates think differently than they otherwise would have thought. Hopefully, they harbor different values and beliefs – for instance, beliefs concerning the nature of leadership, citizenship, and the obligations that attend to public service – than they otherwise would have harbored. To the

5 extent that this is so, they should also perform their duties more capably and more responsibly than they otherwise would have performed them.

As is noted above, we recognized the need to survey our MPA graduates in early

2003. Our last survey had been conducted in June 2000. In pursuing this task, the

Assessment Committee decided to apply at least some of the lessons that we had learned over the course of recent years to the development and administration of a new survey. More specifically, our goals were twofold: first, to expand the number of questions that pertain specifically to satisfaction; and second, to address programmatic outcomes in a more focused manner. We wanted to ensure greater depth with respect to the feedback that we would receive pertaining to satisfaction with our MPA program. At the same time, we wanted to employ the new survey instrument as one of several tools that could be used to assess programmatic outcomes. Admittedly, outcome measures are difficult to attain and evaluate.

However, we felt that even though we would not be likely to identify “perfect” indicators and measures, we could aspire to developing outcome measures that would yield a “good” understanding of where we are and where we need to go (Williams, 2002).

We began with an evaluation of the survey that we used in 2000. Although this instrument focused primarily on satisfaction rather than program outcomes, it provided a solid foundation for a revision. We also reviewed NASPAA’s accreditation criteria and several survey instruments that have been developed in other MPA programs. A survey employed at the University of North Texas proved particularly useful. Unlike some other tools, it focused in a specific way on current job responsibilities and the extent to which the MPA program at the University of North Texas prepares students to meet the job demands that they will experience upon graduation.

6 We then proceeded to develop an instrument that is divided into seven distinct sections: (A) Administration and Support Services Assessment; (B) Teaching/Faculty

Assessment; (C) Curriculum Assessment; (D) Employment; (E) Overall Assessment; (F)

Ongoing Relationship with SPEA; and (G) General Information. In order to facilitate subsequent analysis, likert scales were used in developing most of the questions. [Figure 1]

Sections A through C of the survey pertain specifically to satisfaction. In fact, an hypothesis of sorts is embedded in these first three sections (i.e., satisfaction with our MPA program is a function of satisfaction with the various administrative and support services that we provide, the perceived quality of our pedagogy and overall satisfaction with individual faculty members, and the perceived value of our curriculum). Each of these three dependent variables is “operationalized” or further parsed in the appropriate sections of the survey.

Section D of the survey pertains specifically to programmatic outcomes. In the first two questions, the student is asked to identify the sector of the economy in which he or she is employed and the key responsibilities that are associated with his or her current job. Question three asks whether or not the former student has moved into another job since graduating and, if so, the extent to which the MPA degree contributed to this change. Question four assesses the extent to which the former student believes that an MPA degree better equipped him or her for the skills demands associated with public sector or nonprofit sector work. Question five focuses on the extent to which the graduate has benefited financially from attaining his or her MPA degree. This is followed by a question that addresses the achievement of career goals, which is, in turn, followed by a question that focuses on eleven distinct attributes associated with job satisfaction. Finally, question eight examines the extent to which the former student views his or her work as a form of public service. Together, these several

7 questions address five outcomes that we have long associated with the MPA degree: improved career prospects; a useful skill set; improved earnings potential; greater job satisfaction; and the opportunity to provide public service.

Section E of the survey focuses on overall satisfaction with Indiana University

Northwest’s MPA program. Section F solicits interest in an ongoing relationship with the

School of Public and Environmental Affairs. Finally, section G asks for demographic information that could prove useful in assessing outputs and outcomes involving our student body, which is diverse in terms of ethnicity, age, and professional experience.

The revised survey was administered by mail in January 2003. In all, 245 surveys were mailed to individuals who had graduated from the program since 1995 for whom we had mailing addresses. A total of 55 responses were received, representing a response rate of 22.4 percent. Of the 55 respondents, 31 had graduated from the program in the three-year period that ended in 2002.

Survey Results and Next Steps

As is noted above, many of the questions included on our survey are structured in the form of likert scales. Although the resulting data are ordinal in nature, we followed convention in converting the five values presented to respondents into numerical values (i.e.,

0 for “strongly disagree,” 1 for “disagree,” 2 for “unsure or not applicable,” 3 for “agree,” and

4 for “strongly agree”). The number of graduates who responded to each question, the mean, and the standard deviation for each of the 25 questions that pertain specifically to satisfaction with our MPA program is presented in Figure 2. In Figure 3, the same data are presented in the descending order of the means that were obtained for each question. The most positive

8 response is thus presented first and the least positive response last. A high level of satisfaction is indicated in each of these performance measures.

Frequency tables for each of the outcome measures that were included in section D of the survey are displayed in Figure 4. Again, our analysis of this univariate data suggests that the MPA program at Indiana University Northwest is achieving the generic outcomes that were addressed in the survey. In all, 47.3 percent of the respondents reported that they had changed jobs, presumably to better positions; 88.5 percent indicated that they either agree or strongly agree with the statement that are better equipped for the skill demands that they face;

63 percent noted that they have benefited financially from having an MPA degree; 68.5 percent reported that they have achieved career goals that they would not otherwise have achieved; and 77.4 percent indicated that they either agree or strongly agree with the statement that their work is a form of public service. These results are viewed as quite positive given the fact that 56.4 percent of the respondents had graduated from the program only within the preceding three years.

Section E of the survey included four global assessments of the MPA program at

Indiana University Northwest. In fact, they represent a mix of satisfaction and outcomes measures. These data are presented in the form of frequency tables in Figure 5. Again, the results are quite positive overall.

As is noted above, an hypothesis of sorts is embedded in the first three sections of the survey instrument (i.e., satisfaction with our MPA program is a function of satisfaction with the various administrative and support services that we provide, the perceived quality of our pedagogy and overall satisfaction with individual faculty members, and the perceived value of our curriculum). At this point, however, we have had to forego a statistical analysis of this

9 hypothesis due to the small number of cases included in the sample. A rule of thumb often used in analyses of this kind suggests that the sample should exceed 50 cases plus the number of independent variables multiplied by eight (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1996, p. 132). Even more cases are recommended in the case of stepwise regression, the technique that would clearly be most appropriate in this instance given the large number of variables in the survey that relate in one way or another to satisfaction with our MPA program.

Further analyses should take two forms. First, the results obtained to date can be used to develop questions that can be explored in greater depth in focus groups. Surveys results are not typically amenable to this level of analysis. Second, subsequent administrations of the survey should enable us to conduct more detailed analyses. In effect, we have established a baseline against which the evolving perspectives and prospects of our graduates can be further assessed. It would be useful at some point to compare our results to those obtained for another MPA program as well.

We have described the development and administration of a survey instrument that attempts to address questions pertaining to satisfaction with an MPA program in more depth than is typically employed in surveys of this kind, and which focuses on a set of programmatic outcomes that should pertain to many MPA programs. In effect, we have attempted to achieve a balance between several measures of program outputs and several measures of program outcomes. The results obtained have been positive. Further, the data obtained should provide a foundation for other analyses that should prove equally fruitful.

It is again important to note, however, that this initiative was undertaken as part of a broader reassessment of the MPA program at Indiana University Northwest. It is but one part

10 of an ongoing effort to ensure the viability and the enduring value of our program. It is also important to note that analyses of these kinds are only useful if the results are incorporated in an effective way into planning and other decision-making processes that are undertaken with respect to programs of this kind. Despite these caveats, we trust that the foregoing discussion and analysis will contribute to the broader discussion of programmatic outcomes in which the academic discipline of public administration is now engaged.

11 Figure 1

MPA Alumni Survey School of Public and Environmental Affairs Indiana University Northwest

A. Administrative and Support Services Assessment

1. My MPA classes were scheduled at SD D U/NA A SA convenient times during the week.     2 Courses were scheduled with adequate SD D U/NA A SA frequency during my time in the MPA   program.

3. The MPA program was responsive to SD D U/NA A SA the needs of minority students.  

4. The MPA program was responsive to SD D U/NA A SA the needs of disabled students.  

5. Sexual harassment was not tolerated in SD D U/NA A SA the MPA program.  

6. Racial and ethnic discrimination was not SD D U/NA A SA tolerated in the MPA program.  

7. Information provided about the MPA SD D U/NA A SA program was accurate.  

8. Support personnel in the MPA program SD D U/NA A SA were responsive to inquiries.  

9. Support personnel in the MPA program SD D U/NA A SA were courteous in all transactions.  

B. Teaching/Faculty Assessment

1. Overall, I was satisfied with the follow- ing aspect of faculty performance during my time in IUN’s MPA program.    a. Variety in the points of view that SD D U/NA A SA were presented.  

  b. Well-prepared for class. SD D U/NA A SA      c. A broad range of teaching SD D U/NA A SA methodologies were used.   

d. Knowledge of respective subjects. SD D U/NA A SA  

12   e. Ability to communicate effectively. SD D U/NA A SA      f. Accessibility outside of class. SD D U/NA A SA    g. Opportunity to interact socially. SD D U/NA A SA  

  h. Quality of academic advising. SD D U/NA A SA      i. Quality of career counseling. SD D U/NA A SA   

j. Fairness in grading. SD D U/NA A SA  

k. Opportunities to interact with SD D U/NA A SA practitioners.   

l. Opportunities to participate in SD D U/NA A SA service learning activities.    2. I experienced a high level of consistency SD D U/NA A SA in the quality of teaching exhibited among   the faculty in the MPA program.

3. Overall, the instruction I received in the SD D U/NA A SA MPA program at IUN was of high quality.  

C. Curriculum Assessment

1. I was sufficiently prepared to enter into SD D U/NA A SA the MPA program at IUN.  

If “SD” or “D,” what additional preparation would have been helpful? ______

2. The curriculum of the MPA program at SD D U/NA A SA IUN prepares students for professional   leadership in public and other organiza- tions.

13 3. Check three courses that you found to More Less be more useful than others in IUN’s Courses Useful Useful MPA program. List three courses ______that you found to be less useful. ______

What made the course you identified ______more useful? ______

What could be done to make the ______courses that you identified as less ______useful, more so? ______

More Less Responsibilities Developed Developed 4. Check the two skills that you believe you developed more fully than others Oral Communications ______during your time in the MPA program. Written Communications ______Check two skills that you believe you Quantitative Analysis ______were less successful in developing Computer Applications ______your time in the MPA program. Critical Thinking ______Personal Organization ______Interpersonal Skills ______Teamwork ______Analytic Skills ______Ethical Analysis ______Basic Management ______

14 D. Employment

1. I am currently employed in the following employment category.

___ Federal government ___ Local government ___ Non-healthcare related nonprofit organization ___ Healthcare ___ International organization ___ State government ___ College or university ___ Private business ___ Continuing my education ( _____ degree program at ______) ___ Unemployed and seeking employment ___ Unemployed and not seeking employment ___ Other ( ______)

More Less Responsibilities Critical Critical 2. Check three responsibilities that you Supervision ______believe are more critical than most in Program development ______your current job. Check three responsi- Program implementation ______bilities that are less critical. Program evaluation ______Program management ______Preparing budgets ______Administering budgets ______Research ______Contract management ______Direct service provision ______Personnel management ______Lobbying ______Marketing ______Information management ______Organization design ______

3. Because of my MPA degree, I have a different job than the one I had before I entered IUN’s program. ___ yes ___ no

4. I am better equipped for the skill SD D U/NA A SA demands of the public/nonprofit sector   because I have an MPA degree.

5. I have benefited financially because I SD D U/NA A SA now have an MPA degree.            Before Salary Check the appropriate salary/income Entering Range Current range before entering the MPA program. _____ $55,000 and up _____ Check your current salary/income range _____ $45,000 - $54,999 _____ as well. _____ $35,000 - $44,999 ______$25,000 - $34,999 ______$15,000 - $24,999 ______Less than $15,000 ______Not Employed _____

15 6. My MPA degree has enabled me to SD D U/NA A SA achieve career goals that I would not   have otherwise achieved.

7. I am satisfied with the following aspects of my career.

a. Overall direction of career. SD D U/NA A SA  

b. Work environment. SD D U/NA A SA  

c. Promotional opportunities. SD D U/NA A SA  

d. Salary. SD D U/NA A SA  

e. Job challenge. SD D U/NA A SA  

f. Degree of autonomy. SD D U/NA A SA  

g. Content of work. SD D U/NA A SA  

h. Variety of job tasks. SD D U/NA A SA  

i. Level of responsibility. SD D U/NA A SA  

j. Value to society. SD D U/NA A SA  

k. Prestige. SD D U/NA A SA  

8. I consider the work I have performed SD D U/NA A SA since earning an MPA a form of public   service.

If “A” or “SA,” what aspects of your work ______are service-related or oriented. ______

16 E. Overall Assessment

1. I learned what I expected to learn in SD D U/NA A SA IUN’s MPA program.  

2. Overall, I am satisfied with the education SD D U/NA A SA I received in the MPA program at IUN.  

3. The MPA program at IUN effectively SD D U/NA A SA accomplishes its mission.  

4. I would recommend the MPA program SD D U/NA A SA to others.  

F. Ongoing Relationship with SPEA

1. I would like to receive information SD D U/NA A SA about SPEA on an ongoing basis.  

2. I would like to participate in academic SD D U/NA A SA programs sponsored by SPEA.  

3. I would like to participate in social SD D U/NA A SA events sponsored by SPEA.  

4. I would be willing to share job SD D U/NA A SA announcements from my place of   work with students who are currently enrolled in the MPA program.

5. I would be interested in serving as a SD D U/NA A SA mentor to a student in the MPA program.  

G. General Information (optional)

1. Please check the appropriate items.

___ Minority female ___ Disabled ___ Minority male ___ Not disabled ___ White female ___ White male ___ Under 30 ___ 30 – 39 ___ 40 – 49 ___ 50 – 59 ___ 60 or older

2. I am a graduate of the MPA class of ______.

3. My concentration was ______.

Name: ______Date: ______

Address: ______

17 Figure 2

Descriptive Statistics Pertaining to Satisfaction (in order reflected on the survey)

SD=0;D=1;U/NA=2;S=3;SA=4 N Mean Std. Deviation

A.1. My MPA classes were scheduled at convenient times during the week. 55 3.67 .579 A.2. Courses were scheduled with adequate frequency during my time in the MPA program. 54 3.44 .502

A.3. The MPA program was responsive to the needs of minority students. 55 2.76 .942 A.4. The MPA program was responsive to the needs of disabled students. 55 2.51 .767 A.5. Sexual harassment was not tolerated in the MPA program. 55 3.05 .891 A.6. Racial and ethnic discrimination was not tolerated in the MPA program. 54 3.02 .858 A.7. Information provided about the MPA program was accurate. 55 3.60 .494 A.8. Support personnel in the MPA program were responsive to inquiries. 55 3.56 .501 A.9. Support personnel in the MPA program were courteous in all transactions. 55 3.67 .579

B.1.a. Satisfied with variety in points of view that were presented by faculty. 55 3.42 .629 B.1.b. Satisfied with level of preparation demonstrated by faculty. 54 3.41 .630 B.1.c. Satisfied with range of teaching methodologies employed by faculty. 55 3.35 .775

B.1.d. Satisfied with faculty knowledge of respective subjects. 55 3.56 .601 B.1.e. Satisfied with faculty ability to communicate. 55 3.45 .633 B.1.f. Satisfied with faculty accessibility outside of class. 55 3.35 .751 B.1.g. Satisfied with opportunity to interact socially with faculty. 55 2.98 .913 B.1.h. Satisfied with quality of academic advising. 55 3.42 .658 B.1.i. Satisfied with quality of career counseling. 55 2.62 1.114 B.1.j. Satisfied with fairness in grading. 54 3.31 .748 55 2.98 .913 B.1.k. Satisfied with opportunities to interact with practitioners. 55 2.82 .983 B.1.l. Satisfied with opportunities to participate in service learning.

B.2. I experienced a high level of consistency in the quality of teaching 54 3.35 .649 exhibited among the faculty in the MPA program.

B.3. Overall, the instruction I received in the MPA program at IUN was of high quality. 55 3.58 .599

C.1. I was sufficiently prepared to enter into the MPA program at IUN. 55 3.53 .539 C.2. The curriculum of the MPA program at IUN prepares students for professional leadership in public and other organizations. 55 3.40 .683

18 Figure 3

Descriptive Statistics Pertaining to Satisfaction (arrayed from most positive response to least positive response)

SD=0;D=1;U/NA=2;S=3;SA=4 N Mean Std. Deviation

A.1. My MPA classes were scheduled at convenient times during the week. 55 3.67 .579 A.9. Support personnel in the MPA program were courteous in all transactions. 55 3.67 .579 A.7. Information provided about the MPA program was accurate. 55 3.60 .494 B.3. Overall, the instruction I received in the MPA program at IUN was of high quality. 55 3.58 .599

B.1.d. Satisfied with faculty knowledge of respective subjects. 55 3.56 .601 A.8. Support personnel in the MPA program were responsive to inquiries. 55 3.56 .501 C.1. I was sufficiently prepared to enter into the MPA program at IUN. 55 3.53 .539 B.1.e. Satisfied with faculty ability to communicate. 55 3.45 .633

A.2. Courses were scheduled with adequate frequency during my time in the 54 3.44 .502 MPA program.

B.1.h. Satisfied with quality of academic advising. 55 3.42 .658

B.1.a. Satisfied with variety in points of view that were presented by faculty. 55 3.42 .629

B.1.b. Satisfied with level of preparation demonstrated by faculty. 54 3.41 .630

C.2. The curriculum of the MPA program at IUN prepares students for 55 3.40 .683 professional leadership in public and other organizations.

B.2. I experienced a high level of consistency in the quality of teaching 54 3.35 .649 exhibited among the faculty in the MPA program.

B.1.f. Satisfied with faculty accessibility outside of class. 55 3.35 .751 B.1.c. Satisfied with range of teaching methodologies employed by faculty. 55 3.35 .775 B.1.j. Satisfied with fairness in grading. 54 3.31 .748 A.5. Sexual harassment was not tolerated in the MPA program. 55 3.05 .891

A.6. Racial and ethnic discrimination was not tolerated in the MPA program. 54 3.02 .858

B.1.k. Satisfied with opportunities to interact with practitioners. 55 2.98 .913

B.1.g. Satisfied with opportunity to interact socially with faculty. 55 2.98 .913

B.1.l. Satisfied with opportunities to participate in service learning. 55 2.82 .983

A.3. The MPA program was responsive to the needs of minority students. 55 2.76 .942 B.1.i. Satisfied with quality of career counseling. 55 2.62 1.114 A.4. The MPA program was responsive to the needs of disabled students. 55 2.51 .767 50

19 Figure 4

Frequency Tables Pertaining to Outcome Measures

D.3. Because of the MPA program, I have a different job than the one I had before I entered IUN's MPA program.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid no 28 50.9 51.9 51.9 yes 26 47.3 48.1 100.0 Total 54 98.2 100.0 Missing System 1 1.8 Total 55 100.0

D.4. I am better equipped for the skill demands of the public sector/nonprofit sector because I have an MPA degree.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 21 38.2 40.4 40.4 Agree 25 45.5 48.1 88.5 Unknown/Not Applicable 4 7.3 7.7 96.2 Disagree 2 3.6 3.8 100.0 Total 52 94.5 100.0 Missing System 3 5.5 Total 55 100.0

D.5.a. I have benefited financially because I now have an MPA degree.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 17 30.9 31.5 31.5 Agree 17 30.9 31.5 63.0 Unknown/Not Applicable 6 10.9 11.1 74.1

Disagree 8 14.5 14.8 88.9 Strongly Disagree 6 10.9 11.1 100.0 Total 54 98.2 100.0 Missing System 1 1.8 Total 55 100.0

20 D.6. My MPA degree has enabled me to achieve career goals that I would not have otherwise achieved.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 21 38.2 38.9 38.9 Agree 16 29.1 29.6 68.5 Unknown/Not Applicable 8 14.5 14.8 83.3 Disagree 5 9.1 9.3 92.6 Strongly Disagree 4 7.3 7.4 100.0 Total 54 98.2 100.0 Missing System 1 1.8 Total 55 100.0

D.8. I consider the work I have performed since earning an MPA a form of public service.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 21 38.2 39.6 39.6 Agree 20 36.4 37.7 77.4 Unknown/Not Applicable 10 18.2 18.9 96.2 Disagree 1 1.8 1.9 98.1 Strongly Disagree 1 1.8 1.9 100.0 Total 53 96.4 100.0 Missing System 2 3.6 Total 55 100.0

21 Figure 5

Frequency Tables Pertaining to Global Assessments of MPA Program

E.1. I learned what I expected to learn in IUN's MPA program.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 17 30.9 31.5 31.5 Agree 35 63.6 64.8 96.3 Unknown/Not Applicable 1 1.8 1.9 98.1 Disagree 1 1.8 1.9 100.0 Total 54 98.2 100.0 Missing System 1 1.8 Total 55 100.0

E.2. Overall, I am satisfied with the education I received in the MPA program at IUN.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 27 49.1 49.1 49.1 Agree 26 47.3 47.3 96.4 Unknown/Not Applicable 1 1.8 1.8 98.2

Disagree 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 55 100.0 100.0

E.3. The MPA program at IUN effectively accomplishes its mission.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 23 41.8 41.8 41.8 Agree 28 50.9 50.9 92.7 Unknown/Not Applicable 3 5.5 5.5 98.2

Disagree 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 55 100.0 100.0

E.4. I would recommend the MPA program to others.

Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Valid Strongly Agree 31 56.4 56.4 56.4 Agree 21 38.2 38.2 94.5 Unknown/Not Applicable 2 3.6 3.6 98.2

Strongly 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Disagree Total 55 100.0 100.0

22 References

Boyer, Ernest L. (1990) Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities for the Professoriate. Menlo Park, CA: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

Breaux, David A., Clynch, Edward J., and Morris, John C. (2003) “The Core Curriculum Content of NASPAA-Accredited Programs: Fundamentally Alike or Different?” Journal of Public Administration Education, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 259-273.

Colby, Anne, Ehrlich, Thomas, Beaumont, Elizabeth, and Stephens Jason (2003) Educating Citizens: Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Fitzpatrick, Jody (2000) “What Are Our Goals in Teaching Research Methods to Public Administrators?” Journal of Public Administration Research, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 173-181.

Menzel, Donald C. (2003) “Public Administration as a Profession: Where Do Body and Soul Reside,” Public Integrity, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp.239-249.

Newcomer, Kathryn (2003) “Sustaining and Invigorating MPA Program Communities,” Journal of Public Administration Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 35-38.

Roberts, Gary E. and Pavlak, Tom (2002) “The Design and Implementation of an Integrated Values and Competency-Based MPA Core Curriculum,” Journal of Public Administration Education, Vol.8, No. 2, pp. 115-129.

Tabachnick, Barbara G. and Fidell, Linda S. (1996) Using Multivariate Statistics. NewYork, NY: Harper Collins.

Williams, David G. (2002) “Seeking the Holy Grail: Assessing Outcomes of MPA Programs,” Journal of Public Administration Education, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 45-56.

23 Team-Based Real-Time Case Study Pedagogy:

Teaching and Learning How to Analyze Public Policy Problems

Jo Ann G. Ewalt Chair, Department of Government Eastern Kentucky University [email protected]

Leah Flake Eastern Kentucky University

Brandi Jacobs Eastern Kentucky University

Abby Miarecki Eastern Kentucky University

Prepared for presentation at the Southeast Conference of Teaching Public Administration Conference, February 200October 20034, Savannah, Georgia.Madison, Wisconsin

First Draft Comments Welcome Introduction

MPA programs accredited by the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and

Administration are required to offer courses that address public policy formulation, implementation and evaluation, as well as decision-making and problem solving. The case study method is used in many public administration courses because it permits instructors to challenge students with real-world analysis and decision-making problems. In many instances, however, the cases are hypothetical, or stem from circumstances that existed in the past. This paper explores the benefits to MPA students of using a team approach to analyze a policy issue that is currently being debated in the local community.

In the spring of 2003, while the Lexington-Fayette (Kentucky) Urban County

Government grappled with the question of whether it should condemn and ultimately buy the privately-owned local water utility, students in a graduate course on policy analysis and program evaluation used knowledge, skills and techniques from the course to analyze the same question.

This paper discusses the pedagogical issues of using a “real-time” case study methodology in a team-based course setting. This paper explores the benefits to MPA students of using a team approach to analyze a policy issue that is currently being debated in the local community. Details of the pedagogy are discussed, and the reflections from authors who were student team members offer insights into the merits and limitations of this teaching methodology.

We argue that learning to analyzinge real and emerging policy problems offers students an enhanced opportunity to learn analytical techniques, increases the likelihood that they will master and apply key policy analysis skills, and heightens students’ ability to link classroom work to workplace demands.

1 We begin with a brief description of the water utility case to permit readers to better understand the nature of the course design. We follow with a literature review of student- centered pedagogical techniques such as case studies and team-based learning. We then describe the specific course goals and the class content and assignments related to the water utility problem. We conclude with lessons appropriate for faculty who wish to consider employing similar teaching techniques.

Dr. Ewalt, I took the highlighted exerpt from one of group one’s papers on BB. I have changed it for this purpose. I think Leah was in this group. I’ll have to ask if she’s going to have a problem using this. However, I don’t have Group 3’s intro. From the final paper, and I think that it give a more thorough background of the utility. Let me know if you have the paper. Thank you. Abby Public or Private Ownership? The Case of Lexington’s Water Company.

Clean water is an essential element to any community. As a vital component to the quality of life of citizens, the decision by local governments to acquire water utilities is a common debate within thein today’s public sector. Government officials in Lexington,

Kentucky have recently been faced with such a decision. The city of Lexington has had a privately owned water utility since the 1800s. However, within the past five years two major events have forced the Lexington Fayette Urban County Government (LFUCG), Lexington’s merged city-county government, to examine the possibility of purchasing the private water utility,

Kentucky- American Water Company (KAWC). The two events leading to this situation included the drought that plagued the city in 1999, forcing the city to look for additional sources of water for central Kentucky. The second event was the recent acquisition of American Water

Works, the parent company of KAWC, by the German conglomerate RWE AG. During the

1999 drought, the LFUCG was instrumental in determining additional appropriate sources of water reserves. However, the recent acquisition of the private water company by a large foreign

2 conglomerate has many citizens concerned about the role the local government will have in future decisions regarding the quality and efficiency of the water supply.

The local citizen group supporting public ownership, FLOW (For Local Ownership of

Water), emphasizes that water supply issues impact all citizens in the area, that losing control of the water company could result in loss of jobs, obliteration of state and federal taxes, and that local ownership would create the opportunity to use water utility profits to pay off bonds and improve the county infrastructure. FLOW argues that with government control of the company a system of checks and balances would be easier to establish and the public would benefit from local decisions. Another major issue supporters of condemnation point to is the potential loss to the community of a municipally funded park and golf course that are currently assets of the privately held firm.On September 17, 2001 the RWE, a German utilities provider, announced that it went through a stated agreement with American Water Works to purchase all shares of the company. Upon conclusion of the transaction, American Water Works was merged with the U.S. operations of Thames Water, RWE’s London affiliate, international water services business.

The local constituency that supports public ownership, which is embodied in the local citizens’ group, FLOW (For Local Ownership of Water), makes its case pointing that the issue affects the majority of users in the county, and losing control of the water company could result in loss of jobs, obliteration of state and federal taxes, and the opportunity to use profits to pay off bonds and improve the county organization. It is argued that with government control of the company the system of checks and balances would be easier to be established and the public would benefit from local decisions. Another major issue of support for condemnation of the water utility in Lexington deals with the loss of a municipally funded park and golf course that are currently assets of the privately held firm. In addition, the the group supporting local

3 ownership advocates that public forums, community education and dialogue regarding this issue should be fostered and reinforced to decide the best avenue for LFUCG. .

Additionally, the community as a whole has several concerns regarding the purchase of the water company. As with many international businesses, the cCitizens worry about are anxious as to the level of interest or support the local water company will have as a small part of a huge international conglomerate. such businesses have within local communities. Another concern is the loss of high paying executive positions held by local employees that aid the local economies. Many citizens wonder if RWE will invest in the community or will remove locally- generated profits beand invest themed elsewhere. In addition, because the local water company is now a part of a large international corporation, some citizens worry about Not only are profits a local concern, but the levels ofability of local company officials to make decisions based on their knowledge of the community. Critics of private ownership point to examples where local needs have been ignored by corporate executives. decision making power held by individuals locally compared to those that do not reside within the community allow for greater apprehension by citizens.

On the other side of the debate the group against government control predominantly states that public control of the water company would be inefficient and unstable and the burden of high water costs and lower water quality would fall on the citizen’s shoulders. The group shares the idea that private corporations perform more efficiently in the open marketplace and private corporations are more competitive in essence than public organizations. It also indicates that public management On the other side of the debate, those against government control base their argument on the assumption that public control of the water company would be inefficient

4 and unstable, and that the burden of high water costs and lower water quality would fall on citizens’ shoulders. Advocates of private control contend that private corporations perform more efficiently and are more competitive because of market forces. They also argue that under local government management, needed water infrastructure upgrades would be delayed, and in some cases, would be too expensive for Lexington to pursue despite water rate increases that private control advocates believe are inevitable. Finally, they contend that other critical public services, such as schools and public safety, would suffer because limited resources will be diverted to supporting the water utility. of the water company would not succeed in raising water prices to sustain quality services provided.

The LFUCG is faced with the task of internally assessing the government’s capacity to provide ability of providing the capital necessary to acquire the Kentucky portion of the

American Water Company. Additionally, the level of support by the citizens of Lexington regarding local ownership of the water company must be determined. Ultimately, Thethe local government also has had to decidemust determine whether the public would be better served by allowing the region’s water supply to be controlled by a private entity that is part of an international conglomerate, or by acting to condemn the company and, if condemnation is successful, by implementing public control of the utility. leaving the company within the realm of RWE or continuing to pursue the condemnation case. Until, the accurate value of the company is revealed in the forthcoming valuation report, the city is unable to determine if they are able to financially support this endeavor.

The students were asked to analyze the public policy problem and make a recommendation to the Lexington-Fayette Urban County Council.

5 According to a financial consultant hired by the Urban County Council, Kentucky-

American Water Company is worth between $157.7 million and $352.8 million. The consultant said that the lower of the two numbers is the most precise, and recommended the council to use that number if an offer is made to buy the water utility. If the company could be bought for

$157.7 million, which does not include an estimated $9.7 million needed to purchase Jacobson

Park and Lakeside Golf Course from the utility.

The students were asked to analyze the public policy situation and ultimately recommend to the Lexington-Fayette Urban County Council whether or not to proceed with the condemnation process involved in taking control of the public utility.It should be noted that while students were working on this issue, the valuation report detailing the resources necessary to pursue condemnation and public takeover of the company had not been completed.

(Leah, Brandi and Abby: this section can be very short – a few paragraphs that provide some history and set the scene. You can take it from work done for assignments.)

Pedagogies of Engagement

Case study and team-centered teaching are part of a broader pedagogical methodology that emphasizes known as “student-centered” or “active learning” models of teaching. The argument is that traditional methods of instruction such as lectures and textbook readings produce “fragile and superficial understanding” (Colby et al 2003, pg. 131). Proponents of alternative approaches, sometimes called pedagogies of engagement, say these teaching approachesey can address a wider range of teaching and learning goals that support deeper understanding, application of knowledge and skills, and personal connections with the subject

6 matter (Sax et al 1999). The two active learning techniques emphasized in this classemployed here are problem-based learning (i.e. case studies), and collaborative learning (i.e. team-based learning). The literature on pedagogies of engagement suggests that these teaching methods actively involve students in the learning process, provide them with opportunities to interact with faculty, peers, and relevant outside experts, and enhance students’ content learning, critical thinking, and transfer of learning to new situations (Colby et al 2003; McKeachie et al 1986;

Pascarella and Terenzini 1991; Pederson-Randall 1999).

Colby et al distills the literature on principles of learning as they apply to student- centered teaching. They offer eight central ideas:

1. Learning is active and constructive, and students must struggle with ideas, search for patterns, meanings and new connections to material they already know.

2. Learning that lasts occurs when students are enthusiastic about and interested in what they are learning, and when they can connect to their own present and future goals.

3. In most non-academic settings, thinking and learning are in part social processes involving group work. Interaction, negotiation, comparing and contrasting multiple perspectives, and iterative techniques are some of the activities associated with learning outside the academy.

4. Transfer of knowledge and skills to different contexts is difficult because few skills are truly generic and equally applicable across different situations, and because knowledge and skills are partly shaped by the specific contexts in which they are learned. Nevertheless, knowledge and skill transfer is critical.

5. There are two ways to increase the likelihood of transfer. One is to make the setting in which knowledge and skills are gained more like the setting in which they will be used (a problem for traditional classrooms and modes of instruction that and tend to be decontextualized). The second way is to purposefully and explicitly identify principles that can be applied in multiple settings.

7 6. Students must actually practice the knowledge and skills they are being asked to learn, rather than simply to recall them in some abstract form (such as a paper or a test).

7. Students have different learning strengths and methods. Thus, broadening the array of skills, tasks and modes of learning increases the likelihood that students with different strengths will be able to connect with the work.

8. Genuine understanding is enhanced by the ability to present an idea or skill in more than one way. Learning is enhanced when courses provide students with the opportunity to engage in varied learning models beyond the linguistic and logical/mathematical formats common to higher education and graduate education. (2003 pp. 137-138)

The pedagogy of engagement is not without its critics. As Edmundson notes, the most successful professors are those who have ‘decentered’ their classrooms and emphasize group projects and exchanges among students. He contends that the danger is that although a classroom may be conducive to students exchanging ideas and opinions, this will not necessarily lead to students acquiring a new vocabulary, a new perspective, or new skills (1997). That is why active learning must be designed with specific goals in mind. The pedagogical goals for the course described in this paper have been drawn from the strengths of active learning described in the literature.

Specifically, the major class project and many of the examples used in class were built around a case students often read about often in the local newspaper. As students worked in teams to address the primary policy problem (Should Lexington buy the local water utility?) they observed politicians, community leaders and policy analysts working through the same problem.

In this way, the teaching environment was designed to be active: students were struggling with ideas and with linkages to material they studied. There was no “right” answer that could be automatically determined from the course content.

8 The assigned tasks were designed to be relevant to MPA students’ current or projected needs, and the theory suggests that they should thus be more interested and enthusiastic about the material under study. The instructor theorized that students who were more interested and enthusiastic about the course itself would do better (i.e. learn more) than those who were indifferent to the material.

By asking students to work in groups for most of the case study assignments, students were introduced to learning as a social process. They were forced to negotiate, compromise, compare and contrast different perspectives, improve communication skills, and ultimately, to learn collectively.

MPA programs are designed to impart knowledge and skills that public and nonprofit professionals will use in national, state and local government positions, in nonprofit leadership roles, in policy organizations, and so on. The most important objective of the class design was to facilitate the transfer of skills and knowledge to students’ current or future work environments.

The process of working through the water company case was believedthought to be an effective means of allowing students to understand how policy analysis concepts and theories actually play out in work settings. In other words, they were required to practice the knowledge and skills they were simultaneously being asked to learn.

The variety of tasks assigned in the class (described more fully below) required students to demonstrate a number of different abilities as they mastered the core content. These abilities included communication skills, logic and quantitative thinking, project management, research skills, interview and interpersonal skills, written and oral presentation skills, and applying abstract reasoning to specific contexts. In the process, it was hoped that there would be adequate

9 opportunities for students with different abilities to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in these areas.

Finally, the class was presented using a variety of teaching methods, including lecture, practitioner presentations, student presentations, team problem-solving, and student interviews with stakeholders. In this way, the instructor attempted to present course content in multiple and varied methodologies that were designed to reinforce critical ideas, concepts and skills.

Teaching Case Studies in Public Administration

The broad discipline of policy management and the narrower field of policy analysis have been employing teaching cases since policy schools were established over 30 years ago. Most are modeled after cases long used in business schools (Chetkovich and Kirp 2001), but probably originated at Harvard Law School (Lynn 1999). According to Lynn, a teaching case is “a story, describing or based on actual events and circumstances, that is told with a definite teaching purpose in mind and that rewards careful study and analysis” (1999, pg. 2).

In policy analysis, cases are generally thought to enhance students’ exposure to and acquisition of four key analysis skills: identifying when government action may or may not be appropriate; when government action is appropriate, identifying alternative policy solutions; evaluating government capacity to implement alternative solutions; and evaluating the outcomes of implemented policy (Behn 1993, Lynn 1987). In a critique of cases used in teaching public policy, Chetkovich and Kirp argue that the most frequently used cases from the Kennedy School of Government “define the policy world to be the domain of high-level, lone protagonists beset by hostile political forces; collaborative problem-solving is rare, street-level actors insignificant, and historical, social, and institutional contexts of minimal importance” (2001, p. 283). The public leaders who must make decisions in the case are usually white, male, top-level managers,

10 acting largely independently. Their conclusion is that students may not be well-served by these unrealistic contextual elements as they attempt to translate lessons learned from these cases to their own specific work environments.

In contrast, because students were working on a case that is still evolving, they were able to identify the multiple actors involved in the decision-making process. The historical, social and institutional contexts took center stage as opponents and proponents of public ownership discussed the case in the newspaper and on the nightly news. As described below, students were asked to research the institutional, historical and social contexts of the water company case, and to interview individuals aligned with the water company and with FLOW. The political forces were important but balanced by the fact that there were powerful political, business and community leaders on both sides of the debate.

Table 1 summarizes the pedagogical objectives that the case-studycase study, group- based teaching strategies attempted to achieve. As specific course assignments involving the case study are described below, students will reflect on the extent to which these objectives were facilitated or hampered by the case-studycase study and collaborative learning approaches.

Table 1. Learning Objectives of the Team-Based Case Study Course Design

Pedagogical Objectivess Selected Course Design Elements Interviewing stakeholders. Comparing/contrasting Lexington case with other cities.

Applying policy analysis techniques to the case question. Active Learning.

Demonstration that policy analysts are currently working Relevant material, connected to student goals. on same problem as students.

Learning as a social process. Team-based collaborative assignments.

ApplicationDefinition of specific activities involved in Knowledge and skill transfer. policy Aanalysis to a real public problem.making

11 Demonstration of policy analysis and policy making Practice, application of knowledge and skills. activities through various exercises.

Observing students in group and individual work, and Student assessment through a variety of methods utilizing hands on, case study and aesthetic forms of tailored to different learning styles. exercises.

Reinforcement of key concepts, skills, ideas, through Assessment of individual work, critique of methods used to variety of teaching methods complete projectsUse of lecture, guest speakers, group and individual research, student presentations.

The objectives listed in Table 1 are in a sense “generic” to what we understand about good teaching practices that promote enhanced learning. It is also important to relate these objectives to the specific goals unique to the policy class. Ultimately, students were asked to decide whether government action was appropriate; if deemed appropriate, to identify alternative policy solutions; to examine government capacity to implement policy solutions; and to determine how to evaluate government action. In this way, the instructor was attempting to utilize pedagogies of engagement as a means to help students to master these key policy analysis skills.

(I’m still working on this; appreciate any suggestions, additions, etc.)

Course Design: How the Case was Integrated into the Class

Seventeen students were enrolled in POL 879 Policy Analysis and Program Evaluation.

The water company case was used for the policy analysis portion of the class.1 The purpose of the course iswas described in the syllabus as follows:

1 Required texts for the class included the following: Gupta, D. 2001 Analyzing Public Policy: Concepts, Tools and Techniques. Washington, DC: CQ Press; Hatry, H., J. Marcotte, T. van Houten, and C. Weiss. 1998. Customer Surveys for Agency Managers: What Managers Need to Know. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press; Hatry, H. 1999. Performance Measurement: Getting Results. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press; and Worthen, B., J. Sanders and J. Fitzpatrick. 1997. Program Evaluation: Alternative Approaches and Practical Guidelines. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Students were also encouragedrecommended to readuse Norusis, M. 1999. SPSS Guide to Data Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

12 Policy Analysis and Program Evaluation is a course designed to provide the tools necessary to evaluate the relative impact of alternative public policy approaches, and to evaluate the impact of existing public programs. Statistical tools used in policy analysis are reviewed and will be applied throughout the course. To build a foundation for analyzing policy, students are first introduced to the basic elements of the policy process, as well as to various theoretical models of policy making. Methods of policy analysis, decision-making, and evaluation are then covered. Through case studies and exercises, students will have the opportunity to enhance their policy analysis and evaluation skills. Through major class projects, students will demonstrate their analytical skills.

Course objectives noted in the syllabus included the following geared specifically toward policy analysis:

1. UTo understand the basic elements/processes of public policy making. This is intended to increase awareness of how public policies are being made and the politics and the actors involved in the process. 2. To bBecome aware of the different models of policy making and their underlying assumptions. 3. To uUnderstand the differences between policy making and policy analysis. 4. To lLearn and apply various conceptual, information gathering and analytical skills required for public policy analysis (e.g. survey and cost- benefit analysis, discounting, forecasting, cost effectiveness, different evaluation techniques). 5. To uUnderstand the different philosophies/frames of reference (i.e. welfare economics, public choice, social structure, information processing, political philosophy) underlying the use of different methods and techniques of policy analysis. 6. To aAssume the role of policy analysts through engaging in several experiential exercises.

Students were purposely assigned to one of three groups. The instructor knew that three students2 had studied the water issue in a previous community development course, and these students were placed in different groups.

The assessment of group projects was also designed to enhance the learning objectives.

Group assessment was described to students as follows:

2 These students are the co-authors of this paper.

13 Each group will collectively make the decision of how to assign points within the Formatted: Font: Italic group for the major and minor project.

How will the group collectively make these grading decisions? First, I strongly advise each group to choose a leader, and to assume that the leader will, if he or she does a good job, earn more points than others. What should the leader do? Organize the group’s approach to assignments, stay on top of all team members’ contributions to the overall project, synthesize, tabulate, delegate, and in other ways “administer” the team’s performance. If more than one person wants to be leader, that can work too; simply decide who will lead for various parts of the project. It has been my experience that individuals cannot get away with being free riders when they know their colleagues will decide how much their contribution to the whole is worth. On the other hand, it has also been my experience that some individuals will “decide” what grade they can live with and they work toward that grade. Those who strive for excellence will demonstrate that to the group, and those who are content to be average or mediocre will demonstrate that. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5", First line: 0", Right: 0.5", Line spacing: single Secondly, the fact that the group must assign the final grade distribution for group projects means that the group must communicate effectively throughout the course. If someone is consistently less productive than the group as a whole requires or would like, the group must make this clear to the individual.

Students were asked to complete sixeight assignments related to the water company case. Formatted: Left

The assignments are described below, and the student authors students in the three class groups reflect on the nature of the assignments and the extent to which objectives presented in Table 1 were achieved.

(Here’s where you need to insert, edit, etc. I’ve put down the basic Formatted: Font: Bold assignment as best I could)

Assignment 1: Group Assignment: Overview of the policy problem

Summary of the assignment: Students were asked to research the water company ownership question and write a one-page briefing document suitable for distribution to city

14 council members outlining the specific issues that must be resolved and the arguments being articulated by various stakeholders. Pedagogical objective: thinking/learning as social process. Content objective: begin to determine if government action is appropriate.

One of the three groups that made up this class decided to tackle the assignment in a different manner than the other two. In this particular groupThis was an assignment where, each group member researched and wrote the basic theme of the issues, . Each group member then wrote a wrote a summary, and sent theose summaryies to a point person for compilation into .

Thise point person , in turn, compiled the information into a concise one-page document.

Although, a small number of the group members were familiar with the subject matter, bBy asking having each member to do his or her own research, on their own, each member waswas all students in the group were able to locate future resources that would be usefulin turn be used for later assignments. The other

Ttwo of the groups completed this assignment by allowingasking the one student with knowledge of the the person with the most experience in dealing with the issue to to draft an overview to be edited of the issue for suggestions and revisions by the by the rest of theother members of their group members.

The purpose of this assignment was to give all students a basic understanding of the issues and to begin to develop an understanding of the impact of various policy options. regarding the policy issue as well as its potential outcome it would have on the citizens of

Lexington. Although not graded, the assignment gave the group a crash course in working as a team, as well as becoming acquainted with the subject in a short amount of time.

At this point, These two groups completed the assignment in this way due to the urgency of the assignment’sits completion. Luckily, Dr. Ewalt placed the three students who had dealt with this issue in a previous semester’s work into three different groups. The two groups who chose to proceed with the initial assignment in this way disseminated the information they had previously collected. to the students with less experience regarding the issue.

15 Thesethe groups then established aa point system for fair distribution of grade points. points to the members who would interject the most time and effort. At this point, it was made clear within tTwo of the groups decided to allow each member to have a chance to take the lead in at least one project assignment throughout the semester, and to split the points evenly among the members. Both groups determined that this would be the best way to foster found this to be an integral part of understanding the cooperation from all members needed to successfully complete the class. On the other hand, one group decided to award its points according the work put forth by each member individually, as determined when examined comprehensively at the end of the semester. Most of the students in this class had already experienced in-class group work prior to the group assignments; this component made working together that much easier.

Formatted: Font: Bold The purpose of this assignment was to give all students a basic understanding

regarding the policy issue as well as its potential outcome it would have on the citizens of

Lexington. Although not graded, the assignment gave the group a crash course in working

as a team, as well as becoming acquainted with the subject in a short amount of time.

Assignment 2:: Group Assignment. Stakeholder Interviews

Summary of the assignment: Each group is t omuswillt contactinterviewed at least one Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5" representative from each on both sides of the Water Company debate to ascertain . Questions to ask these representatives include (but are not limited to...) 1. Hhow do they defined the policy problem. Questions included:; ? 2. Wwhat are the major issues tomust be resolved; d? 3. Wwhat do they respondents believe is "the public interest" with regard to resolving this issue (i.e. ? In other words, whatthe evaluation criteria such as should we use to decide the issue? Aaccess, ?Eefficiency, (low cost)? Hhealth concerns, ?Eenvironmental track record of the parent company?, Bbusiness stability, and so on); and? 4. Wwhat data or information do they believe it is important to consider in answering the policy question

16 Pedagogical objectives: active, constructive learning; thinking/learning as social process. Content objectives: Begin to determine if government action is appropriate; begin to develop alternative policy solutions. Students were reminded that n, Should Lexington own and operate its water supply? Tthese individuals will present their side of the debate, but that the students you should remain neutral and not "take sides." You are merely in the process of gathering data to analyze the issues.

Each of the three groups had a similar approach to completing this assignment. All of the groups created aA list of contacts, covering each stakeholder group in the debate was created, and group members were and assigned to contact various informants. divided the informants up amongst the team. The members of each group initially tried to contact those stakeholders they had identified. One group experienced significant difficulty in reaching , however, found this to be extremely difficult due to the lack of response they were getting from these very busy, influential peoplelocal leaders and quickly decided to abandon its assigned contact list and allow students . The group then decided that to have all groupof the members should try to talk to any stakeholders they could reach. (not just the ones closest to the issue) they could regarding thise topic. Students in this group were struck by the apparent Due to the problems of communication, the group quickly learned an understanding of the apathy of some leading citizens show regarding this major publicpolicy issue,s and learned first-hand of the difficulty of qualitative data-gathering involving elites. to get busy public policy experts time for comments on an issue.

TStudents in this group found they were most successful in obtaining interviews when they framed their approach to stakeholders in ways that allowed respondents to promote their partisan view. The group also believes that in working together to overcome the initial reluctance of some stakeholders to be interviewed, group dynamics were enhanced.he group also learned how to work together to overcome such problems in critical situations. The group also learned that it is

17 important to frame the issue of concern in terms that will interest or affect the groups you are interviewing.

Some of the key stakeholders in dealing with the Lexington water privatization issue that the groups contacted included the following: the president of the Citizens Against Government

Takeover organization, the director of the Regional Planning Group, a local journalist that covered the water debate for the Lexington Herald-Leader, members of the pro-takeover group

FLOW, organization For Local Ownership of the Water Company, a representative from the

Lexington Chamber of Commerce, and, and various many othersLexington political leaders.

Once the stakeholders were interviewed most groups found that the opinion on the issue was split fairly equally and that each side had valid arguments for their case.

The interviews taught these groups how to locate and interview key informants within the community. Additionally, the interviews provided the group members with the opportunity to place a face with a side of the issue. This allowed the students to understand the emotions tied to the issue. rather than reading articles and editorials written in the local paper. In addition, the assignment helped the students to gain skills to conduct a professional interview and to make contacts with key community leaders and public administration officials.

Formatted: Font: Bold Formatted: Centered AAssignment 3: Group Assignment: Policy Memo for the Mayor Formatted: Font: Bold, Italic

Summary of the assignment: Part 1- . Using the research completed at this point, students Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5" were asked to write a brief Take the information you learned from the interviews that your group conducted, and write a BRIEF policy memo for the mayor of Lexington that defined addresses the policy issues and outlined the major arguments of proponents and critics of public ownership of the water utility. questions you asked your contacts. You have two objectives here: be sure the mayor understands the answers to these policy questions; and be sure she understands the major differences between those for and those against the government purchase of the water company.

18 Students were also given statistics reporting an environmental rating for 100 companies, including the utility’s parent company RWE, and were asked to decide if RWE’s environmental score was significantly lower than average, as proponents of government takeover were asserting. The exercise required students to calculate and report Z scores and confidence intervals, and to include their analysis in the Mayor’s policy memo. Pedagogical Objectives: Thinking/learning as a social process; knowledge/skill transfer; Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5" apply principles in multiple settings. Content Objectives: Identify alternative policy solutions, evaluate government capacity to implement policy solutions.Part 2-There is an environmental group that assigns “environmentally friendly” scores to all companies that own and run water utilities. The scores run from 0 to 100. The average score for all companies is 79, with a standard deviation of 5 and an n = 100. The company that runs the Lexington water supply, RWE, has been assigned an environmental score of 77. The FLOW folks say this shows RWE’s environmental record is terrible. The folks who oppose the government buying the water company say no, this shows RWE’s record is really no different that the average of all similar companies. Who is correct? (hint: in addition to whatever statistical tool you use to analyze this, you WILL want to compute confidence intervals).

The first component of this assignment required individuals in the class to write a succinct yet informative memo for an executive. At first, students in each group found it was intimidating for all of the students in the class to write a memo geared for an political leader executive due to their limited experience in composing such documents. This assignment required students to practice and apply their understanding of policy issues, as well as their mastery of statistical tools. It also showed students that writing a policy memo is quite a different task than writing a thesis or executive summary in which they usually have more experience.

Also bBy placing emphasizings a communication form less common to the classroom but very common in real work settings, and by designating the mayor as the recipient, on writing the memo for the Lexington mayor, students gained experience in both policy analysis and professional communications. learned that professionalism was of the utmost importance. As a result, it was crucial for all students in the class to utilize their communication skills to make the memo as readable and concise as possible.

19 The end result of this assignment was a memo worthy of an executive in a decision making position. This assignment helped all of the groups learn that effective introduction of a policy issue to key public administrators is an important component in the decision-making process dealing with public policy. The memo assignment also taught students that it is extremely important for public administrators to give the most accurate and concise information to elected officials so that they can make the most informed decision. This is because the elected officials are the ones accountable to the public for decisions made regarding public policy.

The second component of the assignment forced the students to use the statistical tools that we were studying at that time to make our decision. By forcing us to use such tools in a “real time” setting and not simply questions in a text, more emphasis was placed on the future MPAs having a full understanding of statistical applicationsformulas. This part of the assignment also helped students to review some of the skills they had learned in previous semesters and apply them to policy analysis.

The second part of this assignment also helped the students in the class realize that there are many different methods for making a public policy decisions. Some of these methods are more substantive and deal with the analysis of “real life” case study situations and others are more quantitative which deal with data and analysis of statistical models. The collaboration of this assignment and the next assignment dealing with case studies helped all of the students to learn that both are effective methods to use when analyzing public policy.

2. There is an environmental group that assigns “environmentally friendly” scores to all companies that own and run water utilities. The scores run from 0 to 100. The average score for all companies is 79, with a standard deviation of 5 and an n = 100. The company that runs the

20 Lexington water supply, RWE, has been assigned an environmental score of 77. The FLOW folks say this shows RWE’s environmental record is terrible. The folks who oppose the government buying the water company say no, this shows RWE’s record is really no different that the average of all similar companies. Who is correct? (hint: in addition to whatever statistical tool you use to analyze this, you WILL want to compute confidence intervals). (ABBY, LEAH

AND BRANDI: YOU MAY OR MAY NOT WANT TO INCLUDE THIS….)

Assignment 4: Group Assignment: Case Study Formatted: Font: Bold

Summary of the assignment: Groups were asked to Due Thursday February 20th: Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5" Choose research one a city that has recently made a decision to purchase its water utility, ANDas well as a one city that has recently chosen not to purchase (or has made a decision to privatize or sell) its water utility. Students were told to Treat treat theis assignment as a case study, and do thecomplete the following analysis:

-- C contrast the legal, socio-economic, historical, fiscal,  political and public opinion environments facing the two cities; .;

-- Ddescribe in specific terms the factors that led the cities to make the decision they did with respect to their water utility. ; -- Ddescribe the major stakeholders and  their role in the decision.;

-- Mmake comparisons between the two cities in yourthe case study and the environment facing Lexington. ; and Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5" --Ddraw conclusions  based on theyour case study research regarding the applicability of theyour findings to the Lexington case. How similar or different are conditions in Lexington? Are there lessons learned in analyzing the case study cities that can be applied in Lexington? Why or why not? Hint: Be sure you use the information you have already collected to inform your discussion of the Lexington case.

Students were then asked to assume the role of the Lexington mayor’s executive management team, and to write up the assignment This assignment is to be written in the form of a report addressed to the mayorr of Lexington. Consider the group to be her executive management team. in a fFormat is as follows that included a brief cover memo, a 1-page executive summary, a 5 to ten page report, and appendix with data, charts and graphs.Each group was then asked to

21 assume the role of the Lexington mayor’s executive management team, and to write up the assignment in the form of a report addressed to the mayor in a format that included a brief cover memo, a 1-page executive summary, a 5 to ten page report, and appendix with data, charts and graphs. Pedagogical objectives: Variety of teaching methods and assignments; active, constructive learning; thinking/learning as social process; knowledge/skill transfer; apply principles in multiple settings. Content objectives: determine if government action is appropriate; identify alternative policy solutions; examine government capacity to implement solutions.:

1. A VERY BRIEF cover memo; 2. A 1-page executive summary; 3. Report of findings: as long as necessary but suggest between 5 and 10 pages; and 4. Appendix with data and charts/graphs if necessary. The purpose of this assignment was to strengthen the research skills of students in the class while teaching them of alternative solutions to the water privatization debate. This assignment also helped the students in the class ascertainunderstand how these differentvarious policy solutions have impacted the communities where they were implemented. This was the first big project in which the teams had to collaborate and make important decisions. Each group seemed to use the same idea to complete this assignment, which was to divide the assignmentir group into parts and assign each members one part to researchto specific components. Once all research was completed the components were sent to a point person who was responsible for creating a compare and contrast of the informationcomparing and contrasting the cases with

Lexington. The toughest decision was to determine which was the appropriate model for the

LFUCG to follow; once the group decided collectively which format was most appropriate the point person was able to mesh all of the information easily.

Due to the division of the work into components that each group member was to complete and compile into one document, oOne group found it extremely difficult to find a time andor place to work collaboratively that was easily accessible to all members. This is a common problem in some graduate school programs because many of these students work full-time and/or

22 do not live in one general location. Therefore, it is difficult for these students to get together for group work outside of class. Due to this group’s difficulty, they contacted Dr. Ewalt for possible solutions. Dr. EwaltThe instructor suggested utilizing the discussion board available in

Blackboard to facilitate on-line collaboration. a new technology that allowed group discussion via the Internet. The technology was called a Discussion Board and it allowed us to post our component parts for all group members to view and discuss. It was the first time that many members of this group had used thissuch technology and we found it so helpful that we continued to utilize it throughout rest of the assignments for the class. In this way, the group learned of the importance of utilizing new technologies to save time and become more efficient in the analysis of public policy issues. This was an important lesson learned in light of the busy schedules of many influential public administrators and elected officials that we discovered in previous assignments.

Because the students in the class had to complete the rather lengthy case study analysis in a short, realistic time frame, the assignment seemed overwhelming at first. Despite this, each group was able to complete apulled through with a rather thorough document. The realistic time frame given to complete this assignment also helped students to understand that many times an important piece of policy-making research must be concisely and quickly completed. Students also learned more about the context in which cities are implementing various policy solutions regarding public and private ownership of water utilities. from this assignment that there were many alternative solutions that cities were using to the water privatization issue.

Formatted: Font: Bold

Assignment 5: Group Assignment: Literature Review

Summary of the assignment: Each group will pThe assignment required the groups to Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5" prepare a literature review on privatization of public services, and then to review literature

23 specific to the question of privatizing water utilities. The literature you review will discuss the general issue of privatizing public services, and will then discuss the specific case of water utilities. This review wasis designed to give youstudents a very specific understandingbetter understanding of when and why governments privatize, why governments privatize, and the conditions under which privatizing is likely to be successful, and the conditions under which privatizing is likely to cause problems, and will help to answer those general questions for water company privatization. There will be more general privatization literature than literature specifically related to water utilities. Pedagogical objectives: relevant to student needs; thinking/learning as social process; Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5", Line knowledge/skill transfer. spacing: single Content objectives: determine if government action appropriate, identify alternative policy solutions, examine government capacity to implement policy solutions.

Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5"

The literature you review will be found in major newspapers, in applied publications such as

Governing Magazine, and in scholarly public administration and public policy publications.

See "Course Documents" for tips on conducting and writing the literature review.

All of the groups in the class attackedEach group approached this assignment in basically the same way. The different components of the literature review were divided among group members who felt that they were competent in finishing it accurately as well as in a timely manner. The groups each also had a point person whose job it was to merge all of the members’ contributionsthoughts into one document.

Of all assignments this was the most frustrating for most group members, in part because the point person was uncertain as to how to piece together the all of the literary ffindings.

Despite this, the groups all worked together fairly well on this assignment. The structure of each group, as established by Dr. Ewaltthe instructor, also helped the students to complete the assignment by including diversity and different experience levels within each group. Some expert members in the groupsGroup members who were in-service students already working in

24 the field of public administration and had some experience with this type of assignment and were able to help the other less experienced students achieve a higher level of learning.

One benefit to the process of completing the literature review was that each group member was able to learn what the current trends were regarding privatization andin the public sector. This task gave all of us a great deal of insight into the issue and expanded our knowledge and experience with policy -type research applications. The assignment also gave students hands on experience with one of the most important components to policy analysis – the literature review. In addition, the literature review introduced many usstudents with limited experience to public administration periodicals and scholarly literaturejournals we had not used before. We also learned how to read suchthis literature with a critical eye searching for key details that were unbiased and related to the issue under consideration. This was truly a defining point in the semester where many students began to realizelearn that the world of policy-making is very complex and that policy analysis is difficult to fit into most times is not just a semester-long project.

Formatted: Font: Bold

Assignment 6: Individual and Group Assignment: FLOW Presentation

Summary of the assignment: Former Lexington Mayor Joe Graves and a staff member of Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5" FLOW addressed students and faculty during an open forum on the issue of local ownership of Lexington’s water company. Each student was assigned to write at least five questions for the speakers. Each group was then assigned to compile five questions. group is to come to class Thursday 4/10 with at least 5 well-reasoned, articulate, relevant questions to ask the FLOW speaker (whom I believe is (former)Mayorformer) Mayor Joe Graves. In addition, each STUDENT is to hand in, at the beginning of class, his or her questions. This means that regardless of whether your group has decided to include your question(s) in its Group list of questions, you must hand in an individual list of questions. I expect that each student will have at least one well-reasoned, articulate, relevant question to turn in at the beginning of class.

To recap: Due on Thursday at the beginning of class:

1. Each group will turn in a list of at least 5 questions. Worth 20 points. Extra credit will NOT be

25 given for turning in more than 5 questions, so spend your time on quality, not quantity.

2. Each student will turn in his or her question(s). You must turn in at least one question. Worth 5 points. Here also, quality means more than quantity.

Criteria: Students were told that questions Your questions should reflect yourtheir knowledge of the local situation; and of your knowledge of experiences in other locations, as well as their ; your understanding of the literature on local ownership and privatization. Students were expected to participate in the question and answer portion of the presentations. Pedagogical objectives: active, constructive learning; variety of teaching and learning methods; knowledge/skill transfer; apply principles in multiple settings. Content Objectives: examine if government action is appropriate; identify alternative policy solutions.

They should not be so lengthy that the respondent will have trouble remembering all the parts of the question. They should be such that the answer will add to our understanding of the issues.

Most of the groups composed their list of questions for the FLOW speaker by allowing each member come up with one or two informed questions on the issue from what they had learned up to this point. Once this was done, the groups each chose the five best questions to turn infor the list to turn into Dr. Ewalt. Many students, including some from each group, asked their questions at pertinent times during the presentation to gather more information on the subject and to better understand the speakers’ arguments the speaker was discussing.

This assignment built upon the student’s ability to interview key informants. During the presentation, the class had the ability to participate with to critically analyze what was being saida critical eye and ear. , and studentsThe class challenged the presenter’s’ research methods and bias inof reporting data. Many students found it that it was fascinating to watch how presenters handled difficult questions and to observe the pro-public take-over group FLOW .

Also, students learned that it was interesting to see how the members of an interest group such as

For Local Ownership of the Water Company, playedplaying on the audience’s emotions with

26 fear tactics by showing misleading data that is misleading and reveals the current owner as running a less than efficient utility. As a result of this assignment, each student was able to sharpen critical thinking and listening skills as well as to identify flaws in public policy arguments. A key to the success of the assignment was students’ realization that they were beginning to think like policy analysts, and to evaluate competing policy claims.

GUYS: you’ll want to talk about this presentation and the fact that (I hope) you were able to critically analyze the speakers’ policy points and identify weaknesses, etc.

Assignment 7 & 8: Oral presentation and Written Report Formatted: Font: Bold

Summary of the assignments: The final assignments dealing with the water privatization Formatted: Font: Italic issue in Lexington waswere the oral presentation and written report that summarized the Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5", Line student’s’ work throughout the semester. Each group was to organize a Power Point spacing: single presentation as well as a paper that explained the policy problem, outlined the process of policy decision-making, and madeto reveal the recommendations tohat each group would suggest for the mayor of Lexington to follow based on what theystudents learned throughout the semester. Pedagogical Objectives: active, constructive learning; relevant to student needs, goals; Formatted: Line spacing: single thinking/learning as social process; variety of learning methods; knowledge/skill transfer; apply principles in multiple settings. Content Objectives: determine if government action is appropriate; identify alternative policy solutions; examine government capacity to implement policy solutions; evaluate government action. Formatted: Font: Italic Formatted: Font: Italic By this stage in the course, all of the groups had gained a great deal of experience in the ability to divide tasks and work in a cooperative environment. Each person was responsible for correcting any previous assignments that would be used as components of the final report and the highlights that would be used in the Power Point presentation. Additionally, some groups held

27 strategy meetings to determine what the recommendations would be made to the Mayor based on research conducted throughout the course,Theresa Issacs. As a result of the semester’s work, each member of the three groups had evaluateddiscovered valid arguments for either side of this issueand against public ownership. Once the text was finalized the pieces were sent to a point person who formatted the document into a professional quality report and presentation.

Even though there was a high level of stress involved with the meshing of the written project from the five individuals in each group, the reports turned out relatively well. When it came to the oral presentations however, twosome of the groups appeared to ignore the admonition to act as neutral policy analysts. Instead of merely presenting the evidence for their policy recommendations, they conducted themselves more like policy advocates attempting to preach and persuade. interjected a little bias into their conclusion of the issue. Instead of leading the audience to the recommendation, the message seemed to be preached with persuasion. After hearing comments from peers and the instructor, these students soon understood the need lead policy makers to a decision based on fact rather than not emotion, and of the importance toof remaining neutral in a professional setting. such as in the field of public administration.

In addition, students learned key lessons about giving an executive oral report to groups of experts in the subject material. Because the students were speaking to knowledgeable individuals knowledgeable abouton the subject, each had to make sure that they knew their information thoroughly and were prepared to answer in depth questions regarding the issue. If the students were not fully prepared, public policy executives would not take them seriously and their recommendations may be disregarded as a result. The final assignment also taught students that there is always room for improvement when dealing with policy recommendations to elected officials.Assignment 8: Written Report

28 Formatted: Font: Bold

Conclusions and, Lessons Learned I’ll need to see what you guys do before I can draft this.

Overall, the teaching methods Dr. Ewalt used in this class were unlike any most of the students had experienced in other PA classes. the methods many of the public administration students had ever experienced. Each assignment , as structured by our professor, built on the previous task; making it easy for ourthe class to understand the process and the steps involved with policy analysis. By the latter portion of the semester, the students were able to determine step-by-step how one addressesanalyzes and , reports ,on and answers a policy issue.

Assignments five through eight, in particular, allowed students to fullyactually become policy analysts. As a result, the majority of students enrolled in this class have now become comfortable undertaking such tasks in the workplace with confidence.

Additionally, the professor did an excellent job of bringing everyone in this class to a level playing field by diversifying the groups with members of varying experience levels.

Everyone participated, and students with more experience in certain areas took the lead for those portions of the assignment. for the most part, when they had more experience on a certain subject than the other members of the group. The method of assigning grades in this class was also found to be effective. Dr. Ewalt allowed the members of each group to assign points among themselves based on the level of participation that each felt the others had throughout the semester. This grading strategy corrected for the problems of free riders and inactive group members.

This course proved to be one of the most challenging courses many students in the class had ever taken, for many reasons. One such reason was that all students were able to further

29 develop their strengths and better understand their weaknesses. The class also challenged students to learn and apply important public policy skills through the completion of each assignment. AlthoughThough we were intimidated by a few assignments, the ability to ask the professor questions and receive advice greatly helped each group through the semester. Every person that took thisEach student in the class gained both skills and knowledge that were applied to a real policy problem, and most students ultimately found they were actively engaged in tasks that would be directly relevant on the job. came out with a diverse experience that gave them the opportunity to participate in a process that they will be using frequently out in the field, public policy analysis.

The assignments given in the class also effectively integrated pulled together the statistical tools the knowledge acquired in the statistical section ofa research methods course all students took the previous semester. and forced each group to use the skills they learned to present an effective policy recommendation. Although some students complained that the expectations from the professor were too high, the hands on experience with a real life case study was an effective method of teaching public policy analysisundeniably brought all of our future careers one step closer to being realized.

Truly, the students in this class felt as if they were able to learn more than they could have ever imagined.by studying cases or completing textbook exercises. In general, the instructor’s pedagogical goals were achieved, and most students believed the teaching methodology contributed to enhanced learning. Assignments were seen as relevant to workplace requirements, and most students gained the ability to transfer the principles and skills developed through the class to the policy problem.

30 Most policy analysis content goals were achieved. However, because the valuation report detailing the resources needed to condemn the water company was not available during the course of the work, students were not able to fully examine Lexington’s capacity to convert the company to public ownership. In addition, since the local government did not make a decision regarding the purchase of the company during the semester, it was not possible to evaluate the government action.

Although, the class experienced there were moments of frustration, and confusion and high stress, which are common in today’s workplace, most students in the groups now feel prepared to handle difficult policy and or program analysis problems. According to the student authors, Through the challenge that this class presented, we were able to learn more than we would have studying case studies written in a textbook. Tthe end result has been the achievement of turned out to be what they believe should be the goal of every public administration course: should be, students who are prepared to function as the policy analysts and public sector executives of the future.

31 References

Behn, R. 1993.”Case Analysis Research and Managerial Effectiveness: Learning How to Lead Organizations Up Sand Dunes.” In Public Management: The State of the Art, ed. Barry Bozeman. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chetkovich, C. and D. Kirp. 2001. “Cases and Controversies: How Novitiates are Trained to Be Masters of the Public Policy Universe.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 2: 283-314.

Colby, A., T. Ehrlich, E.Beaumont, and J.Stephens. 2003. Educating Citizens: Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.

Edmundson, J. 1997. “On the Uses of a Liberal Education; I. As Lite Entertainment for Bored College Students.” Harper’s Magazine. 295, No. 1768. September.

Lynn, L. E., Jr. 1987. Managing Public Policy. Boston: Little, Brown, Inc.

Lynn, L. E, Jr. 1999. Teaching and Learning with Cases: A Guidebook. Chappaqua, New York: Seven Bridges Press, LLC.

McKeachie, W. J., P. Pintrich, L. Yi-Guang, and D. Smith. 1986. Teaching and Learning in the College Classroom: A Review of the Research Literature. Ann Arbor: Regents of the University of Michigan.

Pascarella, E. and P. Terenzini. 1991. How College Affects Students: Finings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pederson-Randall, P. 1999. The Effects of Active Versus Passive Teaching Methods on University Students’ Achievement and Satisfaction. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 1014A.

Sax, Lawrence J. 1999. “Citizenship development and the American College Student.” In Civic Responsibility and Higher Education, ed. Thomas Ehrlich. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

1 A MODEL OF OUTREACH AND PARTNERSHIP: OHIO’S CPM PROGRAM

Jerri Killian Wright State University

and

Vera Vogelsang-Coombs Cleveland State University

Presented at the Teaching Public Administration Conference Madison, WI February 12-14, 2004 ABSTRACT

This essay describes Ohio’s implementation of the Certified Public Manager (CPM) program through academic outreach, and the infrastructure that allows public managers across the state to build capacity for world class leadership and management. More specifically, this essay describes the rationale for choosing to implement the CPM program in the state of Ohio, the partnership between Ohio’s Department of Administrative Services and twelve state universities to facilitate program development and delivery, the infrastructure for regional delivery of the statewide CPM program, the program governance and implementation structure, the Ohio CPM curriculum, and lessons learned to date.

1 INTRODUCTION

World class regions are those that compete successfully in the global economy. When regions are economically competitive, citizens can prosper and communities can thrive. The globalization of markets, the internationalization of the U.S. economy, and the telecommunications revolution have significantly increased the rate of change in recent decades.

Opportunities and threats that may enable or disable regional competitiveness are inherently embedded in public administration. Thus, the professional competence of public sector employees may appreciably influence regional economic viability.

This essay describes Ohio’s implementation of the Certified Public Manager (CPM) program and the infrastructure that allows public managers across the state to build capacity for world class leadership and management.1 More specifically, this essay describes the rationale for choosing to implement the CPM program in the state of Ohio, the partnership between Ohio’s

Department of Administrative Services and twelve state universities to facilitate program development and delivery, the infrastructure for regional delivery of the statewide CPM program, the program governance and implementation structure, the Ohio CPM curriculum, and lessons learned to date.

As a confederation of public jurisdictions, the national CPM Consortium uses a practical training approach and a comprehensive curriculum known as the CPM model. This model blends management theory and sound administrative practices into a two-year curriculum that includes formal testing, collaborative exercises, and job-related applications. The Consortium encourages members to develop partnerships with higher education and has established rigorous standards that must be met to obtain and maintain program accreditation (National CPM Consortium,

2 2004). Within this framework, each state has the flexibility to adapt the generic CPM model to fit the professional development needs of public managers in its state. On June 2, 2000, the national

CPM Consortium accredited Ohio’s CPM Program, making it the nineteenth state to achieve this special distinction.

WHY CPM?

World class regions require public leadership. In these challenging times, state and local governments are under pressure to develop and enhance their leadership and managerial capacity.

Because of this pressure, the training of public managers emerged as a policy issue in the state of

Ohio in 1993, when the Ohio Commission on Public Service published its report, “Preparing

State and Local Government for the 21st Century.” Highlighting the need for innovative leadership and management, this report recommended increased use of practical training to upgrade the professional performance capacity of Ohio’s public managers and their organizations.

A motivated public management workforce that can successfully lead in the global environment is an indispensable element of world class regions (Peirce et. al, 1993). The need to adapt Ohio’s public organizations to the demands of a global economy became a statewide policy priority in 1997. In that year, then-Governor Voinovich authorized Ohio to become an active member of the National Certified Public Manager (CPM) Consortium which, in effect, established a statewide mandate for the CPM Program in Ohio.

Four assumptions underpin Ohio’s decision to adopt the CPM training model. First, the

CPM model has an established track record in successfully facilitating the development of public managers (Paddock, 1997). Twenty states have received national CPM accreditation since 1979

3 and additional states are becoming members of the CPM Consortium each year. Given the

4 availability of the national CPM model, the state’s public management training initiative could be implemented in a relatively short period of time.

Second, the CPM model is a special form of adult education based on constructivist learning theory (Vogelsang-Coombs, 1999). Its emphasis is on job-related training (Hays and Duke, 1996:

431) which is particularly useful for enhancing in-service public managers’ capacity to lead in these dynamic times. Research shows that both academic education and practice-based learning are necessary to inform public managers; one does not substitute for the other. Especially during turbulent times, managers require continuous learning that includes cognitive processing of information to facilitate the development of managerial competencies required of and acquired from practical experience (Kotter, 1995; Vanagunas, 2000).

Third, the CPM program aims to develop generalist competencies. By implementing the

CPM model, public managers from a variety of specializations are exposed to important concepts and applications in administrative law, human resources, customer service, strategic planning, verbal and written communication skills, project management, decision making, financial management, ethics, leadership, and budgeting, to name a few. Exposure to such topics spans across organizational and jurisdictional boundaries, thus making the CPM program equally relevant for state and local government employees.

Fourth, adopting and tailoring the standardized CPM model was perceived as an efficient and cost effective means to address the development needs of public managers throughout Ohio.

An analysis of U.S. Census data in 1998 revealed that 44,000 people in Ohio held public management positions. Found in every region of the state, each of these public managers could potentially take advantage of and benefit from the Ohio CPM program.

5 The responsibility for ensuring availability of public management development programs in this state falls under the authority of the Ohio Department of Administrative Services (DAS).2

Through its Office of Training and Development, DAS provides consultation, education, organizational development, and training services aimed at creating a competent, professional, and employable public workforce. However, DAS managers realized this organization could not service such a large, geographically dispersed CPM audience by itself. Therefore, Ohio’s state universities were asked to assist DAS with statewide program development and implementation.

IMPLEMENTATION THROUGH OHIO’S STATE UNIVERSITIES

State universities in Ohio have a long tradition of community outreach (Sweet, 1992). Two networks of state universities authorized by the Ohio Board of Regents (OBOR) are uniquely positioned to support a wide range of outreach efforts and to assist DAS with developing and delivering the statewide CPM program. First, the Urban University Program (UUP) funds collaborative efforts undertaken by the eight state universities in Ohio’s urban areas. The UUP receives annual legislative appropriations to conduct research, identify problems, and propose solutions to enhance the vitality of Ohio’s urban regions and distressed inner cities. It implements its mission through linked Centers of Excellence at Cleveland State University, Kent State

University, Ohio State University, the University of Akron, the University of Cincinnati, the

University of Toledo, Wright State University, and Youngstown State University.

Second, the Rural University Program (RUP) is a similar consortium that, through separate annual legislative appropriations, funds collaborative efforts undertaken by the four state universities in Ohio’s rural areas. Linked Centers of Excellence at Ohio, Bowling Green State,

Miami, and Shawnee State Universities allow the RUP to achieve its mission.

6 For more than two decades, the UUP and RUP consortia have accomplished much in urban and rural outreach. They have provided applied research, policy leadership and program development, but given their separate funding appropriations, the two university networks had historically operated in a parallel fashion. Thus, the decision to implement the CPM model statewide stimulated the UUP and the RUP universities to collaborate across networks and around a common interest — leadership and management training to improve public service. In

1998, the UUP and RUP networks voluntarily joined with DAS to implement the Ohio CPM program. This voluntary association provided DAS with access to twelve state universities, facilitated collaboration among these universities, and provided public managers in all eighty- eight counties of the state access to the statewide CPM program.

Representatives from DAS, UUP, and RUP formed a project team to implement the Ohio

CPM program. This project team had a two-fold mission. First, the team sought to develop CPM curriculum tailored to the needs of Ohio’s public managers. Second, the team sought ways to create an infrastructure to deliver this program in each of the five regions of the state. Between

1998 and 2000, $710,000 was allocated to the CPM program to cover the costs of performing regional needs assessments, planning and designing the curriculum prototype, prototype implementation, program accreditation, marketing, and recruitment. This funding and a very dedicated project team enabled Ohio to earn national accreditation for its CPM program within two years of beginning this project.

AN INFRASTRUCTURE FOR REGIONAL SERVICE DELIVERY

The Ohio CPM program utilizes a unique regional infrastructure for collaborative service delivery. Key representatives from DAS, UUP, and RUP crafted six basic agreements to

7 formalize

8 this infrastructure and provide a basis for operationalizing their partnership. These six agreements are described below:

1. Ohio CPM Program Regions: The Ohio CPM program is organized into five regions as designated by the Ohio Board of Regents: Northeast, Northwest, Central, Southeast, and

Southwest Ohio. State universities in these five regions have agreed to voluntarily combine their resources with those of DAS to deliver the CPM program throughout the state. The remaining seven state universities, some of which participate in CPM program activities, work through the academic institution designated as the lead site for that region, as identified in Figure 1 below.

The lead sites are alternatively referred to as CPM university partners.

Figure 1 Regional Infrastructure

Statewide Program Management Ohio Dept. of Administrative Services

NE NW Central SE SW Region Region Region Region Region Cleveland Bowling Ohio State Ohio Univ. Wright State Univ. Green Univ. State Univ. (UUP) Univ. (UUP) (RUP) (UUP)

2. Letter of Intent: Each university partner must document internal support for the Ohio

CPM Program. Four signatures are necessary for this agreement: the institution’s CPM Site

Manager, the director of the respective UUP or RUP Center of Excellence, the director of the

MPA degree program (if one exists), and a senior academic officer, typically the provost of the respective institution. The provost’s signature signifies institutional endorsement of the Ohio

9 CPM program. The other signatures formalize a commitment of people to collaborate, despite their locations within separate university domains.

Each region has an identified CPM Site Manager, employed by the lead site for that region, who is responsible for regional program administration. The responsibilities of the Site Managers include regional program marketing, recruiting regional participants, recruiting regional instructors, financial management, facility arrangements, workshop scheduling, active participation in CPM program governance and delivery committees, and all other administrative responsibilities associated with delivering a quality program within that region while adhering to the policies and procedures collectively determined by the statewide Partners’ Committee.

Instructors in each region are selected from a wide range of practitioners, academics, and consultants who possess relevant content expertise and experience with teaching adult learners.

Interestingly, each of the UUP and RUP partners house the Ohio CPM program in different university locations. The Leadership Programs of Cleveland State University’s Department of

Urban Studies houses CPM, where it is associated with the MPA Program. Bowling Green State

University has placed the Ohio CPM program within their division of Continuing Education and

The John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy is its home at Ohio State

University. Ohio University houses CPM within its Institute of Local Government

Administration and Rural Administration, whereas Wright State University has placed the CPM program in its Center for Urban and Public Affairs. This institutional diversity allows the Ohio

CPM program to draw on a full range of academic and outreach resources in creative ways unique to each regional lead site.

3. Market Analysis: The third agreement obligates each of the UUP and RUP regional lead

10 sites to conduct research prior to implementing the Ohio CPM program to determine if a market

11 exists for the program within their respective regions. In 2000, the UUP partners in the Northeast region designed and utilized a survey instrument specifically for this purpose (Vogelsang-

Coombs, 2000). This instrument was made available to all other regions in the state and the

Northeast regional study was subsequently replicated, with minor adjustments to the survey instrument, in the Southwest and Northwest regions. Findings from these regional studies echo

Hays and Duke’s (1996: 431) observation that public managers, though interested in management training, had little awareness of the existence of CPM certification.

Several strategies have been utilized since 2000 to overcome this initial lack of awareness concerning the availability of the Ohio CPM program. For example, Site Managers have created and mailed brochures and flyers to the target populations within their regions, attended meetings of regional city councils and city managers, and several university partners have established regional CPM councils which aid in advertising the program and recruiting managers from local agencies and special districts within their regions. In addition, statewide efforts to increase awareness, primarily performed by DAS personnel, include communication with the Ohio

City/County Manager Association as well as the directors of state government agencies in Ohio.

4. Standardized Program: This agreement standardizes the delivery and administration of the Ohio CPM program throughout the state. By signing this agreement, university partners agree to deliver the program’s common curriculum. The state owns the Ohio CPM curriculum (unless prohibited by contract or copyright), and each university-based, regional Site Manager has access to it. This common curriculum facilitates statewide program uniformity, while allowing instructors the flexibility to incorporate issues of regional interest into their delivery of the workshop materials. In addition, the university partners agree to accept a standardized rate of

12 compensation

13 for workshop instructors, examination graders, and project advisors.3 Similarly, they agree to charge the same participant fees for the Ohio CPM program workshops statewide.4

These agreements have produced a single, statewide program design while simultaneously promoting flexibility and institutional collaboration.

5. Administration: The fifth agreement concerns a common administrative infrastructure.

Each regional lead site agrees to create a common sequence of workshop offerings, follow uniform administrative procedures, and report identical program-related information to DAS on a periodic basis. By having a common administrative structure, participants can enroll in Ohio

CPM workshops offered anywhere in the state. Accordingly, the admissions, registration, and record-keeping functions for all regions are centralized within DAS. In contrast, program delivery, financial management, and recruitment of regional participants and instructors are decentralized to each of the lead university sites.

6. Funding structure: Legislative funds for the Ohio CPM program are intended to support statewide program objectives and are managed by DAS. On an annual basis, each regional lead site agrees to perform activities in support of statewide program objectives, a portion of the legislative allotment is designated for that site, and the site receives funding as that work is carried out. In addition, regional lead sites invoice and process payments for workshop fees, contract with and compensate instructors, provide all workshop-related materials and supplies to instructors and participants, provide facilities and equipment for workshop delivery, and assume financial responsibility for all other tasks required to successfully manage the CPM program within their respective regions.

14 7. Technology Enhancements: Through an allocation from the Ohio Board of Regents, efforts are underway to link the Ohio CPM program with sites in city halls and county courthouses via electronic technology. Because the characteristics of the standardized CPM curriculum are compatible with distance education (Vogelsang-Coombs, 1999; deLeon and

Killian, 2000), public managers throughout the state will be able to participate in those Ohio

CPM workshops designed for electronic delivery. The Ohio CPM workshops entitled “Ethics and

Integrity” 5 and “Government in Ohio” were first offered electronically utilizing asynchronous delivery in 2002.6 As is typical with online learning, some participants enjoy the electronic experience while others prefer face-to-face interaction. Today, Ohio CPM participants may choose to complete the two aforementioned workshops in the distance or the traditional format.

PROGRAM GOVERNANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION

Together, DAS and the university partners have created a unified CPM program delivered regionally to an intergovernmental audience of public managers across the state (see Figure 2).

Within the governance and implementation structure, DAS is responsible for statewide program policy oversight and program administration. As such, DAS serves as the clearinghouse for all program applicants to ensure they meet eligibility requirements for admission to the CPM program, verify the granting of released time for state managers who enroll or teach in the program, and assign accepted applicants to specific regional cohorts commensurate with their area of residence or employment. DAS is also responsible for recruiting managers from state government, maintaining the Ohio CPM website, archiving statewide program information and documentation, and coordinating regional program initiatives to prevent redundancies of effort.

15 FIGURE 2 GOVERNANCE and IMPLEMENTATION STRUCTURE

OCPM POLICY AUTHORITY Ohio Department of Administrative Services

OCPM PROGRAM ADVISORY BOARD

OCPM PROGRAM MANAGER (DAS)

OCPM PARTNERS’ COMMITTEE UUP PARTNERS REGIONAL DELIVERY NETWORKS RUP PARTNERS

NE Region NW Region Central Region SE Region SW Region Site Manager Site Manager Site Manager Site Manager Site Manager (UUP) (RUP) (UUP) (RUP) (UUP)

16 In keeping with an accreditation requirement set forth by the national CPM Consortium, an advisory board was established for Ohio’s CPM program. Its responsibilities are to advocate for the program, guide long-range planning, vote on proposed program changes, and assist in statewide marketing efforts. Chaired by the Director of DAS, this board has seventeen members drawn from the UUP-RUP partners, DAS, state and local government agencies, the Governor’s office, professional associations, and program alumni.

Governance of regional delivery is vested in the Partners’ Committee, comprised of the Ohio

CPM Program Manager (housed in DAS) and the UUP-RUP representatives who manage the regional sites. This committee meets twice per year to formally coordinate marketing initiatives in each of their respective regions; address standardized administrative policies and procedures; discuss recruiting and hiring of instructors, project advisors, and exam graders; assess the program curriculum and learning objectives; and provide feedback on program implementation.

The partners additionally meet once per quarter to address on-going issues related to program design and implementation. Of course, email messages and telephone calls occur frequently among the partners as a normal part of conducting CPM business. We are happy to report that while regional differences do occur, cooperation, collaboration, and information sharing are the operating norms for members of this committee.

Public managers enrolled in the Ohio CPM program progress through their certification in cohorts based at one of the regional sites. Between September 1998 and December 2003, the

Ohio CPM program has included 16 cohorts operating in four active regional sites, with an additional three cohorts scheduled to start at various times in 2004 (OCPM website, 2004). As of

17 this writing, a total of 383 participants have enrolled in the Ohio CPM program and 180 participants have graduated.

The Central region, which includes the state capital and has the largest number of state employees, enrolls approximately 70 percent of program participants with as many as 6 cohorts operating simultaneously. The Northeast and Southwest regions, both largely comprised of local government employees, have graduated a combined total of three cohorts to date and consistently have one or two cohorts operating in each region at any point in time. The Southeast and

Northwest regions, rural areas with small local governments, are faced with limited demand and severe fiscal constraints. And while the Southeast region has successfully graduated two small cohorts and currently has a third operating cohort, program startup has been delayed indefinitely in the Northwest region. When this fifth site becomes operational, the Ohio CPM program will reach managers in every region of the state.

As of this date, 12 percent of Ohio CPM participants are managers of color and 42 percent are women. The overwhelming majority of Ohio CPM participants are employed in state government (82%), with the remaining 18 percent split evenly between county and municipal government agencies. We are pleased to report that while city and county governments across the nation are dealing with serious financial constraints, CPM enrollment from these sources has not declined in the five years the program has been offered in our state. Continued interest in and commitment to the CPM program at all levels of government clearly demonstrate the need for and dedication to professional development to improve the capacity of public service in Ohio.

18 THE OHIO CPM CURRICULUM

In September 1998, the Partners’ Committee decided to begin developing the Ohio CPM curriculum prototype in Columbus, the state capital and home to the largest number of state employees. The curriculum was designed simultaneously as workshops were delivered, using the first cohort of public managers as “design partners.” This committee developed the program’s prototype curriculum using four key strategies.

First, off-the-shelf management courses, such as the Leadership Practices Inventory (Kouzes and Posner, 2003) were purchased for immediate use. Second, several key instructors were certified to deliver specific instruments and tools, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

(MBTI, 1999), which require such certification. Third, state experts, such as the Ohio Ethics

Commission, were recruited to develop and deliver selected workshops in their respective areas of oversight. Fourth, a collaborative instructional design process was utilized to bring content experts (faculty members, practitioners, and consultants) together with curriculum designers to produce standardized sets of workshop materials. These materials, available in hard copy and on

CD ROM, included a template of participant handouts, overhead slides, and other visual aids necessary for classroom delivery, as well as instructor manuals that contain delivery notes and teaching guides.

As of this writing, all CPM workshops have undergone this instructional design process and been revised for enhancement. Furthermore, every Ohio CPM workshop is part of an electronic curriculum library maintained by DAS personnel. This electronic library is made available to

CPM administrators across the state to ensure consistency of instructional content, enhance delivery, and facilitate sufficiently addressing the learning objectives for each workshop.

19 Exceeding the national CPM Consortium’s standards, the committee designed a curriculum prototype that covered more than 400 hours of practical training. To graduate, Ohio CPM program participants must meet the national requirement of completing a minimum of 300 program hours. Ohio’s curriculum was initially developed with 274 required hours spread across four conceptual skill areas and 130 hours of electives. In addition to the required workshops, at least 26 hours of electives were to be completed by each participant to meet the program requirements for graduation.

Oversight of the Ohio CPM curriculum today rests with a Curriculum Committee, whose members are drawn from members of the Partners’ Committee. The Curriculum Committee monitors the effectiveness of the curriculum by utilizing indicators consistent with Kirkpatrick’s

(1996) four evaluative dimensions: reaction, knowledge, learning transfer and on-the-job application, and organizational results. Evaluations of the Ohio CPM curriculum are formally conducted on an annual basis and informal evaluations of selected workshops are performed at the quarterly meetings of the Curriculum Committee. Results of these periodic evaluations shape and inform continuous curriculum improvements.

For example, in 2003, the Curriculum Committee realized that offering such a wide number of electives was neither necessary nor cost effective as limited demand for some workshops and additional costs required to manage such flexibility were realized. Input from program alumni, regional employers, and regional Site Managers helped to identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities most needed and valued by Ohio’s public sector. This data was presented by the

Curriculum Committee to the Partners’ Committee, who in turn presented it to the Ohio CPM

20 Advisory Board. The decision was made by all parties to revise the program curriculum, including the elimination of all electives, to include 300 hours of required workshops.

Brief descriptions of the four conceptual learning areas in the Ohio CPM program (general administration skills; technical, quantitative, and qualitative skills; analytical and conceptual skills; and human relations skills), and four additional categories of Ohio CPM requirements are described in Appendix A. Appendix B identifies the 44 workshops comprising the 300 Ohio

CPM program hours within their respective areas of learning.

LESSONS LEARNED

There are seven important lessons that can be drawn from our experience with the Ohio

CPM program. First, cooperation among Ohio’s state universities has transcended the usual rivalries found in higher education. Responsibility for developing public managers across our state is simply too much to ask of any single entity. Development of the Ohio CPM curriculum, the prototype and revised versions, involve input from academics, practitioners, and consultants.

The unique perspectives and insights offered by these individuals combine to blend theory with practical application in relevant and meaningful ways for program participants. Moreover, regional service delivery by state universities has brought together diverse people who would otherwise likely operate autonomously within their institutional boundaries. Thus, the Ohio CPM program has, in effect, reduced competitive tensions inherent in the academic and outreach missions of the state universities. In easing these conflicts, Ohio has maximized public investments that typically remain in separate functional spheres.

Second, the university partners have realized increased capacity for serving their publics. For

21 example, through lending its assessment center expertise to the Ohio CPM program, Kent State

22 University (KSU) has become a recognized leader in using assessments for career development throughout Ohio’s public sector. This expands significantly KSU’s traditional role of using assessments for hiring and promoting public safety managers.

In addition, through working on electronic delivery of CPM curriculum, staff and faculty members at Cleveland State University, Wright State University, and Ohio University have enhanced their knowledge of distance education. This enhanced expertise is being applied to expand the nature and number of academic courses offered online within their respective academic programs and will help satisfy a priority of the Ohio Board of Regents to increase the use of technology in higher education.

Moreover, the mix of municipal, county, and state government employees enrolled in Ohio’s

CPM program inherently expand the professional networks of regional Site Managers, program instructors, and program participants alike. These expanded networks have resulted in new job opportunities for program participants, consulting opportunities for instructors, and community outreach projects for the universities with whom the Site Managers are affiliated. While providing affiliated faculty members greater access to conduct applied research, public managers gain opportunities to contribute to the creation of new knowledge and practical management tools (Miller and Vogelsang-Coombs, 1998). Thus, implementation of the Ohio CPM program has reinforced state mandates while leveraging regional resources to improve public service.

Third, through its CPM program, Ohio has aided in overcoming the theory-practice gap in public administration. The blending of public administration theory and public management practice is exemplified by the awarding of academic credits to Ohio CPM graduates interested in pursuing an MPA degree at Cleveland State University, Ohio University, or Wright State

23 University. Wright State also awards academic credit to CPM graduates pursuing an Urban

Affairs undergraduate degree with a concentration in Public Administration. These agreements enhance the value of the lesser known CPM certification by linking it with the established credibility and wide recognition of the aforementioned academic degrees (Hays and Duke, 1996).

The MPA degree is reported to have a very low level of in-service penetration compared with other professional degrees, such as the MBA (Hays and Duke, 1996: 431). Linkages between relevant academic degrees and Ohio’s CPM program also extend the reach of academic programs to potential students. Indeed, both Cleveland State and Wright State Universities have enrolled graduates of the CPM program into their respective academic programs.

Fourth, by targeting an intergovernmental audience, the Ohio CPM program has helped to socialize state, county, and local participants toward the realization that they are part of the same profession — public management. The reality for most public managers is that they are expected to perform in accordance with the norms of their respective agencies and jurisdictions. The Ohio

CPM curriculum promotes open exchanges of ideas, experiences, approaches, and solutions to problems commonly shared by employees in city, county, and state government alike. By learning, experiencing, and sharing together, intergovernmental CPM participants better comprehend the value of public service, gain new insights and perspectives on problems and their possible solutions, challenge each other to “think outside the box,” and frequently realize a renewed sense of commitment to making a positive difference through public management.

Fifth, a professional development fund was established by DAS in 2000 to incent exempt employees in state government to pursue professional growth opportunities. Qualified employees may draw up to $1,500 per fiscal year, with managerial approval, to pay for fees associated with

24 participation in development training programs (such as CPM) and academic programs relevant to their careers. In 2003, DAS also included the Ohio CPM credential in the state’s merit system as a qualification for managerial promotion. These efforts validate the usefulness of the CPM program throughout Ohio and aid in recruiting program participants.

Sixth, the Ohio CPM program has evolved through the phases of conceptualization, design, prototype, and startup implementation. The program today may be described as operating within a state of dynamic maintenance. Consequently, within the past nine months, the statewide

Program Manager and three of the original Site Managers have voluntarily assumed new challenges and passed their CPM responsibilities on to colleagues within their respective organizations. It is a testament to this original cast of CPM players that the program continues to grow without their diligent efforts. Establishing and documenting the program’s policies, processes, procedures, curriculum, and learning objectives facilitated a smooth transition in each case of changing personnel. Nonetheless, the continued dedication of CPM Program and Site

Managers will be essential for the future success of Ohio’s CPM program.

Finally, we realize that the future of public management development in Ohio should not rest solely with state government, with state universities, or even the partnership between these two entities. Rather, experiences drawn from accredited CPM programs in other states suggest that responsibility for the future of the CPM program should rest primarily in the hands of program alumni (Vanagunas, 2000). Newly minted Certified Public Managers are eligible to join the Ohio Society of Certified Public Managers, a voluntary group of alumni which brings certified managers from across the state together through networking, annual conferences, and forums. Its affiliation with the American Academy of Certified Public Managers allows Ohio’s

25 program

26 graduates to interact with their counterparts from across the nation. As the numbers of Ohio CPM alumni increase, the Ohio CPM Society will grow larger and enhance its capacity to influence the future of Ohio’s CPM program. Today, CPM program alumni are represented on the statewide

Advisory Board and frequently provide input at the partners’ meetings. By assuming these roles in program governance and implementation, Ohio’s Certified Public Managers are becoming more responsible for their own professionalization. We sincerely hope that Ohio CPM alumni will, as Hays and Duke predict, ultimately become a “powerful force” for professionalizing and positively affecting the field of public management (1996: 430).

CONCLUSION

This essay has focused on how state government and regional networks of state universities have positioned Ohio to create a world class cadre of public managers through Ohio Certified

Public Manager program. The collaboration of DAS and the UUP-RUP partners in governance and implementation has established a standardized program for public managers throughout the state to pursue continuous learning for professional development. The collaborative infrastructure has provided strong links between state government and state universities, state universities and their regional communities, and public managers and state universities located in their regions.

Inter-institutional collaboration among participating universities has also been realized through the creative program infrastructure. Through incentives, the State of Ohio has reinforced the idea that world class leadership and management in public service requires continuous learning. And through regional CPM program implementation, participating state universities have expanded their institutional capacity for addressing the professional development needs of regional

27 audiences, expanded their potential for increased academic enrollment, and enhanced understanding of and capacity for addressing regional problems.

Ohio’s destiny for global competitiveness rests in its regions. As products of the CPM program, Ohio’s Certified Public Managers possess the ability to adapt public organizations in each of Ohio’s regions to meet the demands of the global economy. Growth in the number of

Certified Public Managers in all regions of the state will improve Ohio’s competitiveness through enhanced public leadership and management capacity.

Certified Public Managers can lead the way for the public sector to reap the benefits of

“world class leadership and excellence” (Kanter, 1995). The CPM certification distinguishes them as public managers who are willing to continuously learn, and lead and manage with competence. In response to the dynamic demands of the global economy, Ohio is energetically and creatively developing managers for world class public leadership and management through the Certified Public Manager program. The linkages inherent to and resulting from the Ohio

CPM program provide significant benefits to program participants, government organizations, academic institutions, and communities throughout the state. Thus as a model of outreach and partnership, the Ohio CPM program may be one worth emulating in other states.

28 APPENDIX A

OHIO CPM LEARNING AREAS AND PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS

CORE LEARNING AREAS: 1. General Administration Skills: Addresses the role, functions, responsibilities and skills of an effective public manager; managerial ethics and professionalism; planning models; organizational goal setting; organizational design; organizational assessment; policy analysis and evaluation; change management; and leadership.

2. Technical, Quantitative, and Qualitative Skills: Addresses accounting principles; budget processes; statutes and regulations that govern employment law and public records; the responsibilities and potential liabilities of managerial actions; qualitative methods; and principles of administrative law.

3. Analytical and Conceptual Skills: Addresses problem-solving; performance measurement; decision-making models; research design; data analysis; and trend analysis.

4. Human Relations Skills: Addresses interpersonal and organizational communication; managing diversity, productivity improvement; performance management; disciplinary processes; teambuilding; and conflict resolution.

ADDITIONAL PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS: 5. Assessment Center: Involves CPM participants in simulations of the tasks required of Ohio’s public managers. Trained assessors observe, record, classify, and evaluate the behaviors of OCPM participants under controlled conditions. Participants receive feedback about their behaviors and apply the feedback to design a career success plan.7

6. Applied Projects: Includes two applied projects; one in the first year and one in the second year. The first project seeks to improve the efficiency/effectiveness of a unit, program, or process for which a participant is responsible. The second project “stretches” participants outside their usual managerial scope by requiring them to convene a cross-functional team to address an intergovernmental or interagency problem. Participants prepare written reports and perform oral presentations of their project findings (OCPM Project Handbook, 2003).

7. Capstone Experience: Includes an intensive legislative simulation. This simulation helps Ohio’s public managers comprehend the lawmaking process of the Ohio General Assembly. The capstone also brings CPM participants together with policy makers to analyze a contemporary issue, such as public health financing.

8. The Comprehensive Examination: Participants must pass a four-part, written, essay examination at the end of their second year. Participants must demonstrate mastery of knowledge drawn from each of the four core skill areas.

29 APPENDIX B

OHIO CPM CURRICIULUM BY LEARNING AREA

TECHNICAL, GENERAL ANALYTICAL & QUANTITATIVE, & HUMAN ADMINISTRATION CONCEPTUAL QUALITATIVE RELATIONS SKILLS SKILLS SKILLS SKILLS Breakthrough Ethics & Integrity Arbitration School Assessment Center Thinking Change Building Effective Work Government in Ohio Budgeting Management Relations Managing Customer Bull's Eye Writing Consulting Skills Career Success Plan Relations Managing in Public Developing and Leading Contract Management Facilitation Skills Organizations Teams Data-based Decision Performance Media Relations Developing People Making Measurement Effective Planning & Ohio Ethics Code Influence Skills Presentations Evaluation Cycle Project Policy Analysis Employment Law Managers’ New Role Management Working Effectively with Quality Labor Relations Managing Differences Boards & Commissions Management Managerial Reengineering Negotiation & Dispute . Accounting & Finance Public Systems Resolution Ohio Administrative Public Sector . Strategic Planning Law Leadership Understanding Self & . Personal Productivity . Others Public Information .. .. Law Survey Research and .. .. Data Collection Capstone Events: 1. Legislative Process and Simulation 2. Contemporary Issues Source: www.ocpm.state.oh.us

30 REFERENCES deLeon, Linda, and Jerri Killian, 2000. “Comparing Modes of Delivery: Classroom, Online (and

Other) Learning.” Journal of Public Affairs Education. 6, 1: 5-18.

Hays, Steven W., and Bruce Duke, 1996. “Professional Certification in Public Management: A

Status Report.” Public Administration Review. 56, 5: 425-432.

Kanter, Rosabeth Moss, 1996. World Class: Thriving Locally in the Global Economy. New

York: Simon and Schuster.

Kirkpatrick, Donald, 1996. Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels. San Francisco:

Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Kotter, John, 1995. The New Rules: Eight Business Breakthroughs to Career Success in the 21st

Century. New York: The Free Press.

Kouzes, James M., and Barry Z. Posner, 2003. Leadership Practices Inventory: Facilitator’s

Guide, 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Miller, Melissa and Vera Vogelsang-Coombs, 1998. “Advancing Excellence in Public

Management through CPM Programs.” Public Administration Times. 21, 10: 30, 32.

MBTI Professional Qualifying Program (MTBI), 1999. Training through Type Resources, Inc.

Louisville, KY.

National Certified Public Manager Consortium, 2004. Constitution and Bylaws. Available from:

http://www.cpmconsortium.org/bylaws.

OCPM Project Handbook, 2003. Columbus, Ohio: Department of Administrative Services

Office of Training and Development.

Ohio Certified Public Manager Program Curriculum, 2004. Available from:

31 http://www.ocpm.state.oh.us.

Ohio Commission on the Public Service, 1993. Preparing State and Local Government for the

21st Century. Cleveland, OH: Maxine Goodman Levin College of Urban Affairs, Cleveland

State University.

Paddock, Susan, 1997. “Benchmarks in Management Training.” Public Personnel Management.

26, 4: 441-460.

Peirce, Neal R., with Curtis Johnson and John Stuart Hall, 1993. Citistates: How Urban

America Can Prosper in a Competitive World. Washington, D.C.: Seven Locks Press.

Sweet, David C., 1992. “Urban Extension in the Decade Ahead: Collaboration, Competition, or

Contraction.” Metropolitan Universities. 2, 4: 35-44.

Vanagunas, Stanley, 2000. “The American Certified Public Manager Program: A Different Kind

of Academic Outreach to the Profession.” Paper presented at the third plenary conference of

the European Thematic Networks of Political Science and Public Administration, Hamburg,

Germany.

Vogelsang-Coombs, Vera, 1999. “Making Training Dollars Count: Distance Education and the

Certified Public Manager Program.” Journal of Public Affairs Education. 5, 4: 295-308.

Vogelsang-Coombs, Vera, 2000. “Developing Public Managers for World Class Regional

Leadership” Cleveland, OH: Northeast Ohio Research Consortium and the Ohio Urban

University Program. 31 August.

32 NOTES

1 The authors wish to acknowledge the dedicated efforts of the Ohio CPM program designers and contributors for their unwavering support: the Ohio Department of Administrative Services with special thanks to Victoria Gatien, Racquel Graham, and Caryl Rice; Site Managers Cindy Holodnak of Ohio State University; Pat DeWeese and Marcia Nation of Ohio University, Charles Phelps and Vera Vogelsang-Coombs of Cleveland State University, and Patricia Jones and Jerri Killian of Wright State University; the members of the Urban University and Rural University consortia; and each of the regional university partners.

2 According to the Ohio Revised Code, Section 124.04 (I), DAS has the authority to “enter agreements with universities and colleges for in-service training of personnel in civil service.” This legislation permits DAS, through its partnership with participating state universities, to make the Ohio CPM Program available to managers employed in state municipal, county, township, special district, and regional governments.

3 Instructors are paid $125 per program hour and, when traveling to non-local regions for CPM instruction, are reimbursed for mileage and overnight lodging expenses. Examination graders are compensated at $25 per exam, and project advisors are paid $50 per hour, not to exceed $200 for advising each program participant.

4 Between 1998 and 2002, fees were charged at $16 per program hour. Due to financial constraints, Ohio CPM fees were increased in 2003, with approval of the advisory board, to $20 per program hour.

5 The efforts of the following people who informed the design of the on-line “Ethics and Integrity” workshop are gratefully acknowledged: Susan Paddock and Louise Fowler of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Jerri Killian of Wright State University, and Michael Gemmer, an independent consultant.

6 The electronic version of “Ethics and Integrity” was developed by Vera Vogelsang-Coombs of Cleveland State University. The electronic version of “Government in Ohio” was developed by Marsha Nation of Ohio University.

7 Kent State University’s (KSU) Center for Public Administration and Public Policy conducts the Ohio CPM Assessment Center. With relevant expertise developed since 1982, KSU possesses an extensive inventory of analyses pertaining to the tasks and skills required of public managers. Based on these inventories, KSU staff created realistic, job-related Assessment Center exercises designed specifically for the Ohio CPM program. The KSU Assessment Center process is utilized in all active CPM regions in Ohio.

33 Community-based Quality of Life Indicators: A Service Learning Exercise in a Graduate Statistics Class

Daniel Lowery, Ph.D., Indiana University Northwest, Gary, IN

Jody Fitzpatrick (2000) has argued for a dramatic rethinking of the strategies employed in teaching statistics in MPA classes. In place of the technique-by-technique approach that is employed in most MPA curricula, he recommends a hands-on approach that can better prepare students to initiate and use research in addressing public management and public policy concerns. More specifically, Fitzpatrick promotes the more extensive reading of research. He recommends that we assist students in becoming better “consumers of research.”

Like Fitzpatrick, faculty members in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs at

Indiana University Northwest were looking for a way to make the study of statistics more meaningful to students. We used service learning, however, rather than the more extensive reading of research in pursuing this objective. In the following pages, I describe the rationale on which our initiative was based, the structure of our service learning activity, and the outcomes achieved. In doing so, I hope to add to the repertoire of strategies that can be used in MPA programs to help students acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities pertaining to data development and data analysis that they will need as practitioners. I will begin with a brief introduction to service learning and a summary of the meager literature pertaining to its use in statistics classes. This will be followed, in turn, by a description of our service learning activity and a preliminary assessment of our initiative.

Service Learning and Statistics Classes

The Alliance for Service Learning in Education Reform has defined service learning as “a

1 method of teaching through which students apply newly acquired academic skills and knowledge to address real-life needs in their own communities” (Payne, 2000). This strategy reflects several emerging views, including: the concept of “civic engagement,” which Thomas Ehrlich (2000),

Robert Bringle (1999), Barbara Jacoby (1996) and their respective colleagues have promoted so effectively in recent years; Ernest Boyer’s reframing of the academic project as the fourfold scholarship of discovery, integration, application, and teaching (1991); and the ongoing development of action research. Individual service projects also draw on more particular theories of learning and development, including cognitive development theory, learning styles models of various kinds, identity development theory (McEwen, 1996), and constructivist theory

(Payne, 2000).

At the level of technique, service learning encompasses several different approaches.

Kerrissa Heffernan (2001), for instance, draws a distinction between certain initial or preliminary techniques (i.e., pure service-learning, discipline-based service learning, and problem-based service-learning) and three more advanced techniques (i.e., community-based action research, service internships, and capstone courses).

Although these approaches may differ in important ways, it is generally agreed that service learning strategies of various kinds embody – or should embody – certain key attributes.

The value of reciprocity, for instance, should guide every step in the service-learning process

(Jacoby, 1996; Heffernan, 2001). Further, service learning activities should include certain key steps. Duckenfield and Swanson (1992) recommend a four-step process: preparation; action; reflection; and celebration. The National Association of Partners in Education (1994) articulate seven distinct activities: a formal needs assessment; the identification of required resources; a full specification of goals and objectives; program or project design; the recruitment of

2 participants; organization and training; and monitoring and evaluation. And Cesie Scheuerman

(1996) recommends a six-step process: the development of community sites; assisting the student or organization in choosing a site; the formulation of a commitment to the community site; preparation; reflection; and evaluation.

Of these several steps, reflection is viewed by many as a defining characteristic of service learning. Various reflective techniques have been developed over time. Hefferman, for instance, recommends the use of exit cards, thought papers, examination questions, class updates, oral reports, and project products of various kinds (2001, p. 37).

Although the literature on service learning is growing (Grantmaker Forum on

Community & National Service, 2000), few applications involving statistics classes have been published to date. The two notable exceptions pertain to undergraduate classes: a description of a service learning project employed in an undergraduate statistics course at the University of

Minnesota-Morris, a public liberal arts college (Anderson and Sungur, 1999); and an account of several service learning activities that have been incorporated into undergraduate statistics courses at Lafayette College (Root and Thorme, 2001).

The Service Learning Activity

Developing and implementing a service learning activity in a graduate statistics class is no easy task. The class in question at Indiana University Northwest had traditionally addressed both univariate and bivariate statistics. A great deal of material thus has to be covered. Further, although many of our students work in the public sector or in nonprofit organizations, they tend to lack strong mathematics skills; indeed, many express considerable anxiety with respect to the two statistics courses that we require of most students. We were concerned, therefore, about

3 adding additional content to a class that was already quite full.

Nevertheless, the desire to develop a more relevant statistics course was compelling.

Further, the author suspected that the conventional presentation of three or four bivariate techniques over a period of several weeks may tend to obscure the elements that are common to all such techniques (i.e., the need to specify the level of measurement, testing for statistical significance, and assessing the strength and sometimes the direction of an association). In most such courses, students master what they can pertaining to a single technique, are tested on it, and then move on quickly to the next technique. Too often, they seem to “offload” any learning that may have occurred with respect to the techniques that have already been introduced; in effect, they fail to transfer any learning that may have already taken place to the next technique. A condensed treatment of several bivariate statistical techniques would provide an opportunity to test this hypothesis in an informal manner.

Employing the four-step process that is recommended by Duckenfield and Swanson

(1992) (i.e., preparation, action, reflection, and celebration), we thus proceeded as follows.

Preparation

The preparation phase included five key elements: a critical assessment of our statistics curriculum; the identification of an appropriate service learning project; the resolution of a possible conflict of interest; the design of the service learning project; and the identification of an appropriate set of community partners.

We began with an assessment of our two-course sequence of classes. Richard Hug, a colleague who teaches the second course, and I agreed that we should maintain the basic content division that had long been in place. The introductory course would continue to focus on univariate and bivariate statistics, and the second course would continue to address multivariate

4 statistical techniques. We also agreed that we should continue to emphasize the need to critically assess data and data analyses in the first course. As a supplemental text, The Data Game:

Controversies in Social Science Statistics (1999) by Mark H. Maier, had served us well in this regard; we would continue to use it. We further determined that a service learning activity in which local data would be developed and analyzed would serve several purposes: first, it would demonstrate the challenges that researchers and analysts face in gathering and presenting data; second, it would provide points of comparison to the national data that are addressed in the

Maier text; and third, it would engender an appreciation for the role that uncertainty and value judgments play in administrative decision-making and in the development of public policy.

Finally, we agreed that our second course should focus more explicitly on the creation of databases and that it should include an introduction to a least one qualitative research technique.

With this framework in place, we determined that the need expressed by a regional leadership group – the Northwest Indiana Quality of Life Council1 – to update its three-county quality of life indicators report might meet our project criteria. The Council had released its first

1 The Quality of Life Council was created in September 1997 following two years of discussion and planning. The Council includes approximately 100 leaders from the business community, local and state government, academia, the environmental community, the religious community, and labor. Individual members of the Council are selected based on their organizational or institutional affiliation and their demonstrated leadership in the community. The six institutions of higher learning in Northwest Indiana serve as the Council’s sponsors, and the presidents and chancellors of these colleges and universities serve as chairpersons on a rotating basis. The author serves as the part-time executive director of the organization. The Quality of Life Council focuses on agenda setting. Over the course of several years, it has addressed a broad set of public policy concerns in its quarterly meeting, including public transportation, the challenge of substance abuse, affordable housing, sprawl and land use planning, K-12 education, governmental ethics, and economic development. The Council also publishes two newsletters and produces a monthly cable television show. Although it has limited its focus to agenda setting, the Council has contributed in a significant way to the creation of several organizations that have pursued the Council’s policy recommendations. This includes the Northwest Indiana Local Government Academy which is housed at Indiana University Northwest, a Regional Transportation Authority, the Northwest Indiana Race Relations Council, and the Northwest Initiative, a public-private partnership that is focused on economic development. It has also spurred existing organizations, including the region’s metropolitan planning organization, to address issues of concern to the Councils.

5 indicators report in 2000. Like a number of other organizations across the county, the Quality of

Life Council had drawn data from various policy domains into a single document for use by a broad range of decision-makers. By one estimation, over 200 communities in the United States have now developed community-based indicators of one kind or another (Oregon Progress

Board, 1999; p. 1; Besleme and Mullin, 1997).

Like some other reports, the Quality of Life Council’s 2000 indicators report had been grounded on the concept of “sustainability” (President’s Commission on Sustainable

Development, 1996; International Council for Local Economic Initiatives, 1996; Strong, 1995, p.

19; Besleme and Mullin, 1997). Other indicators reports draw on other theoretical bases, including the federal government’s Healthy People initiative (Office of Disease Prevention and

Health Promotion, 2001, p. 1) and the well-being of children and families (Minnesota

Milestones, 1998; Murphey, 1999).

Depending on their theoretical grounding and the community’s needs, different reports include different kinds of data. Some combination of the eleven domestic categories that are included in the Calvert-Henderson “quality of life” report (Henderson, 2000), are typically employed in the case of sustainability-based initiatives: education; employment; energy; the environment; health; human rights; income; infrastructure; public safety; recreation; and shelter.

As is noted above, the indicator categories used in some states and regions focus more explicitly on the needs of children and families. In Vermont, for instance, indicators are organized around ten broad themes: families, youth, and individuals are engaged in and contribute to their community’s decisions and activities; pregnant women and newborns thrive; infants and children thrive; children are ready for school; children succeed in school; children live in stable, supported families; youth choose healthy behaviors; youth successfully transition to adulthood;

6 elders and people with disabilities live with dignity and independence in settings they prefer; and families and individuals live in safe and supportive communities (Murphey, 1999). United Way of America’s indicators are organized into six broad categories: economic and financial well- being; education; health; voluntarism, charity, civic engagement; safety; and the natural environment (United Way of America, 2000). And the indicators adopted in Marathon County,

Wisconsin focus on living a healthy life, life at school, life at work, life at leisure, life in our natural environment, living together (i.e., civics), life at home (i.e., children and families), life at home (i.e., housing), living together (i.e., public safety), and living together (i.e., diversity)

(Community Planning Council of Marathon County, 1999).

In order to focus community attention, indicators reports tend to include relatively few measures of performance. The Quality of Life Council’s 2000 indicators report had encompassed 45 sets of data organized into 12 broad categories: demographic profile; economic prosperity; environmental quality; transportation; educational excellence; human services; public safety; health; housing; recreation and tourism; the arts; and governance (Northwest Indiana

Quality of Life Council, 2000). Although the 2000 report had been well-received, it was widely accepted that too few points of comparison (e.g., historical data, goals or targets, or comparative data from other communities or regions) had been provided. Additionally, the report did not include public policy recommendations or action steps designed to guide decision-making.

By the Fall of 2002, the Quality of Life Council had determined that its indicators report needed to be updated. Data from the 2000 Census would soon come online, and there was a general sense that the Council should capitalize on the success of the 2000 report. More specifically, key members of the Council argued that the time was right to include explicit public policy recommendations in a revised report, given the organization’s newly-acquired visibility in

7 the community.

Since the principal author of the 2000 report had passed away, the Council was looking for assistance in staffing this substantial undertaking. This seemed to present an ideal opportunity for a service learning project. Before proceeding any further, however, the author met with the campus director of the School of Public and Environmental Affairs to address a concern that his dual role as class instructor and part-time executive director of the Quality of

Life Council might be perceived to be a conflict of interest. The discussion enabled the author to think through and articulate the nature of the partnership that was being considered and the responsibilities that a project of this kind would entail both to students and the Quality of Life

Council. It was determined that no conflict existed.

Having surmounted this hurdle, a “discipline-based” service learning strategy was adopted (Heffernan, 2001, p. 3). In this particular approach, students establish a presence in the community throughout the semester and reflect on their experiences on an ongoing basis. More specifically, teams of students would be aided in developing a partnership with a community organization that holds a stakeholder interest in the issue or topic domain to which they would be assigned (i.e., demographics, economic development, income and poverty, education, the environment, healthcare, transportation, housing, public safety, the arts and recreation, philanthropy, and civic engagement). Given the inherent complexity of these several issue domains, we determined that a “discipline-based” strategy would increase our chances of producing a useful work product. Intact teams focusing intensively on a single topic would provide the best opportunity to address the assigned topics in some depth.

Before the class began, the author identified and met with one or more stakeholder groups or organizations associated with each issue domain, including a United Way affiliate, the

8 metropolitan planning organization responsible for regional transportation planning, a regional arts association, a committee established by the metropolitan planning organization to oversee environmental planning in the three-county region, and other key entities. In several instances, formal partnerships were created using memoranda-of-understanding. In other cases, an informal advisory relationship was established. Given the nature of the instructor’s relationship with the Quality of Life Council and the broad nature of its members’ professional affiliations, pursuing these several relationship did not prove difficult. This last step in the preparation process would have been a great deal more challenging, however, if the instructor had not had a history of engagement in the community.

Action

The class syllabus clearly spelled out the requirements associated with the service learning project, which would account for 40 percent of the student’s grade. Teams were established very early on, and in-class time was devoted to the development of team-specific contracts or ground rules that would eventually be signed by all team members. Each team was also introduced to a representative from its community partner early on in the semester. Finally, students were provided with copies of the indicators report that had been developed in 2000.

The service learning project was conducted over the course of the entire semester. Teams were provided with the opportunity to meet during class time. In several instances, they also met outside of class. The content historically associated with the course was divided into three distinct parts. Univariate statistics were addressed during the first third of the semester.

Through the middle of the semester, discussions pertaining to various public policy domains were conducted using the Data Game text. Four bivariate statistical techniques (i.e., chi square, t test, ANOVA, and bivariate regression) were introduced in the last third of the course.

9 Reflection

Four opportunities for reflection were provided to students over the course of the semester: team discussions with the instructor during working sessions built into several class periods; feedback pertaining to several drafts of each team’s final report; oral reports that each team provided to class members and to the representatives of the community partners who were invited to the final class period; and an essay question that was included on the final examination.

The instructor also benefited from several opportunities for reflection, including ongoing feedback received from the several teams that were established, occasional feedback received from our community partners, the team reports on which a substantial portion of the students’ grades would be based, responses to the essay question that was included on the final examination, and class evaluations that the students completed at the end of the semester. The drafting of this article and a presentation at an academic conference also provided opportunities for reflection.

Celebration

The final step of the process recommended by Duckenfield and Swanson (1992) is

“celebration.” In fact, the students did well in all of their assignments. Given the heavy weight that was assigned to the service learning project, the high grades that were assigned at the close of the semester can appropriately be viewed as a cause for celebration.

A revised indicators report was released to great fanfare at a well-attended meeting of the

Quality of Life Council in June 2003. The 98-page report includes 185 graphs and charts organized into 11 policy domains. It also included a number of public policy recommendations that have been well-received in the community. (A full copy of the report can be secured at

10 www. nwiqlc.org.) The report was released as a draft and further community comment was solicited. Over 50 comments, reviews, and recommendations have been received to date, and a substantial revision of the draft is now underway.

Although extensive editing was required to produce a uniform work product, the students’ substantial contributions to the report were fully acknowledged in the introduction and their names were all cited. Moreover, the region’s two leading newspapers published front-page stories about the report and followed up with positive editorials within days of its release.

Further, the revised indicators report is now being used to supplement the Data Game text in introductory statistics classes conducted in the MPA program. Again, the students’ contributions to the report are routinely acknowledged. All in all, the considerable fanfare that the report has elicited and its ongoing usefulness should be viewed as twin-causes for celebration among the students and the community partners who participated in the project.

Assessment

Kerrissa Hefferman (2001) suggests that four questions be asked and answered in assessing a service learning project. One, does the service component meet a public need or serve as a public good? In this instance, the answer is clearly “yes.” A number of organizations in the region, including our three United Way organizations, two community foundations, a

Local Government Academy that has recently been created, and the region’s metropolitan planning organization have incorporated elements of the report into their various planning processes. On several occasions, the policy recommendations included in the report have been cited in editorials in the region’s several newspapers; and the Quality of Life Council agenda is now based on the priorities established in the report.

11 Two, does the course provide a mechanism that encourages and enables students to link their service experience to course content and to reflect on why the service is important? The feedback received from the participating students in the formal evaluations that are conducted at the close of each semester indicate that this objective was achieved. Eighty-four percent of the students reported that “group projects were helpful to understanding and comprehending the material”; and ninety-four percent reported that tests and other graded activities fairly reflected the subject matter of the class.” In all, ninety-four percent of the students concluded that “the course fulfilled the objectives described in the syllabus.” The reflections included in responses to the question posed on the final examination were equally positive. A typical response reads as follows: “There are two lessons that I learned about gathering and interpreting data from the indicators project. First, a lot of work goes on behind the scene when you see the finished product. Finding a source can be a problem; summarizing the data can be difficult; and choosing a means for explaining the data to the public can be problematic. Second, it takes a lot of time to gather the information and find sources that the have the information. It is not a quick and easy process.” Several opportunities to reflect on the project were afforded to the participating students, and the feedback received suggests that the connection between the service learning project and the course objectives was achieved.

Hefferman’s third question addresses the value of reciprocity. Is everyone in the process

– students, the instructor, the community partner served, and the community as a whole – afforded the opportunity to benefit both as a teacher and a learner? The foregoing discussion suggests that students, the instructor, and the Quality of Life Council benefited from the project.

It is less clear that other community partners who were engaged benefited, except through their ongoing participation in the efforts of the Quality of Life Council. Several of our partners

12 remained intimately involved in their respective projects through the entire semester. Others were less helpful, and our efforts to produce an indicators report actually contributed to a surfacing of a latent conflict within one of our partner organizations. In hindsight, we should have employed a formal mechanism for securing feedback from our community partners.

Finally, is the final work product presented to the community and is the community afforded the opportunity for dialogue? Again, the answer is “yes.” As is noted above, the final report was released to the public as a draft and substantial comments have been received as a result. A revised report will be issued in 2004, again acknowledging the substantial contribution of the MPA class that participated in the service learning project conducted during the Fall 2002 semester.

Next Steps

Although the service learning project and the course as a whole were judged to be successful, two adjustments were made when the class was next conducted during the Fall 2003 semester. Most significantly, the presentation order of the content was changed. Although learning did not appear to suffer as a result of the “rapid fire” coverage of several bivariate techniques, deferring this material to the last third of the semester provided little opportunity to reinforce the lessons learned. Additionally, it added a great deal of stress to the end of the semester when students were attempting to bring their service learning projects to a conclusion while struggling at the same time to master the most complex material that would be presented over the course of the semester.

The new order of presentation provides for the material pertaining to univariate and bivariate statistics to be introduced prior to the midterm examination. This material is then

13 reinforced with quizzes and several assignments through the second half of the semester. Class time in the second half of the semester, however, is devoted for the most part to the Data Game text, now supplemented by the indicators report. The final examination includes a substantial reprise of the kinds of univariate and bivariate statistical problems that were included in the midterm examination. Our preliminary assessment of this alternative approach suggests that the stress levels that students experienced in the Fall 2002 semester were significantly reduced and that the opportunity to reinforce the learning acquired through the first half of the semester resulted in a higher level of content mastery.

The second change involves the nature of the service learning assignment. The Quality of Life Council will not need another substantial revision of its indicators report for at least three years. In the Fall 2003 semester, we elected instead to establish partnerships with several nonprofit and civic organizations that had expressed the need to develop a survey instrument of one kind or another. A supplemental text pertaining to survey techniques was identified and incorporated into the class. The procedure developed in the Fall 2002 semester remained essentially the same, however. Teams were assigned to work with certain community partners in developing a work product that they could then use to secure data from a target audience. The final work product in this instance included a survey instrument and a detailed memorandum describing the instrument, the research design that should be used in administering the survey, and the analytic techniques that should be employed. Again, our assessment of this project suggests that the positive outcomes realized through the indicators initiative can be achieved through a variety of service learning projects.

Like Jody Fitzpatrick (2000), we believe that MPA course in statistics can be conducted

14 in a manner that will be more meaningful to students. Whereas Fitzpatrick recommends the assignment of readings of various kinds, we have focused on the role that service learning projects can play in pursuing this goal. Although service learning is rarely employed in statistics classes, this case analysis suggests that it can, in fact, contribute in a significant way to the achievement of critical learning objectives. Like the extensive reading of statistical reports and analyses, service learning may thus represent an alternative to the more traditional pedagogies that are now employed in many statistics courses conducted in MPA programs.

15 References

Anderson, Jon E and Sungur, Engin A., 1999. “Community Service Statistics Projects.” American Statistician, vol. 53 (2), 132-137.

Besleme, Kate and Mullin, Megan, 1997. “Community Indicators and Healthy Communities.” National Civic Review, vol. 86 (Spring 1997), 43-52.

Boyer, Ernest L.. 1990. Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities for the Professoriate. Menlo Park, CA: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

Bringle, Robert G., Games, Richard, and Malloy, Edward A. (Eds.), 1999. Colleges and Universities as Citizens. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Community Planning Council, 1999. LIFE in Marathon County. Wausau, WI: United Way of Marathon County.

Duckenfield, M., & Swanson, L., 1992. Service Learning: Meeting the Needs of Youth At Risk. Clemson, SC: National Dropout Prevention Center.

Ehrlich, Thomas, 2000. Civic Responsibility and Higher Education. Phoenix, AR: Oryx Press.

Fitzpatrick, Jody, 2000. “What Are Our Goals in Teaching Research Methods to Public Administrators.” Journal of Public Affairs Education, vol. 6 (3), 173-181.

Grantmaker Forum on Community & National Service, 2000. The State of Service-Related Research: Opportunities to Build a Field. Berkeley, CA: Grant Maker Forum on Community & National Service.

Heffernan, Kerrissa, 2001. Fundamentals of Service-Learning Course Construction. Providence, RI: Campus Compact.

Henderson, Hazel, Lickerman, Jon, and Flynn, Patrice, ed., 2000. Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators. Bethesda, MD: Calvert Group, Ltd.

International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, 1996. The Local Agenda 21 Planning Guide. London, Great Britain: International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives.

Jacoby, Barbara, 1996. Service-Learning in Higher Education. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Maier, Mark H., 1999. The Data Game: Controversies in Social Science Statistics. Armock, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

McEwen, Marylu K., 1996. “Enhancing Student Learning and Development through Service-Learning.” In Barbara Jacoby (ed.), Service-Learning in Higher Education. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Minnesota Milestones 1998. Public Review Draft. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Planning Agency.

16 Murphey, David A., 1999. “Presenting Community-level Data in an ‘Outcomes and Indicators’ Framework: Lessons from Vermont’s Experience.” Public Administration Review, vol. 59, (January/February 1999), 76-82.

National Association of Partners in Education, 1994. Service-Learning & Business/Education Partnerships: A Guide for Service-Learning Coordinators. Alexandria, VA: National Association of Partners in Education.

Northwest Indiana Quality of Life Council, 2000. Northwest Indiana Quality of Life Indicators. Gary, IN: Northwest Indiana Quality of Life Council.

Northwest Indiana Quality of Life Council, 2003. Northwest Indiana Quality of Life Indicators. Gary, IN: Northwest Indiana Quality of Life Council.

Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2001. Healthy People in Healthy Communities: A Community Planning Guide Using Healthy People 2010. Washington D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office.

Oregon Progress Board, 1999. Redefining Progress. Salem, OR: Oregon Progress Board.

Payne, David A., 2000. Evaluating Service-Learning Activities and Programs. Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

President’s Council on Sustainable Development, 1996. Sustainable America: A New Consensus for Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment for the Future. Washington D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office.

Root, Rob and Thorme, Trisha, 2001. “Community-Based Projects in Applied Statistics: Using Service Learning to Enhance Student Understanding.” American Statistician, vol. 55 (4), 326-331.

Scheuermann, Cesie, D., 1996. “Ongoing Cocurricular Serice-Learning.” In Barbara Jacoby (ed.), Service-Learning in Higher Education. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Strong, Susan, 1995. “Link Block Grants to Quality-of-Life Measures.” Christian Science Monitor, vol. 87, January 30, 1997, 19.

United Way of America, 2000. State of Caring Index. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America.

17

Gender and Communication Style:

What Public Administrators Know and Need to Know

Janet Mills and JoAnn Wandell

Abstract

This paper raises two questions: What do public administrators know about gender and communication style—and what do they need to know? As an indicator of what public administrators know, we analyze focus group data gathered from top-level women administrators in Idaho state government. To answer the second question—what public administrators need to know about gender and communication style—we review research on gender and nonverbal communication, verbal communication and conversational style, and present our findings in user-friendly, referenced appendices.

Introduction

What do public administrators know about gender and communication style—and what do they need to know? These questions surfaced as a group of public administrators met to plan curriculum for the Certified Public

Manager Program (CPM) in Idaho. They contacted one of the co-authors for help in answering these questions. That call, of course, was the genesis of this paper. We present this to the Public Administration Teaching Conference, trusting that many public administration outreach programs, in addition to this state’s CPM program, will find our work useful in a variety of other public outreach programs. Indeed, questions about how men and women communicate are both timely and timeless.

To determine what the state’s public administrators know about gender and communication style, the CPM planners decided to conduct focus groups to collect qualitative data. They reasoned that focus groups would provide a wide range of information, insight and ideas. They further reasoned that women in top-level management positions would provide the greatest depth and breadth of information. Toward that end, they asked the Director of Human

Resources to recruit twenty-four top-level women administrators for the focus groups. All agreed to participate. In two sessions, the administrators responded to the following question for about thirty minutes: “Does gender effect communication and relationships at work? If so, how?” A moderator acknowledged contributions and recorded them on a flip chart in bullet form to the satisfaction of each contributor. Focus group members understood they would remain anonymous and that the information they generated might be used for curriculum design and research purposes. Gender and Communication Style 2

Here is our plan for the paper. First, we provide a summary of the focus group data, and an analysis of this data through the lenses of gender studies and feminist theories. Then, we discuss key information about gender and communication style, relevant to the needs of public administrators in the mixed-sex workplace. We present summaries of feminine and masculine communication style in user-friendly, referenced appendices; these address gender and nonverbal communication, gender and verbal communication, and gender and conversational style. We conclude with a brief discussion of venues for public administration outreach education that might be well served by learning more about gender and communication style.

What Public Administrator Know about Gender and Communication Style

Two dominant themes are evident in the focus group data; one highlights men and their communication style and the other highlights women and their communication style. In addition, the data include discussions of tokenism, sex segregation, double standards, and short discussions in which divergent opinions were expressed.

Appendix 1 (A Summary of Focus Group Responses ) summarizes these themes and discussions.

Observations About Men and Their Communication Style. Focus group members described men as directive, authoritarian and impersonal in their communication style. They described how men in hierarchical arrangements respond to their superiors’ power by listening, taking orders and deferring to their superiors’ decisions.

They illustrated men’s behavior by contrasting it with women’s behavior. For example, one participant observed that men make decisions with little regard for the people around them, “unlike women, at all levels, who enter into consensus building discussion when there is a decision to be made” (See Appendix 1). Another commented that men who report to her look to her as “boss” whereas women who report to her look to her as “a friend.” Yet, another described her director, who talks shop with men who report to him, but treats her more personally and compliments her.

Observations About Women and Their Communication Style. Focus group members described women as nurturing and emotional. They illustrated women’s behavior by contrasting it with men’s behavior. One noted that she gives the women she supervises more care and attention, as they seem to want that, but the men she supervises “…just want to know if they are doing a good job. They don’t care if I care about them personally or not”

(See Appendix 1). Another noted that women supervisors assess subordinates’ competence and provide less direction and more support for the more competent subordinates. However, men supervisors provide direction but not support, regardless of how competent subordinates are. One member remarked, “There is an assumption that Gender and Communication Style 3 women behave emotionally. This reinforces stereotypes and leads people to expect men and women to behave differently.”

Participants addressed how gender effects what happens in meetings: A woman’s ideas are ignored when she suggests them, but those same ideas receive great interest when a man suggests them later. Women learn to keep quiet because they feel beat up for expressing ideas and having to defend these and answer all sorts of questions.

Men’s ideas just get accepted. One participant said she had learned to make herself talk in meetings after being told she was “too gentle and too soft spoken” (See Appendix 1). One member stressed that it was necessary for women to communicate in male overtones because to communicate in female mode is to lose them (the men). Another reported that women have adopted the attributes of men because the role models have been mostly men.

Tokenism, Sex Segregation, Double Standards and Divergent Opinions. One focus group member referred to herself as a “token” and recounted that men treat her as a secretary. She reported that her former peers, now her subordinates, expect more of her than they expected of the previous director. They ask questions of her that she believes they would never ask a man: “Did you get this (position) on your own?” and “Do you have to be so tough because you’re a woman?” (See Appendix 1) She believed her ma le subordinates have trust issues with her

(“Can they trust a woman?”), as well as power issues (“Who is really in charge?” and “What can you do for us?”)

Focus group members had widespread agreement about sex segregation in meetings; men sit with men, and women sit with women. Another observed that men who dress casually on Fridays draw no comments, but that

“women can’t dress casually without receiving comments on their appearance” (See Appendix 1).

Participants expressed divergent opinions in two brief discussions. In one, a participant reported that her agency had had a great deal of training aimed at self-directed work teams, and that men seemed to enjoy the same involvement as the women. “We negotiate and collaborate with gender not being a factor” (See Appendix 1).

Another retorted that her agency had had training on teams too, but that it was just ‘lip-service.’ “‘Do this,’ is the

M.O. We have a clear hierarchy and a military organization way of thinking” (See Appendix 1).

This comment led to a second discussion. A participant pointed out that some agencies are populated with male managers who have military service in their backgrounds, and that military service seems to affect how they manage. “They are insistent on rigid structures, are protocol-intensive and micromanage their employees” (See

Appendix 1). Several arguments were raised: Females with military service backgrounds manage similarly, so this is Gender and Communication Style 4 not a gender issue; women with military experience “out-do their men counterparts in the command-and-control management style;” and not all former military people manage like this (See Appendix 1).

Reading between the Lines: Interpreting the Data through the Lenses of Gender Studies and Feminist

Theories

Using gender studies and feminist theories to analyze the themes and discussions in the focus group data brings to light the pervasive effects of gender roles and gender stereotypes on communication and relationships in the work experience of the focus group participants.

Descriptions of men as directive, authoritarian and impersonal, and of women as nurturing and emotional, align with traditional gender stereotypes that have been described since the late 1950s (McKee and Sheriffs 1957;

Parsons and Bales 1955; Broverman et al. 1972; Bem 1974; Williams and Best 1990). In an illustrative statement, a participant described a male supervisor who reports to her, “He has a direct style, but the women need emotional, relational communication as well, and he doesn’t provide this. He says, ‘We’re all adults here.’” The comment attributed to him ascribes greater social value to masculine stereotypic characteristics and lesser value to feminine stereotypic characteristics. Like mental health clinicians who participated in the Broverman study (Broverman et al.

1970), this male supervisor equates maleness with adulthood and dismisses what he perceives as female and not adult – the need for emotional, relational communication.

One participant mentioned that women subordinates seem to want “frequent attention and care,” whereas men subordinates “just want to know if they are doing a good job” (See Appendix 1). These comments are consistent with the conclusions drawn by psycholinguist Deborah Tannen (1994) who found women expect and give more attention and praise at work than men and enjoy these ritual social rewards. By contrast, men interpret too much attention as micro-management or power plays; to men an absence of feedback is evidence that their work is okay (Tannen 1994, 66-68).

In relying on contrasts to ma ke points about men and women, the participants evidenced what Scott (1988,

32) argued: Information about men is necessarily about women, and vice versa. One gender implies the other and the two exist relationally.

In both focus groups, participants discussed men’s communication style first. They may have simply focused on men as “the other” in the context of an all-women group. An alternative interpretation holds they may have implicitly assumed what researchers and laypersons alike have assumed: Men are the norm or the standard Gender and Communication Style 5 according to which women are compared or contrasted (Cleveland et al. 2000; Tavris 1992). Feminist researchers have noted that when sex or gender differences are evident, women have been considered deficient, deviant or in need of correction; however, no such constructs were found in the focus group data (Cleveland et al. 2000, 33-34;

Tavris 1992, 20-21; Schaef 1981, 27).

A few focus group comments indicate that participants have adopted masculine attributes, largely because their organizations are male-dominated and because available role models have been mostly male. “I must communicate in male overtones. To communicate in female mode is to lose them;” and “I’ve learned to make myself talk in meetings. I was told I was too gentle and too soft-spoken” are examples, along with “Women with military experience outdo their male counterparts in the command-and-control management style” (See Appendix

1). Morrison describes how successful women corporate managers must show toughness and independence

(masculine attributes) in order to be seen as different than and better than women as a group, while displaying essential attributes of femininity, as well (Morrison et al. 1992, 54-57). Behaving within a narrow band of acceptable behaviors seems to be one key to success for corporate women managers; by doing so, they avoid being seen as a traditional nonprofessional woman or as a woman trying hard to be like men. Tannen writes, “Images of authority come drenched in gender” and points out the as sociation between authority and maleness (Tannen 1994, 166).

“In meetings, when a woman suggests an idea, everyone ignores her. Later, when a man suggests the same idea, great interest is shown and his idea is taken seriously,” said one participant (See Appendix 1). Tannen offers explanations based on the differing conversational styles of women and men (Tannen 1994, 277-280). Women tend to state their ideas and opinions mildly to see who might support them and men tend to state their ideas forcefully to see who challenges them. Women expect conversational balance in meetings and so may express their idea succinctly, taking up only the time they believe to be allotted to them. Further, they may speak in soft voice tones and offer disclaimers. Men re -introduce ideas a group has ignored when they think they those ideas are good. They expand on them loudly, at great length and in absolute terms. Not only do men not share women’s expectations about conversational balance, they expect to dominate the conversation, trusting that others will speak up if they have something to say.

Another focus group participant said women learn to keep their mouths shut because they feel beat up when they express their ideas and have to defend them. Tannen describes how men explore or improve ideas through ritual fighting (Tannen 1994, 57-61). To find out what is true or best, or to explore an idea, men debate, challenge, and Gender and Communication Style 6 poke holes in arguments. They express themselves vigorously and expect others to counter them vigorously. By contrast, women prefer a climate of mutual support in order to focus on what is good or useful about an idea.

That women and men sat in same-sex groups in meetings is not unusual. Macoby reports the preference for interacting with same-sex peers begins in early childhood and Tannen observed this preference continuing into the workplace (Tannen 1994, 286-289).

One participant described her token status and how her male subordinates expected more of her than they had expected of their previous administrator. Kanter describes this performance pressure as the tokenism eclipse:

Tokens must work hard to make their achievements noticed and their visibility as a category member loads their acts with symbolic consequences (Kanter 1977, 212-214). Our focus group participants’ male subordinates asked questions she was sure they would never ask a man: “Did you get this on your own?” and “Do you have to be so tough because you’re a woman?” (See Appendix 1). Kanter points out that the presence of a token causes the dominants to exaggerate their culture. Further, she asserts that tokens serve as both models of and exceptions to their category – hence the questions (Kanter 1977, 222-224). Tokens also tend to adapt to the dominants, according to

Kanter, using the same language and expressing the same interests. So, it is not surprising that our token administrator reported that the presence of a woman who was appointed as a deputy in the past year affected her:

“Having her present allowed me to get in touch with my feminine side.”

A participant noted that men dress casually on Fridays without comment, but that women receive comments on their casual dress. Tannen acknowledges that women are “marked” by all the choices they make their dress and appearance, but that men can choose a style in their dress and appearance that will not attract attention or subject them to any particular interpretation (Tannen 1994, 108-109).

One participant recounted that her agency had received a great deal of training aimed at self-directed work teams and that the men seemed to enjoy the same involvement as the women. With better communication, she reported, men and women negotiated and collaborated with gender not being a factor. Another participant countered that her agency gave only lip service to team training—it had a clear hierarchy and a military-organization way of thinking” (See Appendix 1). It is plausible to interpret the team context of involvement as more closely aligned with feminine style and the hierarchical, militaristic context of the other agency as more closely aligned with masculine style. In the more feminine context, our focus group participant might view gender as obscured, but would her male counterparts? Gender and Communication Style 7

Finally, in reading between the lines, we might ask how the focus group members know what they know.

Their knowledge seems rooted in their experience and they seem to trust that experience, including their awareness of gender role stereotypes that define socially shared beliefs about the characteristics, traits, skills, or attributes of women and men. An exception exists in only one comment, “There is an assumption that women behave emotionally. This reinforces stereotypes and leads people to expect men and women to behave differently.” This comment reflects a more critical perspective on gender roles, stereotypes and the role of expectation in evoking behavior.

We have no evidence in the data to suggest that the focus group members have academic or scholarly knowledge about gender and communication. This is not surprising. We know that courses devoted to gender and administration or management in NASPAA-accredited and affiliated schools in the United States are scarce to come by; only eight MPA programs offered such courses between 1995 and 2000 (Mills and Newman 2002, 28). It is more likely that public managers will have encountered gender studies in undergraduate courses in sociology, anthropology, psychology, communication, or political science, if at all. Mills and Newman found fourteen undergraduate courses offered by public affairs programs courses focusing on gender in public affairs programs between 1995 and 2000 (Mills and Newman 2002, 29).

What Public Administrators Need to Know about Gender and Communication

In order to understand the effects of gender on commu nication and relationships at work, public administrators need background briefing on both gender and communication. An understanding of these terms is necessary to appreciate how individuals construct and express gender in nonverbal communication, verbal communication, and conversational themes.

Perspectives on Gender. “Sex” refers to biological and physiological differences in genetic composition and reproductive anatomy and function (Cleveland et al. 2000, 28). Sex is generally understood to be fixed and dichotomous in nature: One is either female or male. Although the terms “sex” and “gender” have been used interchangeably in the past, scholars have differentiated the two terms for good reasons. By using the terms interchangeably, it is easy to assume that masculinity and femininity are biologically determined and immutable instead of being a matter of socio-cultural learning (Cleveland et al. 2000, 27). By extension, “sex roles” and “sex role stereotypes” are socially constructed expectations about the activities, interests, occupations and responsibilities that are ascribed to and appropriate for women or men (Cleveland et al. 2000, 43). In their most general sense, sex Gender and Communication Style 8 roles deem women to be nurturers and men to be breadwinners. Although “gender” is the social correlate of sex, gender is not innate and does not arise from any biological form or function (Newman 2000, 127). Gender is socially constructed and is thus mutable and variable across time and space (Mayo and Henley, 1981, 3; Ivy and Backlund

2004, 33; Birdwhistell 1970, 42; Butler 1990, 472). As social constructs, femininity and masculinity affect appearance, behavior, and ways of being for women and men; and they function as socially attributed and accepted aspects of maleness and femaleness (Newman 2000, Ivy and Backlund 2004, Wood 2002). It is important to note that gender is a relational term, and as such, we understand masculinity and femininity by contrast (Wood, 2001).

Unlike sex, gender is neither fixed nor dichotomous. An individual may express masculinity, femininity, or a blend of the two—dubbed androgyny by Bem (1974)—or may express no gendered behaviors, within a specific, evocative social context. “Gender ought not to be construed as a stable identity or locus of agency from which various acts follow; rather, gender is an identity tenuously constituted in time, instituted in an exterior space through a stylized repetition of acts” (Butler 1990, 472). Thus, scholars suggest that we “do gender” and that we do gender over and over, but with little or no conscious awareness of these constructive acts (Butler 1990). “Doing gender” permeates thought, behavior, and language. As such, gender is pervasive. It infuses most other social roles, highlighting the interdependence of masculinity and femininity (Burnier 2003, 277). That said, it is important to know that gender is more than the mere performance of an individual based on his/her concepts of the role; gender also includes the perceptions of such performance by others. Therefore, doing gender is an attempt to meet the perceived social expectations of a particular role or situation. “Gender roles” or “gender stereotypes,” then, are socially shared beliefs about the character or attributes of women and men (Cleveland et al. 2000, 43).

Both women and men are rewarded and reinforced for their socially appropriate enactments of gender as traditionally ascribed to them, and both women and men receive special notice when they deviate from their expected sex and gender roles (Cleveland et al. 2000, 54; Tannen, 1994, 166; Deaux 1976, 15). In fact, they are generally punished (Mayo and Henley 1981, 8). “Once we have identified someone as female or male, we call into operation a large set of expectations about how such persons should and will behave. A woman who acts like a man is not praised and rewarded” (Mayo and Henley 1981, 8). This is especially true for the woman public administrator.

Stivers (2002) describes how carefully her gendered persona must be managed; she must project an “image that is feminine enough that [she] won’t be called a dyke … but not so feminine that [she] won’t be taken seriously” (72). Gender and Communication Style 9

Gender can be reflected at individual, interpersonal, social, and organizational levels of analysis (Unger and

Crawford 1992; Duerst-Lahti and Kelly 1995, 41). We have already described how gender functions at the individual and interpersonal levels. At the organizational level, gender can be a property of an organization, per se, and shape both its structures and ethos (Duerst-Lahti and Kelly 1995, 41). Gender helps maintain and extend a social order in which hierarchical arrangements influence access to power and resources (Unger and Crawford 1992).

Some profound questions can be asked about gender by those just learning the basics, and by those who have studied gender extensively: Why are men expected to express masculinity, and why does masculinity include the traits it does? Why are women expected to express femininity and why does femininity include the traits it does?

LaFrance and Mayo (1978, 157-158) offer an explanation by revisiting Bakan’s (1966) hypothesis that two forces operate in all living forms: “agency” and “communion.” Agency refers to any individual living thing’s imperative to protect and assert itself, whereas communion refers to the living thing’s need to associate with like forms as part of a community. Both agency (getting things done) and communion (building solidarity and giving support to others) must be present in individuals and social groups. LaFrance and Mayo (1978, 157-158) point out that agency and community functions are not biologically given, but that we live in a culture that charges men with agency functions and women with communion functions—and a culture that values agency and communion functions differently.

Agency, with its emphasis on proactive force is valued and rewarded more than communion, with its emphasis on communality.

Any introduction to perspectives on gender needs to note that maleness and masculinity are normative in the culture at large, as well as what this implies. First, research has established that when the vast majority of people are asked to think of “students” or “politicians” or “managers,”—or of the attributes of students, politicians or managers—there is a greater likelihood that they will think of males and masculinity in the absence of any contrary information (Cleveland et al. 2000,47). Second, masculine gender roles and stereotypes contain a broader range of acceptable and esteemed traits than do feminine gender roles and stereotypes (Cleveland et al. 2000, 46). Third, male sex roles and sex role stereotypes contain a broader range of occupational categories than do female sex roles and sex role stereotypes (Cleveland et al. 2000, 9). Finally, just because maleness and masculinity are normative, men are not exempt from the constraints of social expectations. They are scrutinized, just as women are, for their ability to proffer the socially expected behaviors, attitudes, language and styles required by the masculine gender role; and, likewise, they are exhorted to engage in appropriate activities, interests, occupations and responsibilities as Gender and Communication Style 10 dictated by their sex roles and sex role stereotypes. This said, men, nonetheless, hold a privileged place in society, enjoying a broader range of acceptable roles, traits, and behaviors.

An introduction to gender will inevitably include recognition of sex and gender differences, but it should also question the assumption lurking beneath: that differences are important (Cleveland et al. 2000, 32). Scholars from many disciplines urge us to note the great overlaps in gender studies, to remember that women and men share more similarities than differences, and to interpret these similarities as well as differences (Birdwhistell 1960, 41;

Josefowitz 1980, 14-15; Cleveland et al. 2000, 48; Adler and Towne 2002, 230).

Finally, Bernard (1968) acknowledges two defensive reactions people tend to express when introduced to gender perspectives. One reaction is to argue that sex and gender differences are minimal and not important. Bernard suspects that fear lies beneath this reaction—fear that open dialogue about such differences will result in (further) sex discrimination. Repeatedly, we have heard some version of, “You’re creating a problem that doesn’t even exist” from such a contingent. Conversely, there is the “Vive la difference!” reaction. Bernard suspects this response is rooted in an attachment to traditional sex and gender roles and in a culture that values agency functions and masculinity more than femininity and communion functions. It is prudent to expect these responses when introducing perspectives on gender, and to be ready with reassuring responses like, “We’re reporting the news here, not making it!” or “We couldn’t abolish gender and sex differences in this session, even if we wanted to. What we can do is move toward a greater understanding of how gender affects communication so that we enhance our own effectiveness and our organizations’ effectiveness.”

Perspectives on Communication. Most succinctly, communication involves the creation of meaning or the eliciting of a response (Barnlund 1962, 197-202). Communication may occur in face-to-face interaction, in small groups, in large groups and organizations, and through various mass media. Models describe communication as a dynamic, transactional process in which people send and receive messages, including feedback, in multiple channels, usually simultaneously, and within some context or system that probably contains ‘noise’ to distort messages (Adler and Towne 2002, 10-12; Wood 2004 31-33).

Communication is a complex process. It can occur intentionally and unintentionally, consciously and unconsciously, and verbally and nonverbally (Adler and Towne 2002, 13-16). It can range from effective (with fidelity or accuracy between intent and effect) to ineffective (with an intent-effect gap) and feedback can range from positive (reinforcing) to negative (disapproving). Communication is symbolic and relies on abstract, arbitrary, Gender and Communication Style 11 ambiguous representations that may be perceived through any of the senses. We use symbols to construct and reconstruct reality (Wood, 2004, 29). Communication has two levels of meaning, the content level and the relationship level (Watzlawick et al. 1967, 51-52). The content level contains literal messages and the relationship level indicates the nature of involvement between communicators. Similarly, communications contain report and command aspects (Ruesch and Bateson 1968, 21-38). The report aspect contains information and is tied to the content message and the command aspect refers to how the message is to be taken. The term “meta-communication” is used to refer to the “communication about communication” that is implicit in the relational level or command aspect of messages . In the presence of another person, one cannot not communicate (Watzlawick et al. 1967, 48-51).

Finally, interactions may be “punctuated,” as people attribute causality to their own and others’ behaviors

(Watzlawick et al. 1967, 54-59).

George Herbert Mead and other symbolic interaction theorists maintain that mind, self and society emerge through communication. Through all symbolic processes, but especially through language, we gain the ability to perceive ourselves objectively in the same sense that we perceive others as objects (Duncan 1967, 243-244). Thus, our personal, interpersonal, professional, and civic lives are all influenced by communication (Wood 2004, 17-21).

Social construction theorists who write about gender concur. Our notions of gender and our own gender identities develop through communication in concrete, changing social relationships within a culture which has its own evolving customs, rules, and expectations that affect what gender is perceived to be (Thorne et al. 1983, 16).

Clearly, it is through communication in its many forms that people create meaning about their biological sex and construct complex images of themselves and others as gendered beings. Language, nonverbal communication, and themes and rituals in conversation itself can be gendered; as such, communication can create, maintain and extend traditional relationships between women and men—relationships that accord men positions of power and dominance and cast women into submissive, supportive roles.

Gender and Nonverbal Communication. Because it is easier to “see” gendered nonverbal communication than it is to “hear” gendered language use or conversational themes, we introduce feminine and masculine nonverbal styles first. We begin with a short theoretical description of nonverbal communication, anticipating questions frequently raised by those who are not scholars or students of communication studies.

First, a definition: Nonverbal communication includes all messages expressed by means other than language (Adler and Towne 2002, 263; Wood 2004, 126). Nonverbal messages are sent and received through multi- Gender and Communication Style 12 sensory channels continuously. These channels include: body orientation, interpersonal distance, posture, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact and looking behaviors, voice, touch, dress and appearance, territoriality, physical environment, and our use of time and timing (Adler and Towne 2002, 242-262). Even silence has communicative value (Wood 2004, 141).

In addition to its multi-channel nature, nonverbal communication has some other important characteristics.

(1) Scholars estimate that nonverbal communication conveys between 65% and 93% of the meaning or overall impact of communication (Wood 2004, 126). Most meta-communication flows through nonverbal communication, conveying the command aspect of the message and relational dimensions of meaning including responsiveness or interest in others, liking or affiliation, and power or dominance-submissiveness (Wood 2004, 128-129). (2)

Nonverbal communication is culture bound and reflects the values and rules of a particular culture (Adler and

Towne 2002, 226). Therefore, the same nonverbal behavior can mean different things in different cultures. Relevant to this paper, the behaviors that communicate femininity and masculinity in one culture do not necessarily align with gendered behaviors in another culture. (3) The meaning of any nonverbal behavior is highly contextual (Wood

2004, 144). As a result, nonverbal communications have been characterized as vague and ambiguous (Adler and

Towne 2002, 237-238; Wood 2004, 126-127). A particular nonverbal behavior may serve multiple functions at the same time – or it may be nothing more than an idiosyncratic expression. Further, meanings vary over time, context, sub-culture and culture. (4) Nonverbal communication is continuous and occurs in an ongoing stream of interaction, unlike verbal communication that occurs intermittently (Adler and Towne 2002, 241). (5) Most nonverbal communication occurs unconsciously (Adler and Towne 2002, 242). Two exceptions are noteworthy. First, gestures are relatively conscious as enacted and observed, and, second, exceptions to expected nonverbal behaviors tend to make their way into the conscious mind to be processed explicitly and cognitively. (6) Nonverbal communications serve multiple functions. Relative to verbal communication they may repeat, complement, emphasize, contradict, substitute for or contradict verbal messages (Adler and Towne 2002, 233-234).

Sex and gender differences in nonverbal behavior have been investigated across disciplinary lines since publication of an essay on “Masculinity and Femininity as Display” by anthropologist Ray Birdwhistell (1970). He distinguishes “gender displays” as patterned social behaviors that are learned and situationally produced

(Birdwhistell 1970, 42). He reports that informants in seven cultures readily distinguished male movement and female movement and different degrees of accentuation or diminution, depending on the situation (Birdwhistell Gender and Communication Style 13

1970, 43). He suggests gender display systems provide not only gender identification, but also information about the division of labor and day-to-day life within a community.

Goffman (1976, 69-07) further defines “gender displays” as the formalized, ritualized behaviors females and males characteristically perform to announce their alignment and intent in social situations. Gender displays are emotionally motivated behaviors that have become stereotypic by simplification or exaggeration so that a brief expression suffices in lieu of playing out an entire act. They affirm basic social arrangements and present information about people and the social order. Gender displays are typically “dialogic” in that a gender statement by one person in the presence of an opposite-sex person tends to call out a reply, and “political” in that gender statement-response pairs tend to occur in patterns showing masculine dominance and feminine subordination

(Goffman 1976, 71-71). Henley (1977) concurs with Goffman’s political analysis of gender displays. She maintains the “personal-as-political” feminist perspective in pointing out how power statements and gender displays are fused in micro-political gestures that serve as the glue that holds together a power hierarchy in which females are subordinate to dominant males (Henley 1977, 140).

Appendix 2 (Gender and Nonverbal Communication) contains a summary of research describing sex and gender differences in nonverbal communication. Bulleted descriptions of feminine style and masculine style are provided for research on the following aspects of nonverbal communication: posture; body orientation; use of interpersonal space and distance; positioning of feet and legs, arms and hands, and heads; facial displays; touching; dress and appearance; expression and interpretation of emotion; and voice. In these gendered forms, feminine style can be interpreted as serving the communion functions described by Bakan. However, feminine style also serves as the asymmetrical reciprocal for masculine style, in which case, it functions to indicate submission and subordination.

Let us illustrate how information from Appendix 2 might describe the interaction of two public managers— a woman who displays femininity and a man who displays masculinity. She sits upright, legs crossed, hands folded in her lap. He leans back relaxed and at ease, with his arms behind his head in a “power spread” and his legs crossed in the

“broken four” (ankle on knee) position. She cants her head and torso, she smiles, and she looks at him, eyes wide open, brow arched, glancing away and/or lowering her eyes frequently. He holds his head upright, neutralizes emotional expression in his face, and he does not look at her as they speak. The muscles around his eyes and in his brow remain relaxed. Her voice is soft; she uses the higher range of her pitch register and a wide intonation pattern, including Gender and Communication Style 14 hesitations and rising inflection at the end of her sentences. His voice is louder; he uses the lower range of his pitch register and a narrow intonation pattern, with no hesitations and falling inflection at the end of his sentences. In this stereotypic encounter, we discern reciprocals that display not only gender, but also an alignment of power. His masculinity expresses dominance, whereas her femininity—perhaps intended to express affiliation or connection— expresses the reciprocal of dominance: subordination and submission. This is evident in their relative size, (big/small, up/down, expanded/constricted); their postural alignment (informal, loose/formal, tight); their eye contact patterns

(watchful, with gaze aversion/disengaged); and their vocal patterns (soft/loud, higher/lower pitch range; wide/narrow intonation patterns). Gender and power are thus confounded so that men who express their masculinity simultaneously express power and dominance and women who express their femininity simultaneously express subordination and submissiveness.

Numerous scholars point out that these differences make a difference in the context of relationships between women and men. They function to define, maintain, and extend the traditional hierarchical arrangement in which females are submissive to dominant males (Henley 1977; Mayo and Henley 1981; Goffman 1976; Frieze and

Ramsey 1976; Mills 1983). Mayo and Henley (1981, 8) say it best, “Nonverbal behavior encodes power well.”

Gender and Verbal Communication. Although popular literature suggests that women and men come from different planets and speak different languages, they decidedly do not. They do, however, use the same language differently. Appendix 3 (Gender and Verbal Communication) provides a summary featuring these differences. Clearly, verbal communication—the use and choice of language—is informed by gender and gender roles, although users may remain relatively unconscious of this (Ivy and Backlund 2004, 154). To understand the gendered use of verbal communication, it is imperative to understand that women and men communicate for disparate purposes, use dissimilar sets of rules to guide their verbal communications, and have distinct paradigms for understanding and interpreting what is said.

First, let us discuss how the very purpose, intent, or goal of communication differs for men and women.

There is ample evidence that men communicate to establish independence, control and status, or to resist the control and influence of others, and that women communicate to build rapport and to approach intimacy with others (Wood

2004, 125 & 128; Tannen 1990, 1994). In our discussion of perspectives on gender, we discussed Bakan’s (1966) hypothesis that our culture charges men with agency functions—getting things done—and women with communion functions—creating solidarity and providing support. To get things done, men express themselves assertively and Gender and Communication Style 15 with confidence, but this style has a cost. It tends to exclude others’ ideas or comments, as well as place others in the position of challenging the speaker’s competence, should they choose to speak up (Wood, 2004, 130). The task- oriented style men generally use in their verbal communication relies on the use of descriptive and empirical facts, logical arguments, and a sense of authority (Beck 1988; Eakins and Eakins 1978; Tannen 1990a; Wood 1993a). By contrast, women’s purpose for communicating is to create solidarity and provide support, hence they use a

“participatory mode of interaction in which communicators respond to and build on each other’s ideas in the process of conversing” (Wood 2004, 125; Tannen 1990, 1994). This style, too, has a cost: Others may view the initiator as lacking in competence, confidence, or both. The relationship-oriented style women generally use to communicate relies on interpretative, metaphorical description, emotionality, and a high degree of responsiveness with others

(Beck 1988; Eakins and Eakins 1978; Tannen 1990a; Wood 1993a).

In addition to having different purposes for communicating, men and women also operate with different sets of rules for verbal communication, which are deeply ingrained aspects of gender role socialization. Floor holding or conversational control rules (masculine style) and rules for turn taking (feminine style) present a remarkable case in point. For men, holding the floor and maintaining control over the conversation is an important end, in itself, as it establishes status, power, and dominance. Hence, men interrupt others more frequently than women, engage in overlaps, speaking simultaneously with another or with others, and fill pauses with nonlinguistic utterances (uh, um, ah). When being interrupted, men respond differentially, depending on the status of the person who interrupts. The rule is to allow one’s superiors to interrupt, but to keep talking when peer or subordinates interrupt—or to become inattentive to them, should they gain conversational control. Women’s rules about turn taking are quite at odds with men’s rules for floor holding. Women expect to take turns speaking, and expect to share relatively equal conversational time with others. Hence, they take fewer turns speaking than men, speak for shorter periods of time, and do not often interrupt others. When interrupted, women tend to stop talking; they are even likely to show interest in the one who has interrupted.

Another equally interesting contrast of rules for women and men concerns tentativeness and politeness that is aimed at including others in conversation. Women use hedges (“Yes, I guess I could support that position, or I could refute it, too, depending…”), disclaimers (“This is what I read, but, you know, you can’t believe everything your read”), hesitations (“Well, uh, I’ll need to think that one over…”), qualifiers (“I’m not the best source for that information, but here’s what I know…”), and tag questions (“We’re going ahead with Plan A, aren’t we?”) Gender and Communication Style 16

(Borisoff and Merrill 1998, 29-31; Wood 2001, 127). All these verbal forms express tentativeness and politeness, and are designed to open the way for others to respond and express their thoughts and opinions. Men, by contrast, avoid hedges, disclaimers, hesitations, qualifiers, and tag questions in their quest for autonomy, authority, and conversational control. Being polite verbally may mean saying “please” and “thank you”—but it sure doesn’t involve hedges or disclaimers. Further, there is nothing impolite about dominating conversations, in men’s rules, because if others have something to say, men believe, they will speak up, even if it means interrupting. That is, well, as long as the other is a man. Women who interrupt are another story. Women are expected not to interrupt, and those who do have broken a norm or rule.

Interpreting others’ verbal communication usually involves using the conventions and rules of one’s own gender to make sense of what others are saying. Consequently, misunderstandings frequently occur between men and women because they are unaware that differing rules are in use. Consider this: using masculine rules of floor holding to judge women who are using feminine rules for turn taking. This is akin to using soccer rules on the football field. Women appear as though they have nothing to say—no opinions, no information. Hence, they appear weak, indecisive, and powerless (Borisoff and Merrill 1998, 32; Cleveland et al. 2000, 109; Wood 2001, 127-128).

Now consider this: using feminine rules of turn taking to judge men who are using masculine rules for floor holding.

This is equally flawed; men appear impolite, intrusive, and unwilling to share conversational space with others

(Wood 2001, 129). In ignoring others’ ideas they impede the development solidarity and preclude building community.

Finally, judgments by feminine and masculine rules about the meaning of overlaps that finish others’ sentences are almost humorous, except for the alarming attributions women and men make when a member of the opposite sex overlaps them finishing a sentence. Men use and view finishing others’ sentences as an act of control and status ranking. Women use and view finishing others’ sentences as an expression of understanding and agreement. He means to pull rank, but she experiences rapport and unders tanding. She means to demonstrate understanding and build rapport, but he experiences a put-down.

An important argument has unfolded in the scholarly literature. Lakoff (1975) first observed that women use more hedges, qualifiers and tag questions than men; she reasoned that women’s language use was powerless, reflecting women’s subordinate roles and low self esteem. Spender (1984) challenged Lakoff’s interpretation, pointing out that Lakoff was using masculine rules as the standard to judge feminine behavior, hence disavowing Gender and Communication Style 17 women as a speech community. Wood (2001, 128) puts it well when she writes, “It is much easier to jump into a conversation that has not been sealed with absolute, firm statements.”

By understanding that women generally communicate for relational purposes, to fulfill communion functions, and that men generally communicate to gain power and status, or to expedite tasks to fulfill agency functions, we can begin to bridge the gender gap. By appreciating that different rules govern men and women’s verbal communication, we can grasp their intentions and interpret their meanings with greater accuracy and understanding. Public administrators who are in the position of understanding gender differences in verbal communication are in an influential position. They are well prepared to understand others, provide interpretations to clarify miscommunications, and flex their own styles to enhance their effectiveness with both men and women.

Gender and Conversation Style. Examining conversations in opposite-sex and same-sex encounters for gender themes has been the scholarly focus of psycholinguist Deborah Tannen (1990, 1994) for nearly two decades.

Influenced by Goffman’s (1976) work on gender displays, Tannen developed a linguistic approach to understanding communication and relationships. She explains: people have different conversational styles, influenced by gender, as well as by other factors, including the part of the country they grew up in, their ethnicity, their age, and their social class (Tannen 1994, 11). Most—but not all—women and men adhere to gendered patterns, but there is nothing inherently male or female about a particular way of talking (Tannen 1994, 15). Conversational style is perhaps best understood as an implicit subscript or code that reveals a speaker’s assumptions about relationships, preferences for alignment in a social order, norms and rules about when and where people are expected to talk and/or to listen, and strategies for leading and managing others. When conversationalists are unaware of different styles, they think they are simply saying what they mean. They project their own subtext, or code onto the conversation, constructing a gendered understanding of the encounter. When misunderstandings occur, however, they tend to attribute the difficulties to others’ intentions, abilities, or character—or to their own failure to communicate well. Such misunderstandings happen in both private and public contexts. When work is the context, serious consequences may result from failures to understand gendered conversation.

Appendix 4 (Gender and Conversational Themes and Rituals) identifies many components of feminine and masculine conversational style (Tannen 1990, 1994). Public managers who are aware of these themes and rituals will be well equipped to recognize gendered subtexts in conversations, especially in mixed-sex encounters. They will have the tools to avert or clear up many misunderstandings by flexing their style, and they may be able to Gender and Communication Style 18 explain or remedy mishaps in progress. Knowing about conversational style will provide public administrators with the opportunity to improve their own effectiveness, especially in communicating with those of the opposite sex.

Let’s examine a hypothetical interaction between two public managers—a woman and a man whose conversation is sprinkled with gendered themes and rituals. She assumes they are peers, and views the conversation as a negotiation for closeness. He assumes he will be one-up or one-down on some relevant criteria in any conversation, and he views the conversation as a contest in which both will vie to have the upper hand. A translation of the interaction, using gendered subscripts appears in italics, illustrating potential points of disconnect. Our colleagues meet in the hallway one morning…

(1) She: I’m sorry to hear John resigned.

Feminine Style: “I’m sorry” is a ritualistic conversation smoother. She intends to open a “troubles talk”

conversation in which the two express and lament the problems caused by John’s

resignation. She is one step closer.

(2) He: Why are you apologizing? It’s not your fault.

Masculine Style: “I’m sorry” is an apology, an admission of wrongdoing. His co-worker’s apology makes

no sense: she didn’t cause John to resign. Besides, apologizing puts you in a one-down

position with another. It is very strange that she would do this. He corrects her, restoring

balance to the interaction. The score is one to one.

(3) She: I wasn’t apologizing…I mean…I feel bad for you, losing him. It has to be disappointing. I know

how much you were counting on him during the legislative session.

Feminine style: “I wasn’t apologizing,” is a quick correction—an opportunity to clarify her intent and

indicate her openness. Sure, he took her “I’m sorry” literally, and clearly expressed that

she was off the hook, as far as he was concerned. He’s come one step closer. She collects

her thoughts in her pause, and self-discloses her feeling as sympathy (I feel bad for you).

Then she expresses empathy (It has to be disappointing…I know how much you were

counting on him). They are several steps closer!

Masculine Style: He is astonished. He believes she has denied that she apologized, when she clearly said

she was sorry. Her denial—her disagreement with him—is a put-down. Her sympathy (I

feel bad for you) is another put-down. Her empathy statements (It has to be Gender and Communication Style 19

disappointing...I know how much you were counting on him) are further put-downs, as

far as he is concerned. Tit-for-tat, he’s down four.

(4) He: Oh, I’ll get someone else. Someone better. Don’t worry about it.

Masculine Style: He asserts his power (I’ll get someone else). One point restored! “Someone better” not

only status ranks his new (yet unknown) subordinate with the one who resigned, it also

implies he himself will be better off than he was before. Ah, there are two more points for

him. ”Don’t worry about it” is a dig, implying this is none of her business. Hah! The

score is even again.

(5) She: Oh, I’m not worried. I was just thinking that maybe I could help you out some out by sharing Lynn with

you a few hours a day ‘til you get a replacement.

Feminine Style: She thinks she is clarifying her feelings (not worried), being open, getting closer.

Masculine Style: He thinks she is being argumentative—disagreeing with him again. Being “not worried”

is a sign of independence. He is down two.

Feminine Style: She negotiates further for closeness with her offer to share an employee. Offering to help

is a generous way to show care and concern, to build rapport, and to support another

person.

Masculine Style: A helper defines a helpee as incompetent, and weak. She has put him down again. Now

he’s down three.

(6) He: I can handle it.

Masculine Style: He refuses to be subordinate to her. “I can handle it” is his declaration of independence.

He’s only down by two now.

Feminine Style: “I can handle it” is a rebuff. He has distanced. She feels isolated. Her attempts at

connection have failed.

(7) She: Oh, okay.

Feminine Style: Smooth out the conversation by agreeing.

Masculine Style: She finally agrees with something! Man, this one is a piece of work…

Tannen’s contribution to understanding the gendered nature of conversation through themes and rituals, added to an understanding of gendered use of verbal and nonverbal communication equips public managers with Gender and Communication Style 20 many tools to bridge the communication gap between women and men, and to enhance effective communication in the workplace.

Conclusions

In this paper, we have raised two questions: What do public administrators know about gender and communication style, and what do they need to know? We reported data gathered in focus groups and analyzed this using gender studies and feminist theories to illustrate the depth of understanding that can be brought to public administrators’ experiences. Then, we framed an answer to the second question. Our discussion began with perspectives on gender and communication; then, we explored the ways in which feminine and masculine styles differ in terms of nonverbal communication, verbal communication, and conversational style.

You will recall from our introduction, the CPM planners in Idaho posed the questions that framed this paper. Thus, you may be curious to know whether or not they incorporated information about gender and communication in the curriculum. The answer is yes, and no. A one-day course, Communication for Leaders, is offered near the end of the three-year curriculum. Indeed, it focuses on communication for leaders, but it is also laced with information about gendered communication and cross-cultural communication. It has been well received by several cohorts of public administrators. Is there a stand-alone course on gender and communication? Is there a course that addresses gender and public administration, incorporating perspectives developed by leading scholars in the field of public administration—like Camilla Stivers, Rita Kelly, Georgia Duerst-Lahti, Mary Guy or Meredith

Newman? Well, no.

So, what is the reader to do with all this in terms of outreach education? We recommend the following:

Start small and start local. Find someone nearby who knows about gender and communication and cultivate a relationship with him or her. Let this person know that there are scores of public administrators who need this information in the mixed-sex workplace to enhance their effectiveness in communication, especially with members of the opposite sex.

Consider these possible venues for connecting your expert with public administrators, or others, who need to know more about gender and communication style. City, county, state and federal government agencies provide routine training, as well as special conferences. Professional associations of governmental employees (i.e.

Association of Government Accountants) have local, state, and national offices that provide continuing education to their members, as well as periodic conferences. Trade and professional nonprofit organizations also offer continuing Gender and Communication Style 21 education and conference opportunities. In addition, many government and nonprofit trade and professional groups have women’s sections or organizations (including Federal Women’s Programs; the Section for Women in Public

Administration [SWPA] in the American Society for Public Administration [ASPA]; Women in Construction;

Financial Women International; and Executive Women International).

Our paper demonstrates that without an awareness and understanding of gender and communication style, misunderstandings and gender gaps will continue to perplex individuals, and potentially interfere with organizational effectiveness. The mixed-sex workplace does not threaten to go away. In fact, it appears to be here to stay. It behooves public organizations to focus on this timely and timeless aspect of diversity.

Gender and Communication Style 22

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Appendix 1: A Summary of Focus Group Responses To: “Does gender affect communication and relationships at work?”

Observations about men and their communication style: · “Men use a directive style of communication that women aren’t used to.” · “Male program managers use an authoritarian style, mostly. They are quite directive. They are not patient about process.” · “When men report to men, the working relationship seems to be kept on professional terms; they don’t develop personal relationships.” “A male supervisor who reports to me has issues with the women he supervises in his unit. He has a direct style, but the women need emotional, relational communication as well, and he doesn’t provide this. He says, ‘We’re all adults here.’” · “Males treat their superiors differently than they do their peers or subordinates. They respect their superiors for the power they have. They listen to them, take orders from them better “Men tend to defer decisions to their superiors—or make decisions themselves—without regard for the people around them. Women, at all levels, enter into consensus building discussion when there is a decision to be made.” · “Men who report to me look to me as their boss; women who report to me look to me more as a friend.” · “The director goes to the men to talk shop; he treats me on a more personal basis. For example, he compliments me.” · “Men interrupt women, badly and consistently.” · “One of the four males who reports to me suspects I have a hidden agenda. Turf issues are important to him and any ‘team’ efforts seem to threaten him.”

Observations about women and their communication style: · “Women relating to other women are more nurturing than men relating to other men.” · “There is an assumption that women behave ‘emotionally.’ This reinforces stereotypes and leads people to expect men and women to behave differently.” · “I pay more personal attention to the women who report to me than I do to the men who report to me. I give women frequent attention and care as they seem to want that. The men just want to know if they are doing a good job; they don’t care if I care about them personally or not.” · “Women supervisors seem to look at subordinates’ competence. If subordinates are competent, women supervisors provide less direction and more support. Men supervisors provide direction and do not provide support, regardless of how competent subordinates are.” · “In meetings, when a woman suggests an idea, everyone ignores her. Later, when a man suggests the same idea, great interest is shown and ‘his’ idea is taken seriously.” · “In meetings women learn to keep their mouths shut. They feel beat up for expressing ideas. They have to have a defense ready and answer all sorts of questions. It’s fatiguing. Men suggest and idea and it just gets accepted.” · “In my mostly male division, I must communicate in male overtones. To communicate in female mode is to lose them.” · “The role models have been mostly men, so we have adopted their attributes.” · “I’ve learned to make myself talk in meetings. I was told I was too gentle and too soft-spoken.” · “The perception is that when a woman finally gets to a high position, she will only hire women. This is simply not the case.”

A “token” administrator: · “I am a ‘token’ administrator: I have no female peers. In the last year, a woman was appointed as a deputy. Having her present has allowed me to get in touch with my feminine side.” · “The men treat me as a secretary, even though I am an administrator.” · “My former peers are now my subordinates and they expect more of me than they expected of the previous director. They are suspicious about how I got this position. They as questions of me they would never ask a man, such as: ‘Did you get this on your own?’; ‘Do you have to be so tough because you’re a woman?’; ‘How much freedom will we have?’; ‘What can you do for us?’ and, ‘Who’s really in charge?” · “Trust is one issue they have: Can they trust a woman? Power is their other issue.”

Sex segregation and double standards: · “In meetings I notice a segregation of sexes: men sit together and women sit together.” · “When I was promoted, no one mentioned it. I was in the new job awhile before my subordinates found out. If I’d been a man, there would have been a big ceremony to announce this.” · “Men can dress casually on Fridays and no comments are made; women can’t dress casually without receiving comments on their appearance.”

Gender and Communication Style 28

Appendix 1: A Summary of Focus Group Responses To: “Does gender affect communication and relationships at work?” (Continued)

Divergent Opinions Point: · “In my agency we have had a great deal of training aimed at self-directed work teams. The males seem to enjoy the same involvement as the females. The training has helped us learn new tools for better communication and relationships. We negotiate and collaborate with gender not being a factor.” Counter-point: · “In my agency, we’ve had training on teams, but it’s just lip -service. ‘Do this’ is the M.O. We have a clear hierarchy and a military-organization way of thinking.”

Point: · “Some government agencies are populated with male managers who have military service in their backgrounds and this seems to affect how they manage. They are insistent on rigid structures, are protocol-intensive and micro-manage their employees.” Counterpoint: · Females with military service in their backgrounds manage similarly. This is not a gender issue.” · “My experience is that women with military experience outdo their men counterparts in the command-and-control management style.” · “Not all former military people manage like this. There are exceptions.”

Gender and Communication Style 29

Appendix 2: Gender and Nonverbal Communication

POSTURE Feminine Style Masculine Style Overall Posture · Tense, at attention, formal, tight · Relaxed, at ease, informal, loose Goffman 1976 · Imbalance in body cant · Balanced with strong gravitational Henley 1977 · Constrict in space with arms and legs balance; stand tall Mehrabian 1972 close to body to appear smaller · Expand in space; extend arms and legs Wood 2001 away from body to appear larger Cleveland et al. 2000 Pelvic tilt · Roll pelvis forward · Roll pelvis backward Birdwhistell 1960 · Tuck under buttocks · Protrude buttocks · Flatten abdomen · Let abdomen hang loose Gait · Body moves as a whole · Sway hips Birdwhistell 1960 Who walks ahead? · Tend to walk slightly behind males · Tend to walk slightly ahead of females Grady et al. 1976 Height compensation · Shrink and shuffle · Expand and walk tall Goffman 1976 · Drop shoulders · Square shoulders · Cant at knees · Stand straight · Compact spine · Stretch spine · Head cant, bow · Hold head erect

BODY ORIENTATION Feminine Style Masculine Style Body orientation · Angle away from males who are not · Directly orient toward females Henley 1977 intimates · Pairs orient side by side Goffman 1976 · Pairs directly face each other · Pairs stand farther away from each Tannen 1994 · Pairs stand closer than male pairs other than female pairs When passing in front of or behind · Close limbs · Keep limbs open others · Pass males with back to other · Pass males with back, front to females Henley 1977

INTERPERSONAL SPACE AND Feminine Style Masculine Style DISTANCE Personal space · Smaller bubble of space surrounds · Larger bubble of space surrounds most Baxter 1970 most females males Goffman 1976 · Control less territory than males · Control more territory than females Frieze and Ramsey 1976 · Space is violated more than males’ · Space is respected more than females’ Cleveland et al. 2000 Interpersonal distance during · Stand closer to same sex friends and · Interpersonal distance is constant with conversation farther away from same sex strangers same-sex friends and strangers Heshka and Nelson 1972 · Stand closest to males or at · Stand closest to females or at Mehrabian and Diamond 1971 intermediate distance intermediate distance Willis 1966 · Female pairs stand and sit closer than · Male pairs stand and sit farther than Henley 1976 male pairs female pairs Reactions to crowding · More cooperative · Less cooperative Freedman, et al. 1972 · Less aggressive · More aggressive · May expect situation to be social · May expect situation to be competitive Spatial invasions · Flee · Hold the fort Polit and LaFrance 1977 Moving out of the way when passing · Move aside when approaching males · Less likely to move aside when another · Move out of way of other females at approaching females Silveira 1972 same rate males move out of way of · Move out of way of other males at Collett and Marsh 1974 other males same rate females move out of way of LaFrance and Mayo 1978 other females

Gender and Communication Style 30

Appendix 2: Gender and Nonverbal Communication (Continued)

FEET AND LEGS Feminine Style Masculine Style Intra-femoral angle when sitting · Intra-femoral angle of zero degrees · Intra-femoral angle of 5-15 degrees Birdwhistell 1960 Goffman 1976 Leg crossing patterns · Cross at ankles: thighs tense, together · Cross at ankles: thighs relaxed and Birdwhistell 1960 · Cross at knees: lower legs parallel and spread Goffman 1976 close together, toes pointed · "Broken four": ankle to knee downward, feet tucked under chair Standing postures · Ballet position 3 or 4, with weight on · Feet spread shoulder width apart; one hip weight balanced on both feet; knees · "Bashful knee bend": one knee bent flexed toward the other, toe near instep of · Self defense position: one foot slightly other foot forward, weight of body pressed down through flexed knees Shifting weight when standing · Pivot with feet, legs, hips, shoulders · Shift weight side to side when in and head rapport with other males · Rock toe to heel in hierarchical bidding with other males Floor Sitting · Legs folded, angled to one side, or · Use more positions than females, Hewes 1957 · Legs straight ahead, crossed at knees including tailor position, legs angled or ankles from the torso, knees up with feet on floor

ARM & HAND POSITIONS Feminine Style Masculine Style Birdwhistell 1960 Goffman 1976 Henley 1977 Upper arms · Hold close to body · Hold 5-20 degrees from body

Arms spread · Seductiveness: one arm raised to · Power spread: arms spread wide with Scheflen 1972 stroke hair or back of neck hands behind head at nape of neck Wrists · Flex, bend, limp · Held stiff Gestures · Small, demure, inhibited · Large, forceful, aggressive Shoulders · Lowered, especially in the presence of · Squared, especially in the presence of males other males Hands · Palms up · Palms down or closed Birdwhistell 1960 · Lace fingertips lightly or grasp one · Grasp whole hand at front (fig leaf) or Goffman 1976 finger at front or back back (parade rest) Henley 1977 · Expressive, exploratory touch of · Utilitarian, instrumental touch and use objects of objects · Use fingers to outline, cradle, caress Hands on hips · Spread fingers, bent wrists · Mitten hands; stiff wrists Hands in pockets · Jacket spread open arms in front of · Jacket closed; arms under sides of jacket jacket Carrying books · Compact: Wrap one or both arms · Expansive: Use one arm and hand at Jenni and Jenni 1976 around books and rest short edge of the side of the body with long edges of book against stomach or chest box nearly horizontal

Gender and Communication Style 31

Appendix 2: Gender and Nonverbal Communication (Continued)

HEAD POSITIONS Feminine Style Masculine Style Goffman 1976 Henley 1977 Cant (tilt) · Frequently · Rarely · To greater degree than masculine · For longer time than masculine Bow (chin down, head lowered) · Frequently · Rarely Elevate head on vertical axis (head · Rarely · Frequently up) Nod head · Frequently · Rarely

FACIAL DISPLAY Feminine style Masculine Style Smiling · Smile more when alone · Smile little when alone Henley 1977 · Greater frequency, intensity and · Less frequency, intensity and duration Mackey 1978 duration of smiling with others of smiling with others Ragan 1982 · Smiles elicit smiles and may create and · Van Hooff 1972 maintain cohesion and solidarity Wood 2001 · Smiles may also be interpreted as appeasement gestures, a sign of non- threat Emotional displays · Greater frequency, intensity and · Less frequent, less intense and shorter Goffman 1976 duration of emotional expression duration of emotional expression Henley 1977 · Intensify positive emotions · De-intensity, neutralize, mask LaFrance and Mayo 1978 · Anger not appropriate to experience or · Fear and sadness not appropriate to express experience or express Eyes · Hold wide open, with brows arched · Relax muscles around eyes; relax Goffman 1976 brow Henley 1977 Wood 2001 Looking behaviors · Attentive, watchful of environment · Less attentive, watchful: look away Henley 1977 · Maintain high eye contact with others from others a great deal Argyle and Cook 1976 · Rarely stare · May look directly at female Wood 2001 · Frequent gaze aversion · Direct looking at male signals threat · Lower eyes · Keep eyes open Changing direction of gaze · Close eyelids while shifting gaze · Keep eyes open while shifting gaze Birdwhistell 1960

TOUCHING Feminine Style Masculine Style Initiator/receiver · Most often, receiver of touch · Most often, initiator of touch LaFrance and Mayo 1978 · Less likely to reciprocate male’s touch · Men touch women almost twice as Henley 1973 of hand much as women touch men Cleveland et al. 2001 · Expected to accept touch as normal · More likely to reciprocate female’s Wood 2001 · Expected to express support, affection touch of hand and comfort through touch · Expected to touch to express power

DRESS AND APPEARANCE Feminine Style Masculine Style Marked and unmarked status · All choices in appearance mark women · Men can choose a style in appearance Tannen 1994 and call attention to her that won’t attract attention or subject him to any particular interpretation Gender and Communication Style 32

Appendix 2: Gender and Nonverbal Communication (Continued)

EXPRESSING AND Feminine Style Masculine Style INTERPRETING EMOTION Expressing emotional displays · Greater capacity to produce facial · Less able to produce facial LaFrance and Mayo 1978 expressions viewers can interpret expressions viewers can interpret correctly correctly Nonverbal sensitivity: Interpreting · Decode better; show greater · Decode less accurately, less nonverbal behavior sensitivity to nonverbal behavior sensitivity to nonverbal behavior Rosenthal, et al. 1977 · Same sex judgments more accurate · Same sex judgments more accurate Responding to others: Gender-linked · Adjust nonverbal behavior to males · No adaptive adjustments in opposite- reactivity who are dominant to become sex encounters Weitz 1976 nonverbally submissive · No adaptive adjustments in same-sex · Adjust to nonverbal behavior of males encounters who express affiliation to become more dominant · No such adjustments found in research with female pairs

VOICE Feminine Style Masculine Style Addington 1968 Pitch · Tend to use higher pitch range · Tend to use lower pitch range LaFrance and Mayo 1978 · Spread lips (as in smiling) and shorten · Don’t spread lips and so use full Cleveland et al. 2000 vocal tract, producing higher pitched length of vocal tract, producing lower Kramer 1974 sound pitched sounds Sachs et al. 1973 Scott 1980 Intonation patterns · Dynamic intonation in use of wider · Narrower pitch range; monotone Labov 1972 pitch range · Infrequent change or rate McConnel-Ginet 1983 · Frequent change of rate Sachs et al. 1973 · Correct forms of intonation Brend 1975 · Polite, cheerful Lakoff 1973 · High/low down glide of surprise · Hesitation patterns · Polite, cheerful patterns · Declarative statements with rising inflection (question) Breathiness · Perceived as feminine, pretty, petite, · Perceived as younger or more artistic shallower Thinness · Perceived as less mature · No findings Flatness · Perceived as less feminine, colder, · Perceived as more masculine, colder, withdrawn withdrawn

Nasality · Socially undesirable · Socially undesirable Tenseness · Perceived as younger, more · Perceived as older and more emotional, feminine, high strung and unyielding, cantankerous less intelligent Throatiness · Perceived negatively · Perceived as older, mature, sophisticated Increased rate · Perceived as more animated and · Perceived as more animated and extroverted extroverted

Wide pitch range · Perceived as dynamic and extroverted · Perceived as dynamic, feminine and aesthetically inclined

Gender and Communication Style 33

Appendix 3: Gender and Verbal Communication

USE OF TITLES Feminine Style Masculine Style Tannen 1994 Cleveland et al. 2000 Titles “mark” women, but not men · Miss, Mrs. mark marital status and · Mr. is unmarked and says nothing conservative taste about taste

Sex-only titles still mark women but · Ms. declines marital information but · Mr. is unmarked and says nothing not men marks liberated attitude about attitude

Changing names with marriage · Taking husband’s name marks women · Most men are unmarked at marriage with traditional values (or less than · Hyphenated names at marriage mark self) men with liberated values (or less than · Hyphenated names mark women as self) retaining part of single identity

TERMS OF ADDRESS Feminine Style Masculine Style Tannen 1994 Non-reciprocal terms of address · Subordinates address dominants with · Superiors address subordinates with formality and titles informality, first names and nicknames Reciprocal terms of address · Address others as they address you · Address others as they address you

FLOOR HOLDING AND Feminine Style Masculine Style CONVERSATION CONTROL Beck 1988 Carli 1990 Cleveland, et al. 2000 Eakins and Eakins 1978 Mulac, et al. 1988 Stewart, et al. 1990 Swacker 1975 West and Zimmerman 1983 Thorne and Henley 1975 Zimmerman and West 1975 Tannen 1994 Aries 1987 Kramarae 1981 Interrupt others · Seldom · Often · Control conversation Response to interruptions · Stop talking · Allow superiors to interrupt · Respond or show interest to the one · Keep talking when peers or who interrupts subordinates interrupt Over-speech and overlaps · Seldom · Often Filled pauses · Seldom · Often Inattentiveness · Seldom · Often Length of talking per turn · Shorter time · Longer time Number of turns talking · Fewer · Greater Repeat points · Seldom · Often

Gender and Communication Style 34

Appendix 3: Gender and Verbal Communication (Continued)

CONVERSATION CONTENT Feminine Style Masculine Style Topics of conversation · Person centered: · Fact centered: cars, sports, and work Aries 1987 · Interpersonal relations · Removed from concrete experiences Johnson 1996 · Feelings and Emotions and personal feelings Schaef 1981 · Opinions · Abstract Tannen 1990b · Ideas/plans Treichler and Kramarae 1983 Wood 2001

Self Disclosure · High disclosure · Low disclosure Campbell 1973 · Volunteer personal information · Withhold personal information Cleveland, et al. 2000 Derlega and Chaiken 1976 Hall and Langellier 1988 Lewis and McCarthy 1988 Saurer and Eisler 1990 Tannen 1990b Wood 2001

STYLE OF DISCOURSE Feminine Style Masculine Style Beck 1988 · Interpretive · Descriptive Eakins and Eakins 1978 · Metaphorical · Empirical Stewart, et al. 1990 · Emotional · Logical Tannen 1990a · Detailed · Terse Tannen 1990b · Inclusivity/Responsiveness · Forceful Wood 1993a · Authoritative

PURPOSE OF DISCOURSE Feminine Style Masculine Style Borisoff and Merrill 1998 · Commune · Command Thorne, et al. 1983 · Build rapport · Report information Wood 1993a · Approach or share intimacy · Maintain independence Wood 1993b · Affiliate · Establish hierarchy Wood 2001 · Sustain relationships · Solve problems Wood and Inman 1993

EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE Feminine Style Masculine Style Borisoff and Merrill 1998 Crosby and Nyquist 1977 Lakoff 1973 Explicative Use · Soft and weak (oh, dear) · Strong and hard (oh, shit) Adjective Use · Trivial (precious, darling) · Crude, harsh (bloody, damn well) Qualifiers · Diminutive (hardly, possibly) · Absolute (never, always, definitely) Intensifiers · Higher use (so, such) · Lower use Use of Questions to Express Opinions · High · Low

JOKES, HUMOR Feminine Style Masculine Style Cleveland, et al. 2000 · Lower use · Higher use Coser 1960 · Receive or respond · Initiate Eakins and Eakins 1978 · Inappropriate for subordinates to · Appropriate for higher ups to tell jokes Murphy and Zorn 1996 superiors · Expected not to laugh · Responsible for laughing · Teasing downward permitted · No teasing upwards

Gender and Communication Style 35

Appendix 3: Gender and Verbal Communication (Continued)

POLITENESS Feminine Style Masculine Style Beck 1988 Carli 1990 Fishman 1980 Holmes 1984 Lakoff 1975 Lesch 1994 Wood 2001 Eakins and Eakins 1978 Grob and Allen 1996 Stutman 1987 Wood 2001 Tag Questions · High · Low · Indicate openness and inclusiveness · Indicate authority and exclusiveness · Function to maintain conversation · Request information Disclaimers, Hedges, Hesitations · High · Low Questions · Ask more · Ask fewer

SAME SEX GROUP INTERACTION Feminine Style Masculine Style Dominance Hierarchy · Maintain flexible rank · Establish dominance hierarchy Cleveland, et al. 2000 · Interactive · Leadership Wood 2001 · Share interaction · Compete Topics · Cooperate to pursue a single topic · Pursue a range of general topics Aries 1977 · Discuss topics of intimacy, · Competition and status Cleveland, et al. 2000 interpersonal relationships and socio- · Non-intimate, non-personal Hall and Langellier 1988 emotional issues

Gender and Communication Style 36

Appendix 4: Gender and Conversational Themes and Rituals

COMMUNICATION AND Feminine Style Masculine Style RELATIONSHIPS Tannen 1990, 1994 What are relationships for? · Intimacy: assume we are close and the · Independence: assume we are separate same and different The goal of communication is to… · Seek and give confirmation and · Seek dominance; avoid subordination support · Manage contests; negotiate to have the · Create community; connect to others upper hand · Negotiate for closeness · Maintain independence Assumptions about social order · We are essentially peers or equals · We are either one-up or one-down on · We avoid superiority, being one-up some relevant criteria · We avoid inferiority, being one-down Fear · Isolation or loss of community · Engulfment or loss of independence

ALIGNMENT WITH OTHERS Feminine Style Masculine Style Tannen 1990, 1994 Symmetry and asymmetry · Symmetry: look for and express · Asymmetry: look for and express similarities differences The value of alignment with others · Connection: being embedded · Separation: being free and independent comfortably in a network of each other

RITUALS OF ALIGNMENT Feminine Style Masculine Style Tannen 1990, 1994 “I’m sorry” · A conversation smoother · An apology or admission of wrong- · A way to restore balance to a doing that puts you one-down conversation · Accepting an apology from another · An expression of understanding and puts you one-up care Apology: A two-step ritual · One person acknowledges · One person admits a fault or wrong- responsibility for something that went doing (and takes a one-down position); wrong and exp ects the other will the other person accepts the apology reciprocate and share blame in a (enjoying the one-up position) mutual face-saving ritual Blame: Assume or assign · Assume blame (“I should have…”) · Assign blame (“What happened was…”) Thanks · A ritual conversation closer to signal · An appreciation to which you answer, leave-taking or dismissal “You’re welcome” and enjoy being · A ritual invitation to trigger reciprocal one-up thanks · · Another’s failure to reciprocate is hurtful Sympathy is · The connection of one person who · A reminder of one’s weakness by cares to another person someone stronger or better off Asking for information or help · Gets you lots of information · Asking reveals what you don’t know · Does not involve status and puts you one-down · Others may not know and will make up answers Saying, “I don’t know, but I’ll get · Honest and professional · Weak and incompetent back to you” is… Responding when asked or told what · Just do it · Resist being told what to do to do · Asking is more polite than telling · Asking is manipulative if you have the power to tell Offering to help · A generous move to show care and · Implies that the recipient is concern, build rapport, support another incompetent and one-down Responses to being deferred to or · Enjoy the polite gesture · Resent the gesture since it puts you protected (i.e. wave car on, hold door) one-down and restricts independence Gender and Communication Style 37

Appendix 4: Gender and Conversational Themes and Rituals (Continued)

RITUALS OF ALIGNMENT (cont.) Feminine Style Masculine Style Tannen 1990, 1994 Name dropping · Shows you are connected to or close to · Shows your status and advertise one’s someone self- importance Trouble talk is about · Expressing feelings to another who · Understanding the implicit request for listens and understand advice or solutions Response to previous speaker · Conjunctive—relate comments to · Disjunctive—change the subject those the previous speaker made

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CONTEXTS Feminine Style Masculine Style FOR CONVERSATION Tannen 1990, 1994 Rapport talk and report talk · Rapport talk: In private, women · Report talk: In public, men preserve establish connections and negotiate their independence and negotiate their relationships place in the hierarchy What suffices as evidence in public · Use personal examples and stories as · Use objective experience and talk? valid evidence to inform and persuade information as valid evidence others · One’s own experience is not valid evidence Backstage and onstage · Backstage is when no men are around · Backstage only happens in private and women can talk freely places · Onstage is when men are present and · Men are onstage in any public setting women monitor what they say and vie for the upper-hand Laments, trouble talk · Bond in pain · Men do not generally discuss problems · Connect in pain, loss and trouble with anyone—especially other men— well, maybe with women Contact with friends · Stay in frequent touch · Assume friends will be there whenever · Communicate about insignificant needed details of daily life · Communicate regularly at public places about local or world problems

BIG TALK AND SMALL TALK Feminine Style Masculine Style Tannen 1990, 1994 Small talk: Smoothes relationships and · Small talk focuses on personal lives · Small talk is mainly banter about prepares people for big talk sports and politics Big talk: Addresses tasks and gets · Big talk is about tasks needing to be · Big talk is about business issues and things done done office politics Giving praise and attention · Expect attention and praise for work; · Interpret too much attention as micro- enjoy these as social rewards management or power play or being · Give more praise and attention checked-up on · Without feedback, “Where do I · Give less praise and attention stand?” · Without feedback, my work must be · okay Compliments as conventional praise · Compliment more · Compliment less · Compliments are a two-way ritual— · Compliments are a two-way ritual— one compliment elicits another back one compliments and the other says, · A prompt for a compliment (i.e. “How “Thank you” did I do?) is not an invitation to · “How did I do?” is a request for criticism criticism Humor · Self-mockery is a high form of humor · Teasing, mock attacks, insults and put - and play downs are forms of humor and high · Off color jokes are for same sex play groups only, or are not appropriate · Off color jokes are a common source · The ability of some women to “play” of humor with the men can set them apart from other women Gender and Communication Style 38

Appendix 4: Gender and Conversational Themes and Rituals (Continued)

LECTURING AND LISTENING Feminine Style Masculine Style Tannen 1990, 1994 Obligation during conversation · Listen: give the gift of audience · Lecture: give the gift of information Disclosure · Expect mutual disclosure and sharing · Expect to change the subject to what of topics we know Issues · Have I been helpful? · Have I won? · Do you like me? · Do you respect me? Overlaps and interruptions · Overlaps express agreement, support · Overlaps are an attempt to get the floor or anticipation of how sentences will and shift conversational topics end

MANAGING AND LEADING Feminine Style Masculine Style AT WORK Tannen 1990, 1994 Getting things done · Giving orders is “bossy” so give · Giving orders and pushing others suggestions instead to prevent being around is a way to gain and maintain resented or disliked high status · Work quietly behind the scenes · Get maximum visibility · Be humble: avoid the spotlight, be like · Put yourself forward: get in the the others and fit in spotlight, stand out from the crowd · State opinions mildly and see who · State opinions forcefully and see who supports challenges Using indirectness to get things done · Request, state a need, hint, give · Military subordinates must “read” · Both women and men are indirect, another the opportunity to volunteer, indirectness in those of high rank and just in different ways presume, or explain the situation and take the implied action (i.e. “It’s hot in · Indirectness does not reflect what must be done here” means “Do something about it insecurity · Hesitations, pauses, tag questions, now” · Indirectness is not manipulative laughter and approving words also · The burden of interpretation is with the communicate indirectness subordinate Communicating about successes and · Be modest; self-efface · Boast and brag strengths · Do not call attention to self · Call attention to · Depend on others to blow your horn · Toot your own horn

Decision-making and “What do you · Consult with others for their best · If you have to ask what others think, think?” thoughts, advice and information you are one-down or incompetent before making the best decision · Make the decision yourself and · Decide by consensus announce it to others · Discuss things and check with others · Assume people will speak up if they to make plans dissent. · Do not assume silence is agreement Giving criticism · Deliver softly; spare others’ feelings · Deliver straight and direct; feelings · Include praise before and after have no place in business criticism · Assume other can take it · Play down your authority when · Just say what is wrong or needs to be offering criticism changed · Use authority and one-up position when criticizing Negotiating · Work from outside-in: Ask what other · Work from inside-out: Tell what you wants to invite two-way exchange want, and if other has different ideas, about big picture then negotiate · Work toward specifics · Work from specifics · Respect other’s feelings · Respect for feelings is not salient · Bluffs and threats from others are · Bluffs and threats are negotiation taken literally; if personal, conceding moves; the other will also bluff and to other is respectful threaten in a balancing move—or call your bluff Gender and Communication Style 39

Appendix 4: Gender and Conversational Themes and Rituals (Continued)

MEETINGS: A SPECIAL CASE OF Feminine Style Masculine Style PUBLIC TALK Note: No one’s conversation style is fixed: Everyone’s style varies with regard to context and make-up of the group Tannen 1994 An all too familiar pattern… · Make suggestion which is ignored— · Re-introduce a suggestion the group perhaps due to succinctness, low has ignored and get the credit for it— volume and disclaimers expanding on it, loudly and in absolute terms Turn taking expectations · Expect conversational balance: to take · Expect to dominate conversation: do as a portion of time in meetings equal to much of the talking as possible others · Expect others will speak up if they · Expect to take turns; wait for turn and have something to say invite or prompt others to speak To explore or improve ideas · Create a climate of mutual support for · Have a ritual fight; debate, argue, creativity and spontaneity object and challenge to find what is · Focus on what is good or useful about true or best, or to improve ideas ideas before criticizing them · Express ideas in absolute terms and · expect others to counter these vigorously Who you are makes a difference · Talk more with higher position than · Talk more with higher position than others in the meeting others in the meeting · Tend to pay attention to a woman · Tend to pay attention to a man whose whose contributions are equal to man contributions are equal to woman Structured and unstructured formats · Structured format (i.e. round robin): · Structured format (i.e. round robin): Women participate as much as men Men participate as much as women · Unstructured format (i.e. self- · Unstructured format (i.e. self structured): Women contribute less structured): Men contribute more than than men women Structured and free-for-all periods · During structured parts, women talk · During structured parts, men talk more less than men than women · During free-for-all parts, women · During free-for-all parts, men interact interact as much as men as much as women

Rosell 1

Student Support Services in the Virtual MPA Program Ellen Rosell, D.P.A. Troy State University

Student advising and support services are an integral component of a virtual MPA program. The National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) emphasizes that in off campus and distance education programs “Students shall have access to academic and administrative support services that are comparable to student services available to students on the main campus” (Standard 9.7). Surveys in the mid 1990s of public administration programs with emerging distance learning formats note concerns emphasizing student advising in addition to instructor access, library resources, pedagogical approaches, and class structure (Gauch, 2001). Studies of distance education programs caution that support services for the distant learner can relate to successful enrollment and retention (Krzycki n.d.; Thomas, 2003).

Studies of distance learning MPA programs have focused on defining distance learning, adopting delivery technologies, adapting pedagogical strategies, and brokering institutional support (Cohen and others, 1998; Gauch, 2001; Rahm and Reed, 1998; Rimer and Semler, 2003; Yang and Holzer, 2003). There is little information on how MPA virtual programs are delivering student support services. This study seeks to answer the following question: What are the best ways to organize and present academic advising and student support services in a virtual MPA Program?

Virtual Student Support Services

Student support services are particularly critical in virtual programs or “web-delivered programs and degrees: entire programs and degrees (that) are offered through the web” (Yang and Holzer, 2003). In a virtual MPA program, students do their course work anywhere they have access to a computer and the Internet. Their virtual environment shapes their interactions with advisors and academic service providers both temporarily and geographically. It is tomorrow in the middle of the afternoon when a student in Japan is seeking advice on a course selection at the same time a student in New Mexico is asking about a course change late this evening. The students are contacting their faculty advisor in central time in Alabama. Both students are communicating through emails or postings on a web base server rather than a physical presence in the professor’s office. Linking onto web sites and submitting on line forms and emails reflect their primary means of communications with the array of academic services. A Stanford University study found that distance learners are looking for “Academic advising and student support services which are convenient and easy to understand and access” (Petersons, 2003).

Methodology

Initially, websites of NASPAA affiliated MPA programs were reviewed for indications of offering the entire MPA program online. It was soon realized that many MPA program campus websites omit links to their online version. Further efforts to identify virtual Rosell 2

MPA programs focused on searching the World Wide Web. No doubt, not all MPA virtual programs were located. This study did identify fifteen virtual MPA programs in the United States and one in Canada. Of these sixteen programs, four do not indicate a relationship with campus based MPA programs and offer scanty program information on their website (see the appendix for a listing of the programs).

Based on the NASPAA standards, student support services include 1) library services; 2) advisement and appraisal including program advisement, career guidance, and progress appraisal; 3) internships; and 4) placement services. These support services are assessed according to the following questions:

 Are they accessible through the MPA virtual program site?  Are they pertinent to the virtual student?  Are they easy to understand and use?

Practices in Academic Advising and Student Support Services in Virtual MPA Programs

This section appraises virtual student support services reflected in online MPA programs and provides examples of best practices from both online and campus programs.

Links between the MPA Campus Program and Its Virtual Program

It is surprising that not all MPA programs link their campus and virtual delivery formats. Numerous MPA campus programs do mention their distance learning program in their mission statement or program description, but not all. Campus programs may specify a quick link, for example, Location, MPA Online Program, or MPA Distance Education that links to the online program. Conversely, not all virtual MPA programs link directly to the campus MPA program. They may include links via an email address to the program director or advisor or to the overall university web page. Those programs depicting the link to the campus program do so with a picture or a PA Home or MPA Home page type button. The visual and connecting link between the MPA campus and virtual program not only lends credibility to the online program, but also strengthens its comparability to the campus program.

Library Services

MPA virtual programs rely on campus library services. A variety of strategies links the virtual student to the campus library. Online programs may include a student services or academic services site with direct link to the library site. Others force the student to locate library services through the MPA campus site, if available, or the overall university site. Ideally, a direct link to library services on the MPA online program site is the most convenient strategy for the student. Rosell 3

Advisement and Appraisal Services Including Program Advisement, Career Guidance, and Progress Appraisal

Virtual MPA programs take different approaches to advising services. The minimalist approach simply lists a name and contact information with an email address and may include statements such as “ An advisor will be assigned to you. Please contact your advisor at your earliest convenience to set up an advising session” or “You need to contact us when you are accepted.” Another approach provides a link to the university’s or graduate school’s advising center. It is not evident how a student eventually acquires an advisor and if that advisor is a MPA faculty member.

Numerous programs do include a variety of strategies proactively informing and engaging the student in the advising process. A link to Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) offers questions and answers uniquely focusing on the online MPA program or both online and campus MPA programs. The more useful FAQs formats include links to relevant services and informative, concise responses. Several sites provide a MPA brochure often with links to services.

Exemplary strategies include the University of Nebraska at Omaha’s (UNO) “On-Line Distance Education Manual” welcoming the student to the distance MPA program and including blurbs with links to the library, administrative services, catalog, and bookstore, as well as a discussion relevant to study skills for distance learning students. The UNO virtual MPA program website also includes a link to its general “MPA Student Guide.” Valdosta State University MPA online program has “A Handbook for Online Students” with links to its Graduate School’s Online Orientation with listings and links to various sites.

It is difficult to definitely determine from the virtual MPA programs’ websites their advising strategies for their online students. Once students are accepted into the program, there are undoubtedly advising processes that are not evident on the website. For example, one MPA virtual program requires admitted students to complete an online form that includes student contact information and their selection of courses for specific terms. The student then emails the completed form to the MPA program director. This strategy generates an initial communication link providing the online student with a contact person for subsequent program questions and concerns. The Central Michigan University distance learning website offers an excellent example of an online advisement form and an enrollment checklist for students.

Several studies caution that distance learning students, in general, “expect very short response times. We heard from them when our staff did not respond within 24 hours” Cohen and others, 1998, 11). Krzycki (n.d.) warns, “The medium is so immediate that students’ expectations of a prompt response are high.” The American College of Prehospital Medicine on its distance education website posts the following statements that may be appropriate for a MPA virtual program’s consideration with regard to advising: Rosell 4

Grading and Evaluation of Student Work Student work is submitted online and the student should expect a response and evaluation within 72-hours under normal circumstances. Any undue delays in hearing from faculty members or other difficulties should be reported to our Director, Student Services at email address or our Director of Education at email address.

Counseling College administrative personnel are available by phone through the Administrative Office. If you need to speak to an Administrator and they are not immediately available, leave your name, phone number, and the best time to contact you by phone. Under normal circumstances, your call will be responded to within three (3) business days.

The above procedures, albeit rather stringent regarding evaluation of student work, do specify time lines for responding to students and multiple access contacts for the student.

Another resource for developing online advising services is the Fort Hays State College- Virtual College website. It includes site maps with numerous links for both prospective students and current students. Its advising sections on “What your advisor does” and “What you do” provide clear and detailed information. The University of Texas at Arlington Graduate School describes the benefits of its Cyber Advising that integrates advising, course selection and changes, and credit posting to transcripts with 24-hour student access to his/her academic record into an apparently seamless system. No doubt cost is a crucial issue in developing an integrated advising process. However, virtual advising demands thoughtful consideration and recognition that traditional advising strategies may not be appropriate for the virtual student.

This study further notes the omission of support services for students with physical disabilities on online MPA program websites. Typically, an online student with physical disabilities must wade through links to locate the overall university’s disability policy and procedures. The Kent State University MPA virtual program designates the “Physically Disabled Individuals with B.A./B.S. degrees: Blind, Deaf and Hard of Hearing and Persons with Severe Motor Disabilities” as its target population. Its listing of “Technology Assistance Services for Persons with Physical Disabilities” is a model for all online MPA programs:

 Fully compliant with federal laws and accessibility requirements (Section 508) for Our Course Based Web Pages.  Financial Assistance Available for Acquiring Assistance with Computer- based Hardware and Software.  In-home setup*, Pre-testing of Equipment and Technical Support.  Affiliation with Organizations for Persons with Disabilities.  Formal Affiliation with the Ohio Rehabilitation Services Commission. *Within northeastern Ohio Rosell 5

Internships

NASPAA standards include “a carefully planned internship experience . . . for students who lack a significant professional work background” (Standard 4.4). The pre-service MPA students present significant challenges in designing public service internships and guidelines within a virtual MPA program. Identifying the student without significant public service experience, developing internship placements in his/her locale, and supervising and evaluating the placement certainly require creative strategies. Generally, online MPA program websites provide a link to their program requirements that includes internship information typically oriented to the campus student. Several programs substitute an additional course for the internship requirement. Another requires pre- service students to take its MPA program’s core courses on campus and complete an internship. A perusal of FAQs indicates that internships are often not mentioned.

The University of Victoria, British Columbia MPA online program has an excellent “Co- op” site with a program overview, student information, employer information, contacts, and online forms. The University of Colorado MPA program also has a site detailing internship requirements and procedures. Several other non distance learning MPA websites offer suggestions for developing the online internship program. Indiana University’s School of Public and Environmental Affairs (SPAE) internship site includes links to the forms for the internship contract, work plan, internship progress report, supervisor evaluation, and internship summary report along with an extensive listing of internships and job postings. The North Carolina State MPA program has a “Jobs & Internships” site with links to current fellowship, internship, and job opportunities and to an extensive section on internship information including interviewing tips and searching for a job.

Placement Services

Placement services in virtual MPA programs are similar to internship services. Job listing links on the campus MPA program site are available or students are directed to bulletin boards and the university’s Career Placement Office. It is evident that little attention is paid to unique placement services demands from distance learning students.

Indiana University’s “Career Services and Alumni Affairs Services” site offers an “Erecruiting” site: Web based program that allows students to participate in on-campus recruiting, create resumes, post resume to web books, and search job postings.” As online MPA programs consider their placement services, an erecuiting strategy suggests job opportunities uniquely suited to the distance learning graduate. Numerous MPA program sites have extensive links to city, county, state, and federal resources that are useful models for online programs. The University of Alaska Southeast MPA web site has a “Career Center” site with excellent resources for the MPA job hunter. Rosell 6

Miscellaneous Suggestions for Online MPA Web Sites Development

MPA programs are truly limited in the expertise and resources to build their online web sites. However, observing how other sites visually present their program information and link their resources is a productive lesson in program site building. This study observed several helpful design elements for a MPA online web site:

 Include accreditation information whether by NASPAA and/or a regional accrediting body on the site. Prospective students are astute consumers and look for validation of a program’s credibility.

 Provide technical sites specifying hardware and software requirements or providing downloadable software. Students appreciate not being surprised with additional costs and always, free services.

 Develop multiple links to student services sites; for example, a button indicated in the typical left side format as well as a link in the FAQ’s, handbooks, and program information to the same site. Multiple access links decrease student frustration in locating a particular needed service.

The Marist College virtual MPA program provides an online tour offering a course demonstration. The University of Alaska Southeast MPA program has a cool site with blowing flags! Despite our limited resources and technical capabilities, MPA faculty, with the assistance of savvy site building students, can jazz up our program websites.

Virtual MPA Programs and Student Support Services

In reviewing web-based MPA programs, Yang and Holzer (2003) caution that The absence of these terms (web-based education policy or strategy) in the web sites reflects, at least, the poor construction of web sites for these programs. It is natural to assume that such information should be put online if a program is paying attention to and mobilizing resources around online education or online learning. For the least part, one can conclude, from the web sites, that public administration programs have not paid enough attention to online education or learning.

Their admonition holds true for the absences of student support services on a virtual MPA program website. Intended or unintended, neglecting the presentation and organization of academic advising and student support services devalues the program’s efforts to provide a quality MPA program.

The virtual university revamps educational dynamics by bringing the university to the students rather than the students to the university. Ideally, rather than assuming traditional campus student services are relevant to students in our virtual MPA programs, we need to explore their unique student service needs and develop creative and convenient responses. Rosell 7

Appendix

Universities and Their Virtual MPA Program Web Site

California State University Dominguez Hills http://mpaonline.csudh.edu/

Florida Gulf Coast University http://cps.fgcu.edu/pa/dl.html

Golden Gate University http://www.ggu.edu/schools/business/public_admin/empa.html

Kent State University http://fpsrv.dl.kent.edu/mpa

Marist College http://www.marist.edu/management/mpa/mpacho.html

Troy State University http://www.troyst.edu/

University of Colorado at Denver http://www.cuonline.edu/acad_htm/program_mpa.shtml

University of Nebraska at Omaha http://www.unomaha.edu/~wwwpa/padistance.html

University of North Carolina at Pembroke www.uncp.edu/ced/online_mpa.htm

University of Texas at Arlington http://www.cuonline.edu/acad_htm/program_mpa.shtml

University of Victoria, British Columbia Canada http://web.uvic.ca/padm/mpa-online/index.htm

Valdosta State University http://www.valdosta.edu/mpa/online Rosell 8

Virtual MPA Programs without Universities

Century University http://www.centuryuniversity.com/MA_publicadministration.html

DeVry University http://www.elearners.com/online-degree Keller Graduate School of Management http://www.directdegree.com/scripts/offer.php?code=WWL-Keller&&offer

Walden University http://www.elearners.com/online-degree

Additional Sites with Cited Resources

American College of Prehospital Medicine http://www.acpm.edu/index.asp

Central Michigan University Distance Learning http://www.ddlcampus.cmich.edu/student/student-services.html

Fort Hays State University http://fhsu.edu/virtualcollege

Indiana University School of Public and Environmental Affairs www.iu.edu/~speacare

North Carolina State University www.chass.ncsu.edu/pa/jobs.htm

University of Alaska Southeast www.uas.alaska.edu/mpa The MPA program is taught through regular broadcast over satellite television across Alaska and the Yukon. Rosell 9

References

Cohen, Steven, William Eimicke, Mark Kamlet, and Robert Pearson. 1998. The information resource management program: A case study in distance education. Available at www.columbia.edu/~sc32/cmrevisedjpae.html.; accessed January 22, 2004.

Gauch, Ronald R. 2001. Teaching public administration courses on the Internet. Available at http://spa.asu.edu/teachpa/gauchpaper; accessed December 15, 2003.

Krzycke, Nancy. N.d. Six aspects of distance learning and their impact on student satisfaction. Available at www.unomaha.edu/~wwwpa/project/krzycki.html; accessed January 22, 2004.

Peterson’s. 2003. What distance students want. Available at www.petersons.com/distancelearning/code/articles/distancelearnwant12.asp; accessed January 28, 2004.

Rahm, D. and B. J. Reed. 1998. Tangled webs in public administration organizational issues. Public Administration and Management: An Interactive Journal 3(1). Available at www.pamij.com/rahm/html; accessed January 3, 2004.

Rimer, Edward and Michael Semler. 2004. Distance education’s impact on the MPA: Teaching MPA students in a constrained and rapidly changing world. Presented at the NASPAA Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, October 16-18, 2003.

Thomas, Charlotte. 2003. Red flags to watch for when choosing distance education programs. Available at www.petersons.com/distancelearning/code/articles/distance learningquality5.asp; accessed January 26, 2004.

Yang, Kaifeng and Marc Holzer. October 2003. Web-based distance education in public administration programs. The PA Times 26(10). Submitted to

The Public Administration Teaching Conference University of Wisconsin February 12-14, 2004 Madison, Wisconsin USA

Dr. Yasin K. Sarayrah Department of Public Administration Yarmouk University Irbid, Jordan Office: +962 2 7271111 ext. 2277 Home: +962 6 533 3357 [email protected] PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah Introduction

Jordan is a developing country with comparatively few natural resources. Unlike its affluent Arab Gulf sisters, it has no oil wealth to support its economy. And unlike its sisters in the Fertile Crescent, there is minimal arable land. The most valued resource in the country has been, and remains, its people. As a result, Jordan invests heavily in its human resource development (HRD). In the attempt to stimulate economic and social development, Jordanian planners and decision-makers have long built the foundation of the economy on a well-educated population. This policy has been reflected by the frequently cited saying of his Majesty the Late King Hussein, “Our precious resource is our people”.

In order to transform itself into an inventory of qualified skilled talent, policies were implemented to further economic and social development, and to increase productivity. In higher education, teaching methods become an influential factor in this process, due to recent scientific, technological and social factors that affect many aspects of life in the country.

The lecture method is currently the prevalent method of in the classroom. Such a method that is easily implemented by the teacher and predictable by the students is highly attractive to all. The procedure of lecturing and testing directly from a textbook is considered an efficient strategy to deal with overcrowded classrooms and wide differentials in student proficiency. As a result, the few teachers who do not accept the traditional lecture method face stiff resistance to efforts to introduce alternative methods.

In consideration of problems associated with learning by traditional methods, efforts have been made to address these problems with the aim of achieving positive development in both the teaching and learning processes. Innovative teaching methods strive to utilize means and resources efficiently, thus supplying potential human resources 2 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah with a learning experience to support the development of creative thinking and problem solving skills. Implementation of the innovative teaching technique known as “Small

Study Groups” (SSD) was initiated, a method designed to increase the efficiency of student learning in the classroom through the use of an indirect teaching method, keeping in mind the differences of individual members of a class. During the SSD process, students of a class are typically divided into small groups. Within these groups, members are able to initiate discussion with each other and with the teacher, evaluate their opinions and ideas, and make well-informed decisions and formulate a report based on their research, evaluation and explicit understanding of the subject under study.

The purpose of the following study is to evaluate the effectiveness of the SSG method, as implemented in the university classes of the author during the Fall Semester,

2004 at Yarmouk University. There are two purposes for the study. The first is to assess the effectiveness of the SSG method in relation to the traditional lecture method, and the second is to evaluate the student response to the SSG method from the perspective of their participation in the SSG classroom of the author.

Study Hypotheses

In reference to the subject of the study, the author presented two hypotheses to determine the effects of small study groups on students.

Hypothesis 1: Students have greater faith in the importance of learning

within small study groups.

Hypothesis 2: Small study groups are more efficient than the traditional

learning methods.

3 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah Students were asked to complete a questionnaire (see Appendix 2). The following concepts were presented for consideration:

Hypothesis 1: Students have greater faith in the importance of learning within small study groups hence it can be measured through the following:

1. Students in the Jordanian habitat are able to deal with each other.

2. Discussion in small study groups is based on forgiveness and understanding.

3. Small study group members do not feel the sense of responsibility.

4. Small study groups help to reduce the level of boredom felt in traditional lectures.

5. Individual differences among students emerge when the small study group

method is implemented.

6. Working within these groups creates self-confidence, excellence, personality

building, and greater courage in decision-making.

7. The implementation of small study groups presents an obstacle to religious up

bringing, culture, and tradition.

8. Small study groups do not create positive competition amongst the members

within them.

9. This method is considered as an indictor of the teacher’s weakness and lack of

qualification to teach.

10. The lecturing method develops student’s scientific thinking skills.

11. The main catalyst of this method is overall consensus and good treatment.

12. The small study group method fails because of chaos and the lack of seriousness

exhibited by the group members.

Hypothesis 2. Small study groups are more efficient than other traditional methods, and it can be measured by the following:

4 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah 1. One member may exert all his presence and hence may take decisions without

general consensus.

2. These groups are a good environment for irresponsibility and the dependence on

others.

3. There might be compliments within small study groups whereas not on the

expense of the final decision made and its accuracy.

4. Learning in groups does not consist of fairness in the distribution of grades.

5. Implementation of small study groups in educational organizations in developing

countries does not achieve the required objectives due to the teaching itself and

the lack of professionals.

6. The effort exerted by the participants within these groups is less than the effort

exerted in the traditional methods of teaching.

7. It is advisory to implement the concept of small study groups in Jordan.

8. Learning in small groups is more widespread in schools than in universities.

Study Methodology

The study depended on the use of:

1. Theoretical findings: A review of available literature on the SSG method was

undertaken.

2. Field Research: The researcher reviewed questionnaires in the collection of

secondary data for this study, which he was able to access from past studies, and

formulated a questionnaire identifying a number of variables found to be correct

for the habitat of this study. The studies that were used for the questionnaire are

documented as references for this study.

The questionnaire was reviewed by three members of the teaching staff in

the department of curriculum and teaching of Yarmouk University so as to be able

5 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah to determine the precision of this instrument, and the members of the teaching

staff agreed upon the questions in the questionnaire with certain changes that were

recommended

The SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) was chosen to analyze

the secondary data, and the use of descriptive statistical methods such as the

mean, standard deviation, mode, and percentiles as required by the nature of the

study and its hypotheses.

Objectives

Through the theoretical framework, this study aims, and after the analysis of the questionnaire, and consequentially deriving the results, for the following:

1. How much students consider learning through small study groups as important in

universities.

2. The effectiveness of implementing this method in comparison to traditional

methods.

3. Clarifying the concept of small study groups, their objectives, foundations,

mechanisms and coordination within them.

4. Offering the way in which small study groups should be implemented so as to be

able to achieve the required results expected.

Justification

The importance of the study is to bring to light the effects of small study groups in the development of excellence and thinking amongst students at the different stages in university. It also has an effect on the educational levels they posses, where the results of the study will contribute to the development of the teaching methods, and showing its advantages and grasping them, and the knowledge of the disadvantages and treating these disadvantages.

6 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah The researcher sees that the following points are important to be kept in mind within the consequences that the study was carried out:

1. This study dealt with a new and old topic at the same time.

2. The lack of past research by Arabs and others in the world regarding this topic,

despite its increasing importance as life progresses.

3. The strategy of small study groups equips students with a wide range of social

skills.

4. This method plays as important role to show up the smartest of students since it

makes them feel comfortable and interested.

5. There is an exchange of information and ideas within these groups.

Problem

The attention that developed countries provided to foster creative thinking and the special care given to those gifted and talented has been in practice for some time. If this is considered an advantage, then it is of great importance for developing countries to increase the level of teaching, technology, and standards of living within them.

Jordan is one of the developing countries trying to achieve this goal culturally, scientifically, and economically through continuous efforts exerted along with other societies in the world. In response, Jordan has searched for effective teaching methods to nurture the human resource potential. The concept of small study groups in teaching based on the basic fundamentals is an effective aid towards that aim.

The study problem is shown in the need to examine the effects and efficiency of small study groups in the development of academic thinking among students, and the acknowledgement of the difference in their academic achievements due to this method compared to other traditional methods. Based on the above information, and on the confidence of the author in the important role that small study groups play developing

7 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah creative thinking among students, this study came as a research effort to add to past efforts. To achieve this, the study discusses the concept of small study groups in a scientific, logical and serial manner, especially within the Jordanian habitat.

Previous Studies

Herein, available research and studies that refer to small study groups fall into two categories, Arab studies and foreign studies. Abu Hola (1989) examined the effects of small study groups on the education of high school students as compared to other methods. The trial treatment showed a positive effect in education for students and the absence of a relationship between the teaching method and the level of student achievement, recommending the use of small study groups for teaching and improvement of students’ orientation. Al Nowafala (2000) focused on the concept of self-learning and showed a positive effect on educational achievements as compared to traditional method and the advantage in the development in educational achievement due to the reduction in fear within students. Al Quda (1997) conducted a study to show the effects of small study groups on the development of creative thinking, taking into consideration gender factor.

The researcher advised that there should be more test studies to expose the way that small study groups develop other thinking abilities such as scientific thinking.

Johnson (1976) conducted a study aimed at exposing the effects of cooperative and investigative learning. The results of the study showed that students that relied on labs to study tended to be more educated and had achieved a higher level of learning (two groups were taught with the cooperative method) with benefits for teaching the sciences.

Hill (1990) compared the writings of students that studied in pairs within small study groups based on computer sciences, with those students not using the small study group methods. The results showed increased awareness of lingual mistakes in their writings, in addition to the increase in positive participation. Wheeler and Ryan (1973) conducted a

8 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah study on the effects of cooperative study as compared to competitive study to learn reading, languages and mathematical readings. The group that was taught using the cooperative method did not display any excellence over the other group in all the subjects. He advised that cooperative learning should be used to achieve the required objectives.

Here it becomes clear the importance of this method, and that it is a natural extension of the lecture. Abercrombie (1979) indicates a very important point in his book about the objectives and the methods of group study. He believes that this method will help the students switch from reliance on leadership to a situation where they can take responsibility and rely on themselves. His theory has been met with criticism from some teachers, which represents an obstacle to the implementation and success of this method.

As indicated by Jean Ruddock (1978) in her research of learning through discussion in small groups, the small study group system aims at freeing the student from the

“follower” relationship with authority and it helps the development of independent thinking and maturity in terms of interaction with peers.

Collegiate Study in Developing Countries

Higher education has witnessed rapid growth in college applicants and graduates in developing countries during recent decades. Although these universities differ from each other in terms of size, management, human and material resources, they carry special characteristics that set them apart from similar universities in developed and industrial countries. In general, these institutions do not have deep roots in the history of these countries, as though they are imported institutions. Developed countries tend to be in control, to a great extent, of the minds of the generations in third world country universities and over the scientific and academic knowledge given to them. In addition, universities in developing countries are more dependent on government financing and

9 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah hence they are less independent when it comes to self-determination. These universities must deal with complicated problems that arise from political nationalistic circumstances and the weakness of present institutions.

However, the people of these countries and their governments consider universities very important because universities are considered to be a way of expressing nationalistic pride. They are also viewed as very important instruments for national growth and extremely necessary for the society to move in the upward direction. This is regardless of what the institution consists of and does not take into consideration the importance that the student assigns to preeminence in terms of academia and knowledge. In other words, universities are viewed as a symbol of individualism and collectiveness for the society’s position.

It is necessary to keep in mind the demand and supply problem in the labor market regarding graduates, with the fall in the demand and an increase in supply experienced in the government, public, and private sectors as a result of economic conditions. Therefore, the economy is unable to absorb the excess supply of graduates because it is faced with a growth in the applicants for higher education. This situation causes depression amongst the unemployed graduates and their families. It also presents a large waste and inefficiency in use of human resources.

There is another problem linked to the types and sufficiency of these college graduates, where the lower sufficiency and types of graduates is a result of leakage of inefficient students and an increase in the number of failed students in exams. This problem is linked to the availability of educational resources and weakness in the university management and teaching skills. Strategies are needed to improve the sufficiency of higher education and its diversity by offering a wide variety of teaching input and scientific research, the most important being to shift away from the use of

10 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah traditional methods in teaching to modern methods under the supervision of the professor, to make available suitable libraries and laboratories, to offer scholarships and to promote cooperative research and support strong research centers.

Social Pressures in University Use of SSG

Social philosophy has an effect on different aspects of culture, which in turn has affects, in the process of social normalization, on the process in which individuals change from biological to social entities. Social systems, traditions, transactions and forms of interaction within the framework of groups also include the scientific, literary and intellectual gain which indicates the similarity in psychological foundations between individuals within a given cultural setting.

Learning in small groups within the Jordanian habitat faces obstacles and problems in terms of implementation that arise primarily from tradition, culture, and religion, which call for minimal interaction between females and males that promotse a high level of shyness. The traditional belief portrayed by society, i.e. separation based on gender, leads to psychological and social problems, the effects of which are displayed in university students. Some students tend to be nervous, depressed, angry, sad, hypersensitive, and lacking in self-confidence when dealing with simple problems.

Feelings can be expressed aggressively or can create a fear of speaking in public and with other members of the society. This is an obstacle for learning through small study groups, especially in universities, resulting in a lack of homogeneity.

It is possible for university professors to contribute towards helping students to surpass these problems through the creation of a positive environment within the classroom. Professors should ensure that interaction is based on understanding, support, and encouragement. It is also possible for the counseling centers in universities to help by offering preventive and treatment programs (i.e. psychological treatment) in order to

11 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah combat such problems. The Jordanian educational environment can benefit from the use of the small study groups method, with the objective of increase of knowledge and achievement of a greater trust level between students and themselves on one hand and between the professor and the students on the other.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Traditional Methods and SSG

The basic understanding of lectures in universities is a series of oral procedures that the professor uses to transfer information. This method is considered to be one of the oldest used in universities, yet despite the fact that its use is wide-spread, there are negative aspects. The focus is on transferring information more than on understanding the subject matter, developing problems solving skills or growth of mental skills. It does not take into consideration individual learning styles or abilities, long-term retention and feedback from the students or teacher evaluation. However, large bodies of material can be presented in a cost-efficient manner while reinforcing the authority of the lecturer.

However small study groups have the upper hand in information exchange, correction of misconceptions, positive psychological adaptation and mental health, an increase in self confidence, incentives and student willingness to learn which increases the level of academic understanding. Yet the method does not focus on the professor, in terms of revealing his tendencies and abilities as well as causes students to rely on each other so some may do the work while others will just sit back and watch. It also causes a sort of chaos when marks are set for each group and individual students, and furthermore there is a problem faced when the marks are reassessed because it is difficult to differentiate between individual students.

Study Results

The following consists of a display of the SSG study results and the two hypotheses. After all the questionnaires were organized, the number of individuals within

12 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah each sample and the percentage or ratio that they formed relating to the basic characteristics for small study groups is shown in Schedule No.1:

Schedule No. 1 Sample Characteristics Number Variable Category Mode Percentile (%) First 6 3.5 Second 35 23.3 1 Academicyears Tired 58 33.7 Fourth 55 32.0 Higher education 18 10.5 Male 120 69.8 2 Gender Female 52 30.2

Accounting 42 24.4 Economics 8 4.7 Public Administration 57 33.1 3 Department Finance and Banking 28 16.3 Marketing 20 11.6 Business Management 17 9.9

Schedule No. 1 shows the main characteristics of small study groups (the academic year, gender and department). The characteristics were analyzed in terms of the modes and percentiles for the students that were included in the study. In terms of the variable, academic years, it was classified into (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th years and higher studies) where the third year students accounted for the highest percentage (33.7), whereas the first year students accounted for the lowest percentage (3.5), which is a normal value as a result of the low number first year students within the population.

As for the gender variable, the greatest percentage was male, 69.8, and the lower percentage was females, 30.2. The department variable was divided into 6 parts

(Accounting, Economics, Public Administration, Finance and Banking, Marketing, and

Business Management). Public administration contributed for the highest percentage

(33.1), whereas the Economics Department had the lowest percentage (4.7).

13 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah Schedule No. 2 clarifies the different statements of the questionnaire which

represent the first hypothesis, where for each statement the percentage was shown, based

on the five step ladder and the mean.

Schedule No. 2 Sample Characteristics Accept-ance Non-acceptance Number Statements Neutral ratio Mean ratio ratio Students in the Jordanian habitat are able 1. 66.9 19.7 13.4 2.44 to deal with each other. Discussion between small study group 2. members is based on forgiveness and 59.9 26.7 13.4 2.44 understanding. Small study group members do not feel 3. 34.9 42.4 22.7 3.06 the sense of responsibility.

Small study groups help to reduce the 4. boredom level that students feel in 84.9 8.2 6.9 1.78 traditional lectures. We can uncover the individual 5. differences between students when small 59.3 23.2 17.5 2.44 study groups are implemented. Working within these groups creates self confidence, excellence, personality 6. 82.4 9.3 8.3 1.83 building, and greater courage in decision making. The implementation of small study 7. groups presents an obstacle to religious 23.9 57.6 18.5 3.45 upbringing, culture, and tradition. Small study groups do not create positive 8. competition amongst the members within 14 61.6 24.4 3.59 them. This method is considered as an indictor 9. of the teacher’s weakness and lack of 15.2 69.2 15.6 3.78 qualification to teach. The lecturing method develops student’s 10. 72.7 11 16.3 2.07 scientific thinking skills. The main catalyst of this method is 11. 77.3 6.4 16.3 2.00 overall consensus and good treatment. The small study group method fails because of chaos and the lack of 12. 71.5 14 14.5 2.04 seriousness exhibited by the group members. Generalacceptanceratio 55.2 29.1 15.6 2.50

14 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah Schedule No. 2 shows the acceptance ratios regarding small study groups, as the

ability of students to deal with each other within groups, and that the small study group

method is able to reduce the level of boredom that the student feels in the traditional

methods, which in turn as an effect on the thinking process of students and the building

of the student personality…etc. This ratio was greater than 55.2, and while this ratio

seems to be good, it is low, either because of its lack of suitability to the Jordanian

habitat, or because of the lack of the ability of students to cope with the habitat. This

means that the first hypothesis is acceptable but it is in need of student awareness

concerning the importance of the method and the results that the method may achieve.

Schedule No. 3 shows the statements of the questionnaire that represent the

second hypothesis, where each statement had a percentage assigned for it based on the 5

step ladder and the mean.

Schedule No. 3 The statements representing the second hypothesis Number Statement Acceptanceratio Non-acceptanceratio Neutralratio Mean One member may exert all his presence and hence may 1 60.5 22.1 17.4 2.54 take decisions without general consensus. These groups are a good environment for 2 41.9 32.6 25.5 2.89 irresponsibility and the dependence on others. There might be compliments within small study groups 3 whereas not on the expense of the final decision made 69.2 12.8 18 2.26 and its accuracy. Learning in groups does not consist of fairness in the 4 53.5 29.1 17.4 2.78 distribution of grades Implementation of small study groups in educational organizations in developing countries does not achieve 5 55.8 18.1 26.1 2.51 the required objectives due to the teaching itself and the lack of professionals. The effort exerted by the participants within these 6 groups is less than the effort exerted in the traditional 40.2 40.1 19.7 3.11 methods of teaching. It is advisory to implement the concept of small study 7 69.7 14 16.4 2.20 groups in Jordan. Learning in small groups is more widespread in 8 41.9 33.7 24.4 2.93 schools than in universities. Generalacceptanceratio 54.08 25.3 20.6 2.6

15 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah Schedule No. 3 outlines the acceptance ratios of small study groups representing

lack of effort exerted by the student in this method as compared to the others, and it may

be a good environment that can be relied upon for concentration on the understanding of

students. It is able to achieve the objectives of teaching…etc. This ratio was 54.8, which

is acceptable, but is at the same time low, since some consider the SSG method to be

unfair in the distribution of marks and the ability of one student to take control over the

group or because of lack of competitiveness. From here, even if the ratio is acceptable, it

is low.

Hence the second hypothesis is not accepted. Are there differences in the

statistical indicators at the level of confidence (alpha≤0.50) between the observed and

expected ratios on small study groups. In order to answer this question the T.test was

used to uncover these differences between the observed and expected percentages as

shown in schedule no.4.

Schedule No. 4 The first hypothesis based on Economics and Business Management: Hig her Sta Independent Academic Mean Higher nd No. Statement Variable Department Difference Significant Mean ard De viat ion Small study groups help Accounting 1.398 0.001 to reduce the boredom Public 1.190 0.010 level that students feel in Administration traditional(lectures) Finance and 1.1 1. Economics 0.946 0.117 2.875 Banking 260 Marketing 0.875 0.221 Business 0.992 0.132 Management The implementation of Business Accounting 1.06 0.048 small study groups Management Economics 1.47 0.084 presents an obstacle Public 0.774 0.257 0.7 2. religious upbringing, Administration 4.352 85 culture, and tradition. Finance and 0.924 0.186 Banking Marketing 1.402 0.013

16 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah Schedule No. 4 shows that the economics department students support statement which consists of “Small study groups help to reduce the boredom level that students feel in traditional lectures” hence they believe that the group method has an effective role to reduce boredom which students feel in traditional methods (lectures). This effective role is on the development of the excellence amongst students. While business management students feel that the important statement which is “The implementation of small study groups presents an obstacle religious upbringing, culture, and tradition” and this is due to the shyness portrayed amongst students between one another in addition to the role played by religion which calls for the lack of intermingling or socializing amongst the opposite members of the sexes.

17 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah

Recommendations:

Based on the previous display, the researcher recommends the following:

1. It is necessary for the ministry of education to spread awareness regarding the

importance of small study groups and enlightening the student on how to deal

with it while taking it very seriously.

2. Teachers should implement the concept within classes and getting the students

used to it.

3. Parents should encourage their children to accept this method and that learning

within these groups is not against culture and tradition.

4. The use of training programs and debates and lecturing students and teachers,

where they discuss the good points of this method, and reinforcing these points,

while at the same time showing the disadvantages and trying to reduce their

effects.

5. Distribution of guidance pamphlets to students so as to show them the mechanism

behind the groups, and how to deal with one another within them, and to

coordinate the groups so as to come out with the suitable decision.

18 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah

Appendix

1. References

2. Questionnaire

3. Statistical Analysis*

* Statistical Analysis is not included in Web version.

19 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah

References:

Abercrombie, M. (1979): Aims and Techniques of Group Teaching.4th edition.Guildfords: Society for Research into Higher Education.

Abu Hola (1989)-Effects of Small study groups on the educational achievements of High School students. Un-published masters letter (Yarmouk University/Irbid).

Hill, B.G (1990) A comparison of the writing quality of paired and unpaired students on the computer.

Johnson, R.T. (1976) the relationship between cooperation and enquiry in science classes. Journal of research in scientific teachings.

Nowafale, Mohamed Kheir (2000)-Effect of the use of cooperative learning and self understanding.

Ruddock, Jean (1978): Learning Through Small Study Group Discussion: A study of seminar work in Higher Education: Guildford society for research in higher education.

Al Quda, Basel Mohammed (1997)-Effects of cooperative learning on creative thinking.

Wheeler, R & Ryan. (1973) Effects of cooperative and competitive classroom environments on the attitudes and achievements of elementary school students engaged in social studies enquiry.

1 - ﺠﻤﻴل ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺨﻭﺭﻱ، ﺃﺜﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴل ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﻭﻤﻔﻬﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺫﺍﺕ ﻟﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﻁﻼﺏ، 1992 ﺭﺴﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﺎﺠﺴﺘﻴﺭ، . 1997 2 - ﺴﻤﻴﺢ ﺃﺒﻭ ﻤﻌﻠﻲ، ﻗﻭﺍﻋﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺩﺭﻴﺱ ﺒﺎﻟﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ، ﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺭ ﻟﻠﻁﺒﺎﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺸﺭ، ﻋﻤﺎﻥ، . 3 - ﻁﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻁﺭﻱ، ﻤﺼﻨﻑ ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺩﺭﻴﺴﻴﺔ، ﺭﺴﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﺎﺠﺴﺘﻴﺭ، ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﺭﻤﻭﻙ، 1991 ﺍﺭﺒﺩ، ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ، . 1983 4 - ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﺤﻤﺩﺍﻥ، ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺩﺍﻨﻴﺔ، ﻤﺅﺴﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺴﺎﻟﺔ، ﺒﻴﺭﻭﺕ، . 1981 5 - ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﺤﻤﺩﺍﻥ، ﺍﻟﺘﺩﺭﻴﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺙ: ﺃﺼﻭﻟﻪ ﻭﺨﺼﺎﺌﺼﻪ، ﻤﺅﺴﺴﺔ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺏ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﻴﺕ، . 6 - ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻓﻴﺩﻭﺴﻲ، ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻤﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺼﺭ: ﻗﻀﺎﻴﺎﻩ ﻭﺍﺘﺠﺎﻫﺎﺘﻪ، ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺭﺓ، ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﻀﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺒﻴﺔ، 1992 . 20 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah

21 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah

In the Name of God Almighty and Merciful

Dear Student: This questionnaire is aimed at studying the effectiveness of the performance of small study groups, and the information provided by it will help us to improve our understanding of the concept of small study groups, and the ability of investing its results in the betterment of the teaching process. We would appreciate it if all the following questions were answered fully and seriously, keeping in mind that the information filled in shall be kept confidential. Thank you for your cooperation.

Please place a tick (x) in the box that describes you.

1. Academic year: First Second Third Fourth Higher Education

2. Gender: Male Female

3. Academic Department: Accounting Economics Public Administration Finance and Banking Marketing Business Administration

22 PerformanceofSmallStudyGroups Y.Sarayrah

Strongly Strongly Number Statement Agree Neutral Disagree Agree Disagree Students in the Arab habitat are able to deal 1. with each other. Discussion between small study group members 2. is based on forgiveness and understanding. Small study group members do not feel the 3. sense of responsibility. Small study groups help to reduce the boredom 4. level that students feel in traditional(lectures) We can uncover the individual differences 5. between students when small study groups are implemented. Working within these groups creates self 6. confidence, excellence, personality building, and greater courage in decision making. The implementation of small study groups 7. presents an obstacle religious upbringing, culture, and tradition. Small study groups do not create positive 8. competition amongst the members within them. This method is considered as an indictor of the 9. teacher’s weakness and lack of qualification to teach. The lecturing method develops student’s 10. scientific thinking skills. The main catalyst of this method is overall 11. consensus and good treatment.

The small study groups method fails because of chaos 12. and the lack of seriousness exhibited by the group members. One member may exert all his presence and hence may 13. take decisions without general consensus. These groups are a good environment for 14. irresponsibility and the dependence on others. There might be compliments within small study groups 15. whereas not on the expense of the final decision made and its accuracy. Learning in groups does not consist of fairness in the 16. distribution of grades. Implementation of small study groups in educational organizations in developing countries does not achieve 17. the required objectives due to the teaching itself and the lack of professionals. The effort exerted by the participants within these 18. groups is less than the effort exerted in the traditional methods of teaching. It is advisory to implement the concept of small study 19. groups in Jordan. Learning in small groups is more widespread in schools 20. than in universities.

23

Teaching MPA Students Using a Distance Education Format: Techniques to Promote Academic Integrity

Paper presented at the 27th National Teaching Public Administration Conference February 12-14, 2004 University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin

David R. Shetterly Troy State University [email protected]

Pamela T. Dunning Christopher Newport University [email protected]

ABSTRACT

A principal agent relationship is used to discuss teaching MPA students in a distance education format. In this format, the instructor is conceptualized as the principal and the student as the agent. The syllabus forms the “contract” around which instructor and student efforts are focused. Two problems occur in any agency relationship due to asymmetrical information: moral hazard or the problem of hidden action and adverse selection. Based on the practical experience of the authors, four strategies are presented to lessen the impact of moral hazard along with techniques to lessen the impact of adverse selection.

INTRODUCTION

Agency relationships within society are widespread and varied. They can be as simple as the individual relationship between patient and doctor, employee and employer, instructor and student or as complex as multi-million dollar agreements between governmental organizations and private sector firms. Whatever the complexity of the agency relationship, the challenge is to structure an agreement (a contract) that motivates the agent to serve the principal's interest when the agent's actions are not observable by the principal (Pratt & Zeckhauser, 1985, p.2). The challenge occurs because the principal cannot monitor the agent's action without incurring costs. This leads to the issues of incentives and sanctions and how they should be addressed in the contractual agreement.

Essentially, the principal must devote resources to finding agents who can provide goods or services at the required cost and quality, devise and implement procedures for awarding and monitoring contracts, and provide methods for renegotiating or canceling contracts should the need exist (Prager, 1991, p.85). Since incentive and sanction provisions are not costless, a concern is how to select and oversee an agent while minimizing cost.

2 How does the principal agent relationship apply to teaching MPA students using a

distance education format? The student/instructor relationship can be thought of as an

agency relationship in which the instructor is the principal and the student is the agent.

The syllabus forms the “contract” around which instructor and student efforts are focused and forms an incentive structure that motivates the student through rewards and sanctions, which help determine student performance. The goal of the instructor is to have the student successfully meet course requirements with academic integrity through adherence to the requirements of the syllabus.

The arms length nature of distance education makes management of the instructor/student relationship especially challenging in terms of maintaining academic integrity. This is not to say that it is not also a challenge using a traditional in class format. The big difference is that in a traditional in class format the instructor has more control over the learning environment and greater ability to judge the quality of each

student’s work through direct observation. In the distance education relationship, the

instructor gives up substantial control of the learning environment and the behavior of

individual students is not directly observable. Given the inherent challenges to

maintaining academic integrity in any situation, our purpose in this paper is to discuss

practical applications for promoting academic integrity in a distance education

environment.

DISCUSSION

The context of this paper is the increase in educational institutions that offer

students some form of Internet based course delivery. Use of Internet based course

delivery modes can involve a blended learning approach in which some number of

classes is completed using an Internet based course delivery mode. It represents use of a

3 combination of traditional in class sessions and distance learning using web-based resources. The distance-learning component may include a mix of mediums such as simulations, synchronous sessions, asynchronous sessions, and group activities facilitated by the instructor. Another Internet based delivery mode is distance learning. Distance learning is a situation in which all course requirements can be completed using Internet based resources.

Two problems occur in any agency relationship due to asymmetrical information: moral hazard or the problem of hidden action and adverse selection or the problem of hidden information (Arrow, 1985, p.37). Moral hazard occurs because the behavior of the agent (student) is imperfectly controlled as the case with distance education. When behavior is imperfectly controlled, it creates a situation where inappropriate actions by the agent adversely impacts the goals of the principal, which in this case is the instructor’s goal of satisfactory performance with academic integrity on the part of the student. Inappropriate action may involve plagiarism or relying on the work of others in completing course assignment.

What are some of the moral hazard pressures on academic integrity? Heberling

(2002) argues that the Internet provides a readily available medium for academic dishonesty. Students can use a number of search engines that allow the “writing” of papers using a cut and paste approach. Other Internet sites called Digital Paper Mills or

Web Paper Mills specialize in satisfying the demand for student papers (Heberling,

2002). Students may buy a paper that seems to meet the needs of a particular research requirement. While the Internet is an obvious example of a pressure on academic integrity, there are others. There are the problems of who is taking a course assessment or preparing a research paper (the registered student or a surrogate), unauthorized use of

4 resources (open notes with a closed book exam), unauthorized collaboration on an assessment (relying on others), and technology difficulties such as “my computer crashed” (Olt, 2002).

There are two ways of controlling the moral hazard problem. One approach is to monitor the behavior of the agent (student) through direct observation. This approach is practical for a traditional in class delivery mode, but impractical when the behavior of the agent cannot be observed. A second approach is to offer the right incentives as to align the goals of principal and agent. This approach seems to have the most promise in promoting academic integrity.

In the adverse selection problem, the agent (student) may have some information that is not shared with the principal (instructor) and which has an impact on the agent’s ability to perform. For example, principals want agents to enroll in a course who are suited to a blended or distance learning format; but, agents will know more about their qualifications than the principal. Therefore, the principal will be uncertain whether appropriate agents have been selected and flaws in the relationship are likely to surface over time (Kettl, 1993). The adverse selection problem can be controlled through screening procedures for faculty and students. For example, screening can weed out students not suited for a distance education delivery mode and thus reduce the pressure to engage in academic dishonesty. Faculty can also be screened to ensure their background and style is appropriate for distance education.

The concern of each principal and agent relationship is the design of an incentive structure to lessen the problems associated with moral hazard and adverse selection

(Moe, 1984). In the case of distance education and the agency relationship between

5 instructor and the student, the appropriate incentive structure is contained within a course syllabus.

PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTING ACADEMIC INTEGRITY

With the previous background as a context, we now address practical techniques to lessen the impact of moral hazard. Since distance education students do not come into face-to-face contact with the instructor, it can be argued that a climate is created which increases the likelihood of moral hazard problems such as using the work of others to meet course requirements. What can instructors do to ensure that work completed by a student is his or her work and not the work of someone else? We also address issues of adverse selection. Is there some systematic difference between a distance education student and a student who enrolls in a traditional course delivery format? What can be done to mitigate the adverse selection problem of students entering distance or blended learning courses that do not have the skill necessary for success?

The practical techniques are based on the experience of the authors in teaching

MPA courses in blended and distance learning delivery modes over two academic years

(2001/2002 and 2002/2003) for Christopher Newport University and Troy State

University. The practical techniques for moral hazard are presented in the context of four strategies (Olt, 2002), which we interpret as general approaches to lessen the impact of the moral hazard problem. We then provide practical applications that address the problem of adverse selection.

Strategy 1 - Overcome the inherent disadvantages associated with online education.

Particular problems that need to be overcome is confirming who is actually taking an online assessment, how to control unauthorized used of resources in completing

6 assignments, how to prevent student collaboration in taking an assessment and

overcoming technical difficulties (Olt, 2002).

Who is actually taking an on line assessment? Without the ability to observe

your students, it is possible for someone other than the registered student to complete on line assessments. Several course management systems, such as WebCT and Blackboard require a user login and password for each student; however, that does not preclude students from sharing that information with others. By structuring the assessments so that numerous short quizzes and tests are given at various times throughout the semester, it would be difficult for a student to get consistent help. You can also include a graded dialogue session each week that requires frequent interaction among students. At

Christopher Newport University, weekly dialogues account for a third of a student’s grade. These assignments consist of a series of discussion questions posed by the instructor and based on the weekly readings. Depending on the course, students are required to post four to five responses that demonstrate their knowledge of the course material. The messages are evaluated on 1) how well the student is familiar with the assigned readings; 2) their understanding of the concepts; and 3) their ability to apply the material in a dialogue with colleagues in relation to discussion threads. During a normal

15-week semester, students will compose, at a minimum, 48 discussion messages. This decreases the chance that someone other than the registered student is completing the required work.

Including a proctored examination requirement is another strategy for ensuring that the registered student is taking an assessment and that unauthorized materials are not

used. However, the process involved in selecting proctors can pose a challenge. One

approach is for the student to select a proctor in accordance with guidelines provided by

7 the university and college. However, when the student selects the proctor, there is

likelihood that the proctor will be more interested in meeting the needs of the student

than the academic integrity concerns of the university. For example, once an assessment is completed the student can compromise the control of the exam providing an opportunity for modification. Another approach is for the university to select proctors for students. For example, an organization such as Sylvan Learning Centers could be hired to provide proctoring services. Since the proctor is working for and is paid by the university, there is a greater likelihood that exam procedures are followed and the exam is not compromised in any way. Although problems of process must be overcome, under either scenario a proctored exam provides an opportunity for at least one controlled student assessment.

A final idea is this area is to require during the first week of class a writing sample. This should be a short, formal narrative on something personal to the student that can be kept and used for comparison purposes later in the course. While the instructor should be involved in guiding the weekly dialogue sessions, separate emails to each student concerning some aspect of their response provides an additional opportunity to gauge a student’s ability to write informally.

Strategy 2 - Design effective online assessments: What kind of assessments is conducive to the distance education environment?

Another approach that supports academic integrity is development of assessments that have a substantive approach and writing assignments with specific goals and instructions. An example of the substantive approach is case analysis in which the process by which the student analyzes the case is as important as the result of the analysis. At Troy State University, students taking the capstone course in the MPA

8 program use a structured case analysis approach for the final course assessment. The case

chosen is complex, has many actors, numerous external and internal problems, and

variation in how the main problem of the case can be conceptualized. Completing the

assessment requires the student to be creative in developing potential solutions and

demonstrate in depth knowledge of the MPA curriculum by applying theory and concepts

to support a specific solution to the case. Since each solution is unique, unauthorized

collaboration is readily apparent. When coupled with use of a proctor the approach

provides a very good assessment tool. When a proctor is not employed use of a time

constraint is a practical way to replicate the controls associated with a proctor.

In addition, writing assignments with specific deadlines for topics, outlines, and rough drafts encourages early participation by the student, helps to avoid procrastination- motivated plagiarism, and allows an opportunity to become familiar with the student’s writing style.

An example of a writing assignment that works well in the distance education environment is a Meta-Analysis Research Paper. The paper is a flexible approach that can be applied in a variety of courses. Within the MPA curriculum, it has been used for such courses as public personnel management, organization theory, survey of public administration, and economics for public managers. Students are provided detailed instructions in the syllabus on proper development of the paper. The paper consists of fours sections: an introduction, a literature review, an integrated summary of the literature, and a conclusion. The introduction states a research question and provides a context for the question. Completion of the literature review requires students to locate and summarize articles from academic journals that are “relevant” to the research question. This provides a nice way to get students involved with using academic

9 resources from on line databases and exposing them to the appropriate literature. The

integrated summary requires them to synthesize information from the literature review

and to discuss what is known about the research question using a thematic approach. The

conclusion section completes the paper by discussing the extent to which the research

question has been answered. This approach is conducive to the distance learning

environment because use of a specific format and the uniqueness of the content for each

paper. Collaboration among students can be easily identified and the transaction cost

associated with buying such a paper from a “Digital Paper Mill” is high.

Essay questions that require the student to integrate material from different parts of

assigned textbooks are also an effective assessment technique. The key is to develop

questions that require thought, understanding, and the integration of materials on the part of the student. For example, a theme in any MPA curriculum is competing values. Public managers are asked to do many things, and cannot place equal emphasis on values such as neutral competence, political responsiveness, efficiency, management flexibility, and individual rights. An essay question such as the following written by Dr. Art Johnson of the University of Maryland – Baltimore County is an effective way of probing the understanding a student has of competing values.

Discuss the various values that a public manager must contend with. How does the maximization of each value benefit public management? How does the minimization of each value do harm to public management? Discuss the role that the legislative and executive branches have played in determining which values shall be dominant in personnel administration?

In terms of overcoming technological difficulties on line, final exams at Christopher

Newport University usually consist of open book, essay-type questions with a specific timeframe for completion. Included in both the syllabus and in the directions for the test

10 is a statement that provides students with multiple methods of delivering their final exam should they encounter computer problems. This includes faxing or personal delivery.

Strategy 3 - Rotate the curriculum

By rotating the curriculum, students are less apt to be able to incorporate shared material from prior classes. This can be accomplished without substantially altering the course by including current events in the development of weekly assignments, assigning different case studies, using alternative supplemental texts or course material, and maintaining a test bank of essay questions.

Strategy 4 - Provide students with an academic integrity/honesty policy

Academic integrity is a topic that is addressed substantially in the syllabus and through posted course material on plagiarism, use of reference manuals, and citation examples. The syllabus outlines the CNU honor code and the fact that the instructor

“AGGRESSIVELY” enforces it, how to access the CNU writing center, and a supplement which contains information on “When to Cite the Work of Others in Your

Academic Paper”. Links are provided in WebCT to various on line style manuals that provide information on how and when to cite sources. Students are also made aware of the use of EVE 4.2 (Essay Verification System) and Turnitin.com as a means of identifying instances of plagiarism.

Approaches to the Adverse Selection Problem

There are several self-assessment surveys that instructors can take to determine if they possess the skills and ability to teach in an on line environment, such as the one offered by OnLine Learning at http://www.onlinelearning.net/InstructorCommunity/selfevaluation.html.

11 Another example of a tool to address instructor preparation for distance education is a program used by Troy State University – Montgomery called Equipping Quality

University Instructors Program (EQUIP). Its purpose is to train instructors for the on line- learning environment. The program consists of technical skills and software training, policy and procedures, and instructional design/adult education theory components.

Staff members at Christopher Newport University have identified strategies for teaching on line in an article titled “Teaching ONLINE, Computer-Managed Conferencing,” which includes the program’s pedagogical practices (Williams, Teschner & Miller,

1994).

There are also several self-screening surveys for students to determine if distance learning is right for them. Examples are:

http://www.polk.edu/INSTRUCT/success.htm

http://www.petersons.com/dlwizard/code/default.asp http://www.ion.illinois.edu/IONresources/onlineLearning/selfeval.asp

http://www.idahoe-campus.state.id.us/tools/foryou.html

Instructors can provide links to these sites for students who are new to distance education. These surveys can provide both the student and instructor with information on where, and what type of additional help may be needed to increase a student’s ability to complete the course.

CONCLUSION

Maintaining academic integrity is a tough challenge in any teaching environment.

Thinking of the activity between instructor and student as an agency relationship provides a useful framework for identifying ways to overcome the many threats to academic

12 integrity when teaching at a distance. The practical techniques discussed in the paper are easy to adopt and protect academic integrity.

13 REFERENCES

Arrow, K. J. (1985). The Economics of Agency. In J. W. Pratt & R. J. Zeckhauser, Principals and Agents: The Structure of Business. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Heberling, M. (2002). Maintaining Academic Integrity in Online Education. Online Journal of Distance Learning Education, 5(1). Retrieved January 14, 2004, from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/spring51/heberling51.html

Kettl, D. F. (1993). Sharing Power - Public Governance and Private Markets. Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution.

Moe, T. M. (1984). The New Economics of Organization. American Journal of Political Science, 28: 757.

Olt, M. R.(2002). Ethics and Distance Education: Strategies for Minimizing Academic Dishonesty in Online Assessment. Online Journal of Distance Learning Education, 5(3). Retrieved January 14, 2004, from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall53/olt53.html

Prager, J. (1991). Privatizing Government Services: An Economic Analysis of Contracting Out by Local Governments. Los Angeles: Institute of Industrial Relations Publication Center.

Pratt, J. W. & Zeckhauser, R. J. (1985). Principals and Agents: The Structure of Business. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Williams, C.H., Teschner, G. & Miller B.G. (1994). Teaching ONLINE, Computer- Managed Conferencing. Newport News, VA: Christopher Newport University.

14 Teaching Public Administration Conference: “My Place or Yours?”

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Primary Jennifer Wicks, MPA Secondary Barry W. Stieglitz, MPA Author: 5457 Patuxent Knoll Place Author: 8210 Southwater Court Alexandria, VA 22312 Springfield, VA 22153-1919 703.256.8533 703.455.7878 [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

Action Learning is a holistic, interactive, and flexible teaching methodology. Students learn by solving a real world issue and accomplishing important tasks relevant to themselves and their organization. The result is increased individual self-awareness, analytical ability, and critical thinking skills. The concept encompasses the key principles of the andragogical theory of adult learning and is therefore especially conducive for adult professional development and executive education. Popular in corporate America, Action Learning is gaining recognition and use within the public sector. Because Action Learning requires a minimal resource investment it has significant potential for increased application in public administration education. The authors examine the Action Learning model framework, its application to a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service project, the flexibility it offers, and benefits of using such a teaching methodology in contemporary public administration education.

Introduction and Caveats

Throughout this paper, we will refer to both a project involving a Problem, and the Action Learning (AL) process through which is it is addressed. The project occurs in the context of the AL process, but the success or failure of AL is not linked to the success or failure of the project’s recommended solutions. Sometimes the very best process outcomes (i.e., learning) are derived from the experience of project failure. This distinction is important, as the singular objective of the AL process is learning, whereas the project’s objective(s) is dependent upon the nature of the Problem being addressed and the creativity of the learner(s). The success of one does not guarantee success of the other. Both the project and process fall within an AL program.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 1 - Context and Challenge

The National Wildlife Refuge System

The National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) celebrated its centennial in 2003. This major program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) began humbly in 1903 with one refuge, one man, and one boat. Now, 100-years later and 543 national wildlife refuges strong, the NWRS is experiencing many of the same organizational issues as other private and public sector institutions. Two issues, however, are particularly troublesome, and perhaps worse for the NWRS than most other organizations: recruitment and retention.

The NWRS mission is “to administer a national network of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of present and future generations of Americans.” (USFWS 1999, iii) To accomplish this mission, the NWRS employs about 3,000 individuals, the slight majority of whom are wildlife biologists by either training or function. Many individuals join the NWRS because they enjoy being and working outdoors, working with animals and natural ecosystems, helping maintain a healthy environment, or simply because they do not enjoy working closely with people. In the past refuge biologists and refuge managers were largely drawn from rural backgrounds. This harkens back to the NWRS’ simple “one man, one boat” origins as an organization. Historically, middle and upper management has been drawn from this pool of biologists. Recent changes in society, such as the increase in dual-career families, and increases in agency field position grades diminished the ability to attract employees into staff and management positions in NWRS’ seven Regional and Headquarters (HQ) Offices and then retain them. In addition, many field personnel perceive HQ employees as out of touch with field issues, and thus less credible. These same individuals may also perceive work in HQ as purely reactive and crisis-driven, and concerned more with bureaucratic red tape and not with “saving dirt” (natural resource conservation activities). Surveys indicated many employees believe experience at HQ, which we will call “national experience,” is neither valued nor appreciated in the field. Quite simply, the quality of life preferences and perceived lack of value of non-field experience created recruitment and retention issues in NWRS HQ.

Once managers have successfully recruited qualified field employees to HQ, retaining them becomes an issue. This specific issued is addressed in Fulfilling the Promise (FTP), a NWRS strategic vision document. (FWS 1999, 73) The NWRS recognizes it will not retain every employee, noting: “However, leadership can maximize retention by caring, training, mentoring, and helping employees understand how they contribute to accomplishing the mission and what they must do to meet their personal career goals.” (FWS 1999, 73) The FWS also notes “These [retention] challenges for both employees and management must be recognized and addressed by open communication and counseling during appraisals and through employee development plans,” yet a number of HQ employees report they receive neither formal performance appraisals nor written

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 2 - development plans. The current HQ manager’s recruiting practice of begging potential employees to “come in for just a year or two” exacerbates employee turnover issues.

Academic Setting

In 2001, the authors entered into the Key Executive master’s degree program (Key) at American University (AU), the Nation’s sixth-ranked master of public administration degree. (U.S. News and World Report 2001). Key prides itself on its practical, interactive, leadership-oriented, and competency-based curriculum that targets public sector practitioners. In 2002, Key Director Dr. Robert Kramer expanded degree completion requirements to include the opportunity to write and present a paper on AL in lieu of a comprehensive final examination.

Action Learning’s appeal was the opportunity to address a real-world problem, rather than providing untested solutions to the hypothetical situations often posed on academic tests. While purely academic questions have their use and place, adult learners want to know the impact of their actions. (Noe 2002, 115) Action Learning provides an opportunity for organizations to benefit through the development of a recommended solution to an organizational issue or problem. The primary benefit to these organizations is the development of employees’ questioning skills and other competencies. Action Learning provides a “process for do-it-yourself leadership re- creation…most organizations can use it, no matter what traits they desire to develop in their emerging leaders.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 50) This also is why AL is clearly a tool of andragogy – the learning is learner-directed, not instructor-directed as in pedagogy.

The authors chose to address the NWRS HQ recruitment and retention issue. We describe our experience below. It is important to note that we selected this project in large part because of its strategic alignment (i.e., its contributions to the strategic needs and goals of the organization). The previously mentioned NWRS document, FTP, recognized the importance of taking care of its employees and developing leadership at all organization levels. “Leadership is about people. Leaders put employee …training, personal growth, and empowerment above all else. Nothing is more essential to mission accomplishment than the motivation and morale of people.” (FWS 1999, 69)

We undertook our AL project with two primary goals in mind: 1. Make HQ employees more effective in their current positions and marketable for future positions by providing strategically identified competencies through meaningful national experience; and 2. Make the HQ organization more effective by shifting the culture towards one of a learning organization composed of effective, skilled, and committed employees prepared to address the challenges of the future. These goals reflect a necessary balance between individual and organizational benefits in order to garner support for the project itself.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 3 - As we worked on our project, we actively researched what AL is, what AL is not, and how AL is conducted. We found AL, although not a new concept, was not common in the public sector, therefore limiting our ability to extrapolate from other public administration experiences. Examples we did find included some programs within the Federal Aviation Administration, Veterans Benefit Administration, National Institutes of Health, and the Army Management Staff College. We also discovered the newly revamped and prestigious Presidential Management Fellows Program recently incorporated an AL component. (Beckmann 2004) We note there are many programs in the federal government offering characteristics of a classic AL program, but are not referred to as AL. Because of AL’s flexibility in terms of model and format, making precise quantification of its use in public administration is difficult. Before describing the classic AL model, we will first review some basic tenets of the andragogical theory of adult learning.

The Andragogical Theory of Adult Learning

There are many theories of adult learning, but the one we found most relevant to both our AL project and process was andragogy, as described by Malcolm Knowles et al in The Adult Learner. (Knowles et al 1998) From its Greek roots, andragogy roughly translates to “the art and science of helping adults learn.” (Knowles et al 1998, 61) Andragogy is occasionally characterized as adult education vis-à-vis pedagogy, which is often characterized as child education. Greatly simplified, andragogy is learner-driven, while pedagogy is primarily instructor-driven. Adults may be taught information solely identified by the instructor in a pedagogical manner, while children may learn what they desire in a collaboratively-planned andragogical manner from an instructor who functions more as a guide. The manner of instruction is not tied to the chronological age of the learner (but the learner’s maturity and experience may be a factor in the efficacy of the method chosen). Neither is universally good or bad, but rather both are tools that should be appropriately applied. Knowles, often described as the “Father of Andragogy,” espoused the key principle of mutuality - both the instructor and the learner are actively involved in creating the learning experience and ensuring learning occurs. (Knowles et al 1998, 116)

There are six key assumptions or principles of andragogy. (Knowles et al 1998, 133-150) 1. Adults have the need to know why they are learning something. They “need to know how learning will be conducted, what learning will occur, and why learning is important.” 2. Adults have a need to be self-directed. This means incorporating the concepts of self-teaching, where adults teach themselves, and personal autonomy, or autodidaxy, “[which is] taking control of the goals and purposes of learning and assuming ownership of learning. This leads to an internal change of consciousness in which the learner sees knowledge as contextual and freely questions what is learned.” 3. Adults bring more work-related experiences (prior experiences) into the learning situation. When learning through experience, training needs to “provide

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 4 - opportunities for (the students) to experience something new and discuss it or review training materials based on their experience.” (Noe 2002, 116) This impacts the learning in four ways:  Creating a wider range of individual differences;  Providing a rich resource for learning;  Creating biases that can inhibit or shape new learning; and  Providing grounding for adults’ self-identity. 4. Adults’ readiness is increased when their personal situations create a need to learn. 5. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning or an orientation to learning and problem solving. 6. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. This motivation has been grouped into four key categories:  Success: adults want to be successful learners;  Volition: adults want to feel a sense of choice in their learning;  Value: adults want to learn something they value; and  Enjoyment: adults want to experience the learning as pleasurable. (Wlodowski 1985 in Knowles et al 1998, 149)

According to Knowles, there is a distinction between education and learning. Pure education is instructor- or professor-driven. It is “an activity undertaken or initiated by one or more agents that is designed to effect changes in the knowledge, skill, and attitudes of individuals, groups, or communities. The term emphasizes the educator, the agent of change who presents stimuli and reinforcement for learning and designs activities.” Conversely, learning is student-focused and “is the act or process by which behavioral change, knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired.” (Knowles et al 1998, 10-11) In addition, learning incorporates change as outlined below: 1. Acquiring new habits, knowledge, and attitudes, which enables one to make personal and social adjustments; 2. Personal change due to interaction between the individual and his/her environment; and 3. Reflects a personal change in behavior as a result of an experience. (Knowles et al 1998, 12)

Andragogy is based upon the simple concepts that adults learn best when they collaboratively participate in the development and delivery of education and training, desire and value the learning, and can apply their life experiences to the learning process. This theory also might be applied to a learner of any age with sufficient maturity and experience to identify, value, and co-develop their learning needs. Following our review of AL below, we will demonstrate how it meets the needs of adult learners under the andragogical theory.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 5 - Action Learning

“Action learning” was coined by the late Reginald Revans, who believed learning was facilitated by initiating action on a problem without pre-set answers and occurred by studying what was done. (Margerison 2002, Chap. 2) Action learning usually involves: ● A small group of individuals, called the Set; ● Interested in and committed to resolving; ● An actual problem; ● In a short time period; ● Who studies their actions; and, ● Learns from that study. (ALA 2002; Margerison 2002, Chap. 2-3; Noe 2002, 235) Revans described AL in the following equation, in which L is Learning, P is Programmed Knowledge, and Q is Questioning Skills: L=P+Q. Programmed Knowledge is acquired through coursework, formal training, on-the-job training, and through practical experience. Questioning Skills are the ability to constructively question Programmed Knowledge, enhance learning ability, and adapt to a rapidly changing world. (ALA 2002) According to Raymond Noe (2002), AL is believed to “maximize learning and transfer of training because it involves real-time problems employees are facing.” (236)

Action Learning is also what Chris Argyris (Argyris 1982 in Knowles et al 1998, 140) calls “double-loop” learning. In contrast to “single-loop” learning, wherein learning fits the learner’s past experiences, beliefs, and values, “double-loop” learning involves a change to the learner’s mental schema (“cognitive structures that are built as learning and experiences accumulate and are packaged in memory”) and thus as a catalyst for real change. (Knowles et al 1998, 140)

Revans created what we refer to as the classic AL model. While we will discuss the composite model we used later in this paper, we feel it important to provide a standard basis for future discussion. Revans’ AL model is comprised of five elements: (ALA 2002) 1. The Problem, which must be an actual significant problem or issue without an obvious solution that is important to the learner(s); 2. The Client, who “is the person who owns the Problem”; 3. The Set, who are the learner(s) who are actively engaging in and committing to AL; 4. The Sponsor, the organization’s senior manager who is responsible for the AL project; and, 5. The Advisor or Facilitator, who has no responsibility for resolving the Problem, but every responsibility for creating and supporting an interactive, reflective learning environment and experience. Other models refer to this individual as a Coach.

Revans focused on the individual’s personal development in AL, although other models emphasize benefits to the organization, especially organizational productivity. (ALA 2002) We believe organizations cannot help but benefit from employees who have undergone AL and will describe these benefits toward the end of this paper. In an

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 6 - academic setting, we believe a model that emphasizes the individual and his/her learning, personal growth, and development is the most beneficial framework.

Other AL models use a slightly different structure or elements. For instance, Michael Marquardt (Marquardt 1999, 5-8) describes six elements: 1. A Problem; 2. The Group (another term for Set); 3. The Questioning and Reflection Process; 4. The Resolution to Take Action; 5. The Commitment to Learning; and 6. The Facilitator. The Problem, Group (Set), and Facilitator are the same as the Revan’s model. However, Marquardt’s three remaining elements are different: Questioning and Reflection Process, Resolution to Take Action, and Commitment to Learning. (Marquardt 1999, 23) As with Revans’ model, Questioning Skills are the ability to constructively question learned knowledge, enhance learning ability, and adapt to a rapidly changing world. (ALA 2002) They also allow an individual “to ask fresh questions in conditions of ignorance, risk, and confusion, when nobody knows what to do next” (Revans, in Marquardt 1999, 33) and may be key in the success of tomorrow’s managers and leaders. (ALA 2002; ALI 2002) Reflection, the third of David Kolb’s four learning process stages (Daudelin 1996, in Osland 2001, 67) is defined as “the process of stepping back from an experience to ponder, carefully and persistently, its meaning from past or current events that serves as a guide for future behavior.” (Daudelin 1996, in Osland 2001, 70) Reflection is also “the heart of action learning” where actual learning takes place and “is designed to develop questioning insight.” (Marquardt 1999, 33) Marquardt modifies Revans’ equation to show the importance of the reflection process by adding R for Reflection, so that it appears: L=P+Q+R.

Yet another model includes a 12-element framework. David Dotlich and James Noel (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 14-15) include the following elements in their AL framework: 1. Sponsor; 2. Strategic mandate; 3. Learning process; 4. Selecting participants; 5. Forming learning teams; 6. Coaching; 7. Orientation to the issue; 8. Data gathering; 9. Data analysis; 10. Draft presentation; 11. Presentation; and 12. Reflection (debriefing). The basis of these 12 elements can be seen in the various elements used by Revans or Marquardt, or underlying procedural needs (e.g., Draft Presentation and Presentation), honed by Dotlich and Noel’s years of experience.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 7 - The purpose of providing these multiple frameworks, and their respective departure from Revans’ classic AL model, is not to confuse the reader, but rather demonstrate AL’s flexible framework and adaptability. Dotlich and Noel stated: “Describing a typical Action Learning process is not always easy; its implementation can vary significantly from company to company, depending on specific objectives and time frames.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 14) “Although Action Learning programs can have different time frames and structures,” they continued, “they all involve an alternating series of workshops with field experiences.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 15)

For the NWRS project, we used a composite AL model. In general, we followed Marquardt’s model. (Marquardt 1999, 5-8) However, we felt the Sponsor was a key element of AL and included it in our model. Dotlich and Noel wrote: “Without the backing of a significant sponsor, Action Learning programs cannot succeed.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 16) We believe a Sponsor is critical to providing the required resources and creating a safe, supportive learning environment necessary for successful AL. The seven elements of our AL model are listed in Table 1.

The Nexus between Action Learning and Andragogical Adult Learning

Table 1 summarizes the superior fit of AL in andragogical adult learning at multiple levels. Rather than fully describe the contents of each table cell, we selected several examples to illustrate this fit.

First, consider the relationship between the Problem and adult learners’ needs in Column 1. In AL, individual learners, as part of a Set, are charged with selecting an actual Problem of import and significance to them and their organization. By choosing AL as the mechanism (or an academic or training program that uses AL), learners have selected how they will learn (in terms of the process), and through Problem selection have self- directed the experience toward something they value (the what and why of the project). Their level of autonomy is established based in part upon the AL program, their individual comfort level defined in part by their past experience, the Sponsor, and the Problem itself. (We note because AL is learning through change, working outside of one’s normal comfort zone may bring greater rewards, and thus should be encouraged.)

Knowles noted adults’ readiness to learn is increased when situations in their lives, whether personal, professional, or both, create a need to learn. (Knowles et al 1998, 144- 146) Learners can address these situational needs through Problem selection. Adults also have a problem-centered approach to learning. (Knowles et al 1998, 146) For adult learners in AL as they apply this problem-centered approach to both the project and the process, they become generally more self-aware, develop questioning and reflection skills, etc. as described in the Benefits of Action Learning.

Knowles recognizes adults are motivated to learn by both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. (Knowles et al 1998, 149-150) Adults have the ability, through both the selection of the AL process and Problem (i.e., the project), to address needs they have identified (intrinsic) or have had identified for them (extrinsic). The flexible AL framework allows Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 8 - adult learners to meet their needs both through selection of the AL process and the underlying Problem used as a project.

The authors selected AL over a comprehensive written examination for exactly these reasons. The opportunity to try and address the NWRS HQ recruitment and retention issue through the creation of an employee development program was intriguing and unusual. We recognized part of the recruitment and retention issue was related to organizational culture, and that the project was as much a change effort as it was an employee development program. As we worked with our workplace taskforce, our meeting management, facilitation, and coaching skills increased dramatically. We became better at both giving and receiving feedback. We opened ourselves to feedback from the team, each other, and our supervisors and coworkers. We learned that often knowing the right questions to ask was more important than knowing the right answer. David Kolb defines learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through transformation of experience.” (in Knowles et al 1998, 146) AL is a transforming experience.

Action Learning is an effective learning mechanism in adult education. Experiential learning is firmly rooted in adult learning theory. This, with an increased emphasis in human resource development on “experiential learning as a means to improve performance,” further supports the use of AL projects as learning opportunities. (Knowles et al 1998, 148)

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 9 - Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 10 - Roadmap for NWRS Action Learning

Selection of Issues & Participants (November – December 2002)

Sponsor One of the most critical components of an AL project is a senior level sponsor, or “the senior manager who takes responsibility for the programme.” (ALA 2002) “Without the backing of a significant sponsor,” wrote Dotlich and Noel, “Action Learning programs cannot succeed.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 16) Our Sponsor, NWRS Assistant Deputy Director Jim Kurth, needed to fulfill several roles. First, he provided clout (through position power) and assurance that team recommendations will be acted upon. (Bolman and Deal 1997, 169) Second, because this project was as much a change effort and paradigm shift as an employee development program, senior leadership’s support was

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 11 - vital to success (Kotter 1996) because senior managers can influence organizational culture. (Bolman and Deal 1997, 231) In a Senior Executive Service position, Kurth directly supervises seven division and office chiefs whose support was necessary for the employee development program’s future success. Kurth commands sufficient position power and fiscal authority to ensure accepted recommendations were funded and otherwise supported. Upon hearing about the AL process requirements, Kurth agreed to act as the Sponsor.

Problem In 2002, Kurth assigned a collateral duty to Barry Stieglitz, requiring him to consider recruitment and retention problems while staffing the leadership and employee development function in HQ. Stieglitz selected an employee development program to address these issues that would supplement the already established leadership development programs and fulfill a training priority outlined in FTP.

Hybrid Set/Taskforce Upon Stieglitz’ suggestion, Kurth agreed this would be an ideal AL project and supported creating a multi-disciplinary workplace taskforce to develop and present their recommendation to NWRS senior leadership. We created a hybrid team where both the AL Set and a workplace taskforce were combined to meet NWRS project needs and academic process requirements.

The authors constituted the Set. At that time, Jennifer Wicks worked for the Department of the Army. The authors had a proven working relationship and determined Wicks would be valuable on the taskforce even though she was not a NWRS employee. Rather she brought an external perspective to the team and previous training and development experience.

Stieglitz worked for NWRS for the last 15 years and was well acquainted with the organizational culture and needs. Knowledge of HQ organizational culture was important because the project was also intended to start a change effort toward a continuous learning culture. He hand-selected taskforce members for their specific strengths and diversity of opinion.

The NWRS leadership and taskforce members were aware of and agreed to the AL process for this project. We provided the NWRS leadership and taskforce with a general overview of AL to ensure understanding of the process. The taskforce members and their roles in the AL Set were merely incidental. Overt references to academic principles were minimized and relegated to discussion and sharing in private meetings with the Set.

Coach Despite an opportunity to use an AU’s organizational development graduate student as an AL Coach, we decided against having an external Coach. This was due to a limited coordination timeframe, the lack of clarity received about the Coach’s specific responsibilities and role throughout the process, and concern regarding the impact on the

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 12 - taskforce dynamics. Instead, the authors acted in this role for each other and solicited feedback periodically from the taskforce members and NWRS leadership.

Framework The project served dual purposes and achieved both academic and organizational objectives. From the academic standpoint, the AL paper focused on personal learning and incorporated coursework and academic theory into practical application. The AL paper addressed three critical questions: 1. What did the Set learn and see?; 2. Where was the Set blind?; and, 3. Was AL worth the time the Set spent on it? How? Why? From the organizational perspective, the project required developing and presenting a recommendation to NWRS leadership that addressed the two strategic dilemmas of recruitment and retention.

Orientation to Issues & Team Building (December 2002 – January 2003)

Orientation to Issues The authors met separately with Kurth, who provided additional background information on HQ recruitment and retention. Wicks also reviewed NWRS literature, strategic planning documents, and other written materials to learn about the organization and its culture. Stieglitz and the rest of the taskforce worked for NWRS and already had significant institutional knowledge.

Set The authors completed various self-awareness diagnostics as part of Key, as well as coursework in Organizational Diagnosis and Change and Executive Leadership. In addition, we already established a close working relationship from collaborating on previous academic projects and felt comfortable exchanging thoughts, observations, and frank feedback. Therefore we did not schedule a separate Set team building session or complete another self-awareness element as might be conducted in a more traditional AL model.

Taskforce Our initial taskforce workshop occurred on January 10, 2003, in a conference room at the NWRS. While we originally discussed holding an off-site meeting, we determined it would be easier to get taskforce member participation by having a daylong workshop on- site rather than a 2-day off-site. Because many of the taskforce members worked together before, there was some cohesion among members. Nevertheless, we incorporated several team-building exercises into the workshop. We discussed the group’s values, norms, and expectations and introduced Wicks to the other members, who appeared to readily accept her involvement. The workshop agenda also included the NWRS employee development issue, recruitment and retention concerns, and upcoming meeting schedule.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 13 - Data Gathering (January 2003)

The authors researched AL and supporting academic theory, using the Internet, textbooks, articles, etc. and frequently referred back to these references while working through the AL process.

Environmental Scan We conducted an environmental scan, or a check of the internal and external project environment. (Goodstein 1993, 344) Environmental scanning is important at both the beginning of a project and throughout implementation in order to recognize and address changes in the environment impacting the project. Figure 2 illustrates the results of our environmental scan.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 14 - Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 15 - Our two primary methods of obtaining qualitative research data were scoping interviews and focus groups:

Scoping Interviews We conducted in-person and telephonic five-question scoping interviews with the HQ senior managers and regional chiefs. The interviews provided insight into how the senior managers viewed employee development, our project objectives, and their level of support. We also used the interview results as a preliminary step to aid in developing quantitative instruments (employee and refuge supervisor surveys).

Focus Groups Our other qualitative research tool was two focus groups with HQ employees. Because Wicks did not work at the FWS, she moderated the focus groups to ensure the participants felt more comfortable about speaking freely. Wicks analyzed and presented results to the taskforce.

Our two primary methods of obtaining quantitative research data were written surveys:

Employee & Refuge Supervisors Surveys We conducted surveys of: 1. The current HQ employees (67 percent return rate); and, 2. Regional chiefs and refuge supervisors (50 percent return rate). Both surveys validated our belief that a HQ employee development program was both needed and valuable. The surveys also provided feedback on components that should be incorporated into a program and the competencies desired by the potential participants and managers upon completion.

Interaction and Dialogue (December 2002 – May 2003)

We held a series of bi-weekly meeting following the initial workshop through July 2003. As the taskforce co-leaders, we distributed meeting agendas in advance. These agendas outlined meeting objectives and agenda items. After the meeting, we distributed meeting minutes and ratified them at the next meeting. Periodically, we briefed key NWRS players, such as Kurth, other NWRS employees, and regional managers on project progress.

The Set met more frequently than the taskforce. The Set used these additional meetings to plan upcoming taskforce meetings and reflect on previous meetings. We tried to incorporate AL concepts into our meeting facilitation and taskforce leadership. For example, we specifically focused on using questions while facilitating meetings to ensure inclusiveness and comprehensiveness of perspective.

Evaluation We recognized the importance of using evaluation. In addition to building an evaluation component into the project itself, we also asked the taskforce members to evaluate us as leaders and the taskforce’s group dynamics. Because the taskforce was not part of the

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 16 - Set, we asked for feedback on two occasions. At the March 20, 2003, meeting we scheduled a taskforce critique as an agenda item. We asked how we were leading and how the taskforce was functioning. We incorporated what we learned into the remainder of the project.

The second opportunity to evaluate our taskforce leadership occurred the week after our final working meeting. We solicited feedback from the group using a 32-question written survey derived primarily from Thomas Kayser’s Mining Group Gold. (Kayser 1995, 109-112) We received a 100 percent response to the survey, which included both Likert scale and open-ended narrative questions.

Action Learning Presentation (May 2003)

We submitted the results of our AL project, a written paper, and conducted a presentation, on May 2, 2003, at AU. The 2-hour presentation answered the AL critical questions and focused on the process and lessons learned rather than the project. The audience included the Key director and faculty, fellow students and peers, and the Sponsor. A question and answer period followed the presentation.

Debriefing & Reflection (November 2002 – May 2003)

Post Meeting Debriefs The Set dedicated time following each major interaction with the taskforce or member to debrief. The purpose of these debriefing sessions was to share factual information, observations about meetings and group interaction, and critique performance and ourselves. These sessions also were useful opportunities to refine and reinforce our vision and direction. As the project progressed, we found even though we might hold differing viewpoints, we felt comfortable providing honest feedback to each other. We questioned our effectiveness as Coach for each other. We identified and acknowledged strengths and weaknesses we observed and subsequently made a concerted effort to address areas of improvement. For instance, one meeting debrief focused on how best to empower the taskforce and our effectiveness as facilitators.

We consciously used active listening and questioning skills to gain a thorough comprehension of the other’s perspective. In fact, we used active listening skills much more effectively in our debriefing sessions and individual meetings than in the larger team meetings.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 17 - Reflection Our written academic paper included personal lessons learned. We used Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal’s four-frame analysis (evaluating an experience from the political, structural, symbolic, and human resource perspectives) and selected 10 assessments areas from Marquardt’s framework to report our process: 1. Quality of Questions; 2. Quality of Listening and Reflection; 3. Quality of Problem Framing and Problem Solving; 4. Quality of Action Steps; 5. Quality of Learning and Learning Culture; 6. Quality of Facilitation; 7. Organizational Value; 8. Quality of Teams and Team Skills; 9. Leadership Development; and, 10. Personal and Professional Development.

Benefits of Action Learning

In “A Review of Action Learning,” Alan Mumford wrote, “the seductiveness of AL lies in part in the attractiveness of completing significant required tasks – attractive to individuals and organizations.” (Mumford 1994)

Mutually Beneficial

Action Learning benefits both the individual and organization. Director Dr. Robert Kramer introduced AL to the Key program because “Action Learning has an extraordinary capacity to enhance how people manage and lead public service organizations. Using Action Learning, managerial leaders ‘learn how to learn’ and construct mental models for group member to continue learning long after the project is completed. Learning how to learn means that group members are able to revisit taken- for-granted values, assumptions, beliefs and biases, and become open to questioning their own personal mindsets. This is personal learning. At the same time, the group learns how to inquire into the collective assumptions of the organizational culture. This is organizational learning.” (Kramer 2004)

The organization benefits because the Problem revolves around real organizational issues. The project can be easily aligned with an organization’s strategic goals, initiatives, and needs. Action Learning’s flexibility allows customization to fit an organization’s specific parameters and needs. The practical learning experience enables participants to acquire specific competencies desired by the organization, such as problem solving and team building, while also developing other desirable leadership competencies. Marquardt wrote: “Perhaps action learning’s greatest value is its capacity for equipping individuals, teams and organizations to more effectively respond to change. Learning is what makes action learning strategic rather than tactical.” (Marquardt 1999, 4)

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 18 - The parallel relationship of theoretical learning with practical application results in a beneficial individual experience. Action Learning enables the individual to practice academic theory while increasing personal self-awareness and self-confidence through the process. The comprehensive nature of the learning process and experience ensures the individual’s preferred learning style is used. One of the most important opportunities AL offers is a safe environment in which the participants can take risks, think critically, and put theory into practice. The Set members may also benefit from increased visibility and interaction with senior leadership. Programs, such as the Office of Personnel Management’s Presidential Management Fellows program, selected AL specifically because it is effective at changing behaviors and bridging the competency gap. (Beckmann 2004) Corporations incorporated AL into their leadership development programs because they recognized the need to “re-create” its current and emerging leaders. Corporate leadership understood that by being “fully engaged in a process, we are much more likely to be profoundly influenced by it… [it is] very difficult to ‘hide out’ or rely on their traditional strengths in Action Learning. The process forces people to test new behaviors and ideas; it confronts them with their weaknesses and who they are as managers and leaders and helps them to understand the future needs of the business.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 77) Upon completing AL, individuals frequently have acquired desired competencies, such as questioning skills, flexibility and adaptability, communication abilities, team building, and problem solving.

Limited Resources Required

Action Learning is based on organizational situations that can be addressed using current organizational resources and requires few additional expenditures or investments. While some AL programs may include an initial team building activity or outing, the primary resource is the time commitment required of the Set, Sponsor, and Coach. The time commitment of the project is not affected by the decision to conduct AL. However, the time commitment for the process is much greater due to the need for meaningful feedback and reflection; AL’s reflective process requires additional time dedicated solely to introspection and evaluation.

Visible Results

Action Learning offers results - something traditional training typically cannot guarantee. While attendance figures frequently determine a training course’s success, AL provides opportunities to acquire and apply competencies as demonstrated through changes in learners’ behavior. Action Learning’s interactive and iterative process requires participants to continually reflect on personal lessons learned, individual and team performance, and process improvement. The Coach, Set, and Sponsor provide feedback that increases learning and enhances performance.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 19 - Practical Considerations of Implementing an Action Learning Program

This was the first time we identified use of AL in the FWS, although the FWS’ National Conservation Training Center conducts two leadership programs that incorporate a group project and Coach. The authors believe they positively influenced their project team and larger organization through AL. Based on their experience, the authors offer 11 suggestions to consider when incorporating AL into programs or curricula:

1. Set Membership – Create diverse teams with a diversity of perspectives, backgrounds, and experience. Set members learn from each other. They act as learning resources offering different areas of expertise and perspectives. Wicks worked at the Army while completing the NWRS AL project. She gained significant knowledge and understanding about a different agency’s culture while providing a unique perspective to the team. Set size is a balance between diversity and simple small group dynamics. Marquardt wrote: “The group size of four to eight members is desirable because research has shown that groups with fewer than four members do not provide enough diversity, creativity, and challenging dynamics, and groups with more than eight members result in too much complexity in addition to limiting each individual’s ‘airtime’….” (Marquardt 1999, 27)

Sets are not merely simple taskforces or ad hoc committees. Marquardt maintains AL projects can be distinguished from taskforces or quality circles in three ways. First, taskforces tend to focus on specific problems or tasks rather than the underlying organizational issues and environment. Second, taskforces generally do not have authority to institute recommended actions. And finally, because taskforces are solely focused on problem resolution, any learning that occurs is incidental unlike AL, which has the primary objective of learning from the process, interaction, and reflection. (Marquardt 1999, 8-9)

2. Sponsor Involvement - Conduct an environmental scan to determine whether there is sufficient interest in AL. The Sponsor plays a key role in AL. A Sponsor to provide direction, empower, and support the Set is critical to success. Senior leadership endorsement and understanding of the organizational culture will also influence how the project and process are perceived and Set attitude. For real learning to occur, full Set engagement is equally important.

3. Questioning and Reflection – Understand and appreciate AL’s true objective. Learning is not about having the answers. Rather it is about asking the right questions and knowing how to reframe situations with the ultimate objective of instituting behavioral change. This is the “Q” of the AL equation. Properly framing a problem or question increases overall support by addressing multiple concerns and chances for successful resolution. This learned questioning and probing ability builds more effective leaders and organizations. Stated differently, employees with strong “Q” are the foundation of what Peter Senge calls “learning organizations” – “an organization that is continually expanding its capacity to create its future.” (Senge 1990, 14)

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 20 - 4. Time Allocation – Set aside sufficient time. The Set must identify specific times for reflection and evaluation on meeting agendas and incorporate de-briefing sessions into the schedule. While the actual time required will vary with the Problem’s complexity and scope, we found ourselves often underestimating the time we needed, especially for feedback and reflection.

5. Flexibility – Adapt the AL model to fit your organization. Our AL model was a composite model adapted to our constraints. However, these modifications did not diminish AL’s effectiveness because the reflection component remained intact. One of AL’s advantages is its flexibility. An AL program at Citibank will understandably look different than an AL program at the NWRS; however, both could be equally effective and successful at meeting their specific project goals and objectives, and the process objective of learning.

6. Problem Selection – Any organization can use AL. Action Learning is not limited to an office environment or a full-time employer. The process can be equally effective and enlightening if used at a volunteer organization or in an academic setting. The key is to ensure the leadership of that particular organization appreciates, understands, and endorses the AL process, offers a Problem suitable for AL, and provides the necessary environment and infrastructure, including especially sufficient time. The Problem should: (Marquardt 1999, 24-25) ● Not have an easily identifiable solution; ● Have strategic importance and organizational value; and, ● Allow the Set to implement their recommendations.

In situations where learners may not have an “organization” (e.g., college students without outside employment), selection of a Problem may be difficult. The educational or training institution may have a Problem appropriate for AL. If not, learners may look for a Problem in the local community.

7. Implementation – When is long enough? We presented the results of our AL process on May 2, 2003. At that time, the NWRS work project was not completed. Subsequently, we finished our taskforce meeting schedule and briefed Kurth. Marquardt wrote: “Either the problem should be within the group’s sphere of responsibility or the group must be given the authority to do something about the problem.” (Marquardt 1999, 24-25) He added: “There is no real learning unless action is taken, for one is never sure the idea or plan will be effective until it has been implemented.” (Marquardt 1999, 7) We reiterate that significant learning may occur despite failed project implementation. While we have yet to fully experience the implementation stage of the learning process, we encourage AL Sets to establish clear learning objectives that specify the extent of the Set’s participation in project implementation and identify when their participation ceases.

AL is designed to be a short-term transformative experience. While the AL team may not be involved in actually implementing their recommended solutions, at a minimum they should understand the Sponsor’s intentions and future implementation plans. AL’s

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 21 - purpose is to initiate a behavioral change and equip the AL participants with skills required in a highly competitive and fluctuating environment. Therefore, the learning process could and should continue long after the AL project is concluded.

8. Strategic Alignment or Mandate – Select a Problem that helps reach your organization’s goals. The terms “strategic alignment” and “strategic mandate” may arise during development of an AL project. Dotlich and Noel, who work primarily in the private sector, use the latter term to describe a business imperative, such as when “management determines that a major business issue is affecting or will affect the organization, and that the processes in place are insufficient to deal with it.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 19-20) The former term is more common to public administration, where it indicates a contribution toward the organization’s mission or major goals. The sole point here is when a Problem is being considered for study, the learners are more likely to receive support for their project, and make a more meaningful contribution to their organizations (if applicable) if solving the Problem helps the organization move in the right direction. This is what is implied when we state the Problem must be real, significant, and important (to both the learner and the organization – the principle of mutuality at work).

9. Learning Logs – Log what is learned and done. Although we did not keep formal “learning logs,” we highly recommend them. Much of our feedback and reflection was recorded on napkins or any available scraps of paper. Because this “system” was highly unorganized, we suggest something more sophisticated, deliberate, and comprehensive. Learning logs are journals kept by AL participants during the course of the program charting their thoughts, concerns, feelings, reflection, and learning along the way. They can serve as a catalyst for additional reflection, after emotional moments have passed, to put events into a different perspective in order to learn more from those experiences. From a very practical standpoint in an academic setting, they are also excellent places to record “a-ha!” moments for inclusion in final AL reports.

10. Evaluation – Any individual, group, or organization can improve its performance through effective evaluation. In this era of accountability, evaluation is a necessary tool. Those who do not currently evaluate out of a sincere desire to improve effectiveness now find themselves required to, if only to justify their program. Action Learning programs should be no different. In an academic setting, evaluation should occur at three levels: individual, Set, and program. Notice we do not suggest a project evaluation is appropriate, either in terms of its strategic alignment or by other measures. Because AL’s objective is learning, the project’s success or failure is immaterial, as long as learning occurs from its development and implementation. Project evaluation may be entirely appropriate by and within the purview of the home organization.  Individual: Action Learning is all about reflection, a form of self-evaluation. The learner must constantly evaluate their own performance, reflect on that performance, and appropriately adapt. The Coach also serves a vital role in providing feedback to the individual.  Set: Just as individuals within the Set are constantly self-evaluating and reflecting upon their findings, so must the Set. The Set, with the aid of the Coach, asks

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 22 - itself questions such as “How are we doing?,” “What are we doing well?,” and “What could we do better?” The answers to these questions provide an evaluation of the group, its dynamics, and functionality. They also may provide individual- specific feedback. The Sponsor may provide feedback on the project and process.  Program: The objective of AL is learning. While we found it a powerful tool and vehicle for learning, if AL is improperly conducted, it may fail to deliver results. For instance, successful AL must be conducted in an environment safe for experimentation and learning and conducive to introspection and reflection. You need to evaluate whether the proper conditions for AL exist and, if they do not, determine what changes are necessary to provide them. The Coach may also be able to provide feedback on program infrastructure and implementation.

11. Coach – A major crux of AL. Coaching is one of the most important elements of AL. Dotlich and Noel say the Coach’s “goal is to accelerate learning.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 26) Coaches are always guides and role models, occasionally learners themselves, and only rarely teachers. It is the Coach who sets the tone for the Set, establishing the open and nurturing environment safe for action, feedback, reflection, learning, and, ultimately change. The Coach asks the questions so important to the AL process. They provide different perspectives on situations, events, and performance to which learners may be blind. They can also motivate, support, encourage, focus, confront, intervene, or simply listen. While the Set members can acquire these skills, Coaches must be nonjudgmental and objective, and therefore separate from the project, making this a difficult role for learners involved in the process to successfully fill.

Summary

Action Learning creates reflective practitioners who stop, assess what is happening (or what is not happening the way it should), learn, and then adapt. (Daudelin 1996, in Osland 2001) Henry Mintzberg wrote in a Harvard Business Review article, “Study after study has shown that managers work at an unrelenting pace, that their activities are characterized by brevity, variety, and discontinuity, and that they are strongly oriented to action and dislike reflective activities.” (in Daudelin 1996, in Osland 2001, 68) And thus miss a key learning opportunity.

Action learning’s strengths and benefits align well with current training and development needs of contemporary public administration. Traditional and executive MPA programs should seriously consider AL as a powerful and effective learning tool. Because AL stimulates behavioral change, the experience can be the impetus for all or part of an individual, organization or cultural change effort. Dotlich and Noel wrote: “Learning to embrace change is not something learned overnight or through listening to change gurus lecture. It requires as experience that is emotional as well as intellectual; it demands feedback, confrontation, and reflection.” (Dotlich and Noel 1998, 57)

There are numerous excellent texts and articles, as well as consultants prepared to assist, available to guide the development and implementation of a public administration AL

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 23 - program. In addition to the table of authorities, this online bibliography and overview of AL may be helpful: http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/al-biblio.html; http://www.american.edu/spa/executivempa/action.html

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to especially recognize the generosity of the National Wildlife Refuge System Deputy Assistant Director, Jim Kurth, in supporting and sponsoring this project. We thank the members of the National Experience & Excellence in Washington (NEEW) team for their time, dedication, and patience, including Martin Brockman, Cheryl Brunk, Mike Chouinard, K.L. Drews, Kim Jefferson, Brenda Johnson-Turner, Joe Piehuta, Alexandra Pitts, and Paul Steblein. We also thank the NWRS HQ employees and various Regional Office managers in their participation in project surveys and focus groups. We appreciate the feedback and critique by our reviewers, Christi Chisler, Joanie Newhart, and Linda Stracke; any errors contained within this paper are solely ours. Lastly, we thank Dr. Robert Kramer for introducing us to the incredible experience of action learning and his review of our draft paper. Thank you one and all.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 24 - Table of Authorities

Action Learning Associates. Introduction to Action Learning. 20 November 2002. http://www.alaint.demon.co.uk/actionlearning.htm

Beckmann, Michael, Ph.D. Personal interview, 20 January 2004.

Bolman, Lee, and Terrence Deal. Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997.

Dotlich, David L., and Noel, James L. Action Learning: How the World’s Top Companies Are Re-creating Their Leaders and Themselves. 1st ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.

Knowles, Malcolm S., Elwood F. Holton III, and Richard A. Swanson. The Adult Learner. 5th ed. Worburn: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998.

Kotter, John. Leading Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996.

Kramer, Robert, Ph.D. “Leadership and Management.” Class lecture. Organization Diagnosis and Change. American University, Washington D.C. 2 November 2002.

Kramer, Robert, Ph.D. Personal interview. 26 January 2004.

Leapfrog Innovations. Action + Learning = Change. 15 April 2003. http://www.teamdevelopment.com/trainingmag_pt2.htm

Margerison, Charles. How To Learn From Action: A Practical Guidebook. Action Learning Institute. 20 November 2002 http://www.action- learning.org/Services/?Display=View_ActionLearningBook

Marquardt, Michael J. Action Learning in Action. Palo Alto: Davies-Black, 1999.

Noe, Raymond A. Employee Training & Development. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw- Hill Irwin, 2002.

Osland, Joyce S., David A. Kolb, and Irwin M. Rubin, eds. The Organizational Behavior Reader. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.

Senge, Peter. “The Leader’s New Work: Building Learning Organizations.” The Organizational Reader. Ed. Joyce S. Osland, David A. Kolb, and Irwin M. Rubin. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.

Senge, Peter. The Fifth Discipline. 1st ed. New York: Doubleday, 1990.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 25 - United States. Fish and Wildlife Service. Fulfilling the Promise. Washington D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999.

U.S. News & World Report. Graduate School Rating Report, 2001.

Zuck, Alfred. “The Playing Field.” Class lecture. Politics, Policy-Making and Public Administration. American University. Washington D.C. 16 November 2001.

Action Learning in Public Administration: A Case Study from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jennifer Wicks and Barry W. Stieglitz - 26 - THE CLASSROOM SIMULATION: LESSONS I HAVE LEARNED

By: Susan Zinner, MSJ, MHA, JD Asst. Prof., School of Public and Environmental Affairs Indiana University (Northwest Campus)

Simulated classroom events offer students the valuable lesson of learning how they would respond to real-life scenarios which require them to make decisions quickly, under stressful conditions and with less-than-adequate information. And, perhaps even more importantly, students learn how they should respond.

In my combined graduate/undergraduate epidemiology class at Indiana University Northwest, I have added a simulated public health emergency to allow students to implement tools and practices used by public health officials and epidemiologists. I will discuss the formats I have used and which approaches I have found to be successful and which have not.

I was asked to commemorate the first anniversary of the September 11, 2001 disaster in the fall of 2002 by administrators at the university. I decided to run a simulated public health emergency and assign different roles to the students enrolled in the class. The format was that of suspected anthrax in the Gary, Indiana (where Indiana University Northwest is located) area. Students were assigned roles such as the mayor, city CFO, public hospital CEO, private hospital CEO, public health director, streets and sanitation director, water safety director, several reporters, water safety director and assistants to these individuals. I distributed their assignments the week prior to the simulation with a list of questions for them to consider before the actual event. For instance, the two students assigned to be reporters were asked to think about whether they had an ethical obligation to relay every piece of information they obtained, even if it were possible that panic by Gary residents could be the likely outcome. I played the directors of both the FBI and CDC. A podium was set up at the front of the classroom to serve as a media outlet in order for officials to make public announcements.

Given that the first simulated emergency had been successful and well-received by students, I used another simulated public health emergency when I next taught the class, in the fall of 2003. The facts were fairly similar but the issue here was suspected cholera in the city water. Students were assigned roles such as those noted above.

Students were provided with information prepared in advance every five or ten minutes during the simulation. Some students received only a few updates during the entire simulation, while others, such as the mayor, received updates virtually every five minutes. The simulations both began with presidential warnings about the possibility of health risks facing cities in the Midwest and were then followed by the appearance of several patients exhibiting symptoms of anthrax (in 2002) and cholera (in 2003) at local hospitals. Over time, Gary officials learn that a public health risk threatens their citizens and must face issues such as limited resources and panicked citizens attempting to flee the city.

Each individual faced his or her own set of concerns. The city CFO had to confront the challenge of funding this unexpected health emergency, the possibility of collecting FEMA funds and the requests for financial assistance by both hospital CEOs. The public health education director had to research the symptoms of the illness and publicly warn all citizens of the risks they faced. The chief of police had to work with the FBI representative in ascertaining the source of the illness, in calming the public and attempting to prevent mass exodus from the city and address the overload of the 911 system. The two hospital CEOs were concerned about the costs of caring for these and possibly many more patients and the public health issue of protecting hospital employees. The mayor and director of public health were especially overwhelmed. They received the same pieces of information and had to confront challenges such as the limited amount of antibiotics effective against the illness within the city, addressing public health concerns such as arranging for autopsies and disposal of the affected individuals and demands for information by all students. The reporters had to address the reluctance of city officials to impart information likely to frighten the public.

While there were a number of differences between the two simulations, I found that there were also many similarities. Comparing and contrasting these two events allowed me to consider how I will revise the simulation in its third year. These are some of the lessons I have learned:

1. The timing of the simulation is important. In order to commemorate the September 11, 2001 events, I had little choice but to schedule the simulation during the second class of the semester, when students did not know each other and interactions were often a bit awkward. In contrast, the simulation held in 2003 was held near the end of the semester, the week before the final exam, when students had gotten to know each other fairly well and had worked together on group activities during class. The simulation flowed much more smoothly last year since the students were much more comfortable with each other.

In fact, the first simulation was a bit stressful for the graduate student, a nurse, who was assigned the role of mayor. When one of the hospital CEOs continued to ask her for funding for help with the unexpected costs of meeting the needs of anthrax-infected patients, the mayor shouted at her to “Shut up!” Fortunately, they both laughed afterwards. There was no event of this sort in the second simulation precisely because, I believe, students were friendly enough with each other after having spent the semester together not to resort to this language.

Also, it is only at the end of the semester when students have the advantage of a full semester’s worth of discussion, class activities and formulas that they can truly confront a problem with a full arsenal of tools at their disposal. The simulation at the beginning of the semester lacked the advantage of students who were well-prepared to confront a public health emergency.

2. Keep the events as true to life as possible. As I noted above, I played the role of the director of both the CDC and the FBI. In both cases, I was deliberately slow in responding to the needs of the students. The chief of police in both simulations came to me for help with additional police to prevent a mass exodus from the city. In both cases, I informed the students that I could only afford to release a handful of police since there were competing needs elsewhere. I was also deliberately condescending to the local police chief as there has traditionally been a bit of antagonism between local and national security officials. Similarly, as the director of the CDC, I was unclear about the amount of funds I could release to Gary to fight the public health emergency. The city CFO and others had to make financial decisions with incomplete and inadequate information, a condition which is likely to arise in real-life emergencies.

3. Bombard students with information. One way to escape the inherent artificiality of role-playing in the classroom is to provide so much information that the students become caught up in the simulation and not on the classroom component of the simulation. I provided printed information to the mayor and certain key players every five minutes or so. Others got information less often. I circulated to encourage students were not playing an active role at the moment to use their time well, generally in obtaining information.

4. Don’t underestimate the importance of the media. I found that the press conferences arranged by the mayor and other public health officials were more important that I initially imagined. In both simulations I chose two very outgoing people to act as reporters and they used the press conferences as an opportunity to demand more information (often with my encouragement). In fact, during the first simulation, one reporter continued to raise important issues the mayor had not addressed. For instance, the mayor had indicated that everyone should stay in their homes and the reporter asked what the homeless were supposed to do.

5. Assign roles with care. I struggled a bit with choosing the mayor in both cases. I chose a graduate student, a dynamic nurse, to play the mayor in the first simulation. She did an excellent job, but was clearly overwhelmed by some of her obligations. In the second simulation, I chose an undergraduate (the 2003 class was composed only of undergraduates) who had been a very thoughtful and insightful student, but was not the most outspoken student in the class. She did an excellent job and, despite the stressful conditions, never became irritated with classmates competing for her attention.

6. Evaluate the simulation immediately afterwards. A discussion of the simulation has provided me with valuable input. I ask students to list what they learned about emergencies should an actual event occur. Students have noted that it is important to have highly-qualified individuals in key governmental positions, that it is not unusual for an antagonistic environment to be established when individuals are competing for limited resources and that communication (both with each other and with the public) is crucial.

7. Remind students of the role simulations play in public administration programs. I feel that it is important to allow students to see that their theoretical classroom work does have practical applications in the outside world. The simulated event allows this to occur. Also, as noted by Alfred North Whitehead, “the task of the university is to weld together imagination and experience” (Whitehead, 1929, p. 93). The simulated event allows for this welding of the experience of faculty and the imagination of students to unite in a mutual problem-solving activity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Whitehead, Alfred North. The Aims of Education and Other Essays. New York: The Free Press, 1929.