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Tissue-Specific Decellularization Methods International Journal of Molecular Sciences Review Tissue-Specific Decellularization Methods: Rationale and Strategies to Achieve Regenerative Compounds 1,2 1, 1, Unai Mendibil , Raquel Ruiz-Hernandez y , Sugoi Retegi-Carrion y , 2, 2 1,3, Nerea Garcia-Urquia y, Beatriz Olalde-Graells and Ander Abarrategi * 1 Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), 20014 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain; [email protected] (U.M.); [email protected] (R.R.-H.); [email protected] (S.R.-C.) 2 TECNALIA, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), 20009 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain; [email protected] (N.G.-U.); [email protected] (B.O.-G.) 3 Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain * Correspondence: [email protected] These authors contribute equally to the work. y Received: 15 July 2020; Accepted: 28 July 2020; Published: 30 July 2020 Abstract: The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network with multiple functions, including specific functions during tissue regeneration. Precisely, the properties of the ECM have been thoroughly used in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine research, aiming to restore the function of damaged or dysfunctional tissues. Tissue decellularization is gaining momentum as a technique to obtain potentially implantable decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) with well-preserved key components. Interestingly, the tissue-specific dECM is becoming a feasible option to carry out regenerative medicine research, with multiple advantages compared to other approaches. This review provides an overview of the most common methods used to obtain the dECM and summarizes the strategies adopted to decellularize specific tissues, aiming to provide a helpful guide for future research development. Keywords: extracellular matrix; decellularization; regenerative medicine 1. Introduction In many adult animal tissues, the main component in terms of volume is not the cells, but the cell-secreted three-dimensional (3D) structure known as the extracellular matrix (ECM). Structural and specialized proteins and proteoglycans are some of the ECM’s macromolecular components, and they interact in this network with multiple key roles and functions. During homeostasis, the ECM provides structural integrity and mechanical support for tissues and organ architecture. In parallel, the ECM is the reservoir and the place for the active exchange of ions, nutrients, waters, metabolites, and signals [1]. In this way, the ECM serves as the environment in which tissue-resident cells attach, communicate, and interact, thereby regulating cell dynamics and behavior, and contributing to the maintenance of tissue-specific cell phenotypes and functions (Figure1). Notably, the ECM provides a niche for tissue-resident stem cells and drives their fate decisions, a property particularly relevant during homeostasis and tissue repair–regeneration processes. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 5447; doi:10.3390/ijms21155447 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 5447 2 of 29 Figure 1. Structure, components, and functions of extracellular matrix (ECM) (MMP, matrix metalloprotease; GF, growth factor). The properties of the ECM have been thoroughly used in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine research, aiming to restore the function of damaged or dysfunctional tissues [2]. In this context, applications of ECM-derived components are multiple, from in vitro stem cell basic research to clinical settings. For example, ECM-derived components have been used as surface coatings for cell adhesion purposes; gel matrices for establishing organoid cultures; 3D environments for cell seeding and growth factor delivery approaches; and as biocompatible and biomimetic implantable allograft or xenograft scaffolds with in vivo tissue regeneration properties. Often, strategies are based on specific ECM components, such as collagens, fibrin, hyaluronic acid, or even cell-culture-derived ECM. Using these materials, multiple fabrication techniques have been implemented to generate successful ECM-derived biomimetic structures such as hydrogels, or even more sophisticated engineering approaches such as micropatterned surfaces, electrospinning, 3D printing, and bioprinting-designed scaffolds, among others [3]. Interestingly, tissue decellularization is becoming a common technique to obtain decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) [4] and it is a research field gaining momentum in recent years (Figure2). The rationale for decellularization is related to the adverse response that cell waste may induce when tissue-derived material is used for implantation procedures, including immune reaction and inflammation, leading to implant rejection. Therefore, dECM is usually obtained by chemical, enzymatic, and/or physical decellularization methods, developed to eliminate the cells and their waste, mainly DNA [5]. These procedures yield decellularized materials formed by the multiple ECM components, which are maintained similar to the original tissue in composition, even in architecture, if required. dECM-related advantages are often associated with better performance and applicability as implants for tissue repair, and also with better mechanical/biochemical properties for the intended use. Initially, research in this field was focused precisely on developing proper decellularization methods and techniques, while more recently, the field is moving to implement approaches related to bioengineering and which tackle applied research aims. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 5447 3 of 29 Figure 2. Research items per year with the words “decellularization” or “decellularized” in the title (Source: https://scholar.google.es “allintitle: decellularized OR decellularization”). Notably, regenerative medicine research can now take advantage of approaches based on the use of the targeted tissue-specific dECM [6,7]. The ECM is different from one tissue to another, and therefore, decellularization methods and techniques to obtain dECM have been extensively studied and tissue-specifically improved, aiming to preserve the ECM molecules and structures relevant for the intended use. In this sense, research has been mainly based on empirical testing of tissue-specific decellularization methods intended to achieve specific aims or applications. In this review, we provide an overview of the methods used to obtain the dECM, and we summarize the most common strategies adopted to decellularize specific tissues, aiming to provide a helpful guide for future research development. 2. Organ Decellularization and Tissue Decellularization Approaches for Biomedical Applications Whole tissue or intact tissue pieces or sections are a common starting point for decellularization, especially when the final purpose is whole organ decellularization for bioengineering purposes. In these cases, the resulting dECM is a tissue scaffold generally created to keep its structure as intact as possible. Note that dECM tissue scaffold decellularization processes tend to be long, due to the need to be sure about all the reagents reaching the target cells in order to achieve complete decellularization [5]. The bigger the tissue pieces, the longer it takes to make sure that they are completely decellularized. Moreover, the longer the period of chemicals and enzymatic reactions, the higher the chance of damaging the ECM components. In tissue pieces, it is easy to assess by histology the decellularization and integrity of the remaining ECM. However, even if there are no histologically visible nuclei in the tissue, it is still important to quantify the DNA content by molecular techniques, with the safe limit of DNA content in a decellularized tissue established as below 50 pg DNA per milligram of dry tissue. Regarding macromolecules, they need to be assessed both in quantity and quality by histology, spectrophotometry, and other techniques, while the other ECM components as growth factors may need to be assessed and quantified as well [8]. In some cases, tissue-specific tests are also required to characterize those properties key to the intended biomedical application. For example, a mechanical stress test is required to assess the mechanical/elastic properties after the decellularization of tendons, muscles, and cartilage tissues [9]. Keeping the ECM as intact as possible can be a problem when dECM tissue scaffolds are meant to be used for cell colonization purposes [10]. The ECM is grown by and around the cells, providing physical support, and therefore keeping intact the intricate ECM net, which may impede proper cell seeding of decellularized material. Moreover, potential implantation may be physically limited by the dECM structure and form. Therefore, the decellularization strategy is often designed to degrade some of the ECM components, aiming to maximize the further cell seeding strategy [11]. Tissue decellularization is achieved using as starting material tissues treated with mechanical or chemical methods for tissue grinding, pulverization, or homogenization before decellularization. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 5447 4 of 29 This approach is gaining relevance, especially in strategies aiming to use the dECM in postprocessing fabrication approaches (hydrogels, 3D printing, electrospinning, and similar). The outcome of decellularization in these cases is dECM powder, an intermediate product mainly used to artificially generate further ECM coatings or 3D structures [12]. Note that tissue powder processing yields dECM powder
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