DOCSLIB.ORG

Improving Efficiency in Tertiary Education

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Improving Efficiency in Tertiary Education 2 Improving Efficiency in Tertiary Education Greece lags behind many EU and OECD countries in making fundamental reforms to improve the global competitiveness of its tertiary education system. Over the past decade, Greece has taken only limited actions while other countries are moving ahead to: • Set forth long-term strategies with goals and benchmarks to improve the quality and efficiency of their tertiary education systems. In Europe these changes are being driven by the Lisbon Strategy and the Modernisation Agenda for Universities: Education, Research and Innovation. • Make far-reaching changes in governance and finance designed to bring about increased flexibility and responsiveness to national priorities and adjust to the realities of severe constraints in state funding (OECD, 2008b; European Commission, 2008a). Greece also remains behind many OECD and EU counties in important innovation assets such as the proportion of the population that has achieved a tertiary education degree and the competitiveness of research. In the long-term, the most important path to economic recovery is the development of these core assets. Making more efficient use of existing resources, including the use of human resources, is a critical means to improving Greece’s global competitiveness. STRONG PERFORMERS AND SUCCESSFUL REFORMERS IN EDUCATION: EDUCATION POLICY ADVICE FOR GREECE © OECD 2011 61 2 IMPROVING EFFICIENCY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION COMPETITIVENESS OF TERTIARY EDUCATION Educational attainment The proportion of 25-34 year-olds who have completed at least upper secondary education and tertiary education is larger than among older age cohorts (Figure 2.1), but the educational attainment of the Greek population with tertiary education, an indicator highly correlated with a country’s per capita income, continues to lag behind the EU19 and OECD averages (Figure 2.2). Figure 3. Net teaching time in hours: Greece compared to OECD and EU21 (2009) • Figure 2.1 • Population with at least upper secondary education (2008) Greece OECD average EU19 average 90 80% 82% 80 75% 75% 76% Percentage 71% 72% 69% 69% 70 68% 61% 56% 58% 59% 60 50 39% 40 30 20 10 0 25-64 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 Age group Source: OECD (2010c), Chart A1.2a. • Figure 2.2 • Population with tertiary education (2008) Greece OECD average EU19 average 40 35 35% Percentage 32% 30 28% 28% 29% 25% 27% 27% 25 23% 25% 22% 22% 20 20% 18% 15 15% 10 5 0 25-64 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 Age group Source: OECD (2010c), Table A1.3a. 62 © OECD 2011 STRONG PERFORMERS AND SUCCESSFUL REFORMERS IN EDUCATION: EDUCATION POLICY ADVICE FOR GREECE 2 IMPROVING EFFICIENCY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION Research output Despite considerable improvement in recent decades, the research output of most Greek tertiary education institutions remains relatively low by international standards. Greek scientific publications increased from less than 3 000 in 1993 to more than 10 000 in 2008 (Figure 2.3). • Figure 2.3 • Research output of Greek tertiary education, including research centres (1993-2008) 12 000 8 000 Greek Scientific Publications Greek 4 000 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Source: Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning and Religious Affairs, Greek scientific publications, as a share of OECD and EU publications, increased from less than 0.5% and 1.2%, respectively, in 1993 to more than 1.2% and 2.5%, respectively, in 2008 (Sahini, E., et al., 2010). Major issues related to efficiency A number of issues related to the efficiency of the tertiary education system need to be addressed through short- and medium- term actions: • a comparatively high percentage of upper secondary school graduates entering tertiary education but comparatively low completion rates and an inefficient allocation of students between the university and Technological Educational Institute (TEI) sectors and among academic departments; • the proliferation of small departments and degree programmes, many enrolling few students and producing few graduates; • the increasing blurring of mission distinction between the universities and the TEIs; • misalignment of tertiary education provision (especially at the TEIs) with the needs of the labour market; • ineffective internal governance and management of institutions resulting from both the persistence of severely out-dated centralised finance and regulatory controls, and dysfunctional internal governance and management structures; • finance policies that provide limited incentives for improved performance and efficiency and responsiveness of institutions to national strategic priorities; • lack of steering capacity to ensure that individual institutions as well as the overall size and shape of the system are accountable for implementing essential reforms; • inadequate data and information systems that are essential for institutional management, accountability, for system strategic leadership and steering; and • low levels of non-public funding, including limited cost-sharing by students within the constraints of the Constitutional mandate for free education. Current reforms Over the past decade, Greece has taken important steps to address some of these issues. Among the reforms were: • The establishment of the Hellenic Quality Assurance Authority for Higher Education (Law 3374/2005). • The enactment of a new higher-education framework law (3549/2007), making changes related to quality assurance, accountability, internal assessment processes and autonomy. The law included a potentially significant provision for a new allocation model of state funding. The law requires institutions to develop a four-year development plan that covers all the operational costs, STRONG PERFORMERS AND SUCCESSFUL REFORMERS IN EDUCATION: EDUCATION POLICY ADVICE FOR GREECE © OECD 2011 63 2 IMPROVING EFFICIENCY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION academic and financial matters, plans for development and investments, as well as the planning for obtaining more diverse funding sources other than the recurring state budget. The law grants the Ministry of Education authority to withhold approval of the institutional plan if the institution fails to comply with the quality assurance requirements of the Hellenic Quality Assurance Authority for Higher Education. The current government has taken other steps to pursue further reforms. The most significant of these is a draft Higher Education Framework law that would make considerable advances in the autonomy of higher education institutions (HEIs), improve internal governance and management, and strengthen public accountability. Key provisions of the law would: • increase institutional financial autonomy of institutions, relieving them of some of the centralised regulatory controls by the Ministry of Finance (as described in the introduction of this report); • strengthen internal governance and management; and • consolidate departments within larger faculties. The government is also pursuing reforms within the current legal framework, including: • improving the data on the higher education system including basic information on student enrolments, graduates, and institutional finances; • developing a new funding model as authorised by the 2007 law on four-year agreements but never fully implemented; and • making important steps to spur the closure and consolidation of small departments, especially at the TEIs, by curtailing the assignment of students to these departments for the 2011/12 academic year. These reforms will be referred to in greater detail in the subsequent sections of this report. Finally, two laws enacted in 2010 have important implications for tertiary education: a new law on Lifelong Learning (2879/2010) and a law establishing a National Qualifications Framework in accordance with the European Qualifications Framework (3879/2010). Both laws are in the early stages of implementation. While not within the scope of this study, both laws have the potential of contributing to more effective transition of youth to the labour market and to stronger links between tertiary education, especially the TEIs to nationwide and regional labour market training and education needs. ISSUES RELATED TO EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS High entrance rates but comparatively low completion Enrolment trends Over the past 15 years, Greece has experienced a dramatic increase in enrolment rates in tertiary education. The number of students completing upper secondary education has increased as well as the number of students taking the university entrance examinations. The demand for tertiary education has risen as reflected in the number of students taking the university entrance examinations, but the actual numbers entering the system in any year is determined by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry determines the numbers of students actually given places and the departments to which they are admitted (within numerus clausus set by the ministry). Therefore, the number of new entrants to the system each year is determined by Ministerial decision, not directly by student demand. The enrolment rates increased significantly from 1999 through 2005 and have stabilised and decreased slightly since then (Figure 2.4). • Figure 2.4 • Gross enrolment rate, ISCED 5 and 6 (1999-2007) 100 90 80 Percentage 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Note: Gross enrolment rate is defined as total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the eligible official school-age population corresponding to the same
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Where Next for Tertiary Education? How the COVID-19 Crisis Can Be the Catalyst to Reboot Towards a Stronger Sector August 2020
    Where next for tertiary education? How the COVID-19 crisis can be the catalyst to reboot towards a stronger sector August 2020 PwC | Where next for tertiary education? 1 Tertiary education comprises two main pathways for learning: • Vocational education and training (VET) provided by registered training organisations (RTOs) including technical and further education institutes (TAFEs), dual sector institutions and private providers • Higher education provided by public and private universities and nearly 130 smaller non-university higher education providers (NUHEPs) Overview COVID-19 has and will continue to change the world. The hard part for any government or organisation is to understand what happens the day after tomorrow, what the exit points are for this crisis, and what it means for the tertiary education sector in a post COVID-19 economy. This snapshot from PwC Australia aims to provide clarity for tertiary education executives who are looking to make serious choices now and over the next two years about their institutions and services in a post COVID-19 Australia. PwC | Where next for tertiary education? 1 Forces of change – challenge or opportunity? The Australian tertiary education sector generates almost $30bn of export income, employs more than 250,000 people, has greater than 4 million enrolments and is the nation’s third largest export. Tertiary education providers play an integral role in the fabric of Australian society and culture and are a stimulus for innovation and creativity which underpin the economy. The recovery from COVID-19 will present a significant opportunity for the tertiary education sector to support the reskilling of Australians and accelerate the recovery.
    [Show full text]
  • Terms for School Levels This Table Features Education Terms Used in Canada, the U.S., the U.K., and Other Countries
    Terms for School Levels This table features education terms used in Canada, the U.S., the U.K., and other countries. This includes reference to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This table provides a general sense of school terminology and age ranges, as there are differences within each country or sovereign country. In those respects, Quebec differs slightly from British Columbia, Scotland differs slightly from England, etc. This table is one of the eResources from the book Sharing Your Education Expertise with the World: Make Research Resonate and Widen Your Impact by Jenny Grant Rankin, Ph.D. See the book for terminology explanations and more. Age Canadian Terms US Terms UK Terms UNESCO ISCED Terms early junior kindergarten, early preschool, nursery school Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS)ante-pre-school, early childhood early childhood ≤ 4 childhood pre-kinder., preschool education primary nursery childminders, education, educational education kindergarten, primary stage infant, key stage 1 children's Level 0 development, pre- 5 K-12 primary elementary school centre, nursery Level 1 primary education classes/school, elementary grades 1-8 (in (kindergarten school (starts with grade TK or 6 pre-school, education Quebec, grade through K and ends after 6th primary school, school and the first grade 12) or grade around age 11 if or reception 7 half of high school) TK-12 student goes on to (transitional middle school;
    [Show full text]
  • Classifying Educational Programmes
    Classifying Educational Programmes Manual for ISCED-97 Implementation in OECD Countries 1999 Edition ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Foreword As the structure of educational systems varies widely between countries, a framework to collect and report data on educational programmes with a similar level of educational content is a clear prerequisite for the production of internationally comparable education statistics and indicators. In 1997, a revised International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97) was adopted by the UNESCO General Conference. This multi-dimensional framework has the potential to greatly improve the comparability of education statistics – as data collected under this framework will allow for the comparison of educational programmes with similar levels of educational content – and to better reflect complex educational pathways in the OECD indicators. The purpose of Classifying Educational Programmes: Manual for ISCED-97 Implementation in OECD Countries is to give clear guidance to OECD countries on how to implement the ISCED-97 framework in international data collections. First, this manual summarises the rationale for the revised ISCED framework, as well as the defining characteristics of the ISCED-97 levels and cross-classification categories for OECD countries, emphasising the criteria that define the boundaries between educational levels. The methodology for applying ISCED-97 in the national context that is described in this manual has been developed and agreed upon by the OECD/INES Technical Group, a working group on education statistics and indicators representing 29 OECD countries. The OECD Secretariat has also worked closely with both EUROSTAT and UNESCO to ensure that ISCED-97 will be implemented in a uniform manner across all countries.
    [Show full text]
  • Definition and Classification of Educational Programmes: the Practical Implementation of ISCED 2011
    67 Chapter 5 Definition and classification of educational programmes: The practical implementation of ISCED 2011 This chapter covers the conceptual, definitional and classification issues concerning educational programmes. It begins with an overview of the latest International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011) which provides the foundation for internationally comparative education statistics. It goes on to set out the definitions and classifications that apply to educational programmes within it. It then sets out the detail of how educational programmes are allocated within each ISCED level, considering the criteria that define the boundaries between educational levels. OECD HANDBOOK FOR INTERNATIONALLY COMPARATIVE EDUCATION STATISTICS © OECD 2017 68 CHAPTER 5 Definition and classification of educational programmes: The practical implementation of ISCED 2011 This chapter covers the conceptual, definitional and classification issues concerning educational programmes. It starts with an overview of the latest International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011) which provides the foundation for internationally comparative education statistics. It goes on to set out the definitions and classifications that apply to educational programmes within it. It then sets out the detail of how educational programmes are allocated within each ISCED level, considering the criteria that define the boundaries between educational levels. 5.1 Overview of ISCED 2011 ISCED is at the heart of international statistics on education. As the structure and curricular content of national education systems vary, it can be difficult to benchmark performance across countries over time or monitor progress towards national and international goals. In order to understand and properly interpret the inputs, processes and outcomes of education systems from a global perspective, it is vital to ensure that data are comparable.
    [Show full text]
  • Students in Pre-Tertiary Education and Those Who Completed Education at These Levels
    METHODOLOGICAL EXPLANATION Ana Novak STUDENTS IN PRE-TERTIARY EDUCATION AND THOSE WHO COMPLETED EDUCATION AT THESE LEVELS This methodological explanation relates to the data releases: Students in pre-tertiary education and those who completed education at these levels, Slovenia, annually (First Release) Students in pre-tertiary education and those who completed education at these levels, Slovenia, annually (Electronic Release) May 2021 Content 1 PURPOSE..................................................................................................... 3 2 LEGAL BASIS............................................................................................... 3 3 UNIT DESCRIBED BY THE PUBLISHED DATA.......................................... 3 4 SELECTION OF OBSERVATION UNIT........................................................3 5 SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION................................ 4 6 DEFINITIONS................................................................................................4 7 EXPLANATIONS........................................................................................... 7 8 PUBLISHING.................................................................................................8 9 REVISION OF THE DATA............................................................................ 8 10 OTHER METHODOLOGICAL MATERIALS................................................. 9 Methodological explanation 2/9 1 PURPOSE The purpose of the statistical survey is to present data on enrolment of children
    [Show full text]
  • Early Childhood Policies and Systems in Eight Countries
    Early Childhood Policies and Systems in Eight Countries Findings from IEA’s Early Childhood Education Study Tony Bertram and Chris Pascal with Anne Cummins, Sean Delaney, Chris Ludlow, Helen Lyndon, Juliane Hencke, Marta Kostek, Steffen Knoll, Agnes Stancel-Piatak i Early Childhood Policies and Systems in Eight Countries Findings from IEA’s Early Childhood Education Study Tony Bertram and Chris Pascal with Anne Cummins, Sean Delaney, Chris Ludlow, Helen Lyndon, Juliane Hencke, Marta Kostek, Steffen Knoll, Agnes Stancel-Piatak ii ECES POLICY REPORT Copyright © 2016 International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Early Childhood Policies and Systems in Eight Countries: Findings from IEA’s Early Childhood Education Study Tony Bertram and Chris Pascal All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without permission in writing from the copyright holder For more information about ECES contact: ECES International Study Center IEA Data Processing and Research Center Mexikoring 37 22297 Hamburg GERMANY tel: +49 40 48 500 701 fax: +49 40 48 500 501 e-mail: [email protected] http://eces.iea.nl Disclaimer As the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research is not responsible in general for ECED in Italy, any data regarding this sector is provided on the condition that the Ministry not be held accountable in terms of the reliability and validity of this data. INVALSI, aggregating existing data and sources, responded to the IEA questionnaire to the best of its ability, considering system changes currently under development for the entire ISCED 0 level.
    [Show full text]
  • Tertiary Education for the Knowledge Society – Volume 1 – Isbn 978-92-64-04652-8 © Oecd 2008 14 – Executive Summary
    EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 13 Executive Summary The growing focus on tertiary education Tertiary education policy is increasingly important on national agendas. The widespread recognition that tertiary education is a major driver of economic competitiveness in an increasingly knowledge-driven global economy has made high- quality tertiary education more important than ever before. The imperative for countries is to raise higher-level employment skills, to sustain a globally competitive research base and to improve knowledge dissemination to the benefit of society. Tertiary education contributes to social and economic development through four major missions: - The formation of human capital (primarily through teaching); - The building of knowledge bases (primarily through research and knowledge development); - The dissemination and use of knowledge (primarily through interactions with knowledge users); and - The maintenance of knowledge (inter-generational storage and transmission of knowledge). The scope and importance of tertiary education have changed significantly. Over 40 years ago tertiary education, which was more commonly referred to as higher education, was what happened in universities. This largely covered teaching and learning requiring high level conceptual and intellectual skills in the humanities, sciences and social sciences, the preparation of students for entry to a limited number of professions such as medicine, engineering and law, and disinterested advanced research and scholarship. These days, tertiary education is much
    [Show full text]
  • Uganda Until 1988, There Are Now 41 Degree-Awarding Institutions in the Coun- Try, of Which 11 Are Public Universities
    INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION Number 90: Summer 2017 21 Not all government policymakers share that view. commerce and business studies dominate the subsector (33 percent), followed by universities (16 percent) and techni- cal colleges (4 percent). Although Makerere University was DOI: http://dx.doi/org/10.6017/ihe.2017.90.9791 the only degree-awarding institution in Uganda until 1988, there are now 41 degree-awarding institutions in the coun- try, of which 11 are public universities. Overall, there is ample demand for university educa- tion, at least in the Eastern African region. This demand is Uganda: Higher Education far in excess of that for middle-level and technical educa- tion. This is a result of popular demand, intense advertis- Modernization Needed ing by universities, and the job market, which prefers de- gree holders to certificate and diploma holders. In addition, Mukwanason A. Hyuha students who study science and technology have a better chance of being employed earlier, and more employment Mukwanason A. Hyuha is emeritus professor of economics and consul- tant at Budembe Enterprises. E-mail: [email protected]. options, than those studying other disciplines. Consequent- ly, most students, parents, and policy makers prefer univer- n terms of quality, Uganda’s education sector, modelled sity education to middle-level and technical education. This Ion the basis of the British system, was one of the best in bias has led to a noticeable lack of middle-level technicians Africa until the early 1990s. Thereafter, both the academic and workers, whom Uganda has to import. Hence, by 2016, and physical infrastructures experienced serious declines in quality.
    [Show full text]
  • Responding to New Demand in Tertiary Education ……………
    CHAPTER 5 RESPONDING TO NEW DEMAND IN TERTIARY EDUCATION …………… SUMMARY A growing number of young people, and increasingly adults as well, are participating in tertiary education. The expansion in the first years of tertiary education has to a large extent been driven by demand – by the desire of a wider group of people to be educated to higher levels, together with a growth in the acquisition of upper secondary and other qualifications that gain them access. New groups bring new interests and needs, which oblige tertiary systems to diversify structures, programmes and styles of delivery. This chapter looks at where the new demand is coming from, at how systems and institutions are responding, and at the degree to which they are able to offer suitable courses that lead to completion rather than drop-out. A continuing rise in demand can be seen not only in countries where tertiary education has expanded relatively recently, but also in those where it has been growing for some time. But new demand is coming from a greater range of age groups; even among people in their late twenties, participation rates are above 10 per cent in Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway and the United States. Students therefore come to tertiary education with a wide range of prior experiences. They enter tertiary education programmes with either academic or vocational qualifications acquired in upper secondary education, often with some other post-compulsory or tertiary education experience as well and sometimes with validated experience gained outside educational institutions. This range of student background adds to the diversity of their interests and needs.
    [Show full text]
  • Impact, Trends and Challenges of Tertiary Education – 29
    2. SETTING THE STAGE: IMPACT, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES OF TERTIARY EDUCATION – 29 2. Setting the Stage: Impact, Trends and Challenges of Tertiary Education 2.1 Introduction This Chapter provides the context for analysing tertiary education policy. First, it summarises evidence on the impact and relevance of tertiary education, in particular its effect on economic growth and the benefits it brings to both individuals and societies. Second, it describes the main trends within tertiary education, with particular emphasis on growth and diversification, and reviews the contextual factors affecting the development of tertiary systems. Finally, it identifies the challenges currently facing tertiary education systems and which are addressed in subsequent Chapters. Countries are in the process of making a transition from a focus on quantity to a greater emphasis on the quality, coherence, and equity of tertiary education giving considerable room for tertiary education policy to play a role. 2.2 The impact of tertiary education This Section looks into the evidence of the social benefits of tertiary education and their aggregate effect on economic growth. Social benefits of tertiary education can be split into private benefits of tertiary education (which can be monetary5 or non-monetary) and external (non-private) benefits of tertiary education (also known as education externalities). Evidence on these is reviewed below. An attempt is made at focusing on the benefits generated more specifically by tertiary education but the literature often looks at the effects of education in more general terms. 2.2.1 Private benefits of tertiary education Private monetary benefits of tertiary education The empirical literature provides strong evidence that better-educated people are more likely to be in the labour force, and if economically active, less likely to be unemployed (see Blöndal et al., 2002; Oliveira Martins et al., 2007).6 There is also strong evidence 5.
    [Show full text]
  • Moving to Further and Higher Education: an Exploration of the Experiences of Students with Special Educational Needs
    Moving to Further and Higher Education An Exploration of the Experiences of Students with Special Educational Needs NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH14 REPORT NO.14 Conor Mc Guckin, Michael Shevlin, Sheena Bell and Cristina Devecchi Moving to Further and Higher Education: An Exploration of the Experiences of Students with Special Educational Needs Conor Mc Guckin1, Michael Shevlin1, Sheena Bell2 and Cristina Devecchi2 1 Inclusion in Education and Society (IES) Research Group, School of Education, Trinity College Dublin 2 Centre for Special Needs Education and Research, University of Northampton A report commissioned by the NCSE 2013 The National Council for Special Education has funded this research. Responsibility for the research (including any errors or omissions) remains with the authors. The views and opinions contained in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of the Council. NCSE RESEARCH REPORTS NO: 14 © NCSE 2013 National Council for Special Education 1–2 Mill Street Trim Co. Meath An Chomhairle Náisiúnta um Oideachas Speisialta 1–2 Sráid an Mhuilinn Baile Átha Troim Co. na Mí T: 046 948 6400 F: 046 948 6404 www.ncse.ie Table of Contents Foreword .........................................................................................................vii Key Words ........................................................................................................viii Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................viii
    [Show full text]
  • Education Reform in Japan Randall S
    OECD Economics Department Working Papers No. 888 Education Reform in Japan Randall S. Jones https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg58z7g95np-en Unclassified ECO/WKP(2011)57 Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Économiques Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 06-Sep-2011 ___________________________________________________________________________________________ English - Or. English ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT Unclassified ECO/WKP(2011)57 EDUCATION REFORM IN JAPAN ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT WORKING PAPERS No. 888 By Randall S. Jones All Economics Department Working Papers are available through OECD Internet website at http://www.oecd.org/eco/workingpapers English - Or. English JT03306522 Document complet disponible sur OLIS dans son format d'origine Complete document available on OLIS in its original format ECO/WKP(2011)57 ABSTRACT/ RÉSUMÉ Education reform in Japan While Japan has achieved outstanding scores on the PISA exams, further improving educational outcomes is important to sustain growth in the face of rapid population ageing. The government should step up investment in early childhood education and care and integrate childcare and kindergarten to improve its quality, while allowing some diversity in the type of institutions. Upgrading tertiary education, in part through stronger competition and internationalisation, is also important to increase human capital and boost the role of universities in innovation. Given the serious fiscal situation, reforms to further raise the efficiency of educational spending per student, which is above the OECD average for public and private outlays combined, are needed. The large share of private education spending, which accounts for one-third of the total, places heavy burdens on families, thereby discouraging fertility, and creates inequality in educational opportunities and outcomes.
    [Show full text]