Sport and Technology

internally and there is no cladding. In this way, stadium in Vancouver/Canada). The Soldier Field the development of the objectification of grand­ Stadium, Chicago, also showing this style, is how­ stand structures was deliberately advanced. At ever a military sports centre commenced after that time, stadium construction in the USA the first World War. usually followed the style forms of eclecticism. American architects did not begin to react to With the building of the Coliseum, the archi­ the modern movements in Europe until the 30's. ? tects J. and D. B. Parkinson made a contribution This is explained by the uncontested prestige of to the development of modern stadium architec­ the "Ecole des Beaux Arts" in Paris, where many m ture in the USA. It may be assumed, however, American architects had graduated, and also by that the architects had already turned to Euro­ the curriculums of American schools. pean prototypes, for example to the construc­ In this connection, the stylistic consideration tive-functional conception of the Olympic Sta­ of the Los Angeles Coliseum is extremely inter­ dium in Paris/Colombes (1924, Architect : Louis esting, because historicizing style elements, Faure-Dujarric). Among the earlier ventures of which frequently are to be found in comparable "objectification" of high grandstand structures, projects, were not used here. Although the Coli­ the conceptual drawings for an Olympic Stadium seum was still built as a typical American "bowl" ARCHITECTURE AT THE SERVICE which had been prepared by the French architect in 1921, its main portal structures were con­ A. G. Perret (1874-1954) should also be counted. structed simply as concrete cast blocks, without OF SPORT The load-bearing structure is here fully visible historicizing facade decoration, in contrast to the and consists of concrete-cased steel sections. To otherwise usual entry structures in large stadiums. (Part II) what extent in this case an influence actually was present cannot be established in the context of THE OLYMPIC STADIA the present article. Stylistically, a flowering of eclecticism was IN LOS ANGELES AND BERLIN evident in the USA between 1900 and 1930 (with offshoots at times until 1945) ; this is also termed by THOMAS SCHMIDT "traditional architecture". The representatives of eclecticism (e.g. the American architects Cass In Holland, as almost everywhere else in the Western world, architecture Gilbert, 1859 to 1934 ; Ralph Adams Cram, 1863 to 1942 ; James Gamble Rogers, 1867 to 1947) go in the 20,s was marked by buildings of historicism. This style was not back to prototypes from the period of historicism regarded as significant in Holland. At the beginning of the 20th Century, in the 19th Century, for example the office blocks however, movements became evident, which attempted to free it from of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson (1836 to 1886), in the neo-roma- historicism and thus create a renewal of architecture. nesque style, or the neo-gothic work of the Scot­ tish architect George Frederick (1827 to 1907). which usually exhibit style elements from the Ital­ pecial mention should be made in this regard i.e. the functionality of the internal layout, which The latter style was frequently used in church ian High Renaissance (e.g. the stadium in Vanc­ S of the buildings and writings of H.P. Berlage now could be seen from the outside. Wils' works architecture and educational and training estab­ ouver, Canada). The architectural principle shows (1856 to 1934), who overcame eclecticism and its — The N.FT church in Nieuw Lekkerland (1916), lishments. influences from the romanesque. The portals historical system of forms and strove to bring out a farmhouse in Winschoten (1916) and an apart­ have the typical round arches and an arcade. In the form of a building as an expression of its con­ ment building in Alkmar (1917) do indeed still BORROWINGS FROM OLDER STYLES 1929, an extension to the grandstand designed struction (Amsterdam Stock Exchange, 1897 to have a historical style, but the projecting roofs, Other models were style elements from the time along constructive-functional lines in exposed 1903). the long horizontal bands of stone and the of the new Italian renaissance and Georgian concrete, with a long gallery beneath with no Wils worked for two years with Berlage, who grouping of the window frames indicate the influ­ architecture, which were used mainly in the window glazing, was added, in contrast to the was an admirer of the American architect Frank ence of Wright. buildings of the American architects Charles forms of eclecticism common at that time. Lloyd Wright (1869 to 1959). The confrontation Follen McKim (1847 to 1907), W. R. Mead and After 1932, the year of the Olympics in Los with Wright's work and to a lesser extent cooper­ THE ECLECTIC SCHOOL IN THE UNITED STATES Stanford White (1853 to 1906). The last-named Angeles, a move away from historical eclecticism ation with the artists' movement. De Stijl The Coliseum in Los Angeles (1932) deserves types of style left their stamp on the American occurred. A turn towards the international style (founded 1917), were of outstanding importance particular attention. In 1921 it had been con­ university buildings of that period and large sta­ was demonstrated by an exhibition of con­ for the conception of the Amsterdam Olympic structed still as a typical "bowl". The grandstand dium construction, which was often associated temporary European architecture, which was Stadium. Wils was particularly impressed by extensions of 1929 are in reinforced concrete. with the university complexes (e.g. the Harvard opened on 10th February 1932 in the Museum of Wright's internal and external forms of spaces, The construction is visible both externally and Stadium at Cambridge near Boston, Mass, the Modern Art in New York.

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The architect Werner March (1894 to 1976), accordance with the wide-ranging architectural in his original designs for the conversion of the planning of Hitler, the work of Albert Speer old German Stadium (Architect : Otto March) for became a symbol of official state architecture. In the Olympic Games in 1936, continued the the mass parade ground of the Zeppelinfeld in development of objectification of grandstand Nürnberg for about 240,000 people and the structures. His conversion designs show a pure uncompleted Congress Hall with 400,000 places, reinforced concrete structure with glazed spaces Speer gave visible expression to the ambitions of between, similar to the Vienna Stadium of 1929 the manipulated mass society. by Otto Ernst Schweizer, who was the first archi­ Werner March, himself a practicing sports­ tect to provide glazing as a weather protection man (swimmer and boxer) established his name for ambulatories, and thus at the same time satis­ as one of the leaders of the younger architects of fied the objectives of modern stadium construc­ Germany by the planning and building of the tion. German Sports Forum (1926 to 1928) and asso­ ciated buildings. His name is especially linked THE INFLUENCE OF ALBERT SPEER with the building of the Berlin Olympic Stadium The modern, neoclassical concept of the Berlin of 1936 which, with its associated structures may Olympic Stadium (1936 Olympics), the covering be regarded as his chef d'œuvre. The team of the structural frame with natural stone and the leader at that time was the architect Prof. Dr.-lng powerful cornices, go back to the inspiration of Lehmbruch. Following the widespread tendency Albert Speer. They exhibit the usual style ele­ of that period to emotionalism, the Stadium was ments of neoclassicism, which as early as 1910 named "Reich Sports Ground". It was not until were to be found predominantly in public build­ after the second World War that it was given its ings in Germany. present name of "Berlin Olympic Stadium". The Berlin Olympic Stadium of 1936’ is a typical example of a structure which was com­ A FAMILY OF ARCHITECTS pulsorily adapted in its style to the ideal concepts March was occupied for ten years with this struc­ of the architecture of the Third Reich. Official ture, from 1926 to 1936. In his early youth he State and Party buildings largely show a neoclas­ had become familiar with the predecessor, the sical style. Characteristics of this architecture are "German Stadium", which had been built by his the consistent mass of the building in a strict father Otto March at the site of the Grünewald geometrical form, high rectangular windows, Race Track (also by Otto March) before the first "Führer" balconies, and undecorated wall sur­ World War. faces in regionally available natural stones (mainly In 1925, Werner March, jointly with his shell limestone), which usually encased the load- brother Walter March, won a competition for the bearing reinforced concrete or steel structure. German Sports Forum. This was to be located The prestige buildings of the Third Reich thus alongside the race track. Up until 1928, gymna­ became an expression of an architecture that siums, an open-air swimming bath and a home made great use of manual craftmanship. The for female sports students were constructed ; the effect of permanence, indestructability and latter was named the Anna-Heim, after the fore­ strength were intended to be the expression of a name of the wife of the Mayor of Berlin at that political order. Simplicity and the omission of any time. Boss. ornamentation were regarded as patriotic. In 1928, the already mentioned proposals for enlarging the German Stadium were begun. IDEOLOGICAL ASCENDANCY Nobody was thinking yet of a future National The ideology of Hitler in the construction of State Socialist state. The National Socialists had only and Party buildings consisted in using large sports twelve elected representatives in the Reichstag at grounds and stadiums and correspondingly huge that time. The architects Werner and Walter buildings, which to him still appeared too small March obtained the commission in 1931 for pre­ / on the Sports Field of the Reich, to impress the paring the drawings for modifying the stadium to people at political demonstrations (e.g. the Party international requirements. In planning the lay­ Headquarters building in Nuremberg), in order out, the findings of the Americans were taken psychologically to secure-his might and power. In into account. "We have adopted as a basis the

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unit of measurement which American stadia They could not take place without his presence, A former naval officer and Mayor of Greno­ have, namely the 400 metre track (i Statute Mile because they must be opened by the Head of AN ORIGINAL ble from 1965 to 1983, he went down in Olym­ - 402.32 m)". State. But he was n o t going to enter a m odern pic history as the man behind the perfect success glass box of this type. Overnight I drew up a CHAM PION of the Xth Olympic Winter Games in 1968. THE IMPERIAL FIAT sketch for him, showing a revised cladding of the A dynamic and sporting municipal council­ In the autumn of 1933 the drawings for conver­ structural skeleton with natural stone and power­ AND A FIGHTER lor, Hubert Dubedout wanted those Games in sion of the old German stadium were ready ; ful cornices, the glazing had almost disappeared, order to help his city to acquire its modern face. because they were not monumental enough and and Hitler was satisfied. He would be responsible He was not mistaken. The competitive spirit were glazed, like the Vienna Prater Stadium, they for financing the additional cost, March agreed to □ Herma Stark-Szabô, five times individual aroused by the great winter Olympic rendez­ were not accepted by Hitler. The present-day the change and the Games were saved for Ber­ world figure skating champion, twice world pairs vous was the factor which helped to accelerate construction is ascribed by Albert Speer to him­ lin". champion and several times Austrian champion, the ambitious urban amenities plan, one of the self. He recounts in his memoirs : "The German In spite of the stylistic adaptation of the Ber­ has died after a long illness at the age of 84. biggest in the world at the time. Olympic Committee found itself in an unpleasant lin Olympic Stadium described above to Hitler's situation, when Hitler made the responsible modified plans, March hardly received any more While Grenoble became an example in the Secretary of State of the Ministry for Home commissions from the State. This certainly has to domain of urban planning and municipal ser­ Affairs, Pfundtner, show him the first drawings for do with the fact that March rejected the exces­ vices, Hubert Dubedout, "a pioneer of modern the reconstruction o f the stadium. Werner March, sive dimensions of the prestige buildings. municipal management", as he himself put it, the architect, had envisaged a concrete structure The present article shows that the construc­ proved the value of his experience, the benefit of tion of the Olympic Stadia referred to here have which he gave to many local representatives 7 been influenced by the interaction between inside and outside France. Today, the sports facil­ national regional influence on the one hand and ities of Grenoble remain perfect instruments for international movements in architecture on the training young people and an important factor in other hand, the Swedish national romantic move­ the region's tourist appeal. That too is something ment having been followed in the case of the worth remembering. Stockholm Stadium (1912), while in most of the other stadiums, apart from the stamp of national characteristics, the precursors of international movements in architectural style were the main Hubert Dubedout (left) on the day of the inauguration of the influence, for example in London (1908), Paris 90 m ski jum p at Saint Nizier. Right : Mr. Maurice Gleizes, Vice- (1924) and Los Angeles (1932 and 1984). The President of the Organising Committee, the IOC President Avery Brundage and Dr. Albert Michallon, President of the OCOG. Berlin Olympic Stadium (1936), which followed the neoclassicism which was at its height in about 1910, may finally be mentioned as a special case, because this style of architecture was specified in m the Third Reich as the only official State architec­ The crowning point of her career as a skater ture. was the gold medal she won at the first Olympic with glazed intermediate walls, similar to the Winter Games in Chamonix. On her return, thou­ Vienna Stadium (Architect : O.E. Schweizer). Hit­ T. S. sands of Viennese turned out to greet her and ler, angry and excited after seeing the drawings, even the trams came to a stop so that their driv­ returned to his apartment, where he had sum­ ers could offer her their congratulations. moned me (Speer) with drawings. He told the A versatile sportswoman, she took part in Secretary of State without more ado that the REFERENCE numerous skiing and swimming competitions. Olympic Games would have to be cancelled. Schmidt, Thomas : The Berlin Olympic Stadium and Its History, Berlin 1983. Born in 1902, she put on her first pair of skates at the age of two, and was to go down in history as the only person so far to be world figure skating champion in both the pairs and the individual event in the same year.

□ We have learned with sorrow of the death of the former Mayor of the city of Grenoble, Hubert Dubedout, in a climbing accident in the Alps. He was 64 years old.

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