Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

School of Journalism and Mass Communications

ΜA in Digital Media, Communication & Journalism

Reporting War and Crises

Christos Grigoroudis

New wars – The case of Yemen

Supervisor: Professor Nikolaos Panagiotou

Thessaloniki 2017 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the whole department of the School of Journalism and Mass Communications of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Professors, Associated and Assistant Professors. I am grateful to my supervisor, Assistant Professor Mr. Nikolaos Panagiotou for his continuous guidance, advice, and valuable suggestion to carry out my research.

“To the Yemeni children

who didn’t have the time to laugh and play…”

ii ABSTRACT

Yemeni civil war, came to the front in 2015, just after the last elections. Houthi Forces allied with forces loyal to the former president Ali Abdullah Saleh, clashed with forces loyal to the government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi. The coverage of the mass media is variable. Although the intense of the civil war is quite vivid the media coverage remains weak. The present study will examine the Yemen war through the analysis of mass media coverage. It will focus on warfare that affected significant the parties of the conflict, on the consequences of the atrocities on the population, the displacements and the humanitarian crisis of the country, on the mediators and their efforts for resolving the crisis and their publicity. Moreover, the study will attempt to investigate the framing that provided three different large scale digital media, Russia Today (Russia), Al Jazeera (Arab originated) and New York Times (USA), in the period between January to June 2017. Although global news media keep a different approach on the emergent conflicts, the war in Yemen displayed events that were commented disproportionate. The present study, therefore, will attempt to locate in cases that remained unseen in mass media or covered uneven. It will try to identify the dominant frame and maybe the balanced reporting. It will also try to detect the narrative of each media and the implementation of peace journalism in its articles.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE NUMBER

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Historical Background 1 1.1.1 The Identity of Yemen 1 1.1.2 Saleh’s Resignation 8 1.1.3 Hadi’s Administration 9 1.1.4 The Rise of Houthis 10 1.2 Theoretical Framework 12 1.2.1 Media Framing 12 1.2.2 Interrelation between Agenda setting and Frame setting 15 1.3 Conflict and Violence through the prism of Peace Journalism 18 1.3.1 Causes of conflicts and the importance of Media 18 1.3.2 Journalism as a catalyst 19 1.3.3 Peace Journalism 20 1.3.4 The Triangle of Conflict 22 1.3.5 The Peace Journalism Model and the Conflict Triangle 24 1.4 “New Wars” 26 1.4.1 The “New Wars” Approach 26 1.4.2 “New wars” contribution 36

CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY 39

CHAPTER 3 OVERALL STUDY RESULTS 44 3.1 New York Times Results 53 3.1.1 General Outcomes 53 3.1.2 Framing Study Outcomes 53

iv 3.1.3 Peace & War Journalism Indicators 64 3.2 Russia Today Results 71 3.2.1 General Outcomes 71 3.2.2 Framing Study Outcomes 71 3.2.3 Peace & War Journalism Indicators 89 3.3 Al Jazeera Results 100 3.3.1 General Outcomes 100 3.3.2 Framing Study Outcomes 100 3.3.3 Peace & War Journalism Indicators 113

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS 124 4.1 War and Media 124 4.2 Framing of the conflict by the media 132 4.2.1 N.Y.T 132 4.2.2 R.T 134 4.2.2 A.J 136 4.3 Peace Journalism Indicators 139 4.4 “New wars” approach on Yemeni war 141 4.5 Conclusions 144

BIBLIOGRAPHY 149-156 APPENDIX Maps 157-163

v LIST OF TABLES

PAGE NUMBER

Table 1. PJ and WJ features by Johan Galtung 24

Table 2. Contained Data – features, per month and News Media 45

Table 3. Number of editorials, per month and News Media 46

Table 4. Size of editorials, per month and News Media 47

Table 5. Strategic Frame, per month and News Media 47

Table 6. Violent Frame, per month and News Media 47

Table 7. Intervention Frame, per month and News Media 48

Table 8. Saudi Led Coal. Agg. Frame, per month and News Media 48

Table 9. Houthi Aggression Frame, per month and News Media 49

Table 10. Hadi Aggression Frame, per month and News Media 49

Table 11. AQAP Aggression Frame, per month and News Media 49

Table 12. Conseq. Of war/viol. (PJ ind.), per month and News Media 50

Table 13. Roots of conflict (PJ indicator), per month and News Media 50

Table 14. Solution Oriented (PJ indicator), per month and News Media 51

Table 15. Framing Percentage per News Media 51

Table 16. PJ Indicators’ Percentage per News Media 51

Table 17. NYT Narrative 133

Table 18. RT Narrative 135

Table 19. AJ Narrative 137

vi LIST OF GRAPHICS

PAGE NUMBER

Graphic 1. Published articles per month and News Media 44

Graphic 2. Published editorials per month 45

Graphic 3. Size of articles per each month 46

Graphic 4. Size and number of articles per each month for NYT 53

Graphic 5. Dominant Frame per each month for NYT 54

Graphic 6. “Violent Frame” for NYT 54

Graphic 7. “Intervention Frame” for NYT 58

Graphic 8. “Saudi led Coalition Aggression Frame” for NYT 60

Graphic 9. “Strategic Interest Frame” for NYT 61

Graphic 10. “AQAP Aggression Frame” for NYT 62

Graphic 11. “Hadi Aggression Frame” for NYT 63

Graphic 12. “Houthi Aggression Frame” for NYT 64

Graphic 13. Peace & War Journalism Indicators per month for NYT 65

Graphic 14. “Conseq. of War and Violence” Ind. per month for NYT 65

Graphic 15. “Roots of Conflict” Indicator per month for NYT 68

Graphic 16. “Roots of Conflict” Indicator per month for NYT 69

Graphic 17. Size and number of articles per each month for RT 71

Graphic 18. Dominant Frame per each month for RT 72

Graphic 19. “Saudi Led Coalition Aggression Frame” per month for RT 73

Graphic 20. “Intervention Frame” per month for RT 77

vii Graphic 21. “Violent Frame” per month for RT 82

Graphic 22. “Strategic Frame” per month for RT 86

Graphic 23. “Houthi Aggression Frame” per month for RT 89

Graphic 24. Peace & War Journalism Indicators per month for RT 90

Graphic 25. “Conseq. of War and Violence” Indic. per month for RT 92

Graphic 26. “Roots of conflict” Indicator per month for RT 94

Graphic 27. “Solution Oriented” Indicator per month for RT 98

Graphic 28. Size and number of articles per each month for AJ 100

Graphic 29 . Dominant Frame per each month for AJ 100

Graphic 30. “Violent Frame” per month for RT 101

Graphic 31. “Strategic Interest Frame” per month for RT 104

Graphic 32. “Saudi led Coalition Aggression Frame” per month for RT 107

Graphic 33. “Intervention Frame” per month for RT 109

Graphic 34. “Houthi Aggression Frame” per month for RT 111

Graphic 35. “AQAP Aggression Frame” per month for RT 113

Graphic 36. Peace & War Journalism Indicators per month for AJ 114

Graphic 37. “Conseq. of War and Violence” Ind. per month for RT 116

Graphic 38. “Roots of Conflict” Indicator per month for RT 119

Graphic 39. “Solution Oriented” Indicator per month for RT 123

Graphic 40. Dominant Frame per Media (%) 132

Graphic 41. Frame distribution in the total of examined media (%) 138

Graphic 42. PJ Indicators per Media (%) 139

viii LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE NUMBER

Figure 1. PJ and WJ attributes within Conflict Dimensions 25

ix ABBREVIATIONS Al Jazeera (AJ) Amnesty International (AI) anno Domini (AD) Arab Organisation for Human Rights (AOHR) Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) Before Christ (BC) Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Gross Domestic Product (GDP) General People's Congress (GPC) Human Rights Watch (HRW) International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) International Monetary Fund (IMF) Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS) Joint Meeting Parties (JMP) King Salman Center for Humanitarian Aid and Relief (KSRelief) Member of Parliament (MP) New York Times (NYT) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Peace Journalism (PJ) Russia Today (RT) Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) United Arab Emirates (UAE) United Kingdom (UK) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) United States (US) Upsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP) World Health Organization (WHO) Yemen Socialist Party (YSP) World Food Program (WFP) War Journalism (WJ)

x INTRODUCTION

Yemen is a deeply religious country and its roots go back to the 7th century A.D. Its unique place was a challenge for different empires through the centuries. The recent decades a civil war followed the unification efforts. In the present research, a brief historical background will be presented and the route of the country especially in the last decades. The Agenda Setting and the Framing will follow, starting from their conception and focusing on their relationship and their role in media. An elaboration on conflict and violence will reinforce the basic knowledge for the researched conflict. The major factors that can ignite a conflict and the forms of the produced violence. The peace journalism main characteristics, principles and features, its catalytic role as a third party in mediation and conflict resolution. The “New Wars” approach will complete the theoretic background, presenting not only the main arguments of its supporters but also the arguments of its offenders. The contribution of this approach in conflict analysis will be highlighted and its novelties that provide an improved understanding of the decline of public goods due to the impact of a violent conflict as well. The methodology will use both quantitative and qualitative analysis and will examine the framing of the conflict for three news media platforms. “New York Times”, “Russia Today” and “Al Jazeera” will be used for this purpose, for the period of January 2017 until June of 2017. The articles that will be collected must be related with the conflict and will be categorized according to the dominant frame and the peace journalism indicator respectively. The purpose is to identify the dominant frame and its relation with the other frames, the extent of the coverage in each media, the implementation of peace journalism in the articles and the descriptive cover of them. The results will present the number of articles per media for the specific period, the different data that contain the size of the articles through this period, the frames per month and media and the peace journalism indicators respectively. The results will be accompanied by references in the articles for all media, both for framing and for peace journalism indicators. Concluding, the verification of the “Hypotheses” with the recorded results will be attempted and the detection of each narrative will be attempted. The implementation of peace journalism indicators in the articles will be checked and the presence of “New Wars” approach, as well.

xi “My role (as war correspondent) is to bring a voice to people who are voiceless (and) to shine a light in the darkest corners of the world.”

Janine di Giovanni, War Reporter

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Historical Background

1.1.1 The Identity of Yemen

Yemen is a country with roots back in the ancient times. Very important empires like Sabaean, were flourished in the region of Yemen. The Romans, expand their power in the 1st century AD, following a series of other powers like Byzantines Jews and Persians. The Yemenis converted to Islam in 628 AD, leaving the Christianity and following Islam. The previous century the region was divided in two parts. Although the Northern component was never o colony of any European Power, the Southern component was a part of British Empire for the period from 1839 to 1957. The current Republic of Yemen (App. Map 1) came into being in 1990, after the unification of Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) with the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen). The borders of the country are mostly a product of the foreign policy goals and actions of Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Saudi Arabia1. The people of Yemen overwhelmingly consider themselves Arabs, but they use to divide themselves between northern and southern groups. This is mainly an historical division that has linguistic roots but which is otherwise difficult to trace. Yemenis of northern origin are said to have descended from Mesopotamians who entered the region more than two thousand years ago, and they claim ancestry of the biblical figure of “Ishmael”. The southern group, which represents the old South

1 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen (Accessed 11 Apr 2017)

1 Arabian stock, claims its descent from Qahtan the biblical figure of “Joktan” (almost four thousand five hundred years ago)2. There are more than fifty Ethnic groups distributed in the country3, while Houthis constitute the major group between them. Among Arab groups, tribal affiliation is a fundamental component of social identity. Some tribes have histories spanning more than two millennia. These affiliations continue to serve as a key basis for political and social organization throughout the country, even though the post independence governments of both South Yemen and, to a lesser extent, North Yemen set out to eliminate what then were considered reactionary cultural institutions. While efforts toward detribalization were partly effective, following events indicated that such identifications were still socially, economically, and politically relevant4. The former states of North and South Yemen had completely contrasting political systems. North Yemen was a republic governed nominally under a constitution. Although political parties were formally banned, several parties did exist and operated with varying level of influence during and between elections. South Yemen, also republican in form, had an avowedly Marxist regime, and the political system and economy reflected many of the features of the “scientific socialism.”5 The Yemen Socialist Party (YSP), the only legal political organization, defined government policy and exercised control over the state administrative system, the legislature, and the military.6 The unification of these two different political worlds (App. Map 2), was a result of two factors: (1) The collapse of the Soviet Union, that was related with South Yemen’s principal sources, and (2) the termination of Saudi aid to North Yemen,

2 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Plant-and-animal- life#toc273076 (Accessed 11 Apr 2017)

3 Joshua Project. (2017). People Groups. Available at https://joshuaproject.net/countries/YM (Accessed 12 Apr 2017)

4 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Plant-and-animal- life#toc273076 (Accessed 11 Apr 2017)

5 Merriam-Webster. (2017). Dictionary. Available at https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ scientific%20socialism (Accessed 15 Apr 2017)

6 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/The-age-of- imperialism#toc45274 (Accessed 15 Apr 2017)

2 were crucial factors in the movement towards the unification.7 This effort of unification was initiated and pursued by Saleh’s suporters of North Yemen. Adopted by the legislatures of the two Yemens on May 22, 1990, the constitution of the new republic was declared. The final terms of unification called for integration of the two states and the creation of a political system based on multiparty democracy. Sanaa was declared as the “political capital” while Aden would be the “economic capital”. After a 30-month transition period, elections of a new national legislature would take place in November 1992. During the transition period, the two existing legislatures would cooperate together as a single body, and all other offices and powers would be shared equally between the two ruling parties, the General People's Congress (GPC) and the YSP. Saleh would be the interim president of the republic and al-Bayd, the secretary-general of the YSP, was to fill the place vice president.8 Efforts by the Saleh government to reinforce and build support and legitimacy for the political system of united Yemen were sorely compromised by an environment marked by severe economic collapse and widespread deprivation, especially since these conditions came quickly after a period of improving economic conditions and soaring expectations. Most of the population in the northern part of Yemen had experienced better quality of life in the ‘80s, and the prospects of oil revenues as well as the reputed benefits of unification had greatly raised expectations in both parts of Yemen at the end of the ‘80s.9 The main cause of the collapse of the Yemeni economy came from the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), which followed Iraq’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait in 1990. The Yemeni economy in the late ‘80s was relied primarily on emigrated workers’ remittances and external economic aid from Saudi Arabia and, secondary, on other oil-rich Persian Gulf states. In the fall of 1990, Yemen did not ally with U.S.A and Saudi military coalition against Iraq. Saudi Arabia expelled several hundred thousand Yemeni workers and cut all foreign aid to Yemen in retaliation; a

7 MEDEA. (2017). YEMEN REUNIFICATION. Available at http://www.medea.be/en/countries/yemen/yemen-reunification/ (Accessed 12 Aug 2017)

8 Etheredge L. (2011). Saudi Arabia and Yemen. p.130. Available at https://books.google.gr/books (Accessed 17 Jun 2017)

9 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/The-age-of- imperialism #toc273073 (Accessed 17 May 2017)

3 reaction that most of the other Arab oil states followed suit. Rapidly, the republic’s gross domestic product and government revenues diminished. Conversely, the unemployment and inflation rates, as well as the budget deficit, soared. By 1992, the shrinking economy produced widespread and deepening deprivation, and modest increases in oil revenues did not assist the new government in preventing the growing hardship and in avoiding the collapse of the economy.10 With a suffering economy, political violence, bombings and assassinations, marred the following years leading to the republic’s first general parliamentary elections. Despite the growing acrimony, President Saleh’s party, the GPC, won the elections of 1993. The Islamic Reform Grouping (Islah), the basic organized opposition to the unification regime since 1990, as well as the YSP, both won strong minority representation. These three parties formed a coalition government in May 1993, trying to overcome the political crisis.11՚12 Instead, the conflict between the northern and southern political leaders worsened dramatically in the second half of 1993 and gradually the political struggle escalated into armed conflict in the spring of 1994. The leaders of YSP and other southern politicians resorted to armed secession in the early summer. The War of Secession of 1994, lasted from May to July and resulted in the defeat of the southern forces and the exile of most of the YSP leaders, soldiers and supporters.13 This short civil war was destructive for the YSP and left control of the state in the hands of a GPC-Islah coalition dominated by President Saleh. Over the next few years, the voice of the south in Yemen’s political life was impeded. At the same time, strained relations within the GPC-Islah coalition led them to contradiction. The civil war resulted in political conflict, unrest and strengthen of the security forces.

10 Whitaker, B. (2015). Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Available at http://al-bab.com/blog/2015/03 /yemen- and-saudi-arabia (Accessed 15 Jul 2017)

11 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/The-age-of- imperialism (Accessed 12 Jul 2017)

12 Carapico S. (1993). MER185. Available at http://www.merip.org/mer/mer185/elections-mass- politics-yemen (Accessed 12 Jul 2017)

13 Etheredge L. (2011). Saudi Arabia and Yemen. p.132. Available at https://books.google.gr/books (Accessed 17 Jun 2017)

4 Moreover, resulted in the curtailment of freedom for the opposition parties, media, non-governmental organizations and to human rights violations.14 Yemen ran the second parliamentary election on April, 1997. The GPC won the elections, while Islah finished second. Given its sizable majority, the GPC ruled alone, thereby Islah was the major opposition party. In the next years the changes of election procedure resulted in the decline of YSP. 15 Saleh, included in the foreign policy agenda, the resolution of the border issue and the restoration of their relations with the Saudis. It was focused on the improvement of relations with the Saudis, the other oil-rich Persian Gulf states, and Eritrea as well. The Hanish Islands; a string of tiny islands in the Red Sea between the two countries, were the apple of discord between Yemen and Eritrea. Saudi pressured Yemen, threatening international oil companies working under agreements with Yemen in territory claimed by the Saudis in the eastern borders. The border clashes of 1994, led to the Memorandum of Understanding in January 1995. After negotiations and a Yemeni threat to resort to arbitration, Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed the long- sought final border agreement, in June 2000.16 Faced with the economic collapse, Saleh turned to International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank package of reforms in 1995. The package consisted of a series of stabilization measures, structural and government reforms. Yemen pledged to implement these reforms in a decade, aiming in its economic support, both from international bodies and from other external sources. One major aim was to make Yemen an attractive target for foreign investment. Alongside was the effort to further exploit Yemen’s oil resources and to begin taking advantage of natural gas deposits. 17 Saleh’s government implemented the initial steps of the IMF and World Bank reform package over the last half of the ‘90s. However, by the late ‘90s the Saleh’s

14 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Civil-war-and- political-unrest (Accessed 15 Jul 2017)

15INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION. (1997). YEMEN Elections. Available at http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc /2353_97.htm (Accessed 16 Jul 2017)

16International Border Treaty. (2000). Available at http://www.un.org/depts/los/ LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES /PDFFILES/TREATIES/YEM-SAU2000IBT.PDF (Accessed 17 Jun 2017)

17Burrowes R. (2010). Historical Dictionary of YEMEN. p.175. Available at https://books.google.gr/ books (Accessed 18 Jul 2017)

5 government was unable to adopt and carry out the more demanding economic and governance measures of the package. That resulted in limited progress regarding the attraction of investors, creation of jobs, foster enterprise, and add to the GDP. Therefore, the economy soon worsened and by 2005 was barely creating enough jobs and necessary public services to support the country’s rapid population growth. Unemployment rate, malnourishment and poverty rate was continuously growing. After all, Yemen’s economic situation and prospects in the first decade of the 21st century were bad.18 A series of attacks -beginning, in 1998 on the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, on U.S. naval destroyer (USS Cole), in Aden’s port, in 2000 by al-Qaeda and a year later on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon- changed the relations between Yemen and the United States (US) and other countries as well.19 President Saleh pledged Yemen’s full support to US right after the 2001 attack, but it was difficult to balance the Yemeni nationalism, the strong Islamic sensibilities, the growing anti-American sentiment and the central role of some Yemeni militant leaders and groups against the U.S. demands.20 During ‘80s, many of the recruits for the U.S.- and Saudi-orchestrated effort to mount a largely Islamic effort to oust the Soviet Union from Afghanistan came from Yemen. Afghanistan became the main incubator for this phenomenon: global revolutionary Islam. When Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan after 1989, trained and radicalized fighters from all over the Islamic world drew back. Specifically, many fighters—both Yemeni and non-Yemeni—preferred Yemen, attracted by its porous borders and its vast independent tribal areas. Afterwards, many of them that called “Afghan-Arabs,” fought on the side of the Saleh in the “War of

18 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Civil-war-and- political-unrest (Accessed 19 Jul 2017)

19 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Civil-war-and- political-unrest (Accessed 21 Jul 2017)

20 Dipiazza F. (2008). YEMEN in Pictures. p.67. Available at https://books.google.gr/books (Accessed 22 Jul 2017)

6 Secession” in 1994. In fact, the government became indebted to some of them, while some developed close ties to the government leaders.21 Despite both the domestic political problems, the difficult economic situation and the desperate condition of most Yemenis, the GPC achieved a big majority in the parliamentary elections in 2003.22 YSP and Islah, joined with the Nasserites and two small Zaydi parties in a coalition, the Joint Meeting Parties (JMP). In 2006 President Saleh won both the presidential and local elections. The JMP remained united after the elections, maintaining the opposition against the government. 23 In 2000s, resentment and dissatisfaction were prevailing throughout country, due to demands on actions against terrorism and internal problems that afflicted the society. Al-Houthi Rebellion, launched in June 2004 by Zaydi sayyids, in Sadah. They initially accused Saleh’s government as pro-American and pro-Israeli, and resulted in many casualties over the next months. In 2007, protests and demonstrations broke out in many places across southern Yemen. Initiated by disgruntled military officers, soon spread to civil servants, lawyers, teachers, professors, and unemployed youths protesting against the systematic discrimination of the south since the end of the “War of Secession” in 1994.24 Besides in 2008, a number of bombings occurred in an area of Sanaa where diplomats were living25, at about the time that al-Qaeda called upon its Yemeni supporters to attack the western “crusaders” and their Yemeni allies. The deadly bombing of the US embassy on September, was only the worst of a series of violent

21 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Civil-war-and- political-unrest (Accessed 22 Jul 2017)

22 INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION . (2003). YEMEN Elections .Available at http://www.ipu.org /parline-e/reports/arc/2353_03.htm (Accessed 23 Jul 2017)

23 E.U. Election Observation Mission.(2006). FINAL REPORT Available at http://www.eods.eu/library/ FR%20YEMEN %202006_en.pdf (Accessed 24 Jul 2017)

24 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Mounting- challenge-to-the-Salih-regime (Accessed 27 Jul 2017)

25 USA-DOS.(1998-2012). SIGNIFICANT ATTACKS AGAINST U.S. DIPLOMATIC FACILITIES AND PERSONNEL Available at https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/211361.pdf (Accessed 27 Jul 2017)

7 incidents claimed by, or blamed on, al-Qaeda and its allies. Saleh responded to these acts rapidly and relentless.26

1.1.2 Saleh’s Resignation

In January of 2011, many demonstrations took place demanding the resignation of Saleh. In February he promised not to stand for reelection after the completion of his term in 2013, and he vowed that his son would not succeed him in office, as well.27 The culmination of rallies came on February in the University of Sanaa, where the students and recent graduates were demanding the withdrawal of President Saleh. Clashes between protesters and police continued for the next months. The cruel attitude of Saleh against protesters eroded his support within the Yemeni government, weakening his hold on power. Gradually, diplomats, cabinet ministers, and members of parliament opposed his policy. Military officers followed this opposition.28 Yemen seemed to get near to civil war as fighting were intensifying. The opposition forces tried to neutralize Saleh, with a bomb that planted in the presidential palace. Saleh, was injured and was transported to Saudi Arabia for medical treatment. Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi replaced him during his absence.29՚30 Saleh, finally accepted the internationally mediated agreement to resign and transfer the power to Vice President Hadi in exchange for immunity from

26 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Mounting- challenge-to-the-Salih-regime (Accessed 27 Jul 2017)

27Boon K. et al. (2012). TERRORISM Commentary in Security Documents. p.474. Available at https://books.google.gr /books (Accessed 27 Jul 2017)

28 Al Jazzera. (2011). Top army commanders defect in Yemen. Available at http://www.aljazeera.com/news/ middleeast/2011/03/2011320180579476.html (Accessed 28 Jul 2017)

29 Kamel.M. (2017). Yemen's Civil War. Available at http://www.thelondonglobalist.org/yemen-civil- war-what-you-should-know/ (Accessed 30 Jul 2017)

30 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Mounting- challenge-to-the-Salih-regime (Accessed 30 Jul 2017)

8 prosecution.31 The agreement planned a presidential election in February of 2012 with Hadi as the only candidate on the ballot. After that he would serve a two-year term as president, preparing a new constitution.32 The other part of the agreement made provisions for Yemen to hold a political meeting, the National Dialogue Conference that would allow Yemen’s many political factions and representatives of all segments of society to exchange views about the transition and the new constitution.33 After all, Yemen remained divided after Hadi’s election. Ḥouthi rebels and Islamist militants were opposing the central government. Economic conditions were dismal, while unemployment was soaring. There were shortages of food, water, and of basic goods. In southern areas, dissatisfaction led to a revival of secessionist sentiment. In 2013, Yemen launched its National Dialogue Conference. The discussions were boycotted by some southern secessionist groups. They concluded after almost a year, with the completion of a document meant to guide the drafting of a new constitution, in a violent and instable environment.34՚35

1.1.3 Hadi’s Administration

Hadi’s administration, soon faced a new wave of public discontent, when proceeded to deep cuts in fuel subsidies, aiming to settle the budget deficit and attract foreign funding. Houthi’s leader, Abdul Malik al-Houthi, accused the government for

31 BBC NEWS. (2011). Yemen opposition backs power transfer to vice-president. Available at http://www.bbc.com/ news/world-middle-east-13663636 (Accessed 1 Aug 2017)

32 Kasinof L. (2012). Yemen Gets New Leader as Struggle Ends Calmly. Available at http://www.nytimes.com/ 2012/02/25/world/middleeast/yemen-to-get-a-new-president-abed-rabu- mansour-hadi.html (Accessed 1 Aug 2017)

33 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Mounting- challenge-to-the-Salih-regime#toc309816 (Accessed 1 Aug 2017)

34 SchMitz C. (2014). YemeN’s National Dialogue. Available at http://www.mei.edu /content/yemens- national-dialogue (Accessed 1 Aug 2017)

35 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Mounting- challenge-to-the-Salih-regime#toc309816 (Accessed 1 Aug 2017)

9 corruption.36 The following months, security forces engaged with protesters in a series of confrontations. Afterwards, armed Ḥouthi tribesmen overran Sanaa, seizing key government buildings, resulting in the replacement of the cabinet by one that included Ḥouthi representatives under the terms of a UN-brokered agreement between Hadi and the Ḥouthis. Houthi fighters occupied Sanaa, demanding a new prime minister.37 The occupation of the capital brought them into conflict with other Yemeni factions as well with AQAP.38

1.1.4 The Rise of Houthis

In the beginning of 2015 fighting increased between government forces and the Ḥouthi tribesmen occupying the capital (App. Map 3). President Hadi and the prime minister, Khaled Bahah, resigned from their duties, leaving the country with a power vacuum.39 On February the Ḥouthis, dissolved parliament and announced that a five-member presidential council would form a transitional government. The UN Security Council issued a resolution condemning their actions and calling them to return to the transition process established by the National Dialogue Conference.40 In February, Hadi escaped from Sanaa and reemerged in Aden, where he retracted his resignation and asserted that he remained the legitimate president of Yemen.41 Hadi and his supporters asked for international military intervention against

36 Al Moshki A. (2014). Al-Houthi refers to Hadi as “an umbrella for corruption”. Available at http://www.yementimes .com/en/1843/news/4706/Al-Houthi-refers-to-Hadi-as-%E2%80%9Can- umbrella-for-corruption %E2%80%9D.htm (Accessed 2 Aug 2017)

37 Al Jazeera. (2014). Yemen rivals sign peace agreement. Available at http://www.aljazeera.com/ news/middleeast /2014/09/-control-government-buildings-sanaa-2014921141611393880.html (Accessed 2 Aug 2017)

38 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Mounting- challenge-to-the-Salih-regime#toc309816 (Accessed 2 Aug 2017)

39 The Economist. (2015). Yemen's president resigns. Available at https://www.economist.com/ news/middle-east-and-africa/21640630-hes-hadi-enough (Accessed 3 Aug 2017)

40 U.N. Security Council. (2015). Resolution 2201 (2015). Available at https://www.treasury.gov /resource-center/ sanctions /Programs/Documents/2201.pdf (Accessed 3 Aug 2017)

41 Britannica. (2017). YEMEN. Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/Mounting- challenge-to-the-Salih-regime#toc309816 (Accessed 3 Aug 2017)

10 the rebels. A coalition of countries led by Saudi Arabia launched the first air strikes against Ḥouthis in late March of 2015, to repel their advance toward Aden.42

42 The Guardian. (2015). Saudi Arabia launches Yemen air strikes as alliance builds against Houthi rebels. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/26/saudi-arabia-begins-airstrikes- against-houthi-in-yemen (Accessed 3 Aug 2017)

11 1.2 Theoretical Framework

1.2.1 Media Framing

Framing entails selecting and projecting specific aspects of events or issues, making connections among them and promoting a particular interpretation, evaluation and/or solution. They use words and images highly salient in the culture, which is to say noticeable, understandable, memorable and emotionally charged.43 Framing is also defined as “the action, method or process of constructing, making or shaping anything whether material or immaterial”. It is related to the field of communication too.44 Gitlin argues that frames, “largely unspoken and unacknowledged, organize the world both for journalists who report it and, in some important degree, for us who rely on their reports.”45 Furthermore, Entman differentiated individual frames as “information-processing schemata” of individuals and media frames as “attributes of the news itself.”46 Friedland and Zhong stated that frames serve as “the bridge between. . . larger social and cultural realms and everyday understandings of social interaction.”47 Therefore, a concept explication of framing must take into account both kinds of frames and link them consistently. Gamson and Modigliani respectively defined a media frame as “a central organizing idea or story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events . . . The frame suggests what the controversy is about, the essence of the issue.”48 Tuchman proposed a similar definition for media frames: “The news frame organizes

43 Entman, R.M. 2003. Cascading Activation: Contesting the White House’s Frame After 9/11. Political Communication 20: pp. 415-432.

44 Dietram Scheufele. 1999. Framing as a Theory of Media Effects. Journal of Communication 49(4): pp.103-22

45 Gitlin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching: Mass media in the making & unmaking of the new left. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 7

46 Entman, R. M. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: Contrasts in narratives of the KAL and Iran air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4). p. 7.

47 Friedland, L. A., & Zhong, M. (1996). International television coverage of Beijing Spring 1989: A comparative approach. Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, 156. p. 13.

48 Gamson, W. A., & Modigliani, A. (1987). The changing culture of affirmative action. In R. G. Braungart & M. M. Braungart (Eds.), Research in political sociology (Vol. 3, pp. 137–177). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. p. 143.

12 everyday reality and the news frame is part and parcel of everyday reality . . . (it) is an essential feature of news.”49 Media frames also serve as working routines for journalists that allow the journalists to quickly identify and classify information and “to package it for efficient relay to their audiences.”50 Entman, explained thoroughly how media provide audiences with schemas for interpreting events. The essential factors are selection and salience: “To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation.”51 The framing and presentation of events and news in the mass media can thus systematically affect how recipients of the news interpret these events.52 Researches proved that, at least five factors may potentially influence how journalists frame a given issue: social norms and values, organizational pressures and constraints, pressures of interest groups, journalistic routines, and ideological or political orientations of journalists.53 The choice of frames is often “driven by ideology and prejudice”54, while the formation of them can be explained by an interaction of journalists’ norms and practices and the influence of interest groups.55 Edelman argues that, the framing of

49 Tuchman, G. (1978). Making news: A study in the construction of reality. New York: Free Press. p. 193.

50 Gitlin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching: Mass media in the making & unmaking of the new left. Berkeley: University of California Press.

51 Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Towards clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), pp.51–58.

52 Price, V., Tewksbury, D., & Powers, E. (1995). Switching trains of thought: The impact of news frames on readers’ cognitive responses. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Mid-west Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, IL.

53 Shoemaker, P. J., & Reese S. D. (1996). Mediating the message (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman. 28 Tuchman, G. (1978). Making news: A study in the construction of reality. New York: Free Press.

54 Edelman, M. J. (1993). Contestable categories and public opinion. Political Communication, 10, pp.231–242.

55 Gamson, W. A., & Modigliani, A. (1987). The changing culture of affirmative action. In R. G. Braungart & M. M. Braungart (Eds.), Research in political sociology (Vol. 3, pp. 137–177). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

13 issues by societal groups is a result of intentional considerations. He stated that “authorities and pressure groups categorize beliefs in a way that marshals support and opposition to their interests.”56 These groups use mass media to construct opinions and reality, and their societal influence to establish certain frames of reference. Entman, conceptually defined media frames as an independent variable (i.e., as “attributes of the news itself”, affecting both political decision-making and public opinion. In content analyses of newspapers, news magazines, and network newscasts, he identified five features of media texts that set a certain frame of reference, and, therefore, have a critical impact on information processing: (a) importance judgments; (b) agency, or the answer to the question (e.g., who did it?); (c) identification with potential victims; (d) categorization, or the choice of labels for the incidents; and (e) generalizations to a broader national context.57 Gans’s model of news selection processes58 and Shoemaker and Reese’s work on influences on media content present at least three potential sources of influence.59 The first source, is journalist-centred influences. Journalists actively construct frames to structure and comprehend the incoming information. The formation of frames is limited by variables such as ideology, attitudes, and professional norms60 and is eventually reflected in the way journalists frame news coverage. The second factor affecting the framing of news is the selection of frames as a result of factors like the type or political orientation of the medium, or what Gans called “organizational routines.”61 The third source of influence is the external sources (e.g., political actors, authorities, interest groups, and other elites).

56 Edelman, M. J. (1977). Political language. New York: Academic Press.

57 Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Towards clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), pp.51–58.

58 Gans, H. (1979). Deciding what’s news. New York: Patheon, pp. 78–79.

59 Shoemaker, P. J., & Reese S. D. (1996). Mediating the message (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.

60 Donsbach, W. (1981). Legitimacy through competence rather than value judgments: The concept of professionalization reconsidered. Gazette, 27, pp.47–67.

61 Gans, H. (1979). Deciding what’s news. New York: Patheon.

14 In this case, news events are covered with “journalists simply holding a mirror to them and reflecting their image to the audience.”62 Therefore, frames suggested by interest groups or political actors as sound bites are adopted by journalists and included in their coverage of an issue or event. Certainly, this frame- building function of mass media has a greater impact for relatively new issues (i.e., issues for which no frames have yet to be established).63

1.2.2 Interrelation between Agenda setting and Frame setting

Many researchers argue that agenda setting and frame setting are based on essentially identical processes. More specifically, they argue that agenda setting is concerned with the salience of issues, while frame setting, or second-level agenda setting, it is concerned with the salience of issue attributes. They state: “The first level of agenda setting is . . . the transmission of object salience. The second level of agenda setting is the transmission of attribute salience.”64 Framing is both a macrolevel and a microlevel construct.65 As a macroconstruct, the term ‘‘framing’’ concern modes of presentation that journalists and other communicators use to present information in a way that resonates with existing underlying schemas among their audience.66 This does not mean, of course, that most journalists try to spin a story or delude their audiences. In fact, they use framing, as a necessary tool to reduce the complexity of an issue, given the constraints of their respective media related to news holes and airtime.67 Frames, in other words, become the most appropriate tools for presenting relatively complex issues, efficiently

62 Gans, H. (1979). Deciding what’s news. New York: Patheon. p. 79.

63 Scheufele. D. A. (1999). Framing as a Theory of Media Effects. Journal of Communication 49(4), p.116

64 McCombs, M., Shaw, D. L., & Weaver, D. (1997). Communication and democracy: Exploring the intellectual frontiers in agenda-setting theory. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. p. 704

65 Scheufele, D. A. (1999). Framing as a Theory of Media Effects. Journal of Communication, 49(1), pp.103–122.

66 Shoemaker, P. J., & Reese S. D. (1996). Mediating the message (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.

67 Gans, H. (1979). Deciding what’s news. New York: Patheon.

15 and in a way that makes them accessible to lay audiences because they play to existing cognitive schemas. As a micro construct, framing describes how people exploit information and presentation features regarding issues as they form impressions.68 An analysis of the relationships between agenda setting and framing needs to bridge levels of analysis and answer (a) how news messages are created, (b) how they are processed, and (c) how the effects are produced. The development of a conceptual model that adequately explains the three effects should point out the relationships among them related to these three questions. Failing to do so will leave the field with a confounding set of concepts and terminologies.69 Agenda-setting effects conclude that the locus of effect lies with the heightened accessibility an issue receives from its treatment in the news.70 Therefore, it is not information about the issue that has the effect; it is the fact that the issue has received a specific amount of processing time and attention that carries the effect.71 Instead, the basic framing approach requires that the locus of effect lies within the description of an issue or the label used in news coverage about the issue. It is the underlying interpretive schemas that have been made suitable to the issue that are the central effect of a frame. Consequently, the primary difference on the psychological level between agenda setting and priming, or framing, is the difference between whether we think about an issue and how we think about it.72 More specifically, McCombs argues that framing is simply a more refined version of agenda setting. Consequently, framing means, making aspects of an issue

68 D. A. Scheufele & D. Tewksbury. (2007). Framing, Agenda Setting, and Priming: The Evolution of Three Media Effects Models. Journal of Communication 57, p.12.

69 ibid.

70 Price, V., Tewksbury, D., & Powers, E. (1997). Switching trains of thought: The impact of news frames on readers’ cognitive responses. Communication Research, 24, pp.481–506.

71 D. A. Scheufele & D. Tewksbury. (2007). Framing, Agenda Setting, and Priming: The Evolution of Three Media Effects Models. Journal of Communication 57, p.13.

72 D. A. Scheufele, D. Tewksbury. (2007). Framing, Agenda Setting, and Priming: The Evolution of Three Media Effects Models. Journal of Communication 57, P.18.

16 more salient through different modes of presentation and therefore shifting people’s attitudes. He characterizes this phenomenon as ‘‘second-level agenda setting.’’73 The underappreciated element of conventional agenda-setting research is that it focuses on problems, things that need to be fixed. It is certain that an integral part of the agenda-setting story is how news reports portray, and how people understand, issues. Future research in framing, may inform us how those processes work and how they influence agenda setting.74

73 McCombs, M. E. (2004). Setting the agenda: The mass media and public opinion. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

74 D. A. Scheufele & David Tewksbury. (2007) . Framing, Agenda Setting, and Priming: The Evolution of Three Media Effects Models. Journal of Communication, 57,p.17.

17 1.3 Conflict and Violence through the prism of Peace Journalism

1.3.1 Causes of conflicts and the importance of Media

Many groups and leaders around the world, have turn to ethnicity and interethnic conflicts as the solution to their identity. The main causes of these ethnic conflicts are structural factors, including economic, social, and political issues relating to wealth distribution and inter-ethnic relations, facilitating factors, including the degree of politicization and ethnic consciousness, and triggering factors, such as a sharp economic shock, sudden escalation of inter-group tension or the collapse of central authority.75 The role of the media in conflict-ridden countries is quite significant in creating and furthering both facilitating and triggering factors. By utilizing “oppositional metaphors” (“us” vs. “them”) linked to internal and external issues or “threats” facing the nation, 76՚77 media impact a conflict is quite significant. In the case of conflict between two countries, the ethnic minorities in one country are often identified as the official representatives of the external “enemy” regardless of the weakness of the ties between them, while everyday discrimination against them, on the one hand, and their contribution to economic, political and cultural diversity, on the other, are rarely mentioned in media. Real or perceived cases of criminality by ethnic minorities become the central evidence of the “ungrateful ethnic criminal” image drawn, and “they” are perceived as a threat to national security and social well- being. Instead of reflecting pluralism in the social and political structures and thereby contributing to the creation of an informed critical citizenry within a country, media in various cases act as a mouthpiece for ethnic power circles. Thus a deliberate distortion

75 Costy, Alexander & Gilbert, Stephan. (1998). Conflict Prevention and the European Union: Mapping the Actors, Instruments, and Institutions, London: International Alert.

76 Jäger, S. & Link, J. (1993). Die Vierte Gewalt - Rassismus und die Medien. Duisburg: DISS.

77 Van Dijk, T. (1997). Racismo y analysis critico de los medios. Barcelona: Paidos.

18 of news coverage for particular interests easily exacerbates the tension between opposed factions and becomes a main trigger of violent conflict.78

1.3.2 Journalism as a catalyst

Ross Howard says that, “Professional journalists do not set out to reduce conflict. They seek to present accurate and impartial news. But it is often through good reporting that conflict is reduced.”79 However, media can contribute to the escalation of tensions and conflicts, but can also play a positive role as well. Communication is an important factor during a conflict. This is where journalism can make a positive contribution. News media is often the main channel of communication between the different sides in a conflict. It is often for the parties to communicate through media or through specific journalists. Journalism which often explores each side’s particular difficulties can help educate the other side to avoid demands for simplistic and immediate solutions. Media can also reduce suspicion by analyzing sensitive issues and revealing them so there are no secrets to fear. Good journalism can also promote reconciliation by giving examples from other places that did so and by explaining the local efforts. Media can encourage the disputing sides to revise their views, by examining and reporting on the two sides’ misperceptions of each other and finally eliminate the conflict. The presentation of negotiators is essential in building the story and describing how the issue affects the different sides. It is also crucial for each side to understand the bottom-line interests of the other. Good reporting does this by asking tough questions, by seeking out the real meaning of what leaders say and by moving beyond the leaders’ interests, focusing on the larger groups’ interest. 80

78 Terzis, G. (2000). Empathizing with the Enemy: How the Greek Media Coverage of the Earthquake in Turkey Moved the Two Peoples Closer, paper presented at 3rd International Crossroads in Cultural Studies Conference, 21-25 June, Birmingham.

79 Ross, H. (2004).Conflict sensitive journalism IMPACS | International Media Support A handbook by Howard Ross. Available at https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-csj- handbook-2004.pdf. (Accessed 23 Aug 2017).

80 Ross, H. (2008).Conflict sensitive journalism IMPACS | International Media Support A handbook by Howard Ross Available at https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-csj- handbook-rwanda-2008.pdf. (Accessed 24 Aug 2017).

19 Media provide important outlets by allowing different sides to express their grievances or anger. Many disputes can be fought out in media, and the conflict can be addressed before it turns violent. Good journalism can help in reframing a conflict. It can reduce tension and launch negotiations describing the problem in a different way and looking for a different angle which will attract the audience to the same story. Journalists, by reporting what the leaders of each side in a conflict argue, allow them to conduct face-saving and consensus-building, even reaching to refugees and exiles in far-away places. Good reporting present specific proposals by asking the disputing parties for their solutions instead of just repeating their rhetoric of grievances. This is a constant pursuit of seeking solutions. It also gives attention to all sides. Because the reporting is impartial and balanced, good journalism encourages negotiation. It promotes a balance of power for the purpose of hearing grievances and seeking solutions.81

1.3.3 Peace Journalism

Peace Journalism (P.J) main characteristic is to encourage constructive communication. P.J, as a motivator of peace and as a promoter of depolarization and de-escalation,82 can inspire journalists to portray disputes in a different manner than that to which they usually ascribe. The prerequisite for a conflict resolution process is a genuine and honest interaction between antagonists, whereby unmet human needs are honestly discussed and interests and motivations rather than positions are frankly aired. The fulfilment of basic needs motivate the different parties to pursue conflicts in earnest. The persisting ignorance of such grievances turns conflicts into deep-

81 Ross, H. (2004).Conflict sensitive journalism IMPACS | International Media Support A handbook by Howard Ross Available at https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-csj- handbook-2004.pdf. (Accessed 23 Aug 2017).

82 Hackett, R. and Yuezhi Zhao (eds.). 2005. Democratizing Global Media: One World, Many Struggles. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

20 rooted or protracted ones.83՚84՚85՚86 P.J, with its keen eye for causes and stimuli and with its dedication to a broader and fairer depiction,87՚88 can and should bring such unattended human needs to the fore and mitigate intractable conflicts. Usually, protracted social conflicts, or apparently irresolvable disputes,89 require a third party to mediate between the opposing parties, or at least, to facilitate their interaction. Conflicts generate hostility, animosity, and consequently mistrust to the extent excluding the direct communication. This predicament is further exacerbated when the disputable issues are intangible and cannot be compromised.90՚91՚92 The idea of a third party consultation93 emphasized the facilitation of productive confrontations, in which rivals openly discuss their

83 Azar, E. (1985). “Protracted International Conflicts: Ten Propositions”, International Interactions, 12: 59–70.

84 Burton, J. (1987). Resolving Deep-Rooted Conflict: A Handbook, Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

85 Montville, J.V. (1990). Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies, Lexington Mass: Lexington Books.

86 Peleg, S. (1999). "Who Participates in Protracted Conflicts and Why? Rediscovering the Group and its Needs", in: Starr H.(ed.), The Under-standing and Management of Global Violence. New York: St. Martin’s Press, pp.105–130.

87 Mifflin. Galtung, J. (1996). Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization, Oslo.

88 Lynch, J. and A. McGoldrick. (2005). Peace Journalism, London: Hawthorn Press.

89 Fisher, R. (1997). Interactive Conflict Resolution. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

90 Burton, J. (1979). Deviance, Terrorism and War. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

91 Mitchell, C.R. (1981). The Structure of International Conflict. New York: McMillan.

92 Peleg, S. (2002). Zealotry and Vengeance: Quest of a Religious Identity Group. Lantham, MD: Lexington Books.

93 Walton, R. E. (1987). Managing Conflict: Interpersonal Dialogue and Third Party Roles. Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley.

21 inconsistencies. The third party’s role is to reduce conflict through stimulating mutual positive motivation. The critical functions of the third party in these efforts were described, as follows: “balancing the situational power of parties, synchronizing confrontation efforts, pacing the phases of the dialogue, promoting openness (and) enhancing communication.”94 These are the conditions that P.J aims to achieve. P.J would assume the role of the third party in order to allow the rivalling sides to approach one another, to uphold understanding and empathy, to focus on creativity and human ingenuity to resolve conflicts and to emphasize truth-oriented, people-oriented and solution-oriented journalism inciting peace. Conflict theory and P.J have a mutual and contributory relationship.95

1.3.4 The Triangle of Conflict

Conflict, can be perceived as a unitary phenomenon. Its structure is similar and has the same dynamics of escalation and de-escalation in spite of its numerous disparate spheres of occurrence. The structure that can best describe all types of conflict is the triangle of situation-attitude-behavior96 or the ABC triangle of Attitude, Behavior and Contradiction.97 The situation of conflict basically is the initial state of incongruent interests, or the controversy. Therefore, these are the circumstances that galvanized the parties to confrontation. The attitude refers to the psychological dimension: all the stigmata, prejudice, labeling, demonizing and de-legitimizing processes each side imputes to the other. This mutual practice of disparagement and vilification is the decisive point of conflict and a major source of its worsening: stimuli for escalation are mostly

94 Fisher, R. (1997). Interactive Conflict Resolution. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, p.143

95 Peleg, S. (2006). Peace Journalism through the Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice. Conflict & Communication online, Vol. 5, No. 2, p.2

96 Mitchell, C.R. (1981). The Structure of International Conflict. New York: McMillan.

97 PRIO. Galtung, J. (1969). "Violence, Peace and Peace Research" , Journal of Peace Research, no. 3.

22 psychological and subjective. Finally, behavior is how parties act and what they do concerning the situation they are in and following the attitude they develop towards the other. PJ can relieve tensions and exert favorable influence in all three

dimensions:98 1. Situation: Including the initial interests in contention in contextual manner, through which all circumstances, environmental conditions, spectrum of availabilities and sequential background are revealed. Such a description does not present the parties to the conflict as hungry contenders competing for ascendancy and eager for the other’s defeat. A scene like that could be more complex than two rivals trapped in an ultimate zero-sum-game of winning or dying but a complex arena of multiple players and options.99 2. Attitude: Refers to the spectrum of psychological feelings and outlooks that are involved. Focusing not just on the denigrating and condescending aspects of the dialogue between the sides, but also accentuating fears, concerns, in-securities, mistrust, miscommunication, and ignorance to make the repertoire of dehumanization more human. Abandoning false and excessive polarization100՚101 for a more reasonable and unbiased study of mindsets under tension and duress. 3. Behavior: Pointing out the fact that violence is not the only form of activity in conflict. Most conflict accounts are fighting or aggression-oriented. They are expressed in competition parlance and underscored by images of vanquish or subjugation. But violence must not be evident and the only performance in a conflict. Attempts to negotiate or create contacts can be depicted alongside with

98 Peleg, S. (2006). Peace Journalism through the Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice. Conflict & Communication online, Vol. 5, No. 2, p.2

99 Tannen, D. (1999). The Argument Culture: Stopping America's War of Words. New York: Ballantine.

100 Mnookin, R. and L. Ross. (1995). Introduction, in K. Arrow et al. Barriers to Conflict Resolution, NY: W.W. Norton.

101 Bartal, D. and Y. Teichman. (2005). Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict: Representations of Arabs in Israeli Jewish Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

23 the more plain belligerency descriptions.102

1.3.5 The Peace Journalism Model and the Conflict Triangle

The Peace Journalism Model103 originally formulated by Johan Galtung,104 proposes some innovations to differentiate the concept of P.J from regular, or war- oriented journalism. These are only some of the model's features.

Peace/Conflict Journalism War/Violence Journalism

Peace-Orientated War-Orientated

1. Explore conflict formation, x parties, y 1. Focus on conflict arena, 2 parties, 1 goal (win), goals, z issues, “win-win” orientation. war, zero-sum orientation. 2. Open space, open time; causes and 2. Closed space, closed time; causes and outcomes anywhere, also in history/culture. exits in arena, who threw the first stone. 3. Making conflicts transparent. 3. Making wars opaque/secret. 4. Giving voice to all parties, empathy, 4. 'Us-them' journalism, propaganda, voice, for understanding. 'us'. 5. See conflict/war as problem, focus on 5. See 'them' as the problem, focus on who conflict creativity. prevails in war. 6. Humanization of all sides; more so the 6. Dehumanization of 'them'; more so the worse worse the weapon. the weapon. 7. Proactive: prevention before any 7. Reactive: waiting or violence before reporting. violence/war occurs. 8. Focus only on visible effect of violence 8. Focus on invisible effects of violence (killed, wounded and material damage). (trauma, damage to structure/culture).

Table 1. PJ and WJ features by Johan Galtung

If we associate the first three items with the situation dimension of conflict, the next three items with the attitude dimension and the last two items with the

102 Peleg, S. (2006). Peace Journalism through the Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice. Conflict & Communication online, Vol. 5, No. 2, p.3

103 Lynch, J. and A. McGoldrick. (2005). Peace Journalism, London: Hawthorn Press.

104 Galtung, J. (2006). Peace Journalism as an Ethical Challenge. GMJ: Mediterranean Edition 1(2) Fall 2006.p.1 Available at: http://globalmedia.emu.edu.tr/images/stories/ALL_ARTICLES/2006/fall2006/Fall_2006_Issue2 /1Johan_Galtungpdf.pdf. (Accessed 25 Aug 2017)

24 behaviour dimension, we can get criteria with which to assess the nature and orientation of media messages.

Figure 1. PJ and WJ attributes within Conflict Dimensions105

105 Peleg, S. (2006). Peace Journalism through the Lense of Conflict Theory: Analysis and Practice. conflict & communication online, Vol. 5, No. 2, p.6

25 1.4 “New Wars”

1.4.1 The “New Wars” Approach

In recent years, a number of analysts have engaged with conflict analysis and argued that the international system is continually transformed. The end of the Cold War and the spread of globalisation contributed to the emergence of new patterns of cooperation and conflict between state and non-state actors.106 This transformation resulted in a new form of warfare that is qualitatively different from the earlier forms. The organised violence of twenty-first century is different from the wars of the twentieth century. “Various terms have been used to conceptualise contemporary conflict – wars among the people, wars of the third kind, hybrid wars, privatized wars, post-modern wars as well as ‘new wars’.”107 The introduction of the term “new wars” to conflict analysis has impelled some scholars to revise the conventional war theories and to approach the phenomenon of war from a different aspect. Furthermore, the “new wars” can be contrasted with earlier wars in terms of their goals, the methods of warfare and how they are financed.108 The importance of civil war originates from the fact that ‘‘is widespread; it causes tremendous suffering; it almost always affects and involves neighbouring states, thereby undermining regional stability; it often engages the interests of distant powers and international organizations; and efforts to deal with the problems posed by internal conflict are in the process of being reassessed by policymakers at the national level and in regional and international organizations.’’109 The constructivist research has focused on processes of constitution and reconfiguration of ethnic groups and identities110, while empirical researchers of civil war, particularly in the field of international relations, have tended to treat ethnic

106 Kaldor M. (2013). In Defence of New Wars. Stability, 2(1): 4, p. 1.

107 ibid

108 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press

109 Brown, M. (1996). International Dimensional of Internal Conflict. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, p.3.

110Wimmer, A. (2007). Elementary strategies of making ethnic boundaries. Ethnic and Racial Studies, forthcoming.

26 groups as unitary actors and ethnic identities as given in advance, automatically salient, fixed during the conflict, and predictive of individual political behaviour.111՚112 There are several factors that characterize a contemporary conflict. The first main factor of conflict analysis is the participants in the war. Actors like nation states or non-state actors, public actors or private ones, warlords, criminals or terrorists. The second factor is the spatial context, that can be international, regional or interstate. The third factor is the root causes. These can be the ethnical diversity, the political identity, the different standard of living, the criminal activity or even the state failure. The fourth factor is the aims of actors, as political ideology, grievance, greed, government control or territorial secession. The fifth factor is the methods of applied violence, the use of technology, training and military tactics as well. The sixth factor is the social and human impact of conflict, like human displacement, terrorising and murder of civilians or non-combatants.113 The number of intrastate conflicts has decreased during the second part of the twentieth century, while the number of interstate conflicts has increased, especially during the first part of our century. The civil wars or internal conflicts are now described as “new wars.”114՚115՚116՚117 “New wars” usually take place in areas where authoritarian states have been greatly weakened as a consequence of opening up to the rest of the world. They are fought by varying combinations of networks of state and non-state actors – regular armed forces, private security contractors, mercenaries,

111 Posen, B. R. (1993). The security dilemma and ethnic conflict. Survival, 35(1), 27-47.

112 Walter, B. (2005, September). Information, uncertainty and the decision to secede. Paper presented at the annual American Political Science Association meeting, Washington, DC.

113 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p. 174

114 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press

115 Kalyvas, S.N., 2001. “New” and “Old” Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?. World Politics, 54(1), pp. 99-118

116 Newman, E., 2004. The „New Wars‟ Debate: A Historical Perspective is Needed. Security Dialogue. 35(2), pp. 173-189.

117 Snow, D.M., 1996. Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc

27 jihadists, warlords, paramilitaries, etc. They are fought in the name of identity (ethnic, religious or tribal). The rise of identity politics is characterized by new communications technologies, with migration both from country to town and across the world, and the erosion of more inclusive political ideologies like socialism or post-colonial nationalism. Social factors, such as ethnicity and religion, have become more important than political factors, such as ideology.118 In “new wars”, battles are not common while territory is captured through political means and specifically through control of the population. Population displacement is a typical technique. Violence is largely directed against civilians as an effective way of controlling territory rather than against enemy forces. The victims are mainly civilians, including women and children, and they are targeted deliberately. Genocide and ethnic cleansing have become their trademarks.119 The number of civilians and displaced people is continuously growing as a proportion of all casualties in recent violent conflicts.120 “New wars” are sometimes motivated by economic gain, but it is difficult to distinguish between those who use the cover of political violence for economic reasons and those who engage in predatory economic activities to finance their political cause. Moreover, the unclear distinction between public and private combatants, warlords, criminals and common thugs has become a common trait of modern violent conflicts.121 They are part of an open globalize decentralized economy in which participation is low and revenue depends on continued violence. The consequences of the above characteristics is that “new wars” tend to spread, to persist or recur as each side gains in political or economic ways from violence itself rather

118 Huntington, S.P., 1993. Why International Primacy Matters. International Security, 17(4), pp. 68-83

119 Porto, J.G., 2002. Contemporary Conflict Analysis in Perspective. In Lind, J. & Sturman, K. eds. Scarcity and Surfeit: the Ecology of Africa’s Conflicts. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies South Africa. Ch. 1

120 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p. 179

121 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press

28 than “winning” as in “old wars”.122 They finally tend to contribute to the dismantling of the state instead of state building. The “new wars” approach seems to provide a number of interesting insights for the study of violent conflict. It gives us a methodology for analysing the nature, dynamics, social and economic aspects of conflict leading in a deeper understanding of civil war. However, the shortcoming of the “new wars” approach is that it suggests questionable trends of the changing nature of violence. Indeed, the claim that “new wars” are fundamentally different from old wars is controversial, especially when juxtaposed to historical data from earlier eras.123 “The ‘new wars’ thesis is both about the changing character of organized violence and about developing a way of understanding, interpreting and explaining the interrelated characteristics of such violence.”124 This approach is “both about the changing character of organized violence and about developing a way of understanding, interpreting and explaining the interrelated characteristics of such violence.”125 The “new wars” approach suggests that the current international system is divided into two different parts. Singer and Wildavsky refer to these distinct parts as “zone of peace” and “zone of turmoil,” Buzan and Little use the terms “zone of peace” and “zone of conflict,” while Snow characterizes them “First Tier” and “Second Tier.”126՚127 Even though scholars use different terminology, they insinuate the same meaning: the “zone of peace” represents developed capitalist countries and the “zone of conflict” includes the rest of the world, which is more susceptible to external and internal violence. The two zones grading is an identification that the international structures have been transformed after the end of the Cold War. It is

122 Keen, D., 2000. War and Peace: What’s the difference?. International Peacekeeping, 7(4), pp. 1-22

123 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.185

124 Kaldor M. (2013). In Defence of New Wars. Stability, 2(1): 4, p. 4.

125 ibid

126 Jung, D., 2003. Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A Political Economy of Intra-state War. Oxon: Routledge

127 Snow, D.M., 1996. Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc

29 often argued that the demise of the Soviet Union and the totalitarian regimes, the retraction of superpower support, the power vacuum, the demeaning of socialist ideologies and the accessibility of surplus weaponry have triggered the development of an inherently new type of warfare.128՚129 This new type of warfare has challenged utility of the mainstream theory of international relations.130 The “new wars” literature suggests that economic factors play a key role in a contemporary conflict. Globalization is a significant component of the political economy of “new wars”, and the starting point is that “the age of globalization is characterized by a gradual erosion of state authority” and accompanying “violent war economies.”131 The term of globalization embody “the intensification of global interconnectedness – political, economic, military and cultural – and the changing character of political authority.”132՚133 In the context of “new wars”, globalization incite three processes. First, globalization intensifies the deterioration of state authority, worsens the provision of public goods and increases social vulnerability. It allows non-state actors to compete for control over state power and resources. Such competition blurs the distinction between private and public authority and results in corruption, privatization of violence and, in extreme cases, criminalization of the state.134՚135 Second, globalization creates economic motives in civil wars because of

128 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press

129 Snow, D.M., 1996. Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc

130 Snow, D.M., 1996. Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc

131 Jung, D., 2003. Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A Political Economy of Intra-state War. Oxon: Routledge. p.2.

132 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.6.

133 Jung, D., 2003. Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A Political Economy of Intra-state War. Oxon: Routledge. p.2.

134 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.6

135 Cilliers, J. & Mason, P., 1999. Peace, Profit or Plunder? The Privatization of Security in War-Torn African Societies. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.

30 increased opportunities for legal and illegal transborder trade.136 The “new wars” literature argues that trade and monetary incentives generated by globalization often fuel violent conflicts. Since a number of modern violent conflicts have occurred in really poor states characterized by high levels of inflation, unemployment, corruption and criminality, globalization has arguably catalyzed the emergence of rapacious paramilitary groups and the development of an “economy of robbery and plunder.”137 Third, globalization is directly connected to a process of rapid technological development. The revolution in information technology has made global communication instantaneous and has raised awareness of conflicts throughout the world.138 As a result, there is an increased involvement of international journalists, international agencies, military advisers, armed troops and volunteers such as the UN, EU, UNICEF, Human Rights Watch, Medecins Sans Frontieres and the International Red Cross as well.139 The influence of globalization on contemporary violent conflicts is so strong that the term globalized war economy is often applied in conflict analysis. The globalized war economy entails that “fighting units finance themselves through plunder and the black market or through external assistance.”140 Therefore, contemporary armed conflicts show that the effects of globalization are “compatible with regional and local structures of violence.”141 The “new wars” literature suggests also that the context of globalization and state failure implicates a number of state and non-state actors and leads to the privatization of violence. The main actors in contemporary conflict are not limited to national armies anymore. They involve a multitude of “paramilitary groups, regular

136 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.177.

137 Münkler, H., 2005. The New Wars. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.14.

138 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS), 2001. The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.p.6.

139 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.5.

140 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.176.

141 Jung, D., 2003. Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A Political Economy of Intra-state War. Oxon: Routledge.p.10.

31 armed forces or remnants thereof, self defense units, foreign mercenaries and regular foreign troops generally under international auspices.”142 The diversity of the actors involved in modern conflicts leads to a pervasive collapse of morale and discipline of the armed groups to an extent that “soldiers become looters for whom the laws of war or any kind of military code of punishment no longer enter the picture”143 Within this context of multiple violent actors in “new wars”, the warlords have a special place. Warlords are armed combatants who employ violent force to defend their interest.144՚145 The distinction between warlords, paramilitary groups, common thugs and legitimate arm bearers is usually perverted in “new wars.”146 The strengthen of non state actors and the threat of state authorities is a result of failed state, of declining economy, of the liberal economic forces of globalization, of unemployment, of ethnic or social incompatibility, of social vulnerability and increased criminality.147 The character of the main actors in “new wars” determines the nature of warfare. In contrast to earlier forms of conflict, “new wars” are characterized by guerrilla warfare.148՚149 In these forms of warfare there is no need for massive concentrations of armed forces which are common for earlier wars. Moreover, guerrilla warfare is not confined to a typical battlefield, but it is dispersed in a region and it involves a multitude of state and non-state actors, including marginalized soldiers, teenage hooligans and even children soldiers.150 This is a divergence from

142 Kaldor M. (2001). New & Old Wars. Cambridge. Polity Press. p. 92

143 Münkler, H., 2005. The New Wars. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.14.

144 Duffield, M., 2001. Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security. London: Zed,p.14.

145 Kalyvas, S.N., 2001. “New” and “Old” Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?. World Politics, 54(1), p. 105.

146 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.6

147 The New Wars Debate. Undergraduate Dissertation. R.N 879379.University of Birmingham.

148 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.8

149 Zahar, M., 2001. Protégés, Clients, Cannon Fodder: Civil-Militia Relations in Internal Conflict. In S. Chesterman, ed. Civilians in War. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. Ch. 3, p.45.

150 Kalyvas, S.N., 2001. “New” and “Old” Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?. World Politics, 54(1), p. 103

32 the conventional mode of warfare because international wars are usually characterized by battlefields where the professional armies and the legitimate soldiers meet in order to fight. Another difference from the traditional mode of warfare is the wide use of technology, in particular the use of cheap, highly destructive weapons by combatants.151՚152 The type of weapons used in modern violent conflicts reveals the type of combatants. Belligerents do not have always access to the legitimate channels for trade of weapons.153 Therefore, they rely on the provisions of the black market and the proliferation of cheap and accessible weapons. It is important to note that in the context of modern armed conflicts, controlling the trade of weapons is extremely challenging since weapons find their way into the hands, among others, of child soldiers which catastrophic consequences.154 A number of scholars have analyzed the root causes of “new wars” and arrived at different conclusions. Some argue that geopolitics and territorial disputes are the most important causes of civil wars. Others argue that the social and economic environment in shadow states are the driving forces of civil wars,155՚156՚157 and that the contemporary wars can be explained in terms of identity politics or economic

151 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS), 2001. The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, p.4.

152 Snow, D.M., 1996. Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc, p.81.

153 Melander, E. 2007. The ‘New Wars’ Debate Revisited: An Empirical Evaluation of the Atrociousness of ‘New Wars’. Upsala Peace Research Papers No9.

154 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS), 2001. The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, p.4.

155 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.6.

156 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.177.

157 Snow, D.M., 1996. Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc, p.57.

33 motives. Reno158 relates civil war in certain societies to the intensification of transnational commerce in recent decades as well as to the growing greed of rebels pursuing “enterprise in a strikingly violent manner.”159 Mueller,160 reiterates the attractiveness of robbery and looting for reinforcing rebel forces and asserts that fighting the political enemy or ideology is irrelevant in the analysis of contemporary violent conflict. De Soysa,161 pinpoints the key role of natural resources in the development of conflict and takes the argument further by claiming that civil wars are caused and fuelled not by poverty but by a “resource curse”. Jung,162 moves further claiming that “mafia-style economies and protracted internal warfare are often the result of international intervention.” This argument is unusual as it challenges the conventional understanding of the benefits of foreign aid and implies that humanitarian aid is preserving the criminalized war economy. Nevertheless, one of the most interesting and provocative studies of civil war, examines the motives and builds a relation between violent crimes and violent conflicts. Collier and Hoeffler163 argue that rebellion close to murder and “needs both motive and opportunity.” They comment the conflict analysis literature which describes civil war in terms of social and economic motives. They also assert that studies which include the analysis of opportune circumstances for rebellion are more reliable. Even though, severe

158 Reno, W. 2000. Shadow States and the Political Economy of Civil Wars. In Berdal, M. & Malone, D.M. eds. Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.Ch. 3, p.54.

159 Reno. 2003.Development and Democracy. Hanover and London. Middlebury College Press, p.179. Available at: https://books.google.gr/books?id=yg43vtyVrJ8C&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq =enterprise+in+a+strikingly+violent+manner.&source=bl&ots=tyJepsrgha&sig=GFQ9v8w2bHFOBIS 3Z5mOTJQzwhc&hl=el&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwix2cDQ_5zWAhXKJMAKHclrCo8Q6AEIJjAA#v=o nepage&q=enterprise%20in%20a%20strikingly%20violent%20manner.&f=false (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017)

160 Mueller, J., 2000. Banality of „Ethnic War‟. International Security. 25(1), p. 49

161 De Soysa, I., 2000. The Resource Curse: Are Civil Wars Driven by Rapacity or Paupacity?. In Berdal, M. & Malone, D.M. eds. Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. Ch. 6, p.114.

162Jung, D., 2003. Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A Political Economy of Intra-state War. Oxon: Routledge, p.12.

163 Collier, P. & Hoeffler, A., 1998. On Economic Causes of Civil War. Oxford Economic Papers. 50(4), p. 563

34 grievances constitute an obvious motive for violent conflict, only the studies that exhibit typical profitable opportunities for rebellions, experience civil wars. The motive-opportunity dichotomy is closely related with the analysis of the objectives the belligerents implicated in contemporary violent conflicts. It is a common misconception to speculate about belligerents’ objectives in terms of a political agenda. Political issues such as social inequality, racial hatred or religious conflict are predominantly used by belligerents to promote their positions and to gain the support of a targeted social group.164 Much of the “new wars” literature shows that “economic motives and greed are the primary underlying driving forces of violent conflict.”165՚166՚167՚168՚169՚170 The former UN Secretary General Kofi Anan pointed out that the plunder of valuable resources, such as drugs, diamonds, minerals, concessions and other valuable commodities, is the driving force in most civil wars.171 Another distinction is based on the duration of the objectives, either short or long term. In the short term, the objectives aim for the capture of resources and the development of trade relations, both legal and illegal. In the long term, the objectives seek to the deterioration of the legitimate state authority and the growth of black markets and illegal economies in which profits and violence are interconnected.172 Thus, it is not surprising that belligerents pursue the continuation of violence than a

164 Mueller, J., 2000. Banality of “Ethnic War”. International Security. 25(1), p. 75.

165 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.177.

166Keen, D., 2000. War and Peace: What‟s the difference?. International Peacekeeping, 7(4), p. 11.

167 Berdal, M. & Malone, D.M., 2000. Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc, p.3.

168 Kalyvas, S.N., 2001. “New” and “Old” Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?. World Politics, 54(1), pp. 102-103.

169 Duffield, M., 2001. Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security. London: Zed, p.14/

170 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.7

171 Kalyvas, S.N., 2001. “New” and “Old” Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?. World Politics, 54(1), p.103.

172 Münkler, H., 2005. The New Wars. Cambridge: Polity Press, p.14.

35 military or political win. The environment of contemporary violent conflict shows that ending a civil war may not be desirable, because the “point of war may be precisely the legitimacy which it confers on actions that in peacetime would be punishable as crimes.173 These objectives, lead to the increase of civilian casualties and forced human displacement especially since 1990. More specifically “in some wars today, 90 percent of those killed in conflict are non-combatants, compared with less than 15 percent when the century began.” 174՚175՚176՚177 It seems that the employment of child soldiers, the forced displacement, the wide use of sexual violence, predation and annihilation of individual groups have become an inextricable part of “new wars”. The violent conflicts that took part in Liberia, Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda, showed that belligerents were not fighting one another, instead they were passing the organized terrorizing and murdering of civilians for military action.178

1.4.2 “New Wars” contribution

Many scholars accept the “new wars” approach “has done a great service in deepening understanding of civil war.”179 It is certain that the “new wars” methodology provides an effective framework for analyzing the social, economic and political factors that shape the nature of contemporary civil wars. The main weaknesses of the “new wars” approach is that it does not employ historical data in its

173 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.177.

174 Chesterman, S. ed., 2001. Civilians in War. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc, p.2.

175 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.178.

176 Münkler, H., 2005. The New Wars. Cambridge: Polity Press, p.14.

177 Kaldor, M., 2006. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. p.100

178 Snow, D.M., 1996. Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.

179 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.186.

36 analysis, and it does not apply its findings to earlier examples of civil war. Newman claims that, “all of the factors that characterize “new wars” have been present, to varying degrees, throughout the last 100 years” and the “presence or absence of certain factors is best explained by the peculiarities of specific conflicts rather than linear historical changes.”180 Additionally, the “new wars” approach is that the number of interstate conflicts has declined, while the number of intrastate conflicts has increased.181 To the contrary, different scholars define and codify civil war in a different manner and therefore “different analyses may present different results on conflict trends.”182 According to the Upsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP),183 Active Conflicts by Type refutes the claim that there has been a linear decrease in the number of interstate wars and an increase in the number of intrastate wars. There are cases like the war of Afghanistan, Angola and Mexico, that the “new wars” approach provides an effective framework for analyzing the role of the decline of the state, the rise of globalized war economy and the availability of natural resources in the development and duration of civil wars. Instead the cases of Chechnya, India, Indonesia, Nepal and Sri Lanka, seems that do not fit in the “new wars” framework.184 The importance of the “new wars” theory lies in the innovative analysis that it offers, rather than the observation of the newness of contemporary conflict. It offers compelling analysis of the social and economic dynamics of civil war. Moreover, it provides an improved understanding of the decline of public goods due to the impact of violent conflict. Its significance is focused on the need of new approaches in addressing contemporary conflicts. Newman argues that both our approach and

180 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. pp.179-180.

181 Hironaka, A., 2005. Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War. Harvard: Harvard University Press, p.6.

182 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.180.

183 UCDP, 2009. Active Conflicts by Type. Available at: http://www.pcr.uu.se/digitalAssets/595/ c_595102-l_1-k_non-state-conflicts-1989-2015.pdf (Accessed 10 Sep. 2017)

184 The New Wars Debate. Undergraduate Dissertation. R.N 879379.University of Birmingham.

37 analysis have changed, and the social reality also, but the change in reality is not as great as that presented by much literature on wars and conflict.185

185 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.185.

38 CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY

In order to evaluate the framing of the Yemeni conflict, I choose to examine its coverage from selected global, news media platforms, including the Russian based rt.com (Russia Today), the United States based nytimes.com (New York Times) and the Arab based aljazeera.com (Al Jazeera) websites. RT (formerly Russia Today) is a Russian international television network funded by the Russian government. It operates cable and satellite television channels directed to audiences outside of Russia, as well as providing Internet content in various languages, including English, Spanish, Arabic, French, German and Russian. RT International, based in Moscow, presents around-the-clock news bulletins, documentaries, talk shows, debates, sports news, and cultural programs providing a Russian viewpoint on the global events. It operates as a multilingual service with conventional channels in three languages: the original English-language channel was launched in 2005, the Arabic in 2007, and the Spanish in 2009, respectively. RT America (since 2010), and RT UK (since 2014) present locally based content of those countries.186 The New York Times (sometimes abbreviated NYT or The Times) is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since 1851, by The New York Times Company. It has won 122 Pulitzer Prizes whilst began publishing daily on the World Wide Web on January 22, 1996, providing immediate access to most of the daily newspaper's contents to their readers around the world. Since its online launch, it has been ranked repeatedly, among the top websites. New York Times articles are also available to China’s users (in Chinese language) via the use of mirror websites, apps, domestic newspapers, and social media. The Chinese platforms, represent one of The New York Times' top five digital markets globally.187

186 [RT (TV Network). (2017) wikipedia. (online). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT_ (TV_network) (Accessed 20 Sep. 2017)]

187 [The New York Times (2017). wikipedia. official website. (online). Available at: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times (Accessed 20 Sep. 2017)]

39 Al Jazeera or JSC (Jazeera Satellite Channel), is a state-funded broadcaster in Doha, Qatar, owned by the Al Jazeera Media Network. It was firstly launched as an Arabic news and current-affairs satellite TV channel. Consequently, it was expanded into a network with several outlets, including the Internet and specialty television channels in multiple languages. It is a major global news organization, while the broadcast of dissenting views, created controversies in the Arab States of the Persian Gulf. The station was the only channel that covered the outbreak of the war live in Afghanistan and gained worldwide attention. Al Jazeera is owned by the government of Qatar and broadcasts in Arabic, English and Turkish languages.188 These “internet based news media platforms” are wide spread and their “Target Audience” is quite different between them. They are accessible not only in Russian, English or Arab speakers respectively, but in many more since they are published in all these languages and even more. Also, they are quite popular especially in their place of origin and they have covered the conflict with their particular way of approach. The examined time length is a six months period, from January to June 2017, where the main events took place in Yemen, resulting in outbreak of pandemic diseases, famine, misery and death. The articles and reports were collected through the search engines and media platforms, using the “key words”: Yemen, Yemeni conflict, Arabian Peninsula, Houthi, Saleh, Hadi, Al Qaeda in Arabian Peninsula, Saudi Arabia, US, EU, UN, cholera. Re-publication of articles originating from other news media networks included in the research, following the same research method. A monthly categorization by each selected platform performed in order to support the collection process and the analysis of the data. All the collected articles and reports were transferred in a “word” document, converted to Font “Times New Roman – size 12” for further analysis. The size will be defined in Small (less than 40 lines), Medium: (41 to 80 lines) and Large: (greater than 81 lines). As the unit of analysis the research considered valid an article or a report when it contains text, text with photos, text and videos, photos with description. Plain photos or videos explanation, excluded from the research. Moreover, updates in articles and reports considered as one and comments on all the material collected did

188 [Al Jazeera (2017). wikipedia. official website. (online). Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /Al_Jazeera (Accessed 20 Sep. 2017)]

40 not included in this study. Each editorial is categorized according its volume as well as all articles will be categorized according the date of publication. This framing analysis provides both quantitative data on the frequency and nature of these platforms’ editorials on the Yemeni conflict and a qualitative analysis of the editorials and content discourse about Yemen and external entities interactions, including Saudi Arabia and Western countries. Even the focus is mostly in the editorial titles which bring readers to the topic and the adopted viewpoint189, the content analysis provides us more framing indicators for the outcomes of the study. Each article is categorized into a separate category. This categorization is based on the dominant frame of the editorial. The “Strategic Interest” frame is that, where the story is not the conflict itself but rather the importance of the region in a “Global Chess Game.”190 The “Violent” frame, where actions by the security forces and the military as well, as violence content photos, videos and related references in visible or invisible effects, are dominant to the editorials. The “Intervention Frame”, where editorials highlight the obstacles to intervention and justify non-intervention, or dispute these obstacles and justify an intervention.191 Four more aggression frames are going to be examined during the qualitative analysis of this study. The “Saudi Led Coalition Aggression” frame related to their intervention for supporting Hadi’s government and protecting their interests. The “Houthi Aggression” related to their struggle for a neutral government. The “Hadi Aggression” related to the restoration of Hadi’s government and the “Al Qaeda in Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) Aggression” related to the seizing of territory and expansion of their presence in the south part of Yemen.192 According to Galtung’s theory of Peace and War Journalism, three more indicators are examined in the study. The results related with those indicators are consistent with similar results of studies related with crisis, war and conflict

189 Van Dijk, (1988). News as Discourse. New Jersey Hove and London: LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES.p.143. Available at http://www.discourses.org/OldBooks/Teun%20A% 20van% 20Dijk%20-%20News%20as%20Discourse.pdf (Accessed 20 Sep. 2017)

190 Gamson, W. (1992). Talking Politics. London: Cambridge University Press.

191 Goffman, E. (1974). Frame Analysis. Boston: Northeastern University Press

192 BBC. (2017). Yemen Crisis. Who is Fighting Whom? BBC NEWS. Available at: http://www.bbc. com/news/world-middle-east-29319423. (Accessed 21 Sep 2017).

41 situations. Galtung classify war coverage in two categories – “war journalism” and “peace journalism”. War journalism would focus on conflict arena (visible effects of violence), is propaganda-orientated (reveal “their” untruths, conceal “ours”), give voice to elite males, and portray victory over the enemy as the end state. On the contrary, P.J would be peace-orientated (explore conflict formation, strive to prevent conflict), be truth-orientated (expose untruths on all sides), people-orientated (focus on suffering all over, focus on people peacemakers), and solution-orientated (emphasize peace initiatives, focus on creativity and resolution rather than victory of one party).193 The three selected frames for elaboration of Galtung’s classification as well as the article’s analysis are: consequences of war/violence frame, roots of the conflict frame and solution oriented frame. The frequency of appearance of these indicators in articles - reports, etc, will be examined, as well as the findings that illustrated in the content of these research products. A monthly outcome analysis of the main findings, measures the shift of those media platforms towards the Yemeni Conflict, during the time of the research. In this perspective, consequences of war/violence frame are related with visible and not visible effects, the roots of the conflict frame could result in a better perception of the history towards a possible solution and last the solution oriented frame as a suggestion for options to escape this crisis/war/conflict. All the collected material will be used in the effort to identify mass media framing of this conflict and the relevant discourses. Furthermore, a revision of the role of the media in conflict situations under the Yemeni Conflict case study is going to be discussed after the outcomes of this research method. According the theoretical framework that has been developed above, the following hypotheses are made: Hypothesis 1: Due to the fact that the conflict is taking place in a distant place the coverage of the conflict will not be intensive.

193 McGoldrick A. Lynch J. (2000). Peace Journalism. p.29 Available at https://www.transcend.org/ tri/downloads/McGoldrick_Lynch_Peace-Journalism.pdf (Accessed 21 Sep. 2017)

42 Hypothesis 2: The conflict that has a local character without the participation of main actors, expected to be covered inadequate, especially in the western based media. Hypothesis 3: Due to the absence of correspondents in the conflict area, local news media and citizen journalism are contributing in the news production process. Hypothesis 4: The news media promote a descriptive cover of the conflict rather than an in depth analysis of it.

43 CHAPTER 3 OVERALL STUDY RESULTS

In the research, 237 articles have been examined in a six month period, from January to June of 2017. The websites of News Media examined are similar. The search engine of New York Times (NYT) is equipped with filters while the access is purchasable for many articles. On the other side, Russia Today (RT) and Al Jazeera (AJ) are simpler with unlimited access. The average of articles per day of research was 1,3. In January 0,93 articles were published, in February 1,1, in March 1,55, in April 0,81, in May 1,63 and in June 1,8 respectively. The peak, took place in June, while the lowest in April. Graphic 1 shows the number of articles that were published during the specific month per each News Media. Table 1, presents the number of articles per month, the photos or video that were embedded contained, maps, visualization, statements and violent pictures that were used for them, (Graphic 1).

120

100

80 NYT 60 RT AJ 40

20

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun SUM

Graphic 1. Published articles per month and News Media

NYT, used photos in the articles sparsely, while RT and AJ used photos intensively. RT and AJ presented violent scenes while NYT did not. NYT did not embed video, maps or visualization in the published articles while RT used the video, maps and visualization. Furthermore, AJ embedded these features more intensive than RT. All the News Media contained statements of representatives, political or military actors or scholars. The used languages in NYT and AJ were three, while for RT was six. (Table 1)

44

News Media NYT RT AJ

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Articles 5 6 9 1 9 10 18 14 22 18 24 18 6 11 17 6 16 27

Photos Υ Υ Υ Υ Υ Υ Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Videos Ν Ν Ν Ν Υ Ν Υ Ν Υ Υ Υ Υ Y Y Y Y Y Y

Maps Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Υ Ν Ν Υ Ν Υ Y Y Y Y Y Y

Visualization Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Υ Ν Ν Υ Ν Υ Y Y Y Y Y Y Violent Scenes Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Ν Υ Υ Υ Υ Υ Υ Y Y Y Y Y Y

Statements Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Languages 3 6 3

Table 2. Contained Data – features, per month and News Media

In the following graphic (Graphic 2), NYT, published 40 editorials, RT 114 and AJ 83 in the research period. Next graphic (Graphic 3), shows the size of articles per month and media. The size of the articles varied from 22 lines up to 170 lines. For better distribution, the categories will be three, with the Small Size containing the articles with length up to 40 lines, the Medium Size from 41 to 80 lines and the Large Size with length more than 81 lines. NYT published 6 Small Size articles, 23 Medium Size and 11 Large, respectively. RT published 51 Small Size articles, 51 Medium Size and 12 Large, while AJ published 50 Small Size articles, 25 Medium Size and 8 Large in the research period. NYT seems that published more lengthy articles than RT and AJ. RT published either Small or Medium Size while AJ published more Small Size. Regarding the number of them, RT published almost 40% more than AJ, and 200% more than NYT, (Graphic 3).

Monthly Nr of Editorials

60

40 Monthly Nr of Editorials 20

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Graphic 2. Published editorials per month

45 120

100

80 SMALL 60 MEDIUM LARGE 40

20

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun SUM

Graphic 3. Size of articles per each month

The following tables present the number of articles, per month and Media (Table 2) and the size of them (Table 3). Consequently, the identified frame is presented, which in several cases was more than one. For research reasons, the dominant frame was recorded (Table 4-10) Finally, Peace and War Journalism indicators are presented in the following tables (Table 11-13). Topic 1 Monthly Number of Articles

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 5 18 6 29

February 2017 6 14 11 31

March 2017 9 22 17 48

April 2017 1 18 6 25

May 2017 9 24 16 49

June 2017 10 18 27 54

Sum 40 114 83 237

Table 3. Number of articles, per month and News Media

Topic 2 Size of Articles

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

46 January 2017 0S/4M/11L 8S/8M/2L 4S/2M/0L 12S/14M/13L

February 2017 1S/2M/3L 6S/8M/0L 10S/1M/0L 17S/11M/3L

March 2017 2S/5M/2L 9S/12M/1L 11S/5M/1L 22S/22M/4L

April 2017 0S/0M/1L 9S/7M/2L 4S/1M/1L 13S/8M/4L

May 2017 2S/7M/0L 9S/10M/5L 9S/5M/2L 20S/22M/7L

June 2017 1S/5M/4L 10S/6M/2L 12S/11M/4L 23S/22M/10L

Table 4. Size of articles, per month and News Media Topic 3 Strategic Frame

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 0/5-0% 1/18-5% 0/6-0% 1/29-3%

February 2017 0/6-0% 0/14-0% 2/11-18% 2/31-6%

March 2017 0/9-0% 2/22-9% 2/17-12% 4/48-8%

April 2017 0/1-0% 5/18-27% 0/6-0% 5/25-20%

May 2017 2/9-22% 7/24-29% 6/16-37% 15/49-30%

June 2017 2/9-22% 7/18-39% 8/27-30% 17/54-31%

Table 5. Strategic Frame, per month and News Media Topic 4 Violent Frame

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 0/5-0% 6/18-33% 3/6-50% 9/29-31%

February 2017 4/6-67% 3/14-21% 3/11-27% 10/31-32%

March 2017 6/9-67% 8/22-36% 5/17-29% 19/48-40%

April 2017 0/1-0% 2/18-11% 4/6-67% 6/25-24%

May 2017 3/9-33% 0/24-0% 7/16-44% 10/49-20%

June 2017 4/9-44% 4/18-22% 8/27-30% 16/54-30%

Table 6. Violent Frame, per month and News Media

47 Topic 5 Intervention Frame

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 2/5-40% 8/18-44% 1/6-17% 11/29-38%

February 2017 0/6-0% 4/14-29% 0/11-0% 4/31-13%

March 2017 0/9-0% 5/22-23% 2/17-12% 7/48-15%

April 2017 1/1-100% 5/18-28% 0/6-0% 6/25-24%

May 2017 2/9-22% 5/24-21% 1/16-6% 8/49-16%

June 2017 1/9-11% 2/18-11% 3/27-11% 6/54-11%

Table 7. Intervention Frame, per month and News Media

Topic 6 Saudi Led Coalition Aggression Frame

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 1/5-20% 2/18-11% 1/6-17% 4/29-14%

February 2017 0/6-0% 7/14-50% 2/11-18% 9/31-29%

March 2017 2/9-22% 7/22-32% 5/17-29% 14/48-29%

April 2017 0/1-0% 6/18-33% 1/6-17% 7/25-28%

May 2017 0/9-0% 12/24-50% 1/16-6% 13/49-27%

June 2017 2/9-22% 5/18-28% 7/27-26% 14/54-26%

Table 8. Saudi Led Coalition Aggression Frame, per month and News Media

Topic 7 Houthi Aggression Frame

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 0/5-0% 1/18-6% 1/6-0% 2/29-7%

February 2017 0/6-0% 0/14-0% 3/11-18% 3/31-10%

March 2017 0/9-0% 0/22-0% 2/17-12% 2/48-4%

April 2017 0/1-0% 0/18-0% 1/6-17% 1/25-4%

48 May 2017 0/9-0% 0/24-0% 1/16-6% 1/49-2%

June 2017 1/9-11% 0/18-0% 1/27-4% 2/54-4%

Table 9. Houthi Aggression Frame, per month and News Media

Topic 8 Hadi Aggression Frame

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM (%)

January 2017 0/5-0% 0/18-0% 0/6-17% 0/29-0%

February 2017 1/6-17% 0/14-0% 0/11-0% 1/31-3%

March 2017 0/9-0% 0/22-0% 0/17-0% 0/48-0%

April 2017 0/1-0% 0/18-0% 0/6-0% 0/25-0%

May 2017 2/9-22% 0/24-0% 0/16-0% 2/49-4%

June 2017 0/9-0% 0/18-0% 0/27-0% 0/54-0%

Table 10. Hadi Aggression Frame, per month and News Media

Topic 9 AQAP Aggression Frame

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 2/5-40% 0/18-0% 0/6-0% 2/29-7%

February 2017 1/6-17% 0/14-0% 1/11-9% 2/31-6%

March 2017 1/9-11% 0/22-0% 1/17-6% 2/48-4%

April 2017 0/1-0% 0/18-0% 0/6-0% 0/25-0%

May 2017 0/9-0% 0/24-0% 0/16-0% 0/49-0%

June 2017 0/9-0% 0/18-0% 0/27-0% 0/54-0%

Table 11. AQAP Aggression Frame, per month and News Media

Topic 10 Consequences Of war/violence

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

49 January 2017 4/5-80% 11/18-61% 5/6-83% 20/29-69%

February 2017 6/6-100% 13/14-93% 9/11-82% 28/31-90%

March 2017 9/9-100% 19/22-86% 12/17-76% 40/48-83%

April 2017 0/1-0% 6/18-33% 6/6-100% 12/25-48%

May 2017 7/9-78% 13/24-54% 9/16-56% 29/49-59%

June 2017 6/9-67% 10/18-55% 16/27-59% 32/54-59%

Table 12. Consequences Of war/violence (PJ indicator), per month and News Media

Topic 11 Roots of conflict

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 1/5-20% 1/18-5% 0/6-0% 2/29-7%

February 2017 0/6-0% 0/14-0% 2/11-18% 2/31-6%

March 2017 0/9-0% 1/22-4% 3/17-18% 4/48-8%

April 2017 0/1-0% 11/18-61% 0/6-0% 11/25-44%

May 2017 0/9-0% 10/24-42% 7/16-44% 17/49-35%

June 2017 3/9-33% 8/18-44% 11/27-41% 22/54-41%

Table 13. Roots of conflict (PJ indicator), per month and News Media

Topic 12 Solution Oriented

Month/ Media NYT RT AJ SUM

January 2017 0/5-0% 6/18-33% 1/6-17% 7/29-24%

February 2017 0/6-0% 1/14-7% 0/11-0% 1/31-3%

March 2017 0/9-0% 2/22-9% 1/17-6% 3/48-6%

April 2017 1/1-100% 1/18-6% 0/6-0% 2/25-8%

May 2017 2/9-22% 1/24-4% 0/16-0% 3/49-6%

June 2017 1/9-11% 0/18-0% 0/27-0% 1/54-2%

Table 14. Solution Oriented (PJ indicator), per month and News Media

50 Topic 13 News Media

Frame NYT RT AJ

Strategic 10% 19% 22%

Violent 42% 20% 36%

Intervention 15% 25% 8%

Saudi coalition led aggression 13% 34% 20%

Houthi aggression 2% 2% 11%

Hadi aggression 8% 0% 0%

AQAP aggression 10% 0% 3%

Table 15. Framing Percentage per News Media

Topic 14 News Media

PJ Indicator NYT RT AJ

Consequences of war 80% 63% 69%

Roots of conflict 10% 27% 29%

Solution Oriented 10% 10% 2%

Table 16. PJ Indicators’ Percentage per News Media

Explanation.194

194 For example in Table 3, in “NYT” column and in “January 2017” row, the record “0S/4M/11L”, means that there are no Small articles while there are four Medium Size and eleven Large Size. In Table 4, in “RT” column and in “February 2017” row, the record “0/14-0%”, means that there is not identified any article with dominant the “Strategic Frame” in a total of fourteen articles that were published that month in the three News Media altogether. In Table 5, in “SUM” column and in “April 2017” row, the record “6/25-24%”, means that there are six articles in total of twenty five of the three News Media, with dominant the “Violent Frame”, and all these represent the twenty four percent of the articles of that month. Finally, in Table 11, in “AJ” column and in “June 2017” row, the record “16/27-59%”, means that there are sixteen articles in a total of twenty seven that published in June by

51

AJ, with dominant Peace Journalism indicator, the “Consequences Of war/violence”, and all these represent the fifty nine percent of the articles of that month.

52 3.1 New York Times Results

3.1.1 General Outcomes

An average of 6,5 articles per month were published on NYT internet platform during the period of January to June of 2017. In January were published 0,16 articles per day, in February 0,21, in March and May 0,29, in April 0,03 and in June 0,33 respectively. The peak was in June and the lowest in April. The following graphic (Graphic 4) presents this distribution.

25

20 Small Size 15 Medium S. 10 Large S. 5 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 4. Size and number of articles per each month for NYT

The articles of NYT were 40 during the research period, that is the lowest of the research. The size of articles was mostly Medium size and sparsely Small size. The editorials contained photos but without violent scenes, while maps, videos and visualization were not used. Statements of political, diplomats or military persons were also used.

3.1.2 Framing Study Outcomes

Due to the length of many articles, more than one Frames were identified in framing analysis process. One dominant Frame was selected according to content analysis and the articles were categorized respectively, (Graphic 5).

53 18 16 Jan 14 Feb 12 Mar 10 Apr 8 May 6 Jun 4 Sum 2 0 Strategic Violent F. Intervention Saudi Coal. Houthi A. Hadi A. AQAP A. Frame F. Aggression

Graphic 5. Dominant Frame per each month for NYT

The “Violent Frame” (Graphic 6), identified in 42% of the articles, “Intervention Frame” in 15%, “Saudi led Coalition Frame” in 12%, “Strategic Frame” and “AQAP Frame” in 10%, “Hadi Aggression” in 13% and “Huthi Frame” in 2% respectively. The peak of “Violent Frame” was in February and March with an average of 67% while the lowest was in January and April with 0%. In May was 33% and 40% in June.

Violent Frame

20

15

10 Violent Frame

5

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 6. “Violent Frame” for NYT The “Violent Frame” is related with actions by the security forces and the military as well, as violent content photos, videos and related references in visible or invisible effects. The focus of the articles was on the increased casualties of U.S Special Operations troops in comparison with the conventional troops during their

54 operations.195 It was also on the civilian casualties that incurred in the first commando raid that was authorized by President Trump, and the withdrawn of permission for the United States to run Special Operations ground missions against suspected terrorist groups by the government of Yemen. The Pentagon acknowledged the death of several civilians, including children in the crossfire of the raid, and committed to investigate it.196 The continuously increase of drone strikes in Yemen against AQAP expansion the last two years was also a focus point.197 The consequences of the conflict resulted to a famine and to a humanitarian crisis. “We are facing the largest humanitarian crisis since the creation of the United Nations,” warned Stephen O’Brien, the U.N.’s humanitarian chief. “Without collective and coordinated global efforts, people will simply starve to death.”198 “It’s important to note that “all of these crises are fundamentally man-made, driven by conflict,” as Neal Keny-Guyer, C.E.O. of Mercy Corps, put it. “And the U.S. bears some responsibility”. A Saudi-led coalition, backed by the United States, has imposed a blockade on Yemen that has left two-thirds of the population in need of assistance. In Yemen, “to starve” is transitive. Also the focus was on the call for an inquiry by United Nations into an aerial assault on a boat of migrants in Yemen’s Red Sea coast that left at least 42 people dead. Filippo Grandi, the United Nations high commissioner for refugees, described the assault as an “unwarranted attack on helpless civilians fleeing violence and conflict” in a statement from the refugee agency’s Geneva headquarters. The consequences of the war and especially the humanitarian disaster, the displaced of millions Yemenis and the risk of famine are

195 Phillips D. (2017). Special Operations Troops Top Casualty List as U.S. Relies More on Elite Forces Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/04/us/navy-seal-william-ryan-owens-dead- yemen.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

196 Sanger D. Schmitt E.(2017). Yemen Withdraws Permission for U.S. Antiterror Ground Missions Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/07/world/middleeast/yemen-special-operations- missions.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

197 NYT.(2017). Lingering Questions in the Yemen Raid Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02 /28/opinion/lingering-questions-in-the-yemen-raid.html?_r=0 (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

198 NYT.(2017). ‘That Food Saved My Life,’ and Trump Wants to Cut It Off Available at : https://www. nytimes.com/2017/03/18/opinion/sunday/that-food-saved-my-life-and-trump-wants-to- cut-it-off.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

55 documented.199 The imminent starvation, as war blocks deliveries of food and medical care pointed out by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).200 The chief economist for the World Food Program, Arif Husain, said that in the world’s war zones, a shortage of food is one of the most important factors, driving people away from their home countries.201 “The International aid officials say they are facing one of the biggest humanitarian disasters since World War II. And they are determined not to repeat the mistakes of the past”. “The international humanitarian system is at its breaking point,” stated Dominic MacSorley, chief executive of Concern Worldwide, a large private aid group. Additional, “relentless aerial bombings by Saudi Arabia and a trade blockade have mutilated the economy, sending food prices spiraling and pushing hundreds of thousands of children to the brink of starvation”, reported.202 The consequences of the war are reported in May. “The World Health Organization and Doctors Without Borders, the international medical charity, reported … what they described as alarming increases in the number of cholera cases in Yemen in the past few weeks”. “We are very concerned that the disease will continue to spread and become out of control,” Shinjiro Murata, the head of the Yemen mission for Doctors Without Borders, said in a statement. “The danger of a cholera epidemic .. has been greatly amplified by what amounts to a collapse in the public health system because of the two-year-old war between Houthi insurgents and the government, which is backed by Saudi Arabia.” “… many hospitals, which have been damaged by air-strikes and other attacks, have closed, essentially denying medical access to vast portions of the country.” “…roughly 17 million people —

199 Gladstone R.(2017). U.N. Seeks Inquiry Into Deadly Assault on Migrant Boat Near Yemen. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/20/world/middleeast/yemen-refugees-boat- attack.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

200 NYT.(2017). Time Short to Avert Starvation in Yemen and Somalia, Red Cross Says. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/22/world/africa/famine-yemen-somalia-red-cross-relief.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

201 Sengupta S.(2017). U.N.’s Famine Appeal Is Billions Shy of Goal. Available at : https://www.nytimes. com/2017/03/23/world/africa/un-famine-nigeria-somalia-south-sudan- yemen.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

202 Gettleman J.(2017). Drought and War Heighten Threat of Not Just 1 Famine, but 4. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/27/world/africa/famine-somalia-nigeria-south-sudan-yemen- water.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

56 about two-thirds of the population — are facing severe hunger and possible famine. An estimated two million Yemeni children under the age of 5 are considered acutely malnourished.”203 Also, the responsibilities of the rivals are presented. “United Nations and other human rights officials say Houthi rebels and affiliated forces have also shown disregard for civilians with indiscriminate rocket and artillery bombardments of residential areas, sniper fire and land mines.” Jan Egeland, the Norwegian Refugee Council head stated that “This is a clear-cut decline into massive famine that is man-made and avoidable,” “…There has to be leadership from United States and Britain to get a real peace process going.” Mr. Egeland stated, “I’m more worried for Yemen now than for any other place on the planet.” Furthermore, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that less than 45 percent of the country’s hospitals and clinics were fully functional, and that many lack access to clean drinking water, were creating conditions ripe for the spread of disease.204 The top United Nations aid official, Stephen O’Brien, the under secretary general for humanitarian affairs and emergency-relief coordinator, stated that “If there was no conflict in Yemen, there would be no descent into famine, misery, disease and death — a famine would certainly be avoidable and averted,” He depicted the crisis as man-made, implicitly placing part of the blame on the Saudi Arabia-led military coalition that has been bombing Yemen’s Houthi rebels and their allies for over two years but he also blamed the Houthis (App. Map 4). “The people of Yemen are being subjected to deprivation, disease and death as the world watches,” he said.205 The regional director of UNICEF, Geert Cappelaere, called the spread of the disease in the war-ravaged country “incredibly dire” and said he had never seen a cholera outbreak of that size in the country, which already was contending with the

203 Gladstone R.(2017). Cholera Compounds Suffering in a Yemen Torn by War. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/09/world/middleeast/cholera-yemen-war-humanitarian-crisis.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

204 Cumming-Bruce N.(2017). Trump, About to Visit Saudi Arabia, Is Urged to Help Yemen. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/trump-yemen-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

205 Gladstone R.(2017). Cholera, Famine and Girls Sold Into Marriage for Food: Yemen’s Dire Picture. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/30/world/middleeast/yemen-civil-war-cholera- famine-girls-marriage-united-nations.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

57 risk of a famine and a collapse of the health care system because of the war.206 Desperate to halt the cholera crisis afflicting Yemen, UNICEF took the unusual step of paying the country’s doctors and nurses, who had not received salaries in months. Mr. Cappelaere said, “just comes on top of what already was an incredibly daunting situation.” Jamie McGoldrick, the United Nations humanitarian coordinator for Yemen, said that the $2.1 billion humanitarian response plan for 2017 was only 29- percent funded. “What is heartbreaking in Yemen is that humanity is losing out to the politics,” Mr. McGoldrick said at a news conference in Amman, Jordan.207 The donation of $66,7 million by the crown prince, Mohammed bin Salman of Saudi Arabia to fight the cholera outbreak in Yemen was also pointed out. Tarik Jasarevic, a spokesman for the World Health Organization, said: “W.H.O. welcomes all offers of support that would alleviate the suffering of the Yemeni people. As with all funding we receive, these funds will be used in line with the humanitarian principles of neutrality, humanity and independence.”208

Intervention Frame

8

6

4 Intervention Frame

2

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 7. “Intervention Frame” for NYT

206 Gladstone R.(2017). Unicef Fears Yemen Cholera Outbreak Could Hit 300,000 in Coming Weeks Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/02/world/middleeast/unicef-yemen-cholera-saudi- war.html (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

207 Gladstone R.(2017). Unicef Steps In to Pay Yemen’s Doctors as War and Cholera Rage. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/15/world/middleeast/yemen-cholera-united-nations.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

208 Gladstone R.(2017). Saudis, at War in Yemen, Give Country $66.7 Million in Cholera Relief. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/23/world/middleeast/yemen-saudi-crown-prince- salman-cholera.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

58 The peak of “Intervention Frame” (Graphic 7), was in April and identified in 100% of the articles, while the lowest was in February and March with 0%. In January was 40%, in May 22% and in June 10%. It included the seizing of weapons from smuggling vessels near Yemen’s coast that appeared to have been manufactured in Iran, China, Russia, Romania, Bulgaria and perhaps in North Korea.209 It included also the different narratives of the same events that are prominent features of the media landscape in the Arab world. The polarization of the media increased as violence spread across the region and exacerbated by the rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran.210 It included the remarks of U.S Secretary of Defence Jim Mattis that the Saudi coalition’s war against the Houthis, cannot be won militarily.211 He stated that “In Yemen, our goal is to push this conflict into U.N.-brokered negotiations to make sure it is ended as soon as possible”. It focused on the U.S President visit in Saudi Arabia and the agreement for arms sell of $110 billion and not in an intervention for political solution of the conflict.212 It included also the proposal of Iran for a four-point plan to end the war or a political solution with the participation of all the political groups involved.213 It focused also in the U.S Opponent Senators of the arms deal, that were sharply critical of the Saudi role in Yemen’s war and about rising civilian casualties there.214

209 Chivers C.J (2017). Arms Seized Off Coast of Yemen Appear to Have Been Made in Iran. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/10/world/middleeast/yemen-iran-weapons-houthis.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

210 Hubbard B. (2017). The Linguistic Labyrinth of Arabic News. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com /2017/01/14/opinion/sunday/learning-to-speak-al-jazeera.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

211 Cooper H. (2017). Jim Mattis, in Saudi Visit, Calls for Political Solution in Yemen. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/19/world/middleeast/jim-mattis-yemen-saudi-arabia.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

212 NYT. (2017). Will President Trump Help Save Yemen?. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017 /05/25/opinion/cholera-yemen-war-humanitarian-crisis.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

213 Zarif M. (2017). ‘Beautiful Military Equipment’ Can’t Buy Middle East Peace. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/26/opinion/us-saudi-arabia-arms-deal-iran.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

214 Cooper H. (2017). Senate Narrowly Backs Trump Weapons Sale to Saudi Arabia. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/13/world/middleeast/trump-weapons-saudi-arabia.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

59 Saudi Coal. Aggression Frame

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Graphic 8. “Saudi led Coalition Aggression Frame” for NYT

The peak of “Saudi led Coalition Aggression Frame” (Graphic 8), was in March with 22% while the lowest in February, April and May with 0%. In January and June was 20%. It included the air-strikes by the Saudi-led coalition against Houthi fighters and drone strikes in the central Yemeni against Al Qaeda militants.215 It focused also on an open market air-strike in western Yemen that killed at least 16 people216 and on an attack of a military helicopter on a boat carrying more than 100 Somali migrants in the Red Sea.217 It focused on the role of Saudi Crown Prince in the decision to escalate the Yemen civil war218 and the dispute between Qatar and other Arab gulf states, when the Saudis and the United Arab Emirates provoked the row by breaking diplomatic relations with Qatar and imposing embargo.219

215 Almosawa S. (2017). Renewed Fighting and Drone Strikes in Yemen Kill About 75. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/22/world/middleeast/yemen-houthi-qaeda-mokha.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

216 Hubbard B. (2017). Yemen Market Airstrike Kills at Least 16 People. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/11/world/middleeast/yemen-market-airstrike.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

217 Hubbard B. (2017). Airstrike Kills Dozens of Somali Migrants Off Yemen’s Coast. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/17/world/middleeast/yemen-airstrike-somali-migrants.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

218 NYT. (2017). The Young and Brash Saudi Crown Prince. Available at : https://www.nytimes. com/2017/06/23/opinion/saudi-arabia-mohammed-bin-salman.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

219 NYT. (2017). A Way Out of the Qatar Mess. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/28/ opinion/qatar-saudi-trump-tillerson-corker.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

60 Strategic Frame

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1 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 9. “Strategic Interest Frame” for NYT

The peak of “Strategic Interest Frame” (Graphic 9), was on May with 22% while the lowest in January until April with 0%. In June was 20%. It included the visit of U.S President to Saudi Arabia that reassured the Saudi-U.S alliance, the offer of help to Saudi Arabia and its Gulf Cooperation Council allies to deter Iran and affirmed the depth and importance of the strategic relationship and further strengthened the alliance by embracing the Saudis as full partners in business, in politics and in fighting the rise of violent religious extremists.220 Also, Mr. Trump met with dozens of leaders from the Persian Gulf and the wider Muslim world, intending in shaping a new Middle East coalition and a call to Saudi Arabia and the rest of the Muslim world to unite against extremism.221 It focused on the roles of the main players of the region in the effort to defeat and defund terrorists.222

220 Shihabi A. (2017). What Saudi Arabia Needs to Hear From Trump. Available at : https://www. nytimes. com/2017/05/18/opinion/what-saudi-arabia-needs-to-hear-from-trump.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

221 Shear M. (2017). Saudis Welcome Trump’s Rebuff of Obama’s Mideast Views. Available at : https:// www.nytimes.com/2017/05/20/world/middleeast/donald-trump-saudi-arabia.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

222 Blinken A. (2017). President Trump’s Arab Alliance Is a Mirage. Available at : https://www.nytimes. com/2017/06/19/opinion/trump-isis-qatar-saudi-arabia.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

61 AQAP Aggression Frame

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Graphic 10. “AQAP Aggression Frame” for NYT

The peak of “AQAP Aggression Frame” (Graphic 10), was in January with 40% while the lowest in April until June with 0%. In February was 17% and in March 11%. It included the first counterterrorism operation authorized by President Trump in which a U.S commando was killed in the years long shadow war against Al Qaeda’s Yemen affiliate (App. Map 5).223 Moreover it focused on the use of their family members as shields by terrorist groups, sheltering them in compounds or bunkers that are the targets of air-strikes or commando raids.224

223 Schmitt E. (2017). U.S. Commando Killed in Yemen in Trump’s First Counterterrorism Operation. Available at : https://www.nytimes. com/2017/06/19/opinion/trump-isis-qatar-saudi-arabia.html. (Accessed 5 Sep. 2017).

224 Schmitt E. (2017). Women Killed in Yemen Raid Were Qaeda Fighters, Pentagon Says. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/30/world/middleeast/yemen-raid-women-qaeda.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

62 Hadi Aggression Frame

3,5 3 2,5 2 Hadi Aggression Frame 1,5 1 0,5 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 11. “Hadi Aggression Frame” for NYT

The peak of “Hadi Aggression Frame” (Graphic 11), was on May with 22% while the lowest in January, March, April and June with 0%. In February was 17%. It included the decision of Yemeni government for closer coordination on future counterterrorism operations with United States Special Operations forces.225 It focused also on U.S. Navy SEAL raid against Al Qaeda militants in Central Yemen, with the support of the beleaguered Yemeni government, which has been fighting a two-front war: one with Arab allies against Houthi rebels in the western part of the country, and another against Al Qaeda militants in the country’s central and eastern regions.226

225 Schmitt E. (2017). Yemen Backtracks on Suspending U.S. Raids After Civilian Casualties. Available at : https https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/08/world/middleeast/yemen-raid-american- military.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

226 Schmitt E. (2017). Navy SEALs Kill 7 Militants in Yemen Raid but Suffer Injuries. Available at : https https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/world/middleeast/navy-seals-yemen-raid.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

63 Houthi Aggres s ion Fram e

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Graphic 12. “Houthi Aggression Frame” for NYT

The “Houthi Aggression Frame” (Graphic 12), was observed just in June in 10% of the articles. It focused on an American kidnapped two years before in Yemen while helping coordinate aid for UNICEF and the Red Cross, who also had a second, secret role.227

3.1.3 Peace & War Journalism Indicators

The “Consequences of War and Violence” was identified in 80% of articles. The peak was in February and March with 100% while the lowest was in April with 0%. In January was 80%, in May 77% and in June 60%. The “Roots of Conflict” Indicator was identified in 10% of articles. The peak was in June with 30% while the lowest in February to May with 0%. In January was 20%. The “Solution Oriented” Indicator was also identified in 10% of the articles. The peak was in April with 100% while the lowest in January to March with 0%. In May was 22% while in June was 10%.

227 Goldman A. (2017). Aid Coordinator in Yemen Had Secret Job Overseeing U.S. Commando Shipments. Available at : https https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/06/world/middleeast/scott-darden- transoceanic-yemen-pentagon.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

64 35

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Graphic 13. Peace & War Journalism Indicators per month for NYT

The “Consequences of War and Violence” (Graphic 14), was identified in the smuggling of weapons that seized on dhows and boats, part of a larger effort by external actors to move weapons to the Houthis.228

Cons. Of war/violence

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Graphic 14. “Consequences of War and Violence” Indicator per month for NYT

It focused on air-strikes by the Saudi-led coalition against Houthis, drone strikes against Al Qaeda militants229 and Houthis’ attacks against Hadi’s government

228 Chivers C.J. (2017). Arms Seized Off Coast of Yemen Appear to Have Been Made in Iran. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/10/world/middleeast/yemen-iran-weapons- houthis.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

229 Schmitt E. (2017). Navy SEAL Team Kills 7 Militants in Yemen During Raid, U.S. Says. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/us/politics/navy-seal-team-kills-7-militants-in-yemen- during-raid.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

65 attackers.230 It focused on the U.S Navy SEALs raid that resulted in a U.S soldier loss, in Al Qaeda militants losses and also in civilian casualties.231՚232՚233՚234 It focused on the refusal of the U.S soldiers’ father to meet U.S President235 and his demand for investigation regarding the mission.236 Also, it focused on the threat coming from AQAP “who exports and inspires terrorist acts around the world.”237՚238 It identified an air-strike by military coalition led by Saudi Arabia on an open market causing several civilian casualties239 and an aerial assault of an helicopter on a boat of Somali

230 Almosawa S. (2017). Renewed Fighting and Drone Strikes in Yemen Kill About 75. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/22/world/middleeast/yemen-houthi-qaeda-mokha.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

231 Schmitt E. (2017). U.S. Commando Killed in Yemen in Trump’s First Counterterrorism Operation . Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/29/world/middleeast/american-commando-killed-in- yemen-in-trumps-first-counterterror-operation.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

232 Schmitt E. (2017). Women Killed in Yemen Raid Were Qaeda Fighters, Pentagon Says. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/30/world/middleeast/yemen-raid-women-qaeda.html. (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

233 Philips D. (2017). Special Operations Troops Top Casualty List as U.S. Relies More on Elite Forces. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/04/us/navy-seal-william-ryan-owens-dead- yemen.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

234 Sanger D. (2017). Yemen Withdraws Permission for U.S. Antiterror Ground Missions. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/07/world/middleeast/yemen-special-operations-missions.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

235 Schmitt E. (2017). Father of Commando Killed in Yemen Refused to Meet Trump. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/26/us/politics/father-of-commando-killed-in-yemen-refused-to- meet-trump.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

236 NYT. (2017). Lingering Questions in the Yemen Raid. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/ 2017/02/28/opinion/lingering-questions-in-the-yemen-raid.html?_r=0 (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

237 Sanger D. (2017). Devices Seized in Yemen Raid Offer Some Clues to Qaeda Tactics. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/world/middleeast/yemen-intelligence-raid.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

238 Schmitt E. (2017). Navy SEALs Kill 7 Militants in Yemen Raid but Suffer Injuries. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/world/middleeast/navy-seals-yemen-raid.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

239 Almosawa S. (2017). Yemen Market Airstrike Kills at Least 16 People. Available at : https://www. nytimes.com/2017/03/11/world/middleeast/yemen-market-airstrike.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

66 migrants near Yemeni coast that caused several civilian casualties.240 It identified the looming famine that would threaten the country in the near future(App. Map 7) .241՚242 It focused on the warnings of international aid officials for an upcoming humanitarian disaster, one of the biggest since World War II. Also the communicable diseases like cholera, that develop in displaced persons’ camps and threat with an outbreak.243՚244 Furthermore it focused also on the World Health Organization, Doctors Without Borders and the international medical charity reports for the alarming increases in the number of cholera cases in Yemen.245 The degraded functionality of the country’s hospitals and clinics, and lack of access to clean drinking water resulted in starvation of seven million people while 17 million people were in need of urgent humanitarian relief in a population of 25 millions.246՚247

240 Hubbard B. (2017). Airstrike Kills Dozens of Somali Migrants Off Yemen’s Coast. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/17/world/middleeast/yemen-airstrike-somali-migrants.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

241 Kristof N. (2017). ‘That Food Saved My Life,’ and Trump Wants to Cut It Off. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/18/opinion/sunday/that-food-saved-my-life-and-trump-wants-to- cut-it-off.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

242 NYT. (2017). Time Short to Avert Starvation in Yemen and Somalia, Red Cross Says. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/22/world/africa/famine-yemen-somalia-red-cross-relief.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

243 Sengupta S. (2017). U.N.’s Famine Appeal Is Billions Shy of Goal. Available at : https://www. nytimes.com/2017/03/23/world/africa/un-famine-nigeria-somalia-south-sudan-yemen.html (Accessed 6 Sep. 2017).

244 Gettleman J. (2017). Drought and War Heighten Threat of Not Just 1 Famine, but 4. Available at : https://www.nytimes .com/2017/03/27/world/africa/famine-somalia-nigeria-south-sudan-yemen- water.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

245 Gladstone R. (2017). Cholera Compounds Suffering in a Yemen Torn by War. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/09/world/middleeast/cholera-yemen-war-humanitarian-crisis.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

246 Cumming-Bruce N. (2017). Trump, About to Visit Saudi Arabia, Is Urged to Help Yemen. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/trump-yemen-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

247 Gladstone R. (2017). Cholera, Famine and Girls Sold Into Marriage for Food: Yemen’s Dire Picture . Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/30/world/middleeast/yemen-civil-war-cholera- famine-girls-marriage-united-nations.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

67 At the end of the period it focused on the intensified reports of UNICEF for collapse of health care system, outrage of famine and spread of cholera248 and the paying of the country’s doctors and nurses salaries by UNICEF, who have not been paid for months.249 It included the donation of $66,7 million by the crown prince, Mohammed bin Salman of Saudi Arabia to fight the cholera outbreak in Yemen250 and the upgrade of Saudi Arabia’s training program through the American military to help prevent the accidental killing of civilians in the Saudi-led air campaign against Houthi rebels in Yemen.251

Roots of conflict

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Graphic 15. “Roots of Conflict” Indicator per month for NYT

The “Roots of Conflict” (Graphic 15), Indicator was identified in the polarization of the media that was increasing as violence spread across the region,

248 Gladstone R. (2017). Unicef Fears Yemen Cholera Outbreak Could Hit 300,000 in Coming Weeks. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/02/world/middleeast/unicef-yemen-cholera-saudi- war.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

249 Gladstone R. (2017). Unicef Steps In to Pay Yemen’s Doctors as War and Cholera Rage. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/15/world/middleeast/yemen-cholera-united-nations.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

250 Gladstone R. (2017). Saudis, at War in Yemen, Give Country $66.7 Million in Cholera Relief . Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/23/world/middleeast/yemen-saudi-crown-prince- salman-cholera.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

251 Schmitt E. (2017). Saudi Arabia Tries to Ease Concerns Over Civilian Deaths in Yemen . Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/14/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-arms-training-yemen.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

68 exacerbated by the rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran.252 It focused also on the larger effort that Iran, Qatar and Saudi Arabia plays to defeat and defund terrorists253 and on the pursuit of Trump administration for a future alliance in the Middle East, united against extremism but with potential pull of the United States into the sectarian struggle between Sunni and Shia.254 Finally, focused on the common aim between the Prince and President Trump, whose administration has also taken a tough line on Iran, and who has made clear that he sees the Saudi Crown Prince as a crucial ally in his effort to solidify a Sunni Muslim alliance in the gulf.255

Solution Oriented

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Graphic 16. “Solution Oriented” Indicator per month for NYT

The “Solution Oriented” (Graphic 16), Indicator was identified in the visit of US Defense Secretary Jim Mattis , in Saudi Arabia and his call for a political solution in Yemen between Sunni Arabs, supported by a Saudi-led coalition, and Iranian- backed Houthis. As he stressed, “In Yemen, our goal is to push this conflict into U.N.-

252 Hubbard B. (2017). The Linguistic Labyrinth of Arabic News. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com /2017/01/14/opinion/sunday/learning-to-speak-al-jazeera.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

253 NYT. (2017). Fighting, While Funding, Extremists. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06 /19/opinion/saudi-arabia-qatar-isis-terrorism.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

254 Blinken A. (2017). President Trump’s Arab Alliance Is a Mirage. Available at : https://www.nytimes. com/2017/06/19/opinion/trump-isis-qatar-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

255 NYT. (2017). The Young and Brash Saudi Crown Prince. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/ 2017/06/23/opinion/saudi-arabia-mohammed-bin-salman.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

69 brokered negotiations to make sure it is ended as soon as possible.” 256 Also, in the conclusion, that all the warring parties bear some blame for Yemen’s misery. “A comprehensive peace deal may be out of reach, but the United States, Britain and the United Nations could focus on interim measures that would put Hudaydah under the administration of neutral parties and impose the quickest possible cease-fire.”257 Moreover, in the two choices that United States and its allies face. Either, “to lend moral and material support, and encourage the perpetrators to intensify their war efforts, though this has proved futile and only brings more death and destruction and further complicates the path to a lasting solution. Or, as Iran has stated from the start, these governments can focus on helping to forge inclusive political solutions with the participation of all the political groups involved.”258 Furthermore, in the Senate vote that nearly half of it “sent an overwhelmingly clear message to Riyadh that if it wants to return to a time of unequivocal U.S. support, it needs to stop killing civilians in Yemen,” as Andrea Prasow, the deputy Washington director at Human Rights Watch stressed.259

256 NYT. (2017). Jim Mattis, in Saudi Visit, Calls for Political Solution in Yemen. Available at : https:// www.nytimes.com/2017/04/19/world/middleeast/jim-mattis-yemen-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

257 NYT. (2017). Will President Trump Help Save Yemen?. Available at : https://www.nytimes. com/2017/05/25/opinion/cholera-yemen-war-humanitarian-crisis.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

258 Zarif M. (2017). ‘Beautiful Military Equipment’ Can’t Buy Middle East Peace. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/26/opinion/us-saudi-arabia-arms-deal-iran.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

259 NYT. (2017). Senate Narrowly Backs Trump Weapons Sale to Saudi Arabia. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/13/world/middleeast/trump-weapons-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 6 Sep 2017)

70 3.2 Russia Today Results

3.2.1 General Outcomes

An average of 19 articles per month were published on RT internet platform during the period of January to June of 2017. In January were published 0,58 articles per day, in February 0,5, in March 0,71, in April 0,6, in May 0,77 and in June 0,6 respectively. The peak was in May and the lowest in February. The following graphic (Graphic 17) presents this distribution.

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Graphic 17. Size and number of articles per each month for RT

The articles of NYT were 114 during the research period, that is the highest of the research. The size of articles was mostly Small and Medium size and sparsely Large size. The editorials contained several photos with violent scenes while maps, videos and visualization were used frequently. Statements of political, diplomats or military persons were used also.

3.2.2 Framing Study Outcomes

It was common to reveal more than one Frames in framing analysis process. One dominant Frame was selected according to content analysis and the articles were categorized respectively.

71 45

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0 Strategic Violent F. Intervention Saudi Coal. Houthi A. Hadi A. AQAP A. Frame F. Aggression

Graphic 18. Dominant Frame per each month for RT

The “Saudi led Coalition Frame” was identified in 34% of the articles, “Intervention Frame” in 25%, “Violent Frame” in 20%, “Strategic Frame” in 19% “Houthi Frame” in 1%, “AQAP Frame” in 0% and “Hadi Aggression” in 0% as well. The peak of “Saudi led Coalition Frame” was in February and May with an average of 50% while the lowest was in January with 11%. In March was 32%, in April 33% and 28% in June, (Graphic 18). The “Saudi Led Coalition Aggression” frame (Graphic 19), is related to their intervention for supporting Hadi’s government and protecting their interests. It initially focused on the US special operations’ raid against Al-Qaeda militants in Yemen where a soldier was killed, several Al-Qaeda militants and civilians.260 Furthermore, on US drones attacks on Al-Qaeda militants in central Yemen, after Donald Trump inauguration as president.261՚262 It also focused on the increase of Riyadh’s arms imports and on air-strikes that carried out by the Saudi-led coalition in

260 RT. (2017). US soldier killed in Yemen raid on Al-Qaeda, local officials say women & children among casualties. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375486-yemen-us-commando-raid/ (Accessed 7 Sep 2017)

261 RT. (2017). 1st US drone strikes on Trump’s watch hit Al-Qaeda in Yemen & ISIS. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/374840-drone-strikes-yemen-trump/ (Accessed 7 Sep 2017)

262 RT. (2017). Deadly Yemen raid resulted in no valuable intel – officials. Available at : https:// www.rt.com/usa/378833-yemen-raid-yields-no-intel/ (Accessed 7 Sep 2017)

72 Yemen, the increased civilian casualties, and the UN calling for an international investigation into the coalition’s violations there.263՚264՚265

Saudi Led Coal. Aggression F.

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Graphic 19. “Saudi Led Coalition Aggression Frame” per month for RT

It identified the Human Rights Watch probe into the Saudi-led air-strike that killed school children and renewed calls to place the coalition back on the UN secretary-general’s ‘list of shame’ for children’s rights abusers.266 Also, the Saudi-led coalition strikes on port of Hodeidah, which could threat the humanitarian operation aimed at delivering vital supplies, according to the United Nations human rights office.267 It focused on the deploy of US battleship off the coast of Yemen, for the

263 RT. (2017). Saudi arms imports triple amid Yemen campaign, US & Europe top suppliers to Mid East – report. Available at :https://www.rt.com/news/377945-saudi-arms-import-yemen/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

264 RT. (2017). US ground & air raid kills 7 Al-Qaeda militants in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt. com/news/389405-us-al-qaeda-yemen/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

265 RT. (2017). 23 civilians killed in suspected Saudi-led coalition airstrike in Yemen – report. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/388733-saudi-yemen-civilians-killed-airstrike// (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

266 RT. (2017). Put Saudi-led coalition back on UN list of child rights abusers, HRW says. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/377571-saudi-coalition-yemen-children-abuse/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

267 RT. (2017). Saudi-led coalition intensifies strikes on Yemeni port, UN worried civilians may get trapped. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/377571-saudi-coalition-yemen-children-abuse/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

73 protection of US interests in the region.268 Furthermore, on an helicopters’ air-strike on a boat in the Red Sea carrying Somali refugees269՚270, the supply of arms to Saudi Arabia from the US and Britain271, the new House bill that was introduced and would create a new Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) against Islamic State272 and the targeted of civilians and civilian facilities in Yemen, in violation of international humanitarian law and international human rights law according to the report by the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).273՚274՚275 The focus was on the "starving of an entire generation" in Yemen. The UN Secretary-General warned that "We are witnessing the starving and the crippling of an entire generation," saying that two-thirds of the population or nearly 19 million people need emergency aid in Yemen. UNICEF's director for Mid-east and North Africa, Geert Cappelaere, stated that "There is no single country in the world where, today, children are suffering more than in Yemen." The UN World Food Program (WFP) regional director Muhannad Hadi stated that "We are concerned about

268 RT. (2017). US deploys guided missile destroyer off Yemeni coast after attack on Saudi warship – reports. Available at : 11. https://www.rt.com/news/376277-uss-cole-deployed-off-yemen/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

269 RT. (2017). Likely war crime: Alleged Saudi coalition strike on refugee boat condemned by HRW. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382366-yemen-boat-strike-war-crime/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

270 RT. (2017). 42 Somali refugees killed, at least 25 injured in Yemen airstrike. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/381147-somali-refugees-yemen-airstrike/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

271 RT. (2017). Yemenis ‘pay the price’ for UK and America’s ‘brazenly hypocritical’ arms deals – Amnesty. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382089-yemenis-suffer-uk-us-arms/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

272 RT. (2017). Republicans introduce bills authorizing new military force against ISIS. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/381042-republicans-introduce-bills-new-aumf/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

273 RT. (2017). Yemen: From Saudi violations of international law to Western complicity in genocide. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/380700-yemen-saudi-arabia-genocide/ (Accessed 9 Sep 2017)

274 RT. (2017). They destroyed our homes, injured our kids’: Sanaa residents speak of horror of Saudi bombings. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/379515-yemen-airstrikes-sanaa-killed/ (Accessed 10 Sep 2017)

275 RT. (2017). ‘US Navy SEALS in Yemen shot everything that moved, including women & children’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/379503-saudi-airstrikes-yemen-us-seals/ (Accessed 10 Sep 2017)

74 facilities in Yemen because at this stage we can't afford to even lose one bridge or one road network let alone to lose a major facility like Hodeidah port," adding "It's impossible to have security in the country while people are hungry."276 It commented the decision of the UN to offer in Saudi Arabia both the chair of UN Human Rights Council and the Women’s Rights Commission despite the gross and systematic human rights violations both at home and in neighboring Yemen.277 It focused on the supply of arms to Saudi-led coalition from multinational manufacturers278 that complicit them in possible war crimes on the Yemeni soil.279 Also, on the report, by Save the Children and Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, that documented a series of deadly coalition-led attacks on hospitals and medics over the past two years.280՚281 Red Cross's regional director for the Middle East, Robert Mardini stated "In particular countries supporting parties to armed conflict have the responsibility to make their support contingent to greater respect and compliance of international humanitarian law. If this very concrete step is taken, this will definitely alleviate the suffering of people."282 It presented also, the Saudi

276 RT. (2017). 'Child dies every 10 min': UN, Amnesty call to stop Saudi-led assault on 'crucial lifeline' in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386125-amnesty-yemen-famine-saudi/ (Accessed 10 Sep 2017)

277 RT. (2017). Awarding Saudi Arabia chair on Women's Rights Commission makes UN complicit in crimes. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/386097-awarding-saudi-arabia-chair-womens/ (Accessed 11 Sep 2017)

278 RT. (2017). Merkel’s former defense minister joins arms corp with links to Saudis, USAF & Erdogan. Available at : 18. https://www.rt.com/news/387793-merkels-defense-minister-arms-dealer/. (Accessed 11 Sep 2017)

279 RT. (2017). ‘Role model’? Fallon hails arms manufacturer who sold missiles to Yemen-bombing Saudis & Gaddafi. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/385660-uk-missiles-role-gaddafi-saudi- yemen/. (Accessed 11 Sep 2017)

280 RT. (2017). Saudi-led coalition ‘bombing hospitals, violating rights of children’ in Yemen – report. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/385434-saudi-yemen-bombing-hospitals/. (Accessed 11 Sep 2017)

281 Save the children. (2017). THE IMPACT ON CHILDREN OF ATTACKS ON HEALTH CARE IN YEMEN. Available at : https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/12090/pdf/2212-watchlist- field-report-yemen-lr.pdf. (Accessed 11 Sep 2017).

282 RT. (2017). 'Child dies every 10 min': UN, Amnesty call to stop Saudi-led assault on 'crucial lifeline' in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386125-amnesty-yemen-famine-saudi/. (Accessed 11 Sep 2017).

75 Arabia’s chief humanitarian director conviction that his country’s military campaign in Yemen was not an aggression.283 It included the U.S sale of precision-guided munitions to Saudi that “will bolster the kingdom’s ability to contribute to counterterrorism operations across the region, and that will reduce the already heavy burden on the United States,” as Arabia State Department spokeswoman Heather Nauert stated.284 It focused on the ascertainment of Leading international organizations including Red Cross and the UN that the Saudi-led blockade and bombing campaign are the central causes behind the cholera epidemic. “There is a situation where people are not only affected by the direct consequences of conflict, but the economy has been seriously slowed down, because it is very costly to move goods across the country through the different frontlines. Then there is the aerial blockade, and it is difficult to move food into some of the seaports,” stated Dominik Stillhart, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) Director of Operations, who insisted that ICRC have “repeatedly called on the conflict participants” to allow full access for humanitarian supplies.285՚286 Also, on the media's constant focus on US President Donald Trump resulting in the overshadow of famine in Africa and the Middle East, as the head of the UN's World Food Programme (WFP) stated, adding that the issue is a "reality," not "fake news."287 Moreover, on the director’s statement of the anti-war ANSWER Coalition, Brian Becker that “what we are observing in Yemen is perhaps

283 RT. (2017). ‘Saudi Arabia did not actually attack Yemen’ – Saudi humanitarian chief to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/385231-saudi-humanitarian-chief-syria/. (Accessed 11 Sep 2017).

284 RT. (2017). $110bn US-Saudi arms deal sent to Congress, seen as way to protect Middle East allies. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/390243-state-dept-saudi-arms-deal/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

285 RT. (2017). ‘Entirely preventable’: Aid agencies blame Yemen blockade, economic collapse for cholera outbreak. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/388479-yemen-cholera-red-cross/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

286 RT. (2017). Cholera outbreak in Yemen kills 34 people, may spiral out of control – WHO & MSF. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/387799-cholera-outbreak-yemen-victims/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

287 RT. (2017). ‘This isn’t fake news’: Trump coverage detracting from Africa & Middle East famines, UN agency warns. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/388456-un-says-trump-media-coverage- distracting-from-real-problems/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

76 one of the greatest untold stories of human sufferings and catastrophe in the world right now.”288 Finally, the focus was on the alleged network of clandestine prisons that the EUA has established to detain and interrogate people suspected of having links with the Yemeni branch of Al-Qaeda.289 But as Professor Lyal Sunga from the Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law emphasized, “It’s not enough to rely on standard denials that we hear form either the Yemeni forces, the UAE or the US. It’s very important to have an independent, impartial, objective fact- finding mission in such situations”.290

Intervention F.

40

30

20 Intervention F. 10

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 20. “Intervention Frame” per month for RT The “Intervention Frame” (Graphic 20), is that where editorials highlight the obstacles to intervention and justify nonintervention, or dispute these obstacles and justify an intervention. It was identified in 25% of the articles. The peak of was in January with an average of 44% while the lowest was in May and June with 11%. In February was 29%, in March was 23% and in April 28%. It focused on the attempt of two activists in UK to disarm and prevent Saudi- bound warplanes from taking off and delivering weapons that they say would be used

288 RT. (2017). ‘Saudi aid to Yemen – camouflage to conceal war crimes’. Available at : https://www. rt.com/op-edge/387248-saudi-arabia-yemen-famine/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

289 RT. (2017). Yemen’s ousted govt pledges to probe alleged torture at prisons run by ally UAE. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/393861-yemen-secret-prisons-probe/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

290 RT. (2017). UAE has secret torture prisons in Yemen, US involved in interrogations – AP. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/393554-uae-secret-prisons-yemen/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

77 to bomb Yemen.291 Also, on an expert UN panel investigation about ten separate air- strikes by the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen - in which at least 292 civilians died - that found the result of an “ineffective targeting process” or deliberate attacks on peaceful targets, for most of them. The UN Security Council stated that "For all 10 investigations, the panel considers it almost certain that the coalition did not meet international humanitarian law requirements of proportionality and precautions in attack.”292 It focused on the statement of UN’s Special Envoy to Yemen, Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed to the UN Security Council, that the cause of these “tragic consequences for the Yemeni people” is the “dangerous” upsurge in air-strikes and fighting in the region. He stressed that “there is a clear path out of the violence” and that “the war can be stopped […] with political courage and will.” “I hope Yemen’s leaders will be able to see the impact that this tragedy has had on the country, make the bold decision to commit to a political solution and put an end to the senseless violence.” 293 It presented the meeting of UN’s envoy to Yemen, Ismail Ould Chiekh Ahmed with Hadi, for a proposed roadmap for peace, where Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed, proposed that “A peace agreement, including a well articulated security plan and the formation of an inclusive government is the only way to end the war that has fuelled the development of terrorism in Yemen and the region."294 It identified the attempts of activists, to highlight the country’s plight and their calling for an end to the blockade on Sana’a International Airport, through social media. Some social media described the airport closures as being in violation of international law, while others directed their tweets at US President Donald Trump,

291 RT. (2017). UK activists detained for disarming Saudi-bound warplanes to prevent ‘war crimes’ in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/375560-activists-arrested-saudi-planes/. (Accessed 12 Sep 2017).

292 RT. (2017). ‘No legitimate military objectives’: UN panel finds Saudi strikes in Yemen may amount to war crimes. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375549-un-yemen-strikes-war-crime/. (Accessed 13 Sep 2017).

293 RT. (2017). UN: Yemen could face famine in 2017, over 2/3 of population in urgent need of aid. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375412-yemen-famine-children-action/. (Accessed 13 Sep 2017).

294 RT. (2017). Women of Yemen call to arms against Saudi aggression. Available at :https://www.rt. com/news/374154-yemen-women-protest-saudi/. (Accessed 13 Sep 2017).

78 calling on the new leader to do something.295 It focused on Andrew Mitchell MP, who is not in favour of an arms embargo but he stressed that “It’s about how they are used and we have influence over the Saudis. We need to persuade the Saudis there’s another way of protecting their security and stop Yemen being pounded back into the stone age.”296 Jamal Wakeem, professor of history and international relations at the Lebanese University in Beirut, stated that the conflict remains finely balanced just because the Sunnis have more material resources while the Houthi rebels still hold most of the land, and enjoy considerable manpower.297 The focus was on a group of Yemeni artists that try to promote art and unite Yemeni people under its aegis. They have been gathering in the capital, Sanaa, every year since the conflict began, painting illustrations of war on what was left of the city’s streets after bombings.298 Also, on the suggestion of UK Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson for continued arms sales to Saudi Arabia. He advised UK secretary of State for International Trade Liam Fox, to proceed with the arms sales. “The issue is extremely finely balanced, but I judge at present the Saudis appear committed both to improving processes and to taking action to address failures/individual incidents.”299 It focused on the Russian’s Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Maria Zakharova, who stressed that it’s impossible to solve the Yemeni conflict through military means and called for reconciliation through UN-supervised talks.300 Also, on the statement of Sarah Leah Whitson, executive director of Human Rights Watch's Middle East and

295 RT. (2017). #End_Yemen_Siege: Activists urge end to conflict & airport reopening. Available at : https://www.rt.com/viral/375079-end-yemen-siege-airport/. (Accessed 14 Sep 2017).

296 RT. (2017). UK’s ‘confused’ stance on Yemen ‘will lead to terrorist attacks on British soil’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/373986-yemen-terror-attack-mitchell/. (Accessed 14 Sep 2017).

297 RT. (2017). No food, no medicine, no money’: Yemeni town faces mass death by starvation. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/373712-yemen-starvation-fishing-houthis/. (Accessed 15 Sep 2017).

298 RT. (2017). ‘Nobody taking responsibility for Yemen war’ – Arab Banksy to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/378768-yemen-artist-arab-banksy/. (Accessed 15 Sep 2017).

299 RT. (2017). Boris Johnson pushed for UK to continue selling weapons to Saudis after funeral bombing. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/376974-boris-johnson-saudi-weapons/. (Accessed 15 Sep 2017).

300 RT. (2017). ‘If US is world’s conscience, why doesn’t it see what’s happening in Yemen?’ – Moscow. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382819-us-is-not-worlds-conscience/. (Accessed 16 Sep 2017).

79 North Africa Division that called on the UN to investigate the deadly boat attack in the shore of Yemen. “We want the Human Rights Council to take up this matter and conduct an impartial investigation as well, to have the weight of the UN Human Rights Council behind it.”301 It identified the letter that Amnesty International sent to the US President Donald Trump and said in that he should cancel impending weapons sales to Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, since this could put civilians in even greater danger and implicate the US in war crimes.302 Also, the statement of Ahmed Benchemsi, communications and advocacy director at Human Rights Watch (HRW), Middle East & North Africa who stressed, “We clearly recommend that the United States, the United Kingdom, France and others should suspend all weapons sales to Saudi Arabia until they curtail their unlawful air-strikes in Yemen and until also a credible investigation is conducted about those violations."303 It focused on a Spanish firefighter that refused to supervise a shipment of some 4,000 tons of munitions to Saudi Arabia. He walked out on the job because he believed the arms could be used to commit war crimes in Yemen.304 Also, on a group of US lawmakers that wrote to the presidential administration asking for more information about a potential sale of smart bombs, aka precision-guided munitions (PGM), to Saudi Arabia and their concern for the widespread civilian casualties in Yemen.305 Moreover, on the examining allegations of war crimes in Yemen. London’s

301 RT. (2017). Saudi self-investigation not sufficient, UN should probe deadly refugee boat attack — HRW to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382510-hrw-yemen-boat-saudi-attack/. (Accessed 16 Sep 2017).

302 RT. (2017). ‘Arming Saudi Arabia & Bahrain risks complicity with war crimes’ – Amnesty to Trump. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/381034-amnesty-trump-yemen-saudi-weapons/. (Accessed 17 Sep 2017).

303 RT. (2017). ‘Over 20 dead in airstrike on market in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com /news/380204-yemen-market-air-strike/. (Accessed 17 Sep 2017).

304 RT. (2017). Spanish firefighter refuses to ship arms to Saudi Arabia over Yemen ‘war crimes,’ may lose job. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/384741-spanish-firefighter-yemen-arms/. (Accessed 17 Sep 2017).

305 RT. (2017). Potential smart bomb sales to Saudi Arabia prompt questions from US lawmakers. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/384303-us-saudi-smart-bombs-doubts/. (Accessed 18 Sep 2017).

80 Metropolitan Police, confirmed that their war crimes, unit is examining claims of atrocities carried out by Saudi Arabia in Yemen.306 It included the call of top Republicans and Democrats of Congress for reverse of the arms deal that Donald Trump signed with Saudi Arabia. Their primary concern was the use of the newest weapons in the Yemen war by the kingdom. Congressmen Ted Lieu and Ted Yoho, representing the Democratic and Republican camps respectively, stressed in a letter to the House Foreign Affairs Committee that “This decision was the result of an internal review launched after the United Nations and a number of human rights organizations documented a series of RSAF air-strikes on civilian targets including hospitals, markets, schools and a large funeral.”307 It focused on the reports for the production of cluster bombs by European, Japan, and Canada producers, in violation of an international treaty prohibiting their production that has been ratified by their home countries.308 Also, on the statement of UK Defense Secretary Michael Fallon who stated that “Saudi Arabia is being attacked by Houthi rebels across its southern border with Yemen. It’s had its towns and villages shelled by the Houthis.” Moreover he stressed that “Saudi Arabia is fully entitled to defend itself and it’s fully entitled to call on its friends in so doing.”309 But also, on Germany’s reluctance to sign new arms deals and on Merkel statement that “We believe in the UN-led process of diplomatic resolution. We do not think that there can be a military solution to this conflict.”310

306 RT. (2017). Yemen war crimes inquiry launched by Met Police as PM sets out to woo Saudi regime. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/383244-police-war-crimes-yemen/. (Accessed 18 Sep 2017).

307 RT. (2017). US lawmakers seek to reverse Trump’s $110bn arms deal with Saudi Arabia . Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/390049-trump-saudi-arabia-arms-deal/. (Accessed 19 Sep 2017).

308 RT. (2017). European, Japanese & Canadian firms fund production of cluster bombs in breach of intl law – report. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/389613-firms-fund-cluster-bombs/. (Accessed 19 Sep 2017).

309 RT. (2017). Saudi Arabia is just ‘defending itself’ when it bombs Yemen, claims UK defense secretary. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/387982-micheal-fallon-yemen-saudi/. (Accessed 19 Sep 2017).

310 RT. (2017). Saudi Arabia ‘won’t be stubborn’ asking for German arms again – minister. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386692-saudi-germany-weapons-sales/. (Accessed 19 Sep 2017).

81 It included the failed bipartisan effort to block the sale of US precision-guided munitions to Saudi Arabia in the US Senate.311 Though, Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer cited the Kingdom’s human rights violations in Yemen and announced his intentions to back a resolution to block a portion of arms sales to Saudi Arabia.312

Violent Frame

30 20 Violent Frame 10 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 21. “Violent Frame” per month for RT The “Violent Frame” (Graphic 21), was identified in 20% of the articles. The peak was in March with an average of 36% while the lowest was in May with 0%. In January was 33%, in February was 21%, in April 11% and in June 22%. It focused on the deteriorating healthcare situation that aggravated by a severe lack of medical equipment and supplies, due to the Saudi-led coalition’s air and naval blockade of the country. Also, on the blockade of the country that resulted to severe shortages of basic goods like food, fuel, and medicine leading on a full-scale famine in 2017 according to U.N.313 Also, on the statement of Human Rights Watch (HRW) Yemen researcher, Kristine Beckerle that "The biggest cause of civilian casualties from the beginning of this war has been the Saudi-led coalition's air-strikes that have

311 RT. (2017). US Senators fail to block $510mn weapons sale to Saudi Arabia. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/392123-saudi-arms-deal-senate/. (Accessed 19 Sep 2017).

312 RT. (2017). Schumer joins bipartisan push to block part of Trump’s Saudi arms deal. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/392021-schumer-block-saudi-arms-deal/. (Accessed 21 Sep 2017).

313 RT. (2017). Shelling, airstrikes, mines: MSF reports on civilians & medics in crosshairs of war in Taiz, Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375794-yemen-taiz-msf-report/. (Accessed 21 Sep 2017).

82 repeatedly hit markets, homes, hospitals and schools."314 Furthermore, on unlawful coalition air-strikes according to HRW, that have hit homes, markets, hospitals, schools, civilian buildings, and mosques. UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), accused also the primary opponents of the Saudi-led coalition, the Houthi rebels and their allies, of carrying out indiscriminate attacks, using internationally-banned anti-personnel landmines, forced disappearances, torturing their critics, and recruiting child soldiers.315 It included the planning sell of warships to Saudi Arabia by Spain, despite opposition from major human rights groups, which called the potential sale illegal, as Riyadh may use them in their operation against Yemen that has killed thousands of civilians.316 Also, on social media activists that were calling on politicians such as UK Prime Minister Theresa May, the US Secretary of State John Kerry and the UN to put an end to the attacks of Saudi led coalition that have been accused of war crimes in Yemen.317 It focused on the Executive Director of UNICEF, Anthony Lake who stressed that “we can still save many lives.” “The severe malnutrition and looming famine are largely man-made. Our common humanity demands faster action. We must not repeat the tragedy of the 2011 famine in the Horn of Africa.”318 Also, on the UK government, that rejected calls by two parliamentary committees and human rights

314 RT. (2017). Severely malnourished Yemeni children in urgent need of help filmed by RT Arabic. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/374279-yemen-starving-children-hospital/. (Accessed 21 Sep 2017).

315 RT. (2017). Over 4,000 civilians killed, aid blocked, zero accountability – HRW’s wrap up of Yemen war. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/373742-yemen-conflict-hrw-report/. (Accessed 21 Sep 2017).

316 RT. (2017). Spain plans to sell warships to Saudi Arabia despite Yemen war crimes concerns. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/373567-spain-saudi-warships-yemen/. (Accessed 22 Sep 2017).

317 RT. (2017). #SOS_YemenGenocide: Tragic photos of war-torn country shared online. Available at : https://www.rt.com/viral/372576-yemen-genocide-tragic-photos/. (Accessed 22 Sep 2017).

318 RT. (2017). ‘Time running out’: 1.4 million children could die from famine in Africa & Yemen, says UNICEF. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/378097-unicef-children-famine-malnutrition/. (Accessed 22 Sep 2017).

83 groups to stop selling arms to Saudi Arabia, arguing that the weapons were not being used in “a serious violation of international humanitarian law.”319 It focused on the statement of Richard Stanforth, an Oxfam adviser, that “Everybody involved [in the Yemen conflict] is at fault, all parties. Yemenis themselves are at fault, as they are thinking more about the fighting and their military gains, and their attacks on ports and other places are stopping aid. And then all the international backers, they are at fault as well. They are not allowing aid through like it should come, and they are also bombing the country; they are starving Yemen.”320 Moreover, on the lack of awareness of the Yemeni crisis internationally. "There is a problem because journalists are being refused entry to Yemen, and that means you don't get stories in the news like we should have... We need journalists to be allowed in, just like aid workers need to be allowed in. We need to be able to take photos, so people can just see how awful the situation is."321 It included the statement of UN’s Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights Kate Gilmore, that stressed “We encourage the Yemeni National Commission to make progress on all aspects of its mandate to investigate all allegations of violations of international law and Yemeni law, including those that go beyond the extent of the Commission’s cooperation with OHCHR.”322 It focused on the massive crowds that hit the streets of Yemen’s capital, Sanaa in protest of the Saudi-led bombing campaign against the country’s Shia militias. According to UN casualty figures have exceeded 10,000 since the beginning of the conflict, with a reported 40,000 injured and more than three million displaced.323

319 RT. (2017). Ending arms trade with Saudi Arabia carries serious political risks, court told. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/376805-arms-trade-saudi-yemen/. (Accessed 23 Sep 2017).

320 RT. (2017). 2.2mn Yemeni children close to famine, 70% rise in those killed over past year – UNICEF. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382418-unicef-yemen-children-famine/. (Accessed 23 Sep 2017).

321 RT. (2017). ‘Few months left before they starve’: Oxfam adviser tells RT famine is ‘the real enemy’ in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382388-yemen-starving-oxfam-famine/. (Accessed 24 Sep 2017).

322 RT. (2017). Hands off’: London protesters stand up against Saudi intervention in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/382380-yemen-london-protest-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 24 Sep 2017).

323 RT. (2017). Tens of thousands march in Yemen against Saudi-led airstrikes. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382337-yemen-protest-saudi-airstrikes/. (Accessed 24 Sep 2017).

84 Also, on children that were born with deformities as a result of the two-year war that has left the country on the brink of famine. Wafa al-Mamari, an obstetrician at al- Rahma Hospital in northern Sana’a stated that “The strange thing is that the rate of fetal abnormalities is growing and doctors cannot explain the causes, meaning that the phenomenon could be attributed to war and ordinances, given the fact that a great proportion of women with deformed fetuses hailed from bombarded areas in the provinces of Sa’adah, Sana’a, Ta’izz and Hudaydah.”324 It included the Russian lifesaving aid to the population of Yemen,325 the crash of a Black Hawk helicopter belonging to the Saudi Arabian military, in Yemen,326 and the pay raise of up to 60 percent that Saudi Arabia announced for the country’s air force pilots.327 It focused on the “worst cholera outbreak in the world,” with some 5,000 suspected cases arising each day, according to UNICEF and the World Health Organization (WHO),328 as well as on the Saudi Arabian Defense Minister and Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, who ordered the King Salman Center for Humanitarian Aid and Relief (KSRelief) to contribute $66,7 million to fight cholera in Yemen.329 Finally, on the extremely young girls that are paying the price for Yemen's brutal civil war, who are being married off by their own families, which are struggling to make ends meet.330

324 RT. (2017). Infant deformities in Yemen linked to Saudi-led bombardment. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382224-yemen-deformed-babies-saudi/. (Accessed 24 Sep 2017).

325 RT. (2017). Russian humanitarian aid arrives in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt. com/news/380929-yemen-russian-aid-arrives/. (Accessed 25 Sep 2017).

326 RT. (2017). Saudi military aircraft crashes over Yemen, at least 12 killed – reports. Available at : https://www.rt.com/ news/385184-saudi-plane-crash-yemen/. (Accessed 25 Sep 2017).

327 RT. (2017). Saudi Arabia’s Air Force pilots to receive pay raises of up to 60% as Yemen war rages on. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/383307-saudi-pilots-salaries-yemen/. (Accessed 25 Sep 2017).

328 RT. (2017). Yemen facing ‘worst cholera outbreak in the world’ – UN, WHO Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/394001-cholera-outbreak-yemen-un/. (Accessed 25 Sep 2017)

329 RT. (2017). Saudi Arabia donates $66.7mn to stop cholera crisis in Yemen as it continues to bomb & blockade it. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/393826-saudi-crown-prince-offers-donation/. (Accessed 25 Sep 2017)

330 RT. (2017). ‘Only 10 years old': Yemen sees spike in parents marrying off young daughters for cash. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/391116-yemen-war-child-marriage/. (Accessed 25 Sep 2017)

85

Strategic Frame

25 20 15 Strategic Frame 10 5 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 22. “Strategic Frame” per month for RT The “Strategic Frame” (Graphic 22), was identified in 19% of the articles. The peak was in June with an average of 39% while the lowest was in February with 0%. In January was 5%, in March was 9%, in April 28% and in May 29%. It focused on the route of Al Sauds through the centuries and their relationship with the Western States. It presented the cooperative relationship between the House of Saud and the British, as well as the significant role of Sauds in the region of Middle East.331 Also, on the relation between Yemen war and war against terrorism. The significance of the war for the Saudis and the possible benefit for the U.S or for the British.332 Furthermore, on Yemen’s oil reserves that are becoming a specific point of tension between Yemen’s ousted Sunni leaders and their Saudi backers, and the Shi’ite Houthis and their Iranian backers.333 It included the change of tactics of Islamic State (IS, formerly ISIS/ISIL) and other terrorist groups, moving fighters to Afghanistan, Yemen and Africa in order to set up a new large-scale terrorist network.334 Also, on the Middle East weeklong tour

331 RT. (2017). British collusion with sectarian violence: Britain, Saudi Arabia & Afghanistan (Part 3). Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/372979-british-collusion-sectarian-violence/. (Accessed 26 Sep 2017)

332 RT. (2017). ‘Yemen war is genocide’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/379451-saudi- airstrikes-yemen-us-genocide/. (Accessed 26 Sep 2017)

333 RT. (2017). Yemeni oil reserves under dispute as civil war rages on. Available at : https://www.rt.com/business/379291-yemen-oil-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 26 Sep 2017)

334 RT. (2017). ISIS leaders ‘negotiate merger’ with other terrorist groups – FSB head. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386208-isis-negotiate-merger-terrorists/. (Accessed 26 Sep 2017)

86 of Defense Secretary James Mattis, who stressed that the “deconfliction” hotline between the US and Russia was still operational and that his meeting with the king and his principal subordinates, would refer to the security situation, and ways to deepen and broaden their strategic relationship. 335 It focused on the Author and historian Gerald Horne, who argued that the problem in Yemen “in no small measure is made in the USA and their North-Atlantic allies.”336 Also, on the Security Conference that Russian Defense Ministry has been staging annually since 2011 and Russian Deputy Defense Minister, Aleksandr Fomin who argued that most terrorist groups are a product of political, financial, and military efforts from the outside of the country where they operate.337 Also, on the visit of Donald Trump to Saudi Arabia where he displayed that he will not betray the fundamental doctrines of the US establishment and discussed about natural resources, arms, and the destruction caused by Syria’s civil war.338 Moreover, on an arms deal with Saudi Arabia worth $350 billion over 10 years. These sales include deals in border and coastal security, cybersecurity, air force modernization, as well as air and missile defense.339 It included the new agreement between US and the United Arab Emirates that would dictate “the magnitude and conditions” of the US military in the UAE, allowing the United States to send more troops and equipment to the region.340 It focused on the similarities and differences between Saudi Arabia and Iran. Their

335 RT. (2017). ISIS leaders ‘negotiate merger’ with other terrorist groups – FSB head. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386208-isis-negotiate-merger-terrorists/. (Accessed 26 Sep 2017)

336 RT. (2017). Yemen crisis: ‘Made in the USA’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/385168- yemen-us-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 26 Sep 2017)

337 RT. (2017). ‘Look at Syria & Yemen. Who’s next?’ – Russian Deputy Defense Minister to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/384151-terrorists-puppets-security-forum-fomin/. (Accessed 28 Sep 2017)

338 RT. (2017). Trump talks tough on extremism in Middle East - but it's guns, oil, and money that matter. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/389196-trump-muslim-saudi-weapons/. (Accessed 28 Sep 2017)

339 RT. (2017). Trump strikes arms deal with Saudis worth $350bn, $110bn to take effect immediately. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/389061-trump-saudi-arms-deal/. (Accessed 28 Sep 2017)

340 RT. (2017). Pentagon signs new defense deal with UAE over US troop presence. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/388615-mattis-mohammed-defense-agreement/. (Accessed 29 Sep 2017)

87 energy resources, political system, military forces and power projection. Their strategic depth and the built of alliances.341 Also, on Britain's Defense Minister Sir Michael Fallon who stressed that Saudi Arabia has the right to defend itself and call on its friends to help, referring to the Saudi operation in Yemen and UK arms sales to the Gulf monarchy.342 Moreover, on Riyadh’s plan to muster a coalition of mainly Sunni Arab countries – ostensibly to fight “terrorists”.343 It focused on the key-points of potential cooperation between the new crown prince and Donald Trump.344 Also, on the dispatch of an Iranian’s Navy flotilla on a mission to Oman and international waters.345 On the Trump’s attack on Qatar for "funding terrorism," while taking credit for the recent decision by Arab nations to cut off diplomatic relations with the country.346 Furthermore, on US President Donald Trump’s offer to Qatar for the resolve of recent crisis.347 Also, on the chronicle of recent crisis with Qatar.348 Also, on the results of crisis on crude oil prices the mentioned period.349

341 RT. (2017). Deadly rhetoric: Saudi Arabia opens war of words with Iran. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/388519-saudi-arabia-war-iran/. (Accessed 29 Sep 2017)

342 RT. (2017). Follow the money: 'UK ignores Yemeni slaughter as Riyadh spends more on British military equipment'. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/388016-uk-yemen-war-saudi-military- sales/. (Accessed 29 Sep 2017)

343 RT. (2017). Whitewash warning: Saudi-led ‘Muslim NATO’ teams up with major PR firm. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/386983-muslim-nato-isis-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 29 Sep 2017)

344 RT. (2017). Hired gun: Is war with Iran now inevitable under new Saudi crown prince?. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/393614-saudi-crown-prince-iran-war/. (Accessed 1 Oct 2017)

345 RT. (2017). Iran sends warships to Oman amid Gulf tensions. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/391855-iran-sends-warships-to-oman/. (Accessed 1 Oct 2017)

346 RT. (2017). ‘Strange, Trump slams Qatar for ‘supporting terrorism,’ yet gives Saudis a blank check’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/391796-terrorism-trump-saudi-qatar/. (Accessed 1 Oct 2017)

347 RT. (2017). Trump offers to help Qatar resolve Gulf crisis. Available at : https://www.rt.com /usa/391289-trump-offers-to-help-qatar/. (Accessed 1 Oct 2017)

348 RT. (2017). Arab League nations v Qatar: How it all started. Available at : https://www.rt.com/ news/390946-qatar-arab-nations-crisis/. (Accessed 1 Oct 2017)

349 RT. (2017). Oil seesaws after Qatar shunned by Arab neighbors over alleged terrorism links. Available at : https://www.rt.com/business/390919-qatar-arab-oil-prices/. (Accessed 2 Oct 2017)

88 Houthi Aggression F.

1,5

1 Houthi Aggression F. 0,5

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 23. “Houthi Aggression Frame” per month for RT

The “Houthi Aggression Frame” (Graphic 23), was identified in a very small record of 1% and especially in January. More specifically, it focused on the attack by an anti-ship missile or by a “suicide boat” on a Saudi warship, by Houthis. The vessel was one of the four Saudi Al Madinah-class frigates, on patrol duties southwest of the Yemeni capital Sana’a.350

3.2.3 Peace & War Journalism Indicators

The “Consequences of War and Violence” (Graphic 24), was identified in 63% of articles. The peak was in February with 93% while the lowest was in April with 33%. In January was 61%, in March 86%, in May 54% and in June 55%. The “Roots of Conflict” Indicator was identified in 27% of articles. The peak was in April with 61% while the lowest in February with 0%. In January and March was 5%, in May was 42% and in June 44%. The “Solution Oriented” Indicator was also identified in 10% of the articles. The peak was in January with 33% while the lowest in June with 0%. In February was 7%, in March 9%, in April 5% while in May was 4%.

350 RT. (2017). Saudis admit 2 deaths in warship incident after Houthis claim anti-ship missile attack. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375701-saudi-warship-attack-killed/. (Accessed 2 Oct 2017)

89 80 70 60

50 Cons. Of war/violence 40 Roots of conflict 30 Solution Oriented 20 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 24. Peace & War Journalism Indicators per month for RT

The “Consequences of War and Violence” (Graphic 25), was identified in the civilian casualties by shelling and air-strikes as well as in the collapsing healthcare system.351՚352 Moreover, in the Saudi casualties by the Houthi attack on the frigate near Hodeida,353 and the deploy of a US destroyer off the coast of Yemen.354 In the protest of activists355 in Lancashire, UK where tried to disarm and prevent Saudi- bound warplanes from taking off and delivering weapons that they said would be used to bomb Yemen.356 Also, in the violations of international humanitarian law by the

351 RT. (2017). Over 4,000 civilians killed, aid blocked, zero accountability – HRW’s wrap up of Yemen war. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/373742-yemen-conflict-hrw-report/. (Accessed 2 Oct 2017)

352 RT. (2017). Shelling, airstrikes, mines: MSF reports on civilians & medics in crosshairs of war in Taiz, Yemen. Available at : http://www.rt.com/news/375794-yemen-taiz-msf-report/. (Accessed 2 Oct 2017)

353 RT. (2017). Saudis admit 2 deaths in warship incident after Houthis claim anti-ship missile attack. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375701-saudi-warship-attack-killed/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

354 RT. (2017). US deploys guided missile destroyer off Yemeni coast after attack on Saudi warship – reports. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/376277-uss-cole-deployed-off-yemen/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

355 RT. (2017). Hands off’: London protesters stand up against Saudi intervention in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/382380-yemen-london-protest-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

356 RT. (2017). UK activists detained for disarming Saudi-bound warplanes to prevent ‘war crimes’ in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/375560-activists-arrested-saudi-planes/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

90 coalition and the conducted air campaign,357՚358՚359՚360՚361 and in the upcoming humanitarian crisis,362՚363՚364 according to UN’ reports, Amnesty International and International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).365՚366 In the loss of a US soldier in an operation against AQAP367 as well as in the resulted civilian casualties.368՚369

357 RT. (2017). ‘No legitimate military objectives’: UN panel finds Saudi strikes in Yemen may amount to war crimes. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375549-un-yemen-strikes-war-crime/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

358 RT. (2017). ‘Put Saudi-led coalition back on UN list of child rights abusers, HRW says. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/377571-saudi-coalition-yemen-children-abuse/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

359 RT. (2017). ‘Saudi-led coalition intensifies strikes on Yemeni port, UN worried civilians may get trapped. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/376929-saudi-yemen-port-civilians/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

360 RT. (2017). They destroyed our homes, injured our kids’: Sanaa residents speak of horror of Saudi bombings. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/379515-yemen-airstrikes-sanaa-killed/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

361 RT. (2017). Saudi-led coalition ‘bombing hospitals, violating rights of children’ in Yemen – report. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/385434-saudi-yemen-bombing-hospitals/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

362 RT. (2017). 2.2mn Yemeni children close to famine, 70% rise in those killed over past year – UNICEF. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382418-unicef-yemen-children-famine/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

363 RT. (2017). ‘Few months left before they starve’: Oxfam adviser tells RT famine is ‘the real enemy’ in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382388-yemen-starving-oxfam-famine/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

364 RT. (2017). 7mn people face starvation as Yemen heads towards man-made famine – Oxfam. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382157-yemen-famine-starvation-oxfam/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

365 RT. (2017). 'Child dies every 10 min': UN, Amnesty call to stop Saudi-led assault on 'crucial lifeline' in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386125-amnesty-yemen-famine-saudi/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

366 RT. (2017). Yemenis face ‘life & death choice’ of treating sick children or feeding healthy ones – UNICEF to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/387294-yemen-children-starving-death//. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

367 RT. (2017). Deadly Yemen raid resulted in no valuable intel – officials. Available at : https://www.rt. com/usa/378833-yemen-raid-yields-no-intel/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

368 RT. (2017). US soldier killed in Yemen raid on Al-Qaeda, local officials say women & children among casualties. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375486-yemen-us-commando-raid/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

91 Consequences Of war/violence

80 70 60 50 40 Consequences Of war/violence 30 20 10

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 25. “Consequences of War and Violence” Indicator per month for RT

Also, in the severely malnourished children that suffer from acute malnutrition370 as well as skin diseases and other illnesses, a result of international aid blockade,371 shortage of food, medicine and other healthcare products.372 In the early marriage of their young Yemeni daughters, as a solution to the poverty.373 In US drones’ attacks on Al Qaeda militants,374՚375 and the continued arms sales to Saudi Arabia by US, UK, Canadian, Japanese and European

369 RT. (2017). ‘US Navy SEALS in Yemen shot everything that moved, including women & children’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/379503-saudi-airstrikes-yemen-us-seals/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

370 RT. (2017). #SOS_YemenGenocide: Tragic photos of war-torn country shared online. Available at : https://www.rt.com/viral/372576-yemen-genocide-tragic-photos/. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

371 RT. (2017). Russian humanitarian aid arrives in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com /news/380929-yemen-russian-aid-arrives//. (Accessed 3 Oct 2017)

372 RT. (2017). Severely malnourished Yemeni children in urgent need of help filmed by RT Arabic. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/374279-yemen-starving-children-hospital/. (Accessed 4 Oct 2017)

373 RT. (2017). ‘Only 10 years old': Yemen sees spike in parents marrying off young daughters for cash. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/391116-yemen-war-child-marriage//. (Accessed 4 Oct 2017)

374 RT. (2017). 1st US drone strikes on Trump’s watch hit Al-Qaeda in Yemen & ISIS. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/374840-drone-strikes-yemen-trump/. (Accessed 4 Oct 2017)

92 firms.376՚377՚378՚379՚380 Moreover, it was identified in the alleged coalition strike on a refugee boat which resulted in several dozen Somali refugees casualties.381՚382՚383 It was identified in the protests against Saudi-led bombing campaign, against the country’s Shia militias, in Yemen384 and in violations of International Law by Saudi-led coalition in Yemen according to United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).385՚386 Also, in the alleged tortures on people suspected of having links with the Yemeni branch of Al-Qaeda, at prisons run

375 RT. (2017). US ground & air raid kills 7 Al-Qaeda militants in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt. com/news/389405-us-al-qaeda-yemen/. (Accessed 5 Oct 2017)

376 RT. (2017). Britain admits selling 500 cluster bombs to Saudi Arabia, some used in Yemen . Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/373200-cluster-bomb-britain-saudi/. (Accessed 5 Oct 2017)

377 RT. (2017). Spain plans to sell warships to Saudi Arabia despite Yemen war crimes concerns. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/373567-spain-saudi-warships-yemen/. (Accessed 5 Oct 2017)

378 RT. (2017). European, Japanese & Canadian firms fund production of cluster bombs in breach of intl law – report. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/389613-firms-fund-cluster-bombs/. (Accessed 5 Oct 2017)

379 RT. (2017). Trump’s Art of the Deal in the Middle East: Selling wars and terrorism. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/389462-trump-israel-palestine-saudi-war/. (Accessed 5 Oct 2017)

380 RT. (2017). Follow the money: 'UK ignores Yemeni slaughter as Riyadh spends more on British military equipment'. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/388016-uk-yemen-war-saudi-military- sales/. (Accessed 5 Oct 2017)

381 RT. (2017). Saudi self-investigation not sufficient, UN should probe deadly refugee boat attack — HRW to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382510-hrw-yemen-boat-saudi-attack/. (Accessed 6 Oct 2017)

382 RT. (2017). Likely war crime: Alleged Saudi coalition strike on refugee boat condemned by HRW. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382366-yemen-boat-strike-war-crime/. (Accessed 6 Oct 2017)

383 RT. (2017). 42 Somali refugees killed, at least 25 injured in Yemen airstrike . Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/381147-somali-refugees-yemen-airstrike/. (Accessed 6 Oct 2017)

384 RT. (2017). Tens of thousands march in Yemen against Saudi-led airstrikes . Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382337-yemen-protest-saudi-airstrikes/. (Accessed 6 Oct 2017)

385 RT. (2017). Yemen: From Saudi violations of international law to Western complicity in genocide. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/380700-yemen-saudi-arabia-genocide/. (Accessed 7 Oct 2017)

386 RT. (2017). Saudi-led strikes in Yemen may amount to war crimes, arms sales to Riyadh should stop – HRW to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/380345-yemen-saudi-war-crimes/. (Accessed 7 Oct 2017)

93 by ally UAE.387՚388 Moreover, in the cholera outbreak due to the Saudi-led blockade and bombing campaign, according to the Leading International Organizations.389՚390՚391՚392 Finally, in the cutting of Arab countries’ diplomatic ties with Qatar, accusing it of supporting terrorism.393՚394՚395

Roots of conflict

40

30

20 Roots of conflict

10

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 26. “Roots of conflict” Indicator per month for RT

387 RT. (2017). Yemen’s ousted govt pledges to probe alleged torture at prisons run by ally UAE. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/393861-yemen-secret-prisons-probe/. (Accessed 7 Oct 2017)

388 RT. (2017). UAE has secret torture prisons in Yemen, US involved in interrogations – AP. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/393554-uae-secret-prisons-yemen/. (Accessed 7 Oct 2017)

389 RT. (2017). ‘Entirely preventable’: Aid agencies blame Yemen blockade, economic collapse for cholera outbreak. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/388479-yemen-cholera-red-cross/. (Accessed 8 Oct 2017)

390 RT. (2017). ‘This isn’t fake news’: Trump coverage detracting from Africa & Middle East famines, UN agency warns. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/388456-un-says-trump-media-coverage- distracting-from-real-problems/. (Accessed 8 Oct 2017)

391 RT. (2017). Cholera death toll climbs to 115 in Yemen, 1,000s infected in outbreak. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/388343-yemen-cholera-outbreak-death/. (Accessed 8 Oct 2017)

392 RT. (2017). Yemen facing ‘worst cholera outbreak in the world’ – UN, WHO. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/394001-cholera-outbreak-yemen-un/. (Accessed 8 Oct 2017)

393 RT. (2017). Arab League nations v Qatar: How it all started. Available at : https://www. rt.com/news/390946-qatar-arab-nations-crisis/. (Accessed 10 Oct 2017)

394 RT. (2017). Oil seesaws after Qatar shunned by Arab neighbors over alleged terrorism links. Available at : https://www.rt.com/business/390919-qatar-arab-oil-prices/. (Accessed 10 Oct 2017)

395 RT. (2017). ‘Terrorism, meddling in affairs’: Arab countries cut diplomatic ties with Qatar. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/390863-bahrain-cuts-diplomatic-relations-qatar/. (Accessed 10 Oct 2017)

94 The “Roots of conflict” (Graphic 26), was identified in the alliance of Saudis with British. A treaty that Ibn Saud signed with the British, which “elevated him to the role of a British-sponsored ruler of central and eastern Arabia”. A relationship of dependency that continues up to present.396 Also, in the exploitation of oil from the wells in the region Kharkhir (App. Map 6), near the Saudi by the French Total company.397 Moreover, in the link of Missiles Producer MBDA and other arm companies in war conflict.398՚399 Also, in the change of tactics of Islamic State (IS, formerly ISIS/ISIL) and other terrorist groups, who transferred militants to Afghanistan, Yemen and deep into Africa, and started building support points and bases there.400 It was identified in the deeper relationship of Yemeni conflict, USA and NATO allies.401՚402՚403՚404՚405՚406՚407՚408՚409 Also, in the ignorance and concealment of

396 RT. (2017). ‘British collusion with sectarian violence: Britain, Saudi Arabia & Afghanistan (Part 3). Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/372979-british-collusion-sectarian-violence/. (Accessed 11 Oct 2017)

397 RT. (2017). ‘Yemeni oil reserves under dispute as civil war rages on. Available at : https://www.rt. com/business/379291-yemen-oil-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 11 Oct 2017)

398 RT. (2017). ‘Role model’? Fallon hails arms manufacturer who sold missiles to Yemen-bombing Saudis & Gaddafi. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/385660-uk-missiles-role-gaddafi-saudi- yemen/. (Accessed 12 Oct 2017)

399 RT. (2017). Merkel’s former defense minister joins arms corp with links to Saudis, USAF & Erdogan. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/387793-merkels-defense-minister-arms-dealer/. (Accessed 12 Oct 2017)

400 RT. (2017). ISIS leaders ‘negotiate merger’ with other terrorist groups – FSB head. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386208-isis-negotiate-merger-terrorists/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

401 RT. (2017). Yemen crisis: ‘Made in the USA’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/385168- yemen-us-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

402 RT. (2017). $110bn US-Saudi arms deal sent to Congress, seen as way to protect Middle East allies. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/390243-state-dept-saudi-arms-deal/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

403 RT. (2017). Trump talks tough on extremism in Middle East - but it's guns, oil, and money that matter. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/389196-trump-muslim-saudi-weapons/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

404 RT. (2017). Trump strikes arms deal with Saudis worth $350bn, $110bn to take effect immediately. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/389061-trump-saudi-arms-deal/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

405 RT. (2017). ‘Sucking up to Saudis is long US tradition, every president does it’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/389051-trump-visit-saudi-arabia/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

95 Yemeni humanitarian crisis by the Western News Media.410 Moreover, in the expressed concern over widespread civilian casualties in Yemen, by US lawmakers and politicians to the presidential administration.411՚412՚413՚414 In the VI Moscow Conference on International Security and the development of new terrorist groups as a product of exogenous political, financial and military efforts.415 In the examining allegations of war crimes in Yemen, by the war crimes unit of London’s Metropolitan Police.416 In the protests of activists in UK and EU.417՚418

406 RT. (2017). Pentagon signs new defense deal with UAE over US troop presense. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/388615-mattis-mohammed-defense-agreement//. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

407 RT. (2017). Saudi Exceptionalism: Trump hates radical Islam, except when you can make money from it. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/387471-trump-saudi-visit-weapons/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

408 RT. (2017). ‘Strange, Trump slams Qatar for ‘supporting terrorism,’ yet gives Saudis a blank check’. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/391796-terrorism-trump-saudi-qatar/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

409 RT. (2017). Trump offers to help Qatar resolve Gulf crisis. Available at : https://www.rt. com/usa/ 391289-trump-offers-to-help-qatar/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

410 RT. (2017). Humanitarian hypocrites: 20mn face starvation but Western focus is on Putin and Assad. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/384872-yemen-famine-syria-west/. (Accessed 14 Oct 2017)

411 RT. (2017). Potential smart bomb sales to Saudi Arabia prompt questions from US lawmakers. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/384303-us-saudi-smart-bombs-doubts/. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

412 RT. (2017). US weapons sold to Saudis contribute to ‘astounding’ Yemen humanitarian crisis – Rand Paul. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/392296-rand-paul-us-weapons-saudi/. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

413 RT. (2017). US Senators fail to block $510mn weapons sale to Saudi Arabia. Available at : https:// www.rt.com/usa/392123-saudi-arms-deal-senate//. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

414 RT. (2017). Schumer joins bipartisan push to block part of Trump’s Saudi arms deal. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/392021-schumer-block-saudi-arms-deal/. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

415 RT. (2017). ‘Look at Syria & Yemen. Who’s next?’ – Russian Deputy Defense Minister to RT. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/384151-terrorists-puppets-security-forum-fomin/. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

416 RT. (2017). Yemen war crimes inquiry launched by Met Police as PM sets out to woo Saudi regime. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/383244-police-war-crimes-yemen/. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

417 RT. (2017). Saudi General dodges citizen’s arrest in London over Yemen atrocities. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/382886-saudi-general-citizen-arrest/. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

96 It was identified in the increased tension between the statements of Saudi Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MbS) and Defense Minister Hossein Dehghan of Islamic Republic of Iran and their divergent interests.419՚420՚421 Furthermore, in the support of the Saudi-led operation against Houthis and AQAP.422՚423 The “Solution Oriented” Indicator (Graphic 27), was identified in the proposal of UN’s Special Envoy to Yemen, Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed for a political solution as a clear path out of the violence.424՚425՚426 Also, in “#End_Yemen_Siege” campaign that activists had taken to the social media to highlight the country’s plight and call for an end to the blockade on Sana’a International Airport.427 Furthermore, in Andrew’s Mitchell MP proposal, “to persuade the Saudis there’s another way of

418 RT. (2017). Spanish firefighter refuses to ship arms to Saudi Arabia over Yemen ‘war crimes,’ may lose job. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/384741-spanish-firefighter-yemen-arms/. (Accessed 15 Oct 2017)

419 RT. (2017). Deadly rhetoric: Saudi Arabia opens war of words with Iran/. Available at : https:// www.rt.com/op-edge/388519-saudi-arabia-war-iran/. (Accessed 16 Oct 2017)

420 RT. (2017). Hired gun: Is war with Iran now inevitable under new Saudi crown prince?/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/393614-saudi-crown-prince-iran-war/. (Accessed 16 Oct 2017)

421 RT. (2017). Iran sends warships to Oman amid Gulf tensions/. Available at : https://www.rt. com/news/391855-iran-sends-warships-to-oman/. (Accessed 16 Oct 2017)

422 RT. (2017). Saudi Arabia is just ‘defending itself’ when it bombs Yemen, claims UK defense secretary/. Available at :https://www.rt.com/uk/387982-micheal-fallon-yemen-saudi/. (Accessed 16 Oct 2017)

423 RT. (2017). ‘Saudi Arabia did not actually attack Yemen’ – Saudi humanitarian chief to RT/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/385231-saudi-humanitarian-chief-syria/. (Accessed 16 Oct 2017)

424 RT. (2017). ‘S UN: Yemen could face famine in 2017, over 2/3 of population in urgent need of aid/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375412-yemen-famine-children-action/. (Accessed 17 Oct 2017)

425 RT. (2017). Women of Yemen call to arms against Saudi aggression/. Available at : https://www.rt. com/news/374154-yemen-women-protest-saudi/. (Accessed 17 Oct 2017)

426 RT. (2017). Women of Yemen call to arms against Saudi aggression/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/374154-yemen-women-protest-saudi/. (Accessed 17 Oct 2017)

427 RT. (2017). #End_Yemen_Siege: Activists urge end to conflict & airport reopening/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/viral/375079-end-yemen-siege-airport/. (Accessed 18 Oct 2017)

97 protecting their security and stop Yemen being pounded back into the stone age,”428 and his urge to the British government to change its policy from one of material and political support for the Saudi bombing and the regime to one of “much greater neutrality.”429

Solution Oriented

12 10 8

6 Solution Oriented 4 2 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 27. “Solution Oriented” Indicator per month for RT Moreover, in Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Zakharova, who stressed that it’s impossible to solve the Yemeni conflict through military means and called for reconciliation through UN-supervised talks.430 Additionally, in UN’s Emergency Relief Coordinator Stephen O’Brien statement, that “only a political solution will ultimately end human suffering and bring stability to the region” and in UN’s Deputy Permanent Representative of Russia Vladimir Safronkov proposal, that “the settlement of the conflict in Yemen lies exclusively in political realm and can be achieved only through negotiations in accordance with a balanced and mutually acceptable settlement plan.”431 Furthermore, in the statement of US Defense Secretary

428 RT. (2017). UK’s ‘confused’ stance on Yemen ‘will lead to terrorist attacks on British soil’/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/373986-yemen-terror-attack-mitchell/. (Accessed 18 Oct 2017)

429 RT. (2017). Britain backing the losing side in Yemen, must change policy to prevent famine – MP/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/376040-yemen-saudi-famine-mitchell/. (Accessed 18 Oct 2017)

430 RT. (2017). ‘If US is world’s conscience, why doesn’t it see what’s happening in Yemen?’ – Moscow/. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382819-us-is-not-worlds-conscience/. (Accessed 18 Oct 2017)

431 RT. (2017). Over 20 dead in airstrike on market in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/ news/380204-yemen-market-air-strike/. (Accessed 18 Oct 2017)

98 James Mattis that the US objective for the crisis is to “be put in front of a UN- brokered negotiating team and try to resolve this politically as soon as possible”432 and in the statement of German chancellor, Angela Merkel, that stressed “We believe in the UN-led process of diplomatic resolution. We do not think that there can be a military solution to this conflict.”433

432 RT. (2017). Mattis confirms ‘deconflicting’ with Russia, seeks political solution for Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/385217-mattis-saudi-yemen-russia/. (Accessed 19 Oct 2017)

433 RT. (2017). Saudi Arabia ‘won’t be stubborn’ asking for German arms again – minister. Available at https://www.rt.com/news/386692-saudi-germany-weapons-sales/. (Accessed 19 Oct 2017)

99 3.3 Al Jazeera Results

3.3.1 General Outcomes

An average of 13,8 articles per month (Graphic 28), were published on AJ internet platform during the period of January to June of 2017. In January were published 0,19 articles per day, in February 0,39, in March 0,52, in April 0,2, in May 0,52 and in June 0,9 respectively. The peak was in June and the lowest in January. The following graphic (Graphic 28) presents this distribution.

60 50

40 Small Size 30 Medium S. 20 Large S. 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 28. Size and number of articles per each month for AJ The articles of AJ were 83 during the research period, that is in the middle of the research. The size of articles was mostly Small size and sparsely Large size. The editorials contained photos and violent scenes, while maps, videos and visualization were used very frequently. Statements of political, diplomats or military persons were also used.

3.3.2 Framing Study Outcomes

35

30 Jan 25 Feb Mar 20 Apr 15 May 10 Jun 5 Sum

0 Strategic Violent F. Intervention Saudi Coal. Houthi A. Hadi A. AQAP A. Frame F. Aggression

Graphic 29. Dominant Frame per each month for AJ

100

The “Violent Frame” was identified in 36% of the articles, the “Strategic Frame” in 22%, “Saudi led Coalition Frame” in 20%, “Intervention” and “Houthi Aggression Frame” in 10%, “AQAP Aggression” in 2% and “Hadi Aggression Frame” in 0% respectively. The pick of “Violent Frame” was in April with an average of 67% while the lowest was in June with 30%. In January was 50%, in February 36%, in March 35% and in May was 44%, (Graphic 29).

Violent Frame

40 30

20 Violent Frame 10 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 30. “Violent Frame” per month for RT The “Violent Frame” (Graphic 30), was identified in articles where the focus was on the coalition’s blockade that aimed at preventing the Houthis from re-arming and contributed to a 60 percent spike in food prices, according to an estimate used by international aid groups. This resulted in almost 2.2 million children suffer from malnutrition across Yemen according to the UN children's agency,434 14 million Yemenis “food insecure”435՚436՚437՚438 and an upcoming famine for 17 million

434 AJ. (2017). Yemen's children starve as war drags on. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/ news/2017/01/yemen-children-starve-war-drags-170102172118666.html/. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

435 AJ. (2017). Starving Yemenis resort to eating rubbish. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/2017/01/starving-yemenis-resort-eating-rubbish-170102124800887.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

436 AJ. (2017). Will international community help avert Yemen famine?. Available at : http://www .aljazeera.com/programmes/insidestory/2017/02/international-community-avert-yemen-famine- 170209192836050.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

437 AJ. (2017). Famine 'largest humanitarian crisis in history of UN'. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/famine-united-nations-170310234132946.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

101 Yemenis of Yemen's 26 millions.439՚440՚441 Also, focused on the struggling of orphanage in Sanaa due to lack of funds, since Houthi rebels captured the capital in autumn 2014.442 The focus, was also on the increase of arms sales to the Middle East and as Pieter Wezeman, senior researcher with the SIPRI Arms and Military Expenditure Programme stressed, "Saudi Arabia and the UAE take the lead in what is one of their first efforts to intervene in a neighbouring country [ Yemen ] all by themselves, and they can do so because over the years they have acquired these large amounts of advanced weapons."443 Moreover on the trend of refugees and asylum seekers, predominantly from Africa, to flee in Yemen. According to UNHCR the refugees are more than 270,000, while women and children are at particular risk of sexual violence and exploitation by human smugglers.444՚445 Also, on the attack of a helicopter on a boat, where Somali refugees were traveling off the coast of Hodeidah, in Yemen to Sudan. Dozens of them were killed,

438 AJ. (2017). Millions of Yemenis face hunger during Ramadan. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/video/news/2017/05/millions-yemenis-starving-ramadan-170529080752822.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

439 AJ. (2017). Yemen and Somalia 'months away' from famine. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/03/yemen-somalia-months-famine-170322125343027.html/. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

440 AJ. (2017). Starvation stalks Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/04/starvation-stalks-nigeria-somalia-south-sudan-yemen- 170411101432521.html/. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

441 AJ. (2017). A cry for help: Millions facing famine in Yemen. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/video/news/2017/04/raises-famine-alarm-yemen-170425075042281.html/. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

442 AJ. (2017). Yemen's orphans face 'catastrophe' as fighting rages. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/yemen-orphans-170105052409798.html/. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

443 AJ. (2017). Global arms sales surge driven by Middle East demand. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/global-arms-sales-surge-driven-middle-east-demand- 170220085045492.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

444 AJ. (2017). Yemen's other refugee crisis. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /indepth/features/2017/03/yemen-refugee-crisis-170307094750333.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

445 Osman I. (2017). Why are African men and women still fleeing to Yemen?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/04/african-men-women-fleeing-yemen- 170401081941703.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

102 according to the International Organization for Migration.446՚447 Moreover, on the risk of kidnap and murder that local journalists face in the war torn Yemen, resulting in the lack of coverage.448 Also, on the cholera outbreak in the war-torn Yemen that killed hundreds people and left thousands ill, as hospitals struggle to cope with an influx of patients, according to International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).449՚450՚451՚452՚453 The United Nations has put the blame on all the warring sides and their international backers for the outbreak and spread of cholera, which it calls a man-made humanitarian catastrophe.454՚455

446 AJ. (2017). Somali refugees killed near Bab al-Mandeb Strait. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/somali-refugees-killed-bab-al-mandeb-strait-170317094108016.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

447 AJ. (2017). IOM: Attack on Somali refugees 'unacceptable'. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /news/2017/03/iom-attack-somali-refugees-unacceptable-170318083454158.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

448 Mandhai S. (2017). IOM: Double standards: Do all journalist lives matter?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/03/double-standards-journalist-lives-matter- 170329105509019.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

449 AJ. (2017). ICRC: Cholera kills 115 people from late April to May. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/icrc-cholera-kills-115-people-late-april-170514101552638.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

450 AJ. (2017). State of emergency in Yemen's Sanaa over cholera crisis. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/state-emergency-yemen-sanaa-cholera-crisis-170515075723016.html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

451 AJ. (2017). WHO: Speed of Yemen cholera outbreak 'unprecedented'. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/speed-yemen-cholera-outbreak-unprecedented-170519110837434 .html. (Accessed 21 Oct 2017)

452 AJ. (2017). Cholera outbreak claims 315 lives in Yemen. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /news/2017/05/cholera-outbreak-claims-315-lives-yemen-170521142405447.html. (Accessed 22 Oct 2017)

453 AJ. (2017). 'Nearly 600 cholera deaths' in Yemen over past month. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/600-cholera-deaths-yemen-month-170602141857685.html. (Accessed 22 Oct 2017)

454 AJ. (2017). UN: 1,310 dead in Yemen cholera epidemic. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/1310-dead-yemen-cholera-epidemic-170624141413415.html. (Accessed 22 Oct 2017)

455 AJ. (2017). UN: Yemen faces world's worst cholera outbreak. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/yemen-faces-world-worst-cholera-outbreak-170625041932829.html. (Accessed 22 Oct 2017)

103 It focused on the urge of Human Rights Watch to all warring sides in Yemen, the Houthi-Saleh fighters, the government troops and forces backed by the United Arab Emirates (UAE), to remedy the wrongful treatment of detainees and to free those who were arbitrarily held.456՚457 Additionally, on the urban warfare that is bleeding cities dry and forcing millions on the move. The consequences are incalculable suffering, mass displacement and streams of refugees.458

Strategic Frame

20

15

10 Strategic Frame 5 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 31. “Strategic Interest Frame” per month for RT

The peak of “Strategic Interest Frame” (Graphic 31), was in May with 37% while the lowest was in January and April with 0%. In February was 18%, in March 12% while in June was 30%. It was identified in articles where the focus was on the demand of Saudi Arabia at the Munich security conference that Iran be punished, saying that the country was propping up the Syrian government, developing ballistic missiles and funding separatists in Yemen, while Mohammad Javad Zarif, Iranian foreign minister, asked from Arab Gulf states to work with his country and reduce

456 AJ. (2017). Yemen rivals urged to free wrongfully held detainees. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/yemen-rivals-urged-free-wrongfully-held-detainees-170527193 511605.html. (Accessed 22 Oct 2017)

457 AJ. (2017). HRW: UAE backs torture and disappearances in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/hrw-uae-backs-torture-disappearances-yemen-1706220941 58991.html. (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

458 Mardini R. (2017). HRW: The horrors of urban warfare. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /indepth/opinion/2017/06/horrors-urban-warfare-170626123319520.html. (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

104 violence across the region.459 Moreover, on the Munich Security Conference and the future of the United States' foreign policy under the Trump administration and more specifically on the question, “Would the US continue its key role in helping to maintain a liberal world order or would it turn inward and adopt a non- interventionist foreign policy?”460 Also, on the preparatory meetings of foreign ministers of the 22-member Arab League, in Jordan and the pressing challenges, including violent conflicts, rising youth unemployment and millions of children deprived of the right to education.461 Furthermore, on the head’s of state summit which revealed the two worlds of regional and domestic threats that Arab leaders have been trying to navigate with little success.462 It focused on Donald Trump's scheduled visit to Saudi Arabia, which should reinforce the "strategic partnership" between Saudi Arabia and the US while should boost their joint fight against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS) group.463՚464 Moreover, on the US President’s visit, the huge arms deal between the two countries and the discuss of a strategic plan, aimed at countering

459 Mardini R. (2017). Iran accused of undermining Middle East security. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/iran-accused-undermining-middle-east-security-170219175742 394.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

460 Reardon M. (2017). For Europe, questions remain as to US foreign policy. Available at : http:// www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/02/europe-questions-remain-foreign-policy-17022007 3551701.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

461 AJ. (2017). Low expectations as Arab League chiefs gather in Jordan. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/expectations-arab-league-chiefs-gather-jordan-170327110010920.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

462 Khouri R. (2017). Arab summit: Arab leaders oblivious to Arab realities. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/03/arab-summit-arab-leaders-oblivious-arab-realities-170330101 407528.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

463 AJ. (2017). Saudi Arabia says Trump visit to bolster cooperation. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/saudi-arabia-trump-visit-bolster-cooperation-170518143529808.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

464 AJ. (2017). Donald Trump's Middle East visit: What to expect. Available at : http://www. aljazeera. com/news/2017/05/trump-brings-optimism-firmer-approach-mideast-170519023 532492.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

105 "extremism" as an ideological battle.465 Also, on Iran’s leadership vision and future trends in its foreign policy, especially with regards to bilateral relations with the United States, Russia, Saudi Arabia and Turkey and on key issues such as the nuclear deal, Syria, and the Palestinian question.466 Moreover, on the importance of a Yemeni government that would impose its sovereignty and would build military and security bodies in order to deter the armed groups' spread across southeast Yemen, particularly the al-Qaeda group in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), as well as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS) group.467 Also, on the demand of Saudi Arabia's Foreign Minister Adel al-Jubeir to Qatar, to implement the promises it made a few years back with regard to its support of extremist groups, to its hostile media and interference in affairs of other countries.468 Additionally, on the current escalation in the Gulf and the consequences of the collision of two doctrines: the Emirati-Saudi-Bahraini push for realpolitik and alleged pragmatism versus Qatar's commitment to conflict transformation and moral politics.469 On the Gulf crisis, Qatar isolation470՚471 and its available choices for this

465 AJ. (2017). Trump arrives in Saudi Arabia in first foreign trip. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/05/trump-arrives-saudi-arabia-foreign-trip-170520063253596.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

466 Saadani H. (2017). How Iran views its role in the Middle East. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/2017/05/iran-views-role-middle-east-170518075004878.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

467 AJ. (2017). Who benefits from a weak and divided Yemen?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/2017/05/benefits-weak-divided-yemen-170518125048895.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

468 AJ. (2017). Saudi FM: Qatar must stop supporting Hamas, Brotherhood. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/saudi-fm-qatar-stop-supporting-hamas-brotherhood- 170607045918921.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

469 Cherkaui M. (2017). The 'Trump factor' and the implosion of the Gulf union. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/06/trump-factor-implosion-gulf-union- 170610064645861.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

470 AJ. (2017). Africa and the Gulf crisis: the peril of picking sides. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/africa-gulf-crisis-peril-picking-sides-170615100929852.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

471 AJ. (2017). The Gulf crisis: Royal ambitions and shaky alliances. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/opinion/2017/06/gulf-crisis-royal-ambitions-shaky-alliances- 170615112812051.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

106 blockade.472 Also, on the portraits of major political actors like Former Saudi crown prince Mohammed bin Nayef473 and Yemen's former president, Ali Abdullah Saleh.474

Saudi Led Coal. Aggression F.

20

15

10 Saudi Led Coal. Aggression F.

5

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 32. “Saudi led Coalition Aggression Frame” per month for RT

The peak of “Saudi led Coalition Aggression Frame” (Graphic 32), was in March with 29% while the lowest was in May with 6%. In January and April was 17%, in February 18% and in June was 26%. The focus was on the Yemeni civilian casualties of the first US military operation in the country, authorised by President Donald Trump.475՚476՚477 Also, on President’s Donald Trump promise, to develop a plan to demolish and destroy ISIS.478

472 Barakat S. (2017). A Gulf crisis: How did we get here?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/opinion/2017/06/gulf-crisis-170611063706500.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

473 AJ. (2017). Profile: Former Saudi crown prince Mohammed bin Nayef. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/06/saudi-arabia-mohammed-bin-nayef- 170621122951195.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

474 AJ. (2017). Who is Ali Abdullah Saleh?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth /spotlight/yemen/2011/02/201122812118938648.html (Accessed 23 Oct 2017)

475 AJ. (2017). Yemeni civilians killed in first US raid under Trump. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/yemen-170129101045539.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

476 AJ. (2017). US admits civilians 'likely' killed in Yemen raid. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com /news/2017/02/admits-civilians-killed-yemen-raid-170202042531151.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

107 Moreover, on the air strikes and raids against AQAP by US drones, troops479 and manned aircraft480՚481 and the subsequent casualties.482՚483 Also, on the Saudi led coalition air strikes, against targets in residential areas with civilian casualties.484՚485՚486 Furthermore, on the executive order of US President to ban the entrance of refugees and citizens from six Muslim-majority nations, including Yemen, in the United States.487

477 AJ. (2017). Yakla residents speak of US raid that killed civilians. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/02/yemen-yakla-civilians-killed-170207043727800.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

478 AJ. (2017). Donald Trump vows to 'demolish and destroy' ISIL. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/03/donald-trump-vows-demolish-destroy-isil-170301052500361.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

479 AJ. (2017). US raid kills 'seven al-Qaeda fighters' in Yemen. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/05/raid-kills-al-qaeda-fighters-yemen-170523041426734.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

480 AJ. (2017). Pentagon: 20 US air raids in Yemen target al-Qaeda. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/03/yemen-al-qaeda-air-raids-170303012012100.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

481 AJ. (2017). US drone strike kills five suspected al-Qaeda fighters. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/04/drone-strike-kills-suspected-al-qaeda-fighters-170430082159413.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

482 AJ. (2017). US air raids target al-Qaeda in Yemen, wound civilians. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/air-raids-target-al-qaeda-yemen-wound-civilians-17030313 1953787.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

483 AJ. (2017). Drone strikes kill suspected al-Qaeda fighters in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/drone-strikes-kill-suspected-al-qaeda-fighters-yemen-170305 055622336.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

484 AJ. (2017). Saudi coalition strike 'kills family of four' in Sanaa. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/06/saudi-air-strike-kills-family-sanaa-170609142346567.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

485 AJ. (2017). Saudi coalition attacks on Saada market kill dozens. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/saudi-coalition-strikes-saada-market-kill-dozens-170618105050865.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

486 AJ. (2017). EU: Saada bombing shows civilians bear brunt of war. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/eu-saada-bombing-shows-civilians-bear-brunt-war-17062010 3938640.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

487 AJ. (2017). What makes Trump's revised travel ban different?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/03/trump-revised-travel-ban-170306210329013.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

108 It focused on the alleged kidnaps and tortures of Yemeni people by UAE backed Forces,488 as well as on the call of Amnesty International on the United Nations, to lead an investigation into allegations that the United Arab Emirates and its allied Yemeni security forces detained and tortured hundreds of people.489՚490

Intervention Frame

8 7 6 5

4 Intervention Frame 3 2 1 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 33. “Intervention Frame” per month for RT

The peak of “Intervention Frame” (Graphic 33), was in January with 17% while the lowest was in February and April with 0%. In March was 12%, in May 6% and in June was 11%. It focused on the statement of UN’s Special Envoy to Yemen, Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed that stressed "A peace agreement, including a well- articulated security plan and the formation of an inclusive government, is the only way to end the war that has fuelled the development of terrorism in Yemen and the

488 AJ. (2017). UAE-backed forces accused of forced disappearances. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/uae-backed-forces-accused-forced-disappearances-1706091955 00415.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

489 AJ. (2017). Amnesty urges probe into report of UAE torture in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/amnesty-urges-probe-claims-uae-torture-yemen-17062219 2753316.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

490 AJ. (2017). Yemen orders probe into alleged torture by UAE. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/yemen-orders-probe-alleged-torture-uae-170624160933567.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

109 region."491 Also, on the meeting of US President Donald Trump and Saudi Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, that signified a big change in relations between both countries in political, military, security and economic issues.492 Furthermore, on the divergent interests between the Houthis and Hadi’s supporters. The Houthis and the GPC are demanding an agreement on a new administration comprising all parties to run the country until new elections, while Hadi supporters ask from the Houthis to hand over their weapons and quit the cities they have seized.493 Additionally, on the decision of Yemen President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi that is backed by Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) to reject the formation of a transitional political council in southern Yemen.494 Also, on the blame that Qatar support Sunni Islamist terrorism and Iranian ambitions. More specifically, Saudi Arabia and its allies accused the Qatar for supporting the Brotherhood, a group they have labeled "extremists".495 Moreover, the call of Campaign groups and legal experts on the UK, to end arm sales to Saudi Arabia and its allies, warning that continuing to do so may be in violation of international law.496 Furthermore, on the decision of US Senator Bob Corker to block the approval of future US arms sales to Gulf countries, that could give Washington "a

491 AJ. (2017). Death toll in Yemen conflict passes 10,000. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /news/2017/01/death-toll-yemen-conflict-passes-10000-170117040849576.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

492 AJ. (2017). Saudi Arabia: Trump meeting a 'historic turning point'. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/saudi-arabia-trump-meeting-historical-turning-point-1703150402 07874.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

493 AJ. (2017). Sanaa protest marks second Yemen conflict anniversary. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/sanaa-protest-marks-yemen-conflict-anniversary-17032617573 7641.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

494 AJ. (2017). GCC rejects formation of Yemen transitional council. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/gcc-rejects-formation-yemen-transitional-council-17051314 1733873.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

495 AJ. (2017). New York Times slams 'misguided attack on Al Jazeera'. Available at : http://www .aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/nyt-saudi-arabia-led-misguided-attack-al-jazeera-1706211935 13866.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

496 AJ. (2017). UK activists demand end to Saudi Arabia, UAE arms sales. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/uk-activists-demand-saudi-arabia-uae-arms-sales-170628091937 167.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

110 new tool" for resolving a "dangerous dispute" between a Saudi-led bloc of countries and Qatar.497

Houthi Aggression F.

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6 Houthi Aggression F. 4

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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 34. “Houthi Aggression Frame” per month for RT

The peak of “Houthi Aggression Frame” (Graphic 34), was in February with 27% while the lowest was in May with 6%. In March was 12%, in January and April 17% and in June was 4%. It was focused on the claims of Houthis that have built drones and missiles that would be used against the Arab coalition and would target the Saudi capital.498 Also, on the detainment of seven people working for the Norwegian Refugee Council, by the Yemeni rebels. They were accused that they accepted and distributed aid from the Saudi-led coalition, that battle the Houthi rebels.499 Moreover,

497 AJ. (2017). NYT: Blocking arms sales a new tool to end Gulf impasse. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/nyt-blocking-arms-sales-tool-gulf-impasse-170629133258766.html (Accessed 24 Oct 2017)

498 AJ. (2017). Yemenis mark six-year anniversary of uprising. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/02/yemenis-mark-year-anniversary-uprising-170211211116759.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

499 AJ. (2017). Norwegian Refugee Council staff detained in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/norwegian-refugee-council-staff-abducted-yemen-170220070 436551.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

111 on Houthi rebels that recruit fighters as young as 15, including by using religious schools to lure teenagers into their ranks without their parents' knowledge.500

It focused on the siege of Taiz by Houthi rebels, that caused shortages of food, water and medicines.501 Also, on Houthi’s attack on a mosque, inside a military base in Yemen, that resulted in the casualties of pro-government forces.502 Also, on Houthi court that sentenced a Yemeni journalist to death. He had been accused by the Houthis of collaborating with an “enemy state.”503 Moreover, on the ballistic missile that fired by the Houthis towards the Saudi capital and was destroyed 200 km away from its target, by the Saudis.504 Additionally, on Houthi fighters that rejected the UN Special Envoy to the country, Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed as a peace negotiator, accusing him of bias.505

500 AJ. (2017). Amnesty: Houthi rebels recruit fighters as young as 15. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/amnesty-houthi-rebels-recruit-fighters-young-15-1702281307 58344.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

501 AJ. (2017). UN delivers medicine to Yemen's besieged Taiz city. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/delivers-medicine-yemen-besieged-taiz-city-170304153737729.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

502 AJ. (2017). Houthi missile attack kills dozens in Yemen mosque. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/03/houthi-missile-attack-kills-dozens-yemen-mosque-170317161658542.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

503 AJ. (2017). Houthi court sentences Yemeni journalist to death. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/04/houthi-led-court-hand-death-sentence-170412160249299.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

504 AJ. (2017). Yemen rebel missile shot down 200km from Saudi capital. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/yemen-rebel-missile-shot-200km-saudi-capital-170520020737152.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

505 AJ. (2017). Yemen's Houthis to boycott UN envoy. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /news/2017/06/yemen-houthis-boycott-envoy-170606153213111.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

112 AQAP Aggression F.

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2

1,5 AQAP Aggression F. 1

0,5

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 35. “AQAP Aggression Frame” per month for RT

The “AQAP Aggression Frame” (Graphic 35), was identified in February in 9% and in March in 6%. It focused on a suicide bomber wearing a military uniform and driving a car that exploded at the entrance of military camp506 and on another attack of five attackers on a government compound.507

3.3.3 Peace & War Journalism Indicators

The “Consequences of War and Violence” (Graphic 36), was identified in 70% of the articles. The peak was in with April 100% while the lowest was in May with 56%. In January was 83%, in February 81%, in March 76% and in June was 59%. The “Roots of Conflict” Indicator was identified in 28% of articles. The peak was in May was 44% while the lowest was in January and in April with 0%. In February and March was 18% and in June with 41%. The “Solution Oriented” Indicator was just identified in 2% of the articles. The highest was in January with 17% while the lowest in February, April, May and June with 0%. In March was 6%.

506 AJ. (2017). Suicide bomber kills at least five soldiers in Yemen. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/02/suicide-bomber-kills-soldiers-yemen-170224080159429.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

507 AJ. (2017). Yemen: At least 11 killed in attack on government compound. Available at : http:// www.aljazeera.com/video/news/2017/03/yemen-11-killed-attack-government-compound-1703280 51311273.html (Accessed 25 Oct 2017)

113

70

60

50

40 Cons. Of war/violence Roots of conflict 30 Solution Oriented 20

10

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 36. Peace & War Journalism Indicators per month for AJ

The “Consequences of War and Violence” (Graphic 37), was identified in the malnutrition of more than 2 million Yemeni children and the upcoming famine.508՚509՚510՚511՚512՚513 Also, on the lack of funds that threatens the orphanages with closing and leaving some of Yemen's most vulnerable children homeless.514 Moreover, on the “food insecurity” of almost 14 million Yemenis515, that may lead to

508 AJ. (2017). Yemen's children starve as war drags on. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /news/2017/01/yemen-children-starve-war-drags-170102172118666.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

509 AJ. (2017). UN demands action as famine looms in three countries. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/demands-action-famine-looms-countries-170221062939852.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

510 AJ. (2017). Famine 'largest humanitarian crisis in history of UN'. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/famine-united-nations-170310234132946.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

511 AJ. (2017). Yemen and Somalia 'months away' from famine. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/03/yemen-somalia-months-famine-170322125343027.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

512 AJ. (2017). Starvation stalks Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/04/starvation-stalks-nigeria-somalia-south-sudan-yemen-170411101 432521.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

513 AJ. (2017). A cry for help: Millions facing famine in Yemen. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/video/news/2017/04/raises-famine-alarm-yemen-170425075042281.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

514 AJ. (2017). Yemen's orphans face 'catastrophe' as fighting rages. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/yemen-orphans-170105052409798.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

515 AJ. (2017). Will international community help avert Yemen famine?. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/programmes/insidestory/2017/02/international-community-avert-yemen-famine- 170209192836050.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

114 further security imbalances and robbery of public and private properties.516 It was identified, on the clashes and bombardments that forced thousands of families to flee from the towns.517՚518 Also, on the civilian casualties of US military operations in the country519՚520՚521՚522 and the air strikes against AQAP fighters523՚524, heavy weapons systems, equipment, infrastructure and the group's fighting positions.525

516 AJ. (2017). Starving Yemenis resort to eating rubbish. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/2017/01/starving-yemenis-resort-eating-rubbish-170102124800887.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

517 AJ. (2017). Yemen army claims control of port city of Mokha. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/01/yemen-army-claims-control-port-city-mokha-170123135044827.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

518 AJ. (2017). Yemen's other refugee crisis. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/ features/2017/03/yemen-refugee-crisis-170307094750333.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

519 AJ. (2017). Yemeni civilians killed in first US raid under Trump. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/yemen-170129101045539.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

520 AJ. (2017). US admits civilians 'likely' killed in Yemen raid. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com /news/2017/02/admits-civilians-killed-yemen-raid-170202042531151.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

521 AJ. (2017). Yakla residents speak of US raid that killed civilians. Available at : http://www. aljazeera. com/news/2017/02/yemen-yakla-civilians-killed-170207043727800.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

522 AJ. (2017). US air raids target al-Qaeda in Yemen, wound civilians. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/air-raids-target-al-qaeda-yemen-wound-civilians-1703031319537 87.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

523 AJ. (2017). Drone strikes kill suspected al-Qaeda fighters in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/drone-strikes-kill-suspected-al-qaeda-fighters-yemen-1703050556 22336.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

524 AJ. (2017). US drone strike kills five suspected al-Qaeda fighters. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/04/drone-strike-kills-suspected-al-qaeda-fighters-170430082159413.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

525 AJ. (2017). Pentagon: 20 US air raids in Yemen target al-Qaeda. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/yemen-al-qaeda-air-raids-170303012012100.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

115 Cons. Of war/violence

80

60

40 Cons. Of war/violence

20

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 37. “Consequences of War and Violence” Indicator per month for RT

Moreover, on the detainment of Norwegian Refugee Council staff that was accused of distributing Saudi-led coalition supplies by the Houthi forces.526 Also, on a suicide bombing in a military camp in south Yemen, alleged by AQAP,527 as well as on the suspected AQAP’s attack on a government compound.528 Furthermore, on the recruitment of fighters as young as 15, by Houthi rebels.529 It was identified on the delivered aid to hospitals, by UN in the besieged city of Taiz .530 Also, on the helicopter attack on a boat with fleeing Somali refugees, near Yemen, with dozens of casualties531՚532 and on the desperation of African refugees

526 AJ. (2017). Norwegian Refugee Council staff detained in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/norwegian-refugee-council-staff-abducted-yemen-170220070 436551.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

527 AJ. (2017). Suicide bomber kills at least five soldiers in Yemen. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/02/suicide-bomber-kills-soldiers-yemen-170224080159429.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

528 AJ. (2017). Yemen: At least 11 killed in attack on government compound. Available at http://www. aljazeera.com/video/news/2017/03/yemen-11-killed-attack-government-compound-1703280513112 73.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

529 AJ. (2017). Amnesty: Houthi rebels recruit fighters as young as 15. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/amnesty-houthi-rebels-recruit-fighters-young-15-170228130 758344.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

530 AJ. (2017). UN delivers medicine to Yemen's besieged Taiz city. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/delivers-medicine-yemen-besieged-taiz-city-170304153737729.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

531 AJ. (2017). Somali refugees killed near Bab al-Mandeb Strait. Available at http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/03/somali-refugees-killed-bab-al-mandeb-strait-170317094108016.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

116 that ignore the dangers of the war-torn Yemen.533 On the missiles that fired by Houthi rebels against pro-government forces in a mosque of a military base, with tenths of casualties534 and the missile against Saudi capital.535 Furthermore, on the risky and danger environment of the war-torn country, for the journalists that usually are seen as traitors536 or spies.537 It was identified, on the cholera outbreak and the struggle of hospitals to cope with an influx of patients, according to the ICRC.538՚539՚540՚541՚542՚543՚544 Also, on the

532 AJ. (2017). IOM: Attack on Somali refugees 'unacceptable'. Available at http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/03/iom-attack-somali-refugees-unacceptable-170318083454158.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

533 AJ. (2017). IOM: Why are African men and women still fleeing to Yemen?. Available at http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/04/african-men-women-fleeing-yemen- 170401081941703.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

534 AJ. (2017). Houthi missile attack kills dozens in Yemen mosque. Available at http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/03/houthi-missile-attack-kills-dozens-yemen-mosque-170317161658542.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

535 AJ. (2017). Houthi missile attack kills dozens in Yemen mosque. Available at http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/05/yemen-rebel-missile-shot-200km-saudi-capital-170520020737152.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

536 AJ. (2017). Yemen rebel missile shot down 200km from Saudi capital. Available at http://www .aljazeera .com/news/2017/04/houthi-led-court-hand-death-sentence-170412160249299.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

537 AJ. (2017). Double standards: Do all journalist lives matter?. Available at http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/2017/03/double-standards-journalist-lives-matter-170329105509019.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

538 AJ. (2017). ICRC: Cholera kills 115 people from late April to May. Available at http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/icrc-cholera-kills-115-people-late-april-170514101552638.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

539 AJ. (2017). ICRC: State of emergency in Yemen's Sanaa over cholera crisis. Available at http:// www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/state-emergency-yemen-sanaa-cholera-crisis-170515075723016 .html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

540 AJ. (2017). ICRC: State of emergency in Yemen's Sanaa over cholera crisis. Available at http:// www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/state-emergency-yemen-sanaa-cholera-crisis-170515075723016 .html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

541 AJ. (2017). ICRC: WHO: Speed of Yemen cholera outbreak 'unprecedented'. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/speed-yemen-cholera-outbreak-unprecedented-17051911083 7434.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

117 arbitrary detention and enforced disappearance of thousands Yemenis, by Houthi, government and UAE-backed fighters,545՚546՚547 and Amnesty International (AI) calls on the UN to lead an investigation into allegations that the UAE and its allied Yemeni security forces detained and tortured hundreds of people.548՚549 Moreover, on Saudi’s coalition air raid in residential area that resulted in civilian casualties,550՚551 and on the

542 AJ. (2017). ICRC: 'Nearly 600 cholera deaths' in Yemen over past month. Available at : http://www. aljazeeracom/news/2017/06/600-cholera-deaths-yemen-month-170602141857685.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

543 AJ. (2017). ICRC: UN: 1,310 dead in Yemen cholera epidemic. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/1310-dead-yemen-cholera-epidemic-170624141413415.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

544 AJ. (2017). UN: Yemen faces world's worst cholera outbreak. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/yemen-faces-world-worst-cholera-outbreak-170625041932829.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

545 AJ. (2017). ICRC: Yemen rivals urged to free wrongfully held detainees. Available at http://www .aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/yemen-rivals-urged-free-wrongfully-held-detainees-1705271935116 05.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

546 AJ. (2017). Saudi coalition attacks on Saada market kill dozens. Available at http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/06/saudi-coalition-strikes-saada-market-kill-dozens-170618105050865.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

547 AJ. (2017). HRW: UAE backs torture and disappearances in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/hrw-uae-backs-torture-disappearances-yemen-170622094158991.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

548 AJ. (2017). Amnesty urges probe into report of UAE torture in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/amnesty-urges-probe-claims-uae-torture-yemen-1706221927533 16.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

549 AJ. (2017). Yemen orders probe into alleged torture by UAE. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/yemen-orders-probe-alleged-torture-uae-170624160933567.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

550 AJ. (2017). Saudi coalition strike 'kills family of four' in Sanaa. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/saudi-air-strike-kills-family-sanaa-170609142346567.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

551 Mardini R. (2017). Saudi coalition strike 'kills family of four' in Sanaa. Available at : http://www. aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/saudi-air-strike-kills-family-sanaa-170609142346567.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

118 Saudi-led bloc's move to 'eliminate a voice, different from theirs.552 Additionally, on the urban warfare that brings horror and banishes millions of people.553

Roots of conflict

25

20

15 Roots of conflict 10

5

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Sum

Graphic 38. “Roots of Conflict” Indicator per month for RT

The “Roots of Conflict” Indicator (Graphic 38), was identified in Munich Security Conference and the future of the United States' foreign policy under the Trump administration, while Vice President Pence sought to reassure the forum that although the US was re-evaluating its long-term foreign policy objectives, it would not abandon its allies.554 Also, it was identified in Pieter Wezeman, senior researcher with the SIPRI Arms and Military Expenditure Programme, who stressed “Saudi Arabia and the UAE take the lead in what is one of their first efforts to intervene in a neighbouring country [ Yemen ] all by themselves, and they can do so because over the years they have acquired these large amounts of advanced weapons”.555

552 AJ. (2017). New York Times slams 'misguided attack on Al Jazeera'. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/nyt-saudi-arabia-led-misguided-attack-al-jazeera-170621193513 866.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

553 AJ. (2017). The horrors of urban warfare. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/ opinion/2017/06/horrors-urban-warfare-170626123319520.html (Accessed 27 Oct 2017)

554 AJ. (2017). For Europe, questions remain as to US foreign policy. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/02/europe-questions-remain-foreign-policy-1702200735517 01.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

555 AJ. (2017). Global arms sales surge driven by Middle East demand. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/global-arms-sales-surge-driven-middle-east-demand-17022008504 5492.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

119 Also, in the addressing of US President Donald Trump to Congress, where vowed to “demolish and destroy” ISIL.556 Moreover, in the meeting of US President Donald Trump and Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, where both leaders had identical views on "the danger of Iran's regional expansionist activities".557 In the Arab League meeting in Jordan, where Ayman Safadi, Jordan's foreign minister stressed that "The Arab political system has failed to solve the crises and halt the collapse as the trust of Arab citizens in the joint Arab institutions has eroded,"558 and in the Arab leaders' intervention in the domestic affairs of other Arab countries, often driving wars and political confrontations.559 Furthermore, in the rejection of Yemen’s transitional council by GCC. President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi rejected the formation of a transitional political council in southern Yemen, saying that calls for the separation of southern Yemen should be ignored.560 Also, in the US president's visit to Riyadh, where Adel al-Jubeir, Saudi foreign minister, stressed that "It will bolster the strategic partnership between the two countries."561 In the results of a study concerning Iran’s leadership, where the most statements indicate that Iran's decision-makers are expecting tension and conflict

556 AJ. (2017). Donald Trump vows to 'demolish and destroy' ISIL. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/03/donald-trump-vows-demolish-destroy-isil-170301052500361.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

557 AJ. (2017). Saudi Arabia: Trump meeting a 'historic turning point'. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/saudi-arabia-trump-meeting-historical-turning-point-1703150402 07874.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

558 AJ. (2017). Saudi Arabia: Trump meeting a 'historic turning point'. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/saudi-arabia-trump-meeting-historical-turning-point-1703150402 07874.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

559 AJ. (2017). Arab summit: Arab leaders oblivious to Arab realities. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/03/arab-summit-arab-leaders-oblivious-arab-realities-17033010 1407528.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

560 AJ. (2017). GCC rejects formation of Yemen transitional council. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/gcc-rejects-formation-yemen-transitional-council-170513141733873 .html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

561 AJ. (2017). Saudi Arabia says Trump visit to bolster cooperation. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/saudi-arabia-trump-visit-bolster-cooperation-170518143529808.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

120 on Yemen’s front in the future.562 Moreover, in the efforts of western and Gulf states to unify their “support to the legitimate government, help it impose its sovereignty on the regions it has liberated from Houthi rebels and Saleh forces, thwart any moves seeking to weaken Hadi's government, and curb any separatist movements that have started to emerge in the south.”563 Also, in the visit of Mr Trump to Saudi Arabia, where he shared his view of a rising Iran and the problem of the Sunni jihadists, which are the twin threats that are basically driving this administration, the Israelis, and key Sunni states into a closer alignment with one another, as stressed by Aaron David Miller, a Middle East analyst at the Woodrow Wilson Center for International Scholars in Washington DC.564 In the strong ties between the two countries, that built an economic and security cooperation through the years, in the expansion of the economic cooperation and in the two leaders' agreement on "the same views on the gravity of the Iranian expansionist moves in the region". 565 Furthermore, in the discuss of a strategic plan aimed at countering "extremism" as an ideological battle.566 It was identified in the Yemen's internationally recognized government that cut ties with Qatar, accusing it of working with its enemies567 in the Iran-aligned

562 AJ. (2017). How Iran views its role in the Middle East. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/2017/05/iran-views-role-middle-east-170518075004878.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

563 AJ. (2017). Who benefits from a weak and divided Yemen?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/indepth/features/2017/05/benefits-weak-divided-yemen-170518125048895.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

564 AJ. (2017). Donald Trump's Middle East visit: What to expect. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/05/trump-brings-optimism-firmer-approach-mideast-170519023532492.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

565 AJ. (2017). US-Saudi relations: A timeline. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth /interactive/2017/05/saudi-relations-timeline-170518112421011.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

566 AJ. (2017). Trump arrives in Saudi Arabia in first foreign trip. Available at : http://www.aljazeera .com/news/2017/05/trump-arrives-saudi-arabia-foreign-trip-170520063253596.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

567 AJ. (2017). A Gulf crisis: How did we get here?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/ indepth/opinion/2017/06/gulf-crisis-170611063706500.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

121 Houthi movement.568 Also, in the arms’ sale deal between US and Saudi Arabia and the opposed US Senators to that.569 Also, it was identified in the “argument that Trump's attendance of the US-Gulf summit served as a trigger event in pushing for the fragmentation of the Gulf. While there is an open-ended Sunni-Shia showdown in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen, Trump's visit has emboldened a new Sunni-Sunni divide in the name of counterterrorism and anti-Iran sentiment.”570՚571՚572 Furthermore, in the role of Saleh in Yemen’s political scene and his last attempt to offer an olive branch to the coalition. "We extend a hand of peace, the peace of the brave, for the direct talks with the Saudi regime without a return to the (UN) Security Council, which is incapable of resolving anything."573 Also, in the Arab Organization for Human Rights in the UK (AOHR), who emphasized that, the arms that British sold to Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Egypt were being used to carry out abuses in Yemen and Libya. So "[AOHR] is calling on the UK government to review its role in the sale of arms to a number of Arab governments that are known for gross human rights violation"574 Additionally, in the decision by influential US Senator Bob Corker to block the approval of future US arms sales to

568 AJ. (2017). Saudi FM: Qatar must stop supporting Hamas, Brotherhood. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/saudi-fm-qatar-stop-supporting-hamas-brotherhood-170607045918 921.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

569 AJ. (2017). Questions raised over $110bn arms deal to Saudi Arabia. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/questions-raised-110bn-arms-deal-saudi-arabia-1706080335117 60.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

570 AJ. (2017). The 'Trump factor' and the implosion of the Gulf union. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/06/trump-factor-implosion-gulf-union-170610064645861.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

571 AJ. (2017). Africa and the Gulf crisis: the peril of picking sides. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/06/africa-gulf-crisis-peril-picking-sides-170615100929852.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

572 Dalay G. (2017). The Gulf crisis: Royal ambitions and shaky alliances. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/06/gulf-crisis-royal-ambitions-shaky-alliances-17061511281 2051.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

573 AJ. (2017). Who is Ali Abdullah Saleh?. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /indepth/spotlight/ yemen/2011/02/201122812118938648.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

574 AJ. (2017). UK activists demand end to Saudi Arabia, UAE arms sales. Available at : http://www. aljazeera .com/news/2017/06/uk-activists-demand-saudi-arabia-uae-arms-sales-170628091937167.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

122 Gulf countries. This could give US "a new tool" for resolving a "dangerous dispute" between a Saudi-led bloc of countries and Qatar.575

Solution Oriented

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Graphic 39. “Solution Oriented” Indicator per month for RT

The “Solution Oriented” Indicator (Graphic 39), was identified in Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed, UN Special Envoy to Yemen and his statement that "A peace agreement, including a well-articulated security plan and the formation of an inclusive government, is the only way to end the war that has fuelled the development of terrorism in Yemen and the region."576 Also, in the demand of Houthis and the GPC for an agreement on a new administration, comprising all parties to run the country until new elections, while Hadi’s supporters insist on the withdraw of Houthis from the cities and on the hand over of their weapons.577

575 AJ. (2017). NYT: Blocking arms sales a new tool to end Gulf impasse. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/nyt-blocking-arms-sales-tool-gulf-impasse-170629133258766.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

576 AJ. (2017). NYT: Death toll in Yemen conflict passes 10,000 . Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/01/death-toll-yemen-conflict-passes-10000-170117040849576.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

577 AJ. (2017). Sanaa protest marks second Yemen conflict anniversary. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/sanaa-protest-marks-yemen-conflict-anniversary-170326175737 641.html (Accessed 29 Oct 2017)

123 CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS

4.1 War and Media

The geopolitical importance of Yemen is quite significant, since it is laying at the entrance of the Red Sea. The Gulf of Aden, the Socotra Islands and more specific the Bab Al-Mandeb strait, is an important strategic chokepoint in overseeing strategic maritime corridors for international maritime trade and energy shipments. It connects the Persian Gulf via the Indian Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea via the Red Sea, therefore, the maritime shipping lanes and trade between Africa, Asia, and Europe. It is just as important as the Suez Canal. Furthermore, its proximity to the Gulf States, notably Saudi Arabia with which it shares an 1.800 kilometers porous boundary, the Yemeni crisis can affect the whole region.578 This crisis could be a “proxy war” between Iran and Saudi Arabia. According to political scientist Karl Deutsch “proxy war” is defined as an international conflict between two foreign powers, fought out on the soil of a third country, disguised as a conflict over an internal issue of the country and using some of that country’s manpower, resources and territory as a means of achieving preponderantly foreign goals and foreign strategies.579 But, Deutsch in his definition, makes it clear that proxy war involves the use of another country’s fighters rather than the direct use of force by the specific foreign power or powers. Consequently, the Saudi bombing in Yemen, which has resulted in civilian casualties, is not a “proxy war” but a straightforward external military aggression.580

578 El Ghamari M.(2015). Jemen – the Proxy War. University of Bialystok, Poland p.48

579 Enders K. (2002), Yemen in the 1990s: From Unification to Economic Reform, International Monetary Fund Washington

580 Leverett F., Leverett H.M. (2015), Saudi Arabia’s Yemen Offensive, Iran’s “Proxy” Strategy, and the Middle East’s New “Cold War”, “The World Financial Review” May-June,http://going totehran.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/TWFR-MayJun2015-Saudi-Arabias- Yemen-Offensive- Irans-Proxy-Strategy-and-Mid.Easts-new-cold-war.pdf

124 The consequences of this conflict have led Yemen in humanitarian crisis. The war has left at least 10.000 dead, including almost 4.000 civilians, according to the U.N, and has displaced 3,3 million Yemenis, out of a population of 27 million.581 According to International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the World Food Program, the country is on the brink of cataclysmic famine, with over 50 percent of the population at immediate risk.582 Yemen’s economy and infrastructure has also collapsed. It is a truth universally acknowledged by every war correspondent, humanitarian aid worker and Western diplomat that wars, like Syria’s, receive tremendous public attention, which also means pressure for resolution. Besides many other conflicts, still raging but much ignored. It is obvious that the war of Syria is catastrophic and much worse than Yemen’s. But the conflict in eastern Congo, in the past, killed also millions of people and displaced millions more, but received little global attention. Conflicts can gain sustained Western attention only when they guarantee a compelling story line that appeals to both the public and political actors, and for reasons beyond the human toll. That often requires a combination of immediate relevance to Western interests and resonance with Western political debates or cultural issues. In the research and more specifically in the Graphics 5,18,29 where the framing is depicted, we ascertain the absence of main actors, that confirms the “Hypothesis 2: The conflict that has a local character without the participation of main actors, expected to be covered inadequate, especially in the western based media.”. The presence of U.S forces is anticipated sparsely in fights against AQAP forces583՚584, while there are few

581 UN.(2017). Humanitarian Needs Overview 2016. Available at : https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms /yemen/yemen%202017%20hno_final.pdf (Accessed 14 Nov. 2017).

582 ICRC.(2017). YEMEN in focus. Available at : https://www.icrc.org/en/where-we-work/middle- east/yemen (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

583 Schmitt E.(2017). U.S. Commando Killed in Yemen in Trump’s First Counterterrorism Operation. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/29/world/middleeast/american-commando-killed-in- yemen-in-trumps-first-counterterror-operation.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

584 RT.(2017). 1st US drone strikes on Trump’s watch hit Al-Qaeda in Yemen & ISIS. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/374840-drone-strikes-yemen-trump/ (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

125 references of IRAN in the articles for arms smuggling585 or for its naval forces that were in the Gulf of Aden.586 Instead, the majority of the articles are framed by the Saudi led coalition Aggression587՚588՚589, Houthis’590՚591՚592 and Hadi’s Forces Aggression593 respectively (Graphics 5,18,29 and Tables 8,9,10). The country is being torn apart by a variety of warring factions and although Al Qaeda does operate there, Yemen’s conflict has not had the kind of impact on Western interests that Syria’s has. The war’s narrative is less appealing to Western political interests. Yemen’s Houthi rebels pose little direct threat, that Western politicians might rally against. Accordingly, there is little awareness of South Sudan’s continuing catastrophic collapse, of the Central African Republic’s civil war or the civil war in Somalia that simmers into its third decade. That also confirms the “Hypothesis 1: Due to the fact that the conflict is taking place in a distant place the coverage of the conflict will not be intensive.,” of the research, in conjunction with the

585 Schmitt E. Chivers C.(2017). Arms Seized Off Coast of Yemen Appear to Have Been Made in Iran. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/10/world/middleeast/yemen-iran-weapons- houthis.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

586 RT.(2017). Hired gun: Is war with Iran now inevitable under new Saudi crown prince?. Available at : https://www.rt.com/op-edge/393614-saudi-crown-prince-iran-war/ (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

587 Almosawa S. Hubbard B.(2017). Yemen Market Airstrike Kills at Least 16 People. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/11/world/middleeast/yemen-market-airstrike.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

588 RT.(2017). 3 children, grandmother killed in Saudi coalition strike on Yemeni capital. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/391770-yemen-children-saudi-strike/ (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

589 AJ.(2017). Yemeni civilians killed in first US raid under Trump. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/yemen-170129101045539.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

590 Schmitt E. Goldman A.(2017). Aid Coordinator in Yemen Had Secret Job Overseeing U.S. Commando Shipments. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/06/world/middleeast/scott- darden-transoceanic-yemen-pentagon.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

591 RT.(2017). Saudis admit 2 deaths in warship incident after Houthis claim anti-ship missile attack. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375701-saudi-warship-attack-killed/ (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

592 AJ.(2017). Yemen army claims control of port city of Mokha. Available at : http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/01/yemen-army-claims-control-port-city-mokha-170123135044827.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

593 Schmitt E. Cooper H.(2017). Navy SEALs Kill 7 Militants in Yemen Raid but Suffer Injuries. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/world/middleeast/navy-seals-yemen-raid.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

126 supporting of “Hypothesis 2”. The cover of the crisis from NYT was almost the half comparing to AJ or the one third comparing to RT. (Graphic 1.) This war is taking place not only on the battlefield, but also through the media. News outlets have played a decisive and, sometimes a destructive role in the conflict, becoming weapons in the struggle for political power. Yemeni media is one of the most affected aspects in the country due to this “silent war”. The power outages, the threat of food shortages, and the problem of finding sources in a polarized country, have made reporting on the country more difficult than ever. Yemen’s poor infrastructure, results in very low internet access as low as 25 percent594 and consequently in low use of social media. The deepening polarization emerge from the vitriolic messages on social media, where Yemenis blaming one faction or another.595 Many journalists have stopped working or have fled the country since Houthis seized control of the capital and declared an open war on media professionals. The Houthis have abducted and detained at least 15 Yemeni journalists and media contributors.596 Moreover, the Saudi led coalition, controls the airspace over Yemen and usually does not permit flights with journalists to Sanaa.597 Consequently, there is no reliable way into Yemen for foreign journalists. “Foreign journalists are not allowed inside the country, let alone covering the conflict.”598 After the disappointing outcome of Geneva peace talks in December the only option left for non-Yemeni journalists seems to be “covering the conflict from the Saudi Arabian border,” stated Asem Al Ghamdi, of Al Jazeera Arabic. “But the

594 Internet World Statistic.(2017). YEMEN. Available at : http://www.internetworldstats. com/me/ye.htm (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

595 Al Karimi K.(2016). A war of words takes hold on social media in Yemen. The National. Available at : https://www.thenational.ae/opinion/a-war-of-words-takes-hold-on-social-media-in-yemen- 1.204469 (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

596 RWB.(2016). WORLDWIDE ROUND-UP of journalists who are detained, held hostage or missing 2016. Available at : https://rsf.org/sites/default/files/rsf_2016-en_0.pdf (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

597 Nichols M.(2017). U.N. says world needs to know about Yemen, journalists need access. REUTERS. Available at : https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-security-flight-un/u-n-says-world-needs-to- know-about-yemen-journalists-need-access-idUSKBN1A426N (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

598 D’ Ignoti S.(2016). Yemen’s forgotten journalists. Your Middle East. Available at : http://www. yourmiddleeast.com/culture/yemens-forgotten-journalists_39819 (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

127 disadvantage here is that you can only get the news from one, limited point of view,” he added.599 Though, there are journalists on the ground, that are working for Yemeni media. So the story of Yemen’s conflict is one told to a large degree by local journalists, who are no less vulnerable to the dangers. Threatened by Saudi air-strikes on one side and Houthi militias on the other, these journalists are trying to report on a conflict in urgent need of witnesses.600 Beyond the physical dangers, Yemeni journalists face strong pressure from the conflict’s factions. “The Houthi militias have shuttered all means of media that are leaning toward their political opponents.” “Even Reuters was not spared. This makes it more difficult for journalists to obtain information from various news sources.”601 With few independent media organizations in the country, local Yemeni journalists have aligned themselves with one of these two narrative discourses. Most regional and international journalists have also followed either the Houthi or Hadi government line on the conflict. Besides, there are a lot of Yemeni journalists who do not work with any media, that ignore the risks and venture out on a daily basis. Most of them previously worked for media outlets that were closed down by the Houthis. But now, they have turned to social media to highlight important aspects as citizen journalists.602 The report of key topics like economic stagnation, political paralysis, resource shortages, protests against corruption and the demand for a better future has been extremely difficult for journalists.603 The problem is that “journalists are being refused entry to Yemen.”604 The “Hypothesis 3: Due to the absence of correspondents

599 D’ Ignoti S.(2016). Yemen’s forgotten journalists. Your Middle East. Available at : http://www. yourmiddleeast.com/culture/yemens-forgotten-journalists_39819 (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

600 ibid

601 ibid

602 Abou-Amer M.(2017). YEMEN’S WAR: DOMESTIC VERSUS INTERNATIONAL COVERAGE. Available at : https://mayabou-amer.atavist.com/reporting-on-yemen (Accessed 11 Nov. 2017).

603 ibid

604 RT.(2017). ‘Few months left before they starve’: Oxfam adviser tells RT famine is ‘the real enemy’ in Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382388-yemen-starving-oxfam-famine/ (Accessed 12 Nov. 2017).

128 in the conflict area, local news media and citizen journalism are contributing in the news production process,” is also confirmed, since the correspondents are either local or citizen journalists based in Yemen or journalist out of the operation area.605 Although the conflict in Yemen gets little international press attention, the dangers for journalists can deadly. “There is little to no coverage by international media based in the Yemeni capital, Sana'a,” according to Thuraya Dammaj, an Yemeni activist and journalist for the official Yemen news agency, Saba Net. Jason Stern, a senior research associate for the Middle East and North Africa program at the Committee to Protect Journalists, stated that “Yemen was never a safe place for journalists. But since the Saudi-led intervention in the civil war last year, it has quickly become one of the most dangerous places in the world to work as a journalist.”606 The access of Yemen is not only difficult but is risky also. Travelling anywhere outside the capital, Sanaa, is all but impossible for foreign journalists. “Not only are journalists struggling to get into the country, but the whole country is actually under siege at the moment,” according to Iona Craig, a freelance journalist who was based in Yemen for more than four years until December 2014.607 Like other foreign reporters, she didn’t manage to re-enter Yemen since the Saudi-led assault began. But access is not the only problem. Moreover, reporting in Yemen carries great risks. The British Foreign Office warns of a “very high threat of kidnap and unlawful detention from militia groups, armed tribes, criminals and terrorists”. It specifically mentions journalists as a group that could be targeted.608 The main risks to journalists today are: Surveillance (33 per cent), Imprisonment (29 per cent), Murder (22 per

605 Pringuet B.(2012). The Odyssey of foreign journalists in Yemen. Available at : http://www.dc4mf. org/en/content/odyssey-foreign-journalists-yemen (Accessed 12 Nov. 2017).

606 Abou-Amer M.(2017). YEMEN’S WAR: DOMESTIC VERSUS INTERNATIONAL COVERAGE. Available at : https://mayabou-amer.atavist.com/reporting-on-yemen (Accessed 13 Nov. 2017).

607 Malsin J.(2015). Why almost no one’s covering the war in Yemen. Available at : https:// www.cjr.org/analysis/why_almost_no_ones_covering_the_war_in_yemen.php (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

608 Baider A. Porter L..(2017). How the Saudis are making it almost impossible to report on their war in Yemen. Available at : https://www.newstatesman.com/world/middle-east/2017/08/how-saudis-are- making-it-almost-impossible-report-their-war-yemen (Accessed 15 Nov. 2017).

129 cent) and Kidnapping (16 per cent). These risks are not just restricted to journalists who cover conflict; nine out of ten are local journalists covering regional news.609 During the period of 2015-17, 16 Journalists were killed according to Committee Protect Journalists (CPJ).610 The polarization of Yemeni media, has led journalists to cover the events focusing mainly on the consequences of violence (victims, famine, diseases, displacements, etc) and on the aggressiveness or violence of opponent parties as depicted on Tables 12, 13, 14 and on Graphics 13, 24, 36. More specifically, the consequences of war are visible in 80% of NYT’s articles, roots of conflict in 10% and solution oriented in 10% respectively. Accordingly, for RT, was 63%, 27% and 10%, while for AJ was 70%, 28% and 2%. As UN Humanitarian Coordinator in Yemen Jamie McGoldrick stated in CNN "It's probably one of the biggest crises in the world but it's like a silent crisis, a silent situation and a forgotten war."611 That practically means that journalists present the direct results of the conflict and the atrocity of one or the other site. They don’t focus on the roots of that conflict and they don’t seek or present any effort for solution. They seem that the only presented solution may be the reinforcement of humanitarian assistance and the termination of bombing on residential areas. These options could be short term solutions, as they could relieve the Yemeni people but on the other side, long terms solutions had to be provided. The distribution, is different between media. So, NYT seek for the roots and present solution in equal way. RT, mainly focus on roots while seek for a possible solution and AJ, focus mostly on the roots while seek just a little for a solution. It is common for the majority of media the persistence on the consequences of the conflict and not an in depth analysis that could provide viable solutions through the recognition of the causes and roots of the rivalry. These results confirm the

609 Huntington News.(2017). The State of Journalism in Yemen. Available at : http://www.huntington- news.com/the-state-of-journalism-in-yemen/ (Accessed 12 Nov. 2017).

610 Committee to Protect Journalists.(2017). 17 Journalists Killed in Yemen/Motive Confirmed. Available at : https://cpj.org/killed/mideast/yemen/ (Accessed 12 Nov. 2017).

611 Almasmari H. Dewan A.(2016). Yemen: The 'forgotten war' cloaked in the shadow of Syria. Available at : http://edition.cnn.com/2016/10/06/middleeast/yemen-conflict/index.html (Accessed 17 Nov. 2017).

130 “Hypothesis 4: The news media promote a descriptive cover of the conflict rather than an in depth analysis of it.”

131 4.2 Framing of the conflict by the media

4.2.1 NYT

45% 40% 35% 30% NYT 25% 20% RT 15% AJ 10% 5%

0%

F.

Hadi A. Hadi

Frame

Strategic

Houthi A. Houthi

AQAP A. AQAP

Violent F. Violent

Saudi Coal. Saudi

Intervention Aggression

Graphic 40. Dominant Frame per Media (%)

Through the analysis of the results, the dominant frame in the majority of the articles was the “Violent Frame”, following the “Intervention Frame”, the “Saudi led coalition”, the “Strategic”, and the rest in low records (Graphic 40). The narrative behind the frames was that, the ousted Yemeni government supported by the Saudi led coalition, fights a two-front war: one against Houthi rebels in the western part of the country, and another against Qaeda militants in the country’s central and eastern regions.612 The humanitarian crisis and the cholera outbreak, are man made and a result of Saudis led coalition bombings and blockade of humanitarian assistance.613 A political solution between Sunni Arabs, supported by a Saudi-led coalition, and Iranian-backed Houthis, is the only option for the termination of this war.614 The Saudi led operations aim to weak the Houthis’ military force and lead them to the

612 Schmitt E.(2017). Navy SEAL Team Kills 7 Militants in Yemen During Raid, U.S. Says. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/us/politics/navy-seal-team-kills-7-militants-in-yemen- during-raid.html (Accessed 19 Nov. 2017).

613 NYT.(2017). Will President Trump Help Save Yemen? . Available at : https://www.nytimes.com /2017/05/25/opinion/cholera-yemen-war-humanitarian-crisis.html (Accessed 19 Nov. 2017).

614 Cooper H.(2017). Jim Mattis, in Saudi Visit, Calls for Political Solution in Yemen. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/19/world/middleeast/jim-mattis-yemen-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 19 Nov. 2017).

132 bargaining.615 Brokered negotiations by the United States, Britain and the United Nations could lead in an administration of neutral parties and impose the quickest possible cease-fire.616

Causes of the What is the Objectives End State problem problem

Religious Rivalry Regional Weakening of (Sunni vs Shiites). Insecurity. Houthis through military means.

Saudi led Humanitarian Ceasefire of bombings and crisis. Saudi air-strikes Brokered negotiations by Humanitarian and free of the United States, Britain assistance humanitarian and the United Nations blockade. flow. leading in an administration of neutral parties and in Ousted Anarchy. Support the termination of war. government. legitimate government.

Terrorist Spread Terrorism Suppress the rise (AQAP, ISIS). strengthening. of violent religious extremists.

Table 17. NYT Narrative

615 Blinken A.(2017). President Trump’s Arab Alliance Is a Mirage. Available at : https://www.nytimes .com/2017/06/19/opinion/trump-isis-qatar-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 19 Nov. 2017).

616 Cooper H.(2017). Jim Mattis, in Saudi Visit, Calls for Political Solution in Yemen. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/19/world/middleeast/jim-mattis-yemen-saudi-arabia.html (Accessed 19 Nov. 2017).

133 4.2.2 RT

The dominant frame in the majority of RT’s articles was the “Saudi-led coalition aggression frame”, following the “Intervention”, the “Violent” and the “Strategic frame” in almost equal records (Graphic 40). The narrative behind the frames was that, the Houthi rebellion has a local character;617 while the Saudi led coalition air-strikes have caused a large amount of civilian deaths and destruction of the infrastructure,618 with some of the killings apparently constituting war crimes,619 according to international human rights organizations. The aerial and naval blockade has contributed to a humanitarian disaster in the country620 because it prevents the delivery of vital supplies like fuel and medicine. The arm sales to Saudi Arabia from western countries, violates the humanitarian law.621 The political anarchy helped in the development of terrorism and in a future merge of the terrorist organizations.622 The immediate cessation of fights and the termination of aerial and naval blockade will help in the confrontation of the famine and cholera disease.623 U.N. brokered negotiations can lead in a diplomatic and political solution for a stable government.624

617 RT.(2017). Saudi Arabia is just ‘defending itself’ when it bombs Yemen, claims UK defense secretary. Available at : https://www.rt.com/uk/387982-micheal-fallon-yemen-saudi/ (Accessed 21 Nov. 2017).

618 RT.(2017). Shelling, airstrikes, mines: MSF reports on civilians & medics in crosshairs of war in Taiz, Yemen. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375794-yemen-taiz-msf-report/ (Accessed 21 Nov. 2017).

619 RT.(2017). Likely war crime: Alleged Saudi coalition strike on refugee boat condemned by HRW. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382366-yemen-boat-strike-war-crime/ (Accessed 21 Nov. 2017).

620 ibid

621 RT.(2017). ‘Arming Saudi Arabia & Bahrain risks complicity with war crimes’ – Amnesty to Trump. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/381034-amnesty-trump-yemen-saudi-weapons/ (Accessed 21 Nov. 2017).

622 RT.(2017). ISIS leaders ‘negotiate merger’ with other terrorist groups – FSB head. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386208-isis-negotiate-merger-terrorists/ (Accessed 21 Nov. 2017).

623 RT.(2017). UN: Yemen could face famine in 2017, over 2/3 of population in urgent need of aid. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/375412-yemen-famine-children-action/ (Accessed 21 Nov. 2017).

624 RT.(2017). Saudi Arabia ‘won’t be stubborn’ asking for German arms again – minister. Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/386692-saudi-germany-weapons-sales/ (Accessed 21 Nov. 2017).

134 Causes of the What is the Objectives End State problem problem

Saudi led Destruction of Cessation of coalition Yemeni Saudi’s led bombings in infrastructure, coalition air- civilian targets Humanitarian strikes. crisis.

Arms sales to Violation of human Saudi Arabia rights and by Western international countries. humanitarian law. Brokered negotiations by the United Nations Aerial Famine, Cholera Termination of leading in a diplomatic Blockade. Outbreak. aerial blockade. and political solution

Naval Free passage of with termination of war. Blockade. Humanitarian aid.

Political Terrorism Extinction of Anarchy. Expansion in terrorism. Yemen.

Houthi’s Local conflict. Political deal and resistance participation in movement. the government.

Table 18. RT Narrative

135 4.2.3 AJ

The dominant frame in the majority of AJ’s articles was the “Violent frame”, following the “Strategic” and “Saudi-led coalition aggression frame” in equal records, while the rest were recorded in lower records (Graphic 40). The narrative behind the frames was that the character of the conflict is regional,625 the Iran-backed Houthis demand an agreement on a new administration comprising all parties,626 while western and Gulf states unified their efforts to support the legitimate government in imposing its sovereignty.627 The warring sides and their international backers are responsible for the spread of cholera and the humanitarian catastrophe,628 while the Saudi led coalition air-strikes have resulted in many civilian casualties.629 AQAP took the advance of the civil war between Houthis and government forces to widen its control and influence in the impoverished Arabian Peninsula country, while U.S launched drone strikes to suppress the terrorist activity.630 Waves of refugees and migrants, coming from Africa, have overwhelmed the country exposing themselves in a complex and dangerous environment.631 The support of the legitimate government,

625 AJ.(2017). Norwegian Refugee Council staff detained in Yemen. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/norwegian-refugee-council-staff-abducted-yemen-170220070436551.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

626 AJ.(2017). Who benefits from a weak and divided Yemen?. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/05/benefits-weak-divided-yemen-170518125048895.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

627 AJ.(2017). Sanaa protest marks second Yemen conflict anniversary. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/sanaa-protest-marks-yemen-conflict-anniversary-170326175737641.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

628 AJ.(2017). Saudi official denies bin Nayef is confined to palace. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/saudi-official-denies-bin-nayef-confined-palace-170629072059069.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

629 AJ.(2017). Saudi official denies bin Nayef is confined to palace. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/saudi-official-denies-bin-nayef-confined-palace-170629072059069.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

630 AJ.(2017). Pentagon: 20 US air raids in Yemen target al-Qaeda. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/yemen-al-qaeda-air-raids-170303012012100.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

631 AJ.(2017). Why are African men and women still fleeing to Yemen?. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/04/african-men-women-fleeing-yemen-170401081941703.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

136 to impose its sovereignty, or counter any moves seeking to weaken Hadi's government, and curb any separatist movements that started to emerge in the south, is the desired end state.632

Causes of the What is the Objectives End State problem problem

The conflict Famine and Termination of conflict. between the cholera outbreak. two parties.

Political Terrorism Suppression of terrorism disorder. Expansion in and curb of separatist

Yemen. movements. Political solution and

Waves of African Reduce of refugees’ termination of war, refugees, flee in flow in Yemen with Houthis’ retreat. the country.

Houthi’s Regional Houthis must hand over rebellion. conflict. their weapons and quit the cities they have seized.

Table 19. AJ Narrative

The distribution of the frames is focused mainly on “Violent”, following the “Saudi coalition aggression frame”, “Strategic” and “Intervention” in equal records and the rest frames in very low records (Graphic 41). That means that the “Violence” of the war was the main point as well the “Saudi aggression”. The differences between media seemed “small” in numbers but sufficient to present a different aspect of the conflict. RT present the conflict as an interior one. The Houthis are not supported by Iran while the intervention of Saudi led coalition is apparent. NYT and AJ, present a conflict that Houthis rebels are supported by Iran. NYT and RT, focus

632 AJ.(2017). Who benefits from a weak and divided Yemen?. Available at : http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/05/benefits-weak-divided-yemen-170518125048895.html (Accessed 22 Nov. 2017).

137 on the Saudi led air-strikes, on the aerial or naval blockade and highlight the Yemeni famine as well as the cholera outbreak. AJ, present the famine and the cholera outbreak as a result of the conflict between the wary parties. The recognition of the emerge terrorism, led by AQAP is common to all, but the desired end state is not the same. RT and NYT present a political solution through brokered negotiations by U.N (or U.N, U.S.A and U.K), leading in an administration of neutral parties and in termination of war. AJ, presents an end state where the Houthis’ retreat will follow the political solution and the termination of war. The strategic importance of Yemen is detected by all, while Houthi’s aggression mainly by AJ.

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0% Strategic Violent F. Intervention Saudi Coal. Houthi Ag. Hadi Ag. AQAP Ag. Frame F. Aggression

Graphic 41. Frame distribution in the total of examined media (%)

138 4.3 Peace Journalism Indicators

90% 80% 70% 60% NYT 50% RT 40% AJ 30% 20% 10% 0% Cons. Of war/violence Roots of conflict Solution Oriented

Graphic 42. PJ Indicators per Media (%)

Analyzing the results of P.J Indicators, the consequences of war/violence dominates in all media and especially in NYT. Roots of conflict are presented equal by RT and AJ but lower in NYT, while the solutions are lower and equal in NYT and RT but very low in AJ (Graphic 42). More detailed, in NYT and AJ, Houthi rebels are presented as “Iranian-backed” while in RT such a relationship is not proved.633 The resources of the country are really scarce, as the food, jobs etc. Yemen, is a very poor country and specifically the poorest in the region,634 while past governments were corrupted.635 Unresolved grievances exist from the past between the wary parties. We can identify in all media the presence of a “third party” (U.N) and its effort to mediate and resolve the crisis.636 But we can not identify any encouragement of the disputing sides to revise their views and finally the elimination of the conflict.

633 RT.(2017). $110bn US-Saudi arms deal sent to Congress, seen as way to protect Middle East allies. Available at : https://www.rt.com/usa/390243-state-dept-saudi-arms-deal/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

634 RT.(2017). 7mn people face starvation as Yemen heads towards man-made famine – Oxfam Available at : https://www.rt.com/news/382157-yemen-famine-starvation-oxfam/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

635 RT.(2017). Who is Ali Abdullah Saleh? Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight /yemen/2011/02/201122812118938648.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

636 AJ.(2017). Yemen's Houthis to boycott UN envoy. Available at : http://www.aljazeera.com /news/2017/06/yemen-houthis-boycott-envoy-170606153213111.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

139 The focus on the larger group interests’, was identified in a few articles. The promotion of grievances was high but the seeking of solutions remained low in all media and even more in AJ (Graphic 39). The articles did not fulfill the characteristics of P.J (Table 1). They were mainly war oriented, since they focused on “conflict arena” with “who threw the first stone”. They mainly focused on the visible effects of the violence and presented the conflict as “the problem” after the occurrence of the facts. They did not make the conflict “transparent” or they did not give “voice to all parties”. As Professor Galtung argues, “Whenever you have a vision, be prepared for the fact that it takes some time,”637 while “Patience, negotiation not bombing”638 will terminate the conflict.

637 Galtung J. (2015). The World Beyond Global Disorder. Available at : https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=xq7vZ2mKYec&t=30s (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

638 ibid

140 4.4 “New wars” approach on Yemeni war

The Yemeni case seems to be very similar, with the majority of the contemporary conflicts. It is an intrastate conflict639 that is fought by state and non- state actors in the name of identity (ethnic, religious or tribal).640 The territory has been captured through control of the population.641 Violence is largely directed against civilians as an effective way of controlling territory rather than against enemy forces.642 The victims are mainly civilians, including women and children, and they are targeted deliberately.643 Genocide and ethnic cleansing have applied, also.644 The number of civilian casualties and displaced people is continuously increasing.645 The battlefield is not limited to a specific battlefield or war sector.646 The distinction between local and global settings and between repression (internal violence) and aggression (international confrontation) is not discrete.647 The erosion of the state has

639 Enders K. (2002), Yemen in the 1990s: From Unification to Economic Reform, International Monetary Fund Washington

640 AJ.(2017). Suicide bomber kills at least five soldiers in Yemen. Available at http://www.aljazeera. com/news/2017/02/suicide-bomber-kills-soldiers-yemen-170224080159429.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

641 NYT.(2017). Renewed Fighting and Drone Strikes in Yemen Kill About 75. Available at https:// www.nytimes.com/2017/01/22/world/middleeast/yemen-houthi-qaeda-mokha.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

642 NYT.(2017). Will President Trump Help Save Yemen? Available at https://www.nytimes. com/2017/05/25/opinion/cholera-yemen-war-humanitarian-crisis.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

643 AJ.(2017). The horrors of urban warfare. Available at http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/ 2017/06/horrors-urban-warfare-170626123319520.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

644 RT.(2017). ‘Yemen war is genocide’. Available at: https://www.rt.com/op-edge/379451-saudi- airstrikes-yemen-us-genocide/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

645 RT.(2017). ‘They destroyed our homes, injured our kids’: Sanaa residents speak of horror of Saudi bombings. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news/379515-yemen-airstrikes-sanaa-killed/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

646 AJ.(2017). The horrors of urban warfare. Available at http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/ 2017/06/horrors-urban-warfare-170626123319520.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

647 RT.(2017). Iran sends warships to Oman amid Gulf tensions. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news /391855-iran-sends-warships-to-oman/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

141 adverse implications on the public goods and social vulnerability.648 The disappearance of political legitimacy, the human rights abuse, the development of ethnic identity politics, and the emergence of paramilitary, result in the pervasive loss of confidence in the competence of national institutions.649՚650 The weakening of the state is also caused by social factors, such as human displacements, starvation, poverty or migration.651 Yemen is a really poor state, that is characterized by high levels of inflation, unemployment, corruption and criminality.652 An increased involvement of international journalists, international agencies, military advisers, armed troops and volunteers should theoretically take place. Instead of that, the access for all of them is quite difficult.653 The warfare is dispersed in the region and it involves a multitude of state and non-state actors, including marginalized soldiers and children soldiers.654 Belligerents do not have always access to the legitimate channels for trade of weapons, but they rely on the provisions of the black market.655 The oil

648 RT. (2017). ‘Only 10 years old': Yemen sees spike in parents marrying off young daughters for cash. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news/391116-yemen-war-child-marriage/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

649 RT. (2017). Yemen’s ousted govt pledges to probe alleged torture at prisons run by ally UAE. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news/393861-yemen-secret-prisons-probe/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

650 RT. (2017). ‘Entirely preventable’: Aid agencies blame Yemen blockade, economic collapse for cholera outbreak. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news/388479-yemen-cholera-red-cross/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

651 RT. (2017). Cholera outbreak in Yemen kills 34 people, may spiral out of control – WHO & MSF. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news/387799-cholera-outbreak-yemen-victims/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

652 AJ. (2017). Low expectations as Arab League chiefs gather in Jordan. Available at: http://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/expectations-arab-league-chiefs-gather-jordan-170327110010920.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

653 RT. (2017). ‘Few months left before they starve’: Oxfam adviser tells RT famine is ‘the real enemy’ in Yemen. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news/382388-yemen-starving-oxfam-famine/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

654 RT. (2017). 2.2mn Yemeni children close to famine, 70% rise in those killed over past year – UNICEF. Available at: https://www.rt.com/news/382418-unicef-yemen-children-famine/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

655 NYT. (2017). Arms Seized Off Coast of Yemen Appear to Have Been Made in Iran. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/10/world/middleeast/yemen-iran-weapons-houthis.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

142 wells play a key role in the conflict, since valuable resources are the driving force in most civil wars.656 The religious diversity used by belligerents to promote their positions and to gain the support of a targeted social group.657 It is not surprising that belligerents pursue in this case also, the continuation of violence than a military or political win.658 Probably, ending a civil war may not be desirable, since such actions as war activities in peacetime would be punishable as crimes.659 It seems that, the forced displacement, the wide use of sexual violence, predation or annihilation of individual groups are tactics that were used in the past and are used in the contemporary conflicts also.660 All these features, characterize contemporary conflicts, but wars of the past also. The means maybe have changed but the symptoms are similar.

656 RT. (2017). Yemeni oil reserves under dispute as civil war rages on. Available at: https://www.rt. com/business/379291-yemen-oil-saudi-arabia/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

657 AJ. (2017). The 'Trump factor' and the implosion of the Gulf union. Available at: http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/06/trump-factor-implosion-gulf-union-170610064645861.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

658 NYT. (2017). Cholera, Famine and Girls Sold Into Marriage for Food: Yemen’s Dire Picture. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/30/world/middleeast/yemen-civil-war-cholera-famine- girls-marriage-united-nations.html (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

659 Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed Security Dialogue vol. 35, no. 2. p.177.

660 NYT. (2017). US weapons sold to Saudis contribute to ‘astounding’ Yemen humanitarian crisis – Rand Paul. Available at: https://www.rt.com/usa/392296-rand-paul-us-weapons-saudi/ (Accessed 23 Nov. 2017).

143 4.5 Conclusions

The results of the study lead us on a series of conclusions that are not always common in all media. In many cases they are different, since the recorded results indicate different aspects of the same subject. The strategic importance of Yemen is quite significant, since it is laying at the entrance to the Red Sea. External actors have involved in this civil war seeking to dominate in the area. The war has a regional character but not for RT, that focuses on Saudi led coalition involvement and does not recognize any Iran direct involvement (validation of Hypothesis 2: The conflict that has a local character without the participation of main actors, expected to be covered inadequate, especially in the western based media). The straightforward external military aggression deprives the definition of “proxy war”, in the case of Yemeni civil war. RT considers that Houthis struggle for participation in the government through their resistance movement, while NYT and AJ consider that the weakening of Houthis, the handover of their weapons and the retreat of the cities, are a part of the supportive plan to the legitimate government concurrently, with the elimination of terrorist activities led by AQAP. The political disorder helped in the development of terrorism and will contribute in a future merge of the terrorist organizations. AQAP took the advance of the civil war between Houthis and government forces, to widen its control and influence in the impoverished Arabian Peninsula country. The Saudi led operations aim to weak the Houthis’ military force and lead them to the bargaining, according to NYT. The Saudi led coalition air-strikes have caused a large amount of civilian casualties and destruction of the infrastructure, with some of the killings apparently constituting war crimes, according to international human rights organizations (RT). This conflict has led Yemen in a humanitarian crisis. The humanitarian crisis and the cholera outbreak are man made and a result of Saudi led coalition bombings and blockade of humanitarian assistance (NYT). The aerial and naval blockade has contributed to the humanitarian disaster of the country because it prevents the delivery of vital supplies like fuel and medicine (NYT,RT). The warring sides and their international backers are responsible for the spread of cholera and the humanitarian catastrophe (AJ), while the Saudi led coalition air- strikes have resulted in many civilian casualties. The immediate cessation of fights and the termination of aerial and naval blockade, will help in the confrontation of the

144 famine and cholera disease (RT). The arm sales to Saudi Arabia from western countries, violates the humanitarian law (RT). AQAP’s militants or Houthi rebels do not pose a direct threat to Western interests (confirmation of Hypothesis 1: Due to the fact that the conflict is taking place in a distant place the coverage of the conflict will not be intensive.). This results in limited publicity of the conflict in Western audience, who does not apply pressure for resolution afterwards. Although the conflict in Yemen gets little international press attention, the dangers for journalists are deadly. Yemeni media is one of the most affected aspects in the country due to the “silent war” (validation of Hypothesis 2: The conflict that has a local character without the participation of main actors, expected to be covered inadequate, especially in the western based media). The deepening polarization emerge from the vitriolic messages on social media, where Yemenis blaming one faction or another. Many journalists have stopped working or have fled the country since Houthis seized control of the capital and declared an open war on media professionals. Consequently, there is no reliable way into Yemen for foreign journalists. Though, there are journalists on the ground, who are working for Yemeni media. So the story of Yemen’s conflict is one told to a large degree by local journalists, who are no less vulnerable to the dangers (confirmation of Hypothesis 3: Due to the absence of correspondents in the conflict area, local news media and citizen journalism are contributing in the news production process). Beyond the physical dangers, Yemeni journalists face strong pressure from the conflict’s factions. With few independent media organizations in the country, local Yemeni journalists have aligned themselves with one of these two narrative discourses. Most regional and international journalists have also followed either the Houthi or Hadi government line on the conflict. Besides, there are a lot of Yemeni journalists who do not work with any media that ignore the risks and venture out on a daily basis. Citizen journalists highlight important aspects through social media. The polarization of Yemeni media, has led journalists to cover the events focusing mainly on the consequences of violence and on the aggressiveness of opponent parties. That practically means that journalists present the direct results of the conflict and the atrocity of one or the other side. They don’t focus on the roots of that conflict and they don’t seek or present any effort for solution. It is common for the majority of media the persistence on the consequences of the conflict and not an in

145 depth analysis that could provide viable solutions through the recognition of the causes and roots of the rivalry (confirmation of Hypothesis 4: The news media promote a descriptive cover of the conflict rather than an in depth analysis of it). We can identify in all media the presence of a “third party” (U.N) and its effort to mediate and resolve the crisis. Brokered negotiations by the United States, Britain and the United Nations could lead in an administration of neutral parties and impose the quickest possible cease-fire (RT, NYT). AJ, presents an end state where the Houthis’ retreat will follow the political solution and the termination of war. A political solution between Sunni Arabs, supported by a Saudi-led coalition, and Iranian-backed Houthis, is the only option for the termination of this war (ΝΥΤ). Iran- backed Houthis demand an agreement on a new administration comprising all parties, while western and Gulf States unified their efforts to support the legitimate government in imposing its sovereignty. U.N. brokered negotiations can guarantee a diplomatic and political solution for a stable government (AJ). The waves of refugees and migrants that are coming from Africa and have overwhelmed the country, exposing themselves in a complex and dangerous environment is another consequence of the political disorder. The support of the legitimate government, to impose its sovereignty, or counter any moves seeking to weaken Hadi's government, and curb any separatist movements that started to emerge in the south, is the desired end state (AJ). The articles were not attuned with the characteristics of P.J. They were mainly war oriented, since they focused on “conflict arena” with “who threw the first stone”. They mainly focused on the visible effects of the violence and presented the conflict as “the problem” after the occurrence of the facts. We can not also identify any encouragement of the disputing sides to revise their views and finally the elimination of the conflict. The focus on the larger group interests’ was identified in a few articles. The promotion of grievances was high but the seeking of solutions remained low in all media and even more in AJ. They did not make the conflict “transparent” or they did not give “voice to all parties” (validation of Hypothesis 4). The Yemeni case seems to be very similar, with the majority of the contemporary conflicts. It is an intrastate conflict (validation of Hypothesis 2) that is fought by state and non-state actors in the name of identity (ethnic, religious or tribal). The territory has been captured through control of the population. Violence is largely directed against civilians as an effective way of controlling territory rather than

146 against enemy forces. The victims are mainly civilians, including women and children, and they are targeted deliberately. Genocide and ethnic cleansing have applied, also. The number of civilian casualties and displaced people is continuously increasing. The battlefield is not limited to a specific battlefield or war sector. The distinction between local and global settings and between repression (internal violence) and aggression (international confrontation) is not discrete. The erosion of the state has adverse implications on the public goods and social vulnerability. The disappearance of political legitimacy, the human rights abuse, the development of ethnic identity politics, and the emergence of paramilitary, result in the pervasive loss of confidence in the competence of national institutions. The weakening of the state is also caused by social factors, such as human displacements, starvation, poverty or migration. Yemen is a really poor state that is characterized by high levels of inflation, unemployment, corruption and criminality. An increased involvement of international journalists, international agencies, military advisers, armed troops and volunteers should theoretically take place. Instead of that, the access for all of them is quite difficult (validation of Hypothesis 1 and 3). The warfare is dispersed in the region and it involves a multitude of state and non- state actors, including marginalized soldiers and children soldiers. Belligerents do not have always access to the legitimate channels for trade of weapons, but they rely on the provisions of the black market. The oil wells play a key role in the conflict, since valuable resources are the driving force in most civil wars. The religious diversity used by belligerents to promote their positions and to gain the support of a targeted social group. It is not surprising that belligerents pursue in this case also, the continuation of violence than a military or political win. Probably, ending a civil war may not be desirable, since such actions as war activities in peacetime would be punishable as crimes. It seems that, the forced displacement, the wide use of sexual violence, predation or annihilation of individual groups are tactics that were used in the past and are used in the contemporary conflicts also. All these features, characterize contemporary conflicts, but wars of the past also. The means may have changed but the symptoms are similar.

“Wars and revolutions and battles, you see, are due simply and solely to the body and its desires. All wars are undertaken for the acquisition of wealth; and the

147 reason why we have to acquire wealth is the body, because we are slaves in its service.”

Plato, 428-348 B.C, Greek Philosopher, Phaedo.

148

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156 APPENDIX

Map 1. Yemen

(http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/yemen.pdf)

157

Map 2. Historical Division (1962)

(http://www.ecfr.eu/mena/yemen)

158

Map 3. Houthis’ front lines (2015)

(http://www.ecfr.eu/mena/yemen)

159

Map 4. Houthis’ front lines (2017)

(http://www.ecfr.eu/mena/yemen)

160

Map 5. Al – Qaeda presence (2017)

(http://www.ecfr.eu/mena/yemen)

161

Map 6. Yemen oil and gas (2015)

(http://www.ecfr.eu/mena/yemen)

162

Map 7. Food insecurity status (2017)

(http://www.ecfr.eu/mena/yemen)

163