A N D R E A S

V ES AL I US

TH

REFO RMER O F ANATO M Y

M S OO B LL . JA E M RES A , M D .

SAINT LO UIS

MEDICAL SCIENCE PRESS

MDCCCCX

TO THE MEM O RY

OF THOSE I LLUSTRIOUS MEN

WH O

OFTEN U N DER A DVE RSE CIRCUMSTAN CES

AND

SOMETIMES I N DANG E R O F DEATH

SUCC EEDED I N UNRAV EL L I NG THE MYSTERIES

OF THE STRUCTURE O F THE HUM AN BODY

TO THE FATHERS O F ANATO MY

AND

TO THE A RTIST - ANATOMISTS

THIS BO OK

IS DEDI CATED

PREFAC E

N T H E A N NA L S O F TH E medical profession the name of Andreas Vesalius o f Brussels holds

a place second to none . Every him physician has heard of , yet

few know the details of his life , the circumstances under which

his labors were carried out , the

o f extent those labors , or their far

o f m reaching influence upon the progress anato y , physi m ology and surgery . Co paratively few physicians have m seen his works ; and fewer still have read the . The m m refor ation which he inaugurated in anato y , and inci

o f m dentally in other branches edical science , has left

im m m o f only a d i press upon the inds the busy , science

loving physicians o f the nineteenth and twentieth centuries . That so little should be known about him is not surpris

ing , since his writings were in Latin and were published

m o f . prior to the iddle the sixteenth century His books , X PREFACE which at one time were in the hands of all the scientific physicians of Europe , are now rarely encountered beyond the walls of the great medical libraries o f the world . They are among the in cun abula of the medical literature . That

English - speaking physicians know little of Vesalian liter ature is due to the fact that no extensive biography of the

great anatomist has appeared in our language . Most of the Vesalian literature which has been written by English and American authors has been in the form of brief articles for the medical press; these oftentimes have been incorrect

and unillustrated . Perhaps the best example of this class

is the article by Mr . Henry Morley which appeared orig ’ in all F r aser s Ma azin e 1853 y in g , in , and later was pub

n d 1 lished in his Clemen t Ma rat a Other S tud ies , in 187 . The chief data for Vesalius ’ s biography are to be found

in his own writings , in the archives of the Universities in

which he taught , and in the controversial literature of the

period . Extensive as are these sources they leave much A to be desired . vast mass of Vesalian literature was

printed , chiefly in the Latin language , during the seven

een h t t and eighteenth centuries . Much of it is based

on insufficient evidence or on national prejudice . The m Ger ans , the French , the Dutch and the Italians have all

taken a turn at it . In modern times the monumental

A n d re s work of Roth , a Vesa lius Br uxellen sis , Berlin , 1892 m , has served to epito ize this literature and to make m clear any points which formerly were not understood . ’ m I have taken Roth s book as a basis for this onograph , without using the voluminous references which are found f in the work o this thorough historian . PREFACE XI

‘ The man who overthrew the authority of Galen ; revo lution ized the teaching o f the structure of the human m i body ; started anato ical , physiological , and surgical n vestigation in the right channels ; first correctly illustrated i m m h s dissections ; destroyed ancient dog as , and ade many

— man new discoveries this , Andreas Vesalius of Brussels , him “ deserves the name which Morley has given , the ” Luther of Anatomy . At long intervals a bright particular star appears in the

o f intellectual horizon , endowed with genius such a super lative order as seemingly to comprise within itself the whole domain o f an entire science . These men do not belong to any particular epoch in the development of the m m . o f hu an mind They are the eternal sy bols progress , and their history is the history of the science which they

men profess . Such were Bacon , Galileo , Descartes , N ew ton , Lavoisier , and Bichat ; and such also was Andreas m n Vesalius the anato ist . You g , enthusiastic , courageous e and diligent , Vesalius dar d to contradict the authority o f m m f Galen , corrected the anato ical istakes o thirteen c en tu t ies and before his thirtieth year published the most ac curate , complete , and best illustrated treatise o n anatomy

that the world had ever seen . His industry , the success which crowned his efforts , the jealousies which his dis

overies m c aroused in the breasts of his conte poraries , the honors which were conferred upon him by Charles the m Fifth and Philip the Second , his pilgri age to the Holy — Land , and his tragic death these are events which deserve to be chronicled by an abler pen than mine . The year 1543 marks the date o f a revolution which XII PREFACE

m o f a was won , not by force of ar s but by the scalpel an

o f m n atomist and the hand of an artist . The whole hu an m anato y , as a study involving correct descriptions of the component parts of the body and accurate delineations m thereof , ay be said to have been founded by Andreas

Vesalius and Jan Stephan van Calcar . A s light pouring into a prism attracts little notice until it emerges in iri

so i m h descent hues , t was with anato y : after passing throug the brain of Vesalius it bore rich fruit which has been m gathered by any hands . To turn from the writings of

Pe li k Phr e en Galen , Mondino , Hundt , y g , y s , and Beren ’ gario da Carpi to the beauties of Vesalius s De Huma n i Corporis F a brica is like passing from darkness into su n m light . To both anato ists and artists this book was a

revelation . For more than a century after its appearance the anatomists of Europe did little more than make addi m mm tions to , and co pose co entaries upon the conjoint

triumph of Vesalius and van Calcar . For more than two centuries the O S t eo lo gic and myologic figures of the

F a brica m o f - for ed the basis all treatises o n Art Anatomy .

JAMES MOORES BALL . TAB LE OF CONTENTS

PAGE I NTRODUCTION — The Study of M edical Hist ory T he Gen eral Ren aissan ce T he A n at o mical n Re aissan ce.

ANATOMY IN ANCIENT TI MES — n atom in t an d in ree e H i o rat es an d t he A s e iadae— maeon A y Egyp G c pp c cl p Alc , — — Empedocles an d Ar ist ot le Ear ly Roman M edicin e T he Al exan drian Un iv ersit y — H erophilus an d Erasistratus Claudius Gal en u s The Schoo l of Salem um Fre ri k de c II .

O D O T R STOR R O A O M N IN , HE E E F AN T MY — — Life of M on din o He restores th e Study of Practical An at omy His Boo k on m An ato y .

MO ND INO ’ S SU CCESSO RS — — — — Gabriel d e Zerb i Jo hn Peyligk Magn us H un dt Lauren t ius Phry esen A lexan der — us eren ar io da ar i— o — r i n A chillin B g C p J hn D ryan d er Cha l es Est e n e .

VESALIUS ’ S EARLY LIFE — — Origin of the Vesalius Family Ear ly Life of the An ato mist Vesalius en t ers t he n Un iversit y of Louvai .

SO JO URN IN PARIS . .

— i i Vesal ius goes t o Paris t o st udy M edicin e Cel ebrated Paris an Physic an s of t he — — — — i oso Sixteen t h Cen t ury Jac ob us Syl vius Joan n es Guin t erius Jean Fen rol Ph l phy — r o of Pierre d e la Ramee State of An ato my at t his Pe i d .

VESA LIUS RETURNS TO LO UVAIN

— - m S e ur s a e et o n . Vesalius return s to Louvain He con d ucts a C ourse in An at o y c e Sk l XIV AN DREAS VESALIUS

— Table of Contents Con tin ued

PAGE P RO FESSO R O F ANATO MY I N PADUA

esa i us oes to en i e t en e t o adua— e eives t he e ree of o tor of V l g V c , h c P R c D g D c — — M edicin e H e is appomt ed Professor of A n atomy His met ho d o f Teachin g n Lect ures al so in Bo log a.

F IRST CO NTRIBUTI ON TO ANATO MY

“ Vesalius issues a S eries of An at o mical Plates un der the t it l e Tabu lae A n ato micae — en si irat e His Plat es are ext vely p d .

PUBLICATI ON O F THE FABRICA

— The Man uscript an d Illust rat ion s for t he Fab rica are t ran sport ed to Basel Joan n es — O ormus the n ot ed ri n t e r an d reek o ar ub i at ion of t he Fa ri a p , P G Sch l P l c b c — — B eaut y o f t he Ill ustration s W ho was the un n amed A rt i st P The Plat es were — — erron eously ascribed t o Ti tian Ch ri st ofo ro C oriolan o Jan St ephan van Calcar st r t ion s amon A rt i st s an A n t Popularity o f t he Illu a g d a omi st s.

PUBLICATI ON O F THE E PITOME — u i ati on of the it o me eason s for it s Pubhcat ion — ara ter of the W ork P bl c Ep R Ch c .

CONTENTS OF THE FABRICA 99- 113

— — en eral lan of the Boo k A bri e R e view of it s Con t en t s The irst Book on G P f F , — ' — O steo logy Vesal i u s s C on tri but i o n s t o the An at o my of t he B on es The S econ d — “ oo k o n Li amen ts an d us es x e en e o f t is art o f the ri — B , g M cl E c ll c h P Fab ca The — i rd ook o n t he ein s an d A rteries T he Fou rt oo k on t he — Th B , V h B , N erves The — i t oo k o n the r an s of utri tion T he ixt oo k o n the eart F f h B , O g N S h B , H ’ — esalius s d ea of t he ir u at io n uota tion rom his ook—The even t oo k V I C c l Q f B S h B , h ra t h r an s o f en se— on usion on t e B in an d e O g S C cl .

C ONTEM PO RA RY ANATO MISTS 114- 125

The pub licat i o n o f t he Fab n ca is fo ll owed b y great activity m on g A n at omists — — Bart h o l o meus E ustach i us Reald us C ol umbus Gabrie l Fall opius Joh n Philip l n grassias AN DREAS VE SALIUS XV

— Table of Contents Con clud ed

PAGE

COM MENTATO RS AND P LAGIA RISTS 126- 129

— ’ — Plagiar ism in M edicin e W i ll i am Cowper an d Bi d loo s Plat es Pirat e d editi on s of “ ” ’ “ ” — - th e Tabulae A n at omicae Th omas G emin us s edi tion s of the Fabrica The — ’ — Microcosmographia of Helkiah Croo ke Joh n Ban ist er s B oo k Juan Valverde d i ' “ ” r n o m — i r Hamusco s wo k on A at y Best e d t i on s of the Fab ica .

TH E COU RT PHYSICIAN 130 - 132 — Vesalius is appoin t ed A rchiat rus t o Charl es th e Fi ft h H e fo llow s t he Emperor in — — his J oum eys Abdication of Charles Vesali us i s appoin t ed A rchiat rus t o Philip

the Secon d .

P I LGRIMAGE AN D DEATH 133- 136

esa ius eaves Madr id—He v isit s en i e t en oes t o rus an d asses on t o V l l V c , h g Cyp , p

— i ri a — at of esa i us Jeru sal em Reason for the P lg m ge D e h V l . LIST OF I LLUSTRATIONS

— “ An dreas Vesalius from the Epitome 1543 — — Troi en s. ro m An dreas Vesalius van Kalker p . I . j f copperplate en gravin g — “ I n itial Lett er from the Fabrica 1543 Hippocrates Arist otle Alexan der the Great Ptolemy S oter Galen ’ M on din o s Diagram of the H eart An atomical D em on stration in 1493

’ Title- page of M on din o s An atomy by M elerstat Colophon of the An ato my of M o n din o

mi ate Ricard us e a 1493 An ato cal Pl by H l , ’ k Dia ram of the eart 1499 Peylig s g H ,

mi i u e rom a n us u n dt 1 An ato cal F g r f M g H , 50 1

atomica i u re rom Lau en tius Ph r esen 1 18 An l F g f r y , 5 Alexan der Achillin us

D t on Be en ario 1535 issec i by r g ,

S n Be en ario 15 3 keleto by r g , 2

s e Be ren ario 1 1 M u cl s by g , 52

usc es Beren a io 1 1 M l by g r , 52 D ryan d er

ato mi i u e stien n e 1 4 An cal F g r by E , 5 5

S et n stien n e 1 4 kel o by E , 5 5

S r an d er 1 4 1 kull by D y , 5 The Old U n iversity of Louvain Sylv ius Wi n ter of An d ern ac h LI ST OF I LLUSTRATIONS XVII

P AGE J ean F e rn el

Ram u s — “ Viv isection of a Pig from th e Fab rica 1543 — “ I n stru m en ts u se d in Dissection fro m th e Fabrica 1543 “ ” n tia Lett er— f om th e a rica 1 43 I i l r F b , 5 View of the City of Base l in the Sixt een th C en tu ry J oan n es O porin us — “ M ark of O porin us fro m the Fabrica 1543 — ’ “ J an Stephan van Calcar fro m S an d rart s Teutsche Acad ” emie , 1685 o — ‘ Seco n d Vesalian Plate of theM u sc les from the Fab ri ca 1543 — Nin th Vesalian Plate o f th e M u scles fro m th e Fab r1ea 1543 — A H u m an Sku ll restin g on th e Sku ll of a D og from th e “ ” a r ca 1 43 F b i , 5 ’ Title- page of Vesalius s Epit o m e 1543 “ ” S e et on Vesa ius— from th e ab r1ca 1543 k l by l F , — “ Fifth Vesalian Plate of the M u scles fro m th e Fabr1ea 1543 — ‘ ’ D eep M usc les of the Bac k by V esalius fro m the Fab rica 1543 “ Part o f the First Text- page of th e Fab rica 1543 — “ Plate of the Art erial Tre e by Vesalius fro m the Fab rica 1543 “ ” D ssectio n of th e V sa ius— ro m th e ab rica i Abdo m en by e l f F , 154 3 — Dissecti o n of the H eart by Vesaliu s fro m the Fab r1ea 1543 “ ” n it a Letter— om th a r1ea 1543 I i l fr e F b , Brain an d Nerves by Eustac hius M usc les by Eustac hius

’ Titl e - page o f Co lu m bus s A n ato my Gab rie l Fallopius I n grassias Charles the Fifth Philip the Secon d I v an 1 0 11 " 1' ANDREAS VESALIUS

(From an old c opperplat e en gravin g) INTRO DUCTIO N

H E INTE LLIGENT STU DENT OF medical history has at his command

an unfailing source of pleasure . To learn the successive steps by which Medicine has advanced from a priest ridden and secret art practiced with m m ysterious rites in the Greek te ples , passing through the schools of Greek philosophy into the

o f light publicity , is his privilege . To hunt through musty and worm - eaten volumes for facts regarding the great physicians o f antiquity is his delight ; and to c o m mu n ic ate the knowledge thus obtained to others , who

m o r s have not the ti e the facilities for such re earch , is his

o f duty . In every period are events and incidents inter est , but to the Middle Ages a peculiar fascination attaches; m m for it was during this period that Europe , e erging fro

’ o f an intellectual darkness ten centuries duration , awoke to the Renaissance , and Medicine , as ever has been the

o f . case , kept pace with the general advance knowledge The present book deals with the life o f a master whose work was an essential factor in the evolution o f the Anatomical Renaissance . In order to understand the New Birth of Anatomy it is necessary to know something

of the scope and influence of the General Renaissance . 2 AN DREAS VESALIUS

The General Renaissance

o f This , the Revival Learning , includes an indefinite m ti me in European history . The seeds of the new ove ment were planted in the Middle Ages , but they bore no fruit until the time had arrived for an apparently “spon ” tan eou s outburst of intelligence . Definitions o f the

Renaissance will vary with the point o f view . Artists and sculptors will say it was a revolution which was created by the recovery of ancient statues ; littérateurs and philos o phers look upon it as a radical change due to the disc ov ery of the writings of the classical authors ; astronomers m and physicists will cite the na es of Copernicus , Galileo , and Torricelli geographers will point to the discovery of a New Continent ; historians will name the extinction o f feudalism and the capture o f Constantinople by the Turks inventors will recall the changed conditions of warfare m brought about by gunpowder , the ultiplication of books

o f by the invention printing , and the advent of new meth o d s of engraving ; and anatomists will sound the praises

n o f Leonardo da Vi ci and of Andreas Vesalius . All will ‘ — agree that the Ren aissan c e mean t Revolution revolution in thought , in conduct , in creed , and in conditions of

o n e existence . To no fact can the Renaissance be attrib u ted ; n o r can its scope be limited to any o n e field o f hu man endeavor . The Renaissance was , and is , and will continue to be , as long as the race progresses . m m The new ove ent began in Italy and grew rapidly .

When , toward the end of the sixteenth century , the lamp d im of learning began to get in Italy , it was relighted by

4 AN DREAS VESALIUS

m o f Humanism , that syste philosophy which regarded “ man as a rational being apart from theological deter “ minations” and perceived that classic literature alone displayed human nature in the plenitude of intellectual and moral freedom ” To a revolt against the despotism m of the Church , it added the atte pt to unify all that had

n been taught and done by ma . Petrarch was a poet , a

lawyer , an orator , a priest , and a philosopher . He lived

- 1304 1374 . between the years He was a great traveler , and visited the leading continental cities in order to con

m n verse with learned e . Petrarch delighted in the study m m of Cicero , in collecting anuscripts , and in accu ulating coins and inscriptions for historic purposes . He ad vo c a ted public libraries and preached the duty of preserving m ancient monu ents . He opposed the physicians and

astrologers of his day , and ridiculed the followers of

Averroes .

has Boccaccio , who been called the Father of Italian

s Pro e , and is most widely known as the author of the

ca meron o f De , did not spend all his time in describing

o f o f l the escapades the knights and ladies o d . I n flu en c

ed potently by Petrarch , Boccaccio regretted the years he

s had wa ted in law and trade , when he should have been

reading the classics . Late in life he began the study of

m I lia d Greek that he ight read the and the Odyssey . What he lacked in genuine scholarship he made up in

industry . He continued the work begun by Petrarch of hunting for lost manuscripts of the ancient Greek and

Roman authors . Many of these precious documents

s were tored in the conventual libraries , where , too often , INTRODUCTIO N 5

m they were either wantonly destroyed or were utilated , the words o f the author being erased from the parchment m to ake way for new prayers . Boccaccio tells o f a Visit which he made to the Benedictine Monastery o f Monte

o f l rn Cassino near the city Sa e u m . He wished to see the m books and found the in a room without door or key . f m m m Many o the were utilated . On aking inquiry as to

m o f the cause , the onks answered that they had sold some h t e sheets , having first erased the original words , replacing m them with psalters . The argins of the o ld pages were made into charms and were sold to women . It was owing to the unselfish labors o f such m en as

Petrarch and Boccaccio that the works of Livy , Cicero ,

o f Q uintilian , Terence , and others the ancient authors , were preserved . In this enterprise they were encouraged m ’ by the rulers . Thus Cosi o de Medici in Florence ,

m . Alfonso the Magnani ous in Naples , and Nicholas V in

m o f m Ro e , to say nothing the despots of the s aller cities , rivaled o n e another in their zeal in unearthing and multi plying the manuscripts o f the ancient writers . They spared neither time nor money to increase their store o f manuscript books . They surrounded themselves with

m n m learned e who lived in high estee , and who were supported by salaries paid by the State o r by private pensions .

o f m The fifteenth century , which was one the ost m remarkable epochs in history , was rich in acco plish

in flu ment . Almost all o f the great events which have en c ed European commercial and intellectual development

o f can be traced to that period . The invention printing , 6 AN DREAS VESALIUS

o f m m the discovery of America , the fall the Ro an E pire

m o f in the East , the birth of the Refor ation , and the rise

r . art in Italy , all belong to this wonderful centu y In this m period , when al ost every city in Italy was a new Athens , the Italian poets , historians , and artists vied with the em in en t men of the ancient world in carrying the lamp of — learning . The Italian cities Florence , Bologna , Milan , m — Venice , Ro e and Ferrara fought with one another , not for the spoils of the battlefield but for the victories of science and o f art ; not so much for the profits o f c o m

o f o f merce as for the wealth genius and learning . The intellectual development which occurred in northern

o f o f ar ic Italy under the rule the house Medici , and p t

of u larly under the auspices Lorenzo the Magnificent , forms one o f the most interesting periods in European

history . It is impossible in the present work to trace the steps by which the exquisite taste o f the ancients in works o fart m was revived in modern ti es . Nevertheless , a few words

. m m may be devoted to this subject ! While uch ust be cred ired to those Greek arti sts who had left their country and m had settled in the Italian peninsula , it ust be conceded that many o f the works o f art of the native Italians were m m not the less eritorious . The sa e circumstances which

favored the revival of letters , operated to further the cause m of art; and the sa e individuals , who were interested in the

m o f preservation of the anuscripts the older authors , also m busied the selves with the collection of ancient statues , m paintings , ge s and tapestry . The freedom of the Italian Republics permitted the minds o f men to expand to full INTRODUCTION 7 fruition ; and the encouragement which was given by its m rulers to artists , sculptors and artisans , ade the city o f

Florence , in the fifteenth century , a not less renowned centre of culture than Athens had been in ancient times . The revival of art dates from the time of Cimabue

(1240 - 1300) and Giotto (1276 The former is known as the Father o f Modern Painters ; the latter constructed

To m . m the Ca panile at Florence Giovanni Ci abue , scion m o f a noble Florentine fa ily , is usually given the credit of being the restorer o f art in Italy . He is thought to have been the first painter to throw expression into the human i countenance . H s work , if judged by present standards ,

m o f would be called crude , rude and inco plete . Much the fame o f this painter is to be attributed to his being the first person whom Vasari chronicled in his Lives of

m o f the P a in ters . For more than a century after the ti e

m n Cimabue and Giotto , painters displayed only a s atteri g of anatomical knowledge . m Early in the fifteenth century two Fle ish artists ,

Hubert van Eyck (1365- 1426) and his brother John (1385

o f m in their polyptych o f the Adoration the La b , boldly struck o u t along new lines and committed the u n

- o f . heard deed of painting nude figures Italy , however ,

- m was the real birthplace o f Art Anato y . While the Flemings and others of the North painted everything that

a they s w, including the nude , the Italians were the first me n of the Renaissance who thou g ht o f painting the nude 1404 figure before draping it . Leo Battista Alberti (

in his works on painting , insists that the bony skeleton must first be drawn and then clothed with its 8 AN DREAS VESALIUS

m ad muscles and flesh . This was an i portant step in

vance , since it shows that the Florentine artists were pro gressing towards realism and were breaking away from the symbolism o f the early Christian painters and mosaic m m workers . The new ove ent in art found a worthy champion in Antonio Pollaiuolo (1432 In his knowledge of the anatomy of the human figure he su r passed all o i the artists o f his day ; and as a result o f his labors he may justly be named the founder o f the sc ien

m was tific study of the nude . His knowledge o f anato y

so so accurate , and extensive , that it could have been

n m gained o ly in the dissecting roo . ’ Under the patronage o f Lorenzo de Medici and the m guiding ind of Pollaiuolo , there occurred a revival of

s - m p eudo pag anis in Art . The old Church subjects were largely neglected ; mythological subjects again became the fashion ; draperies were either modified o r were laid

o f aside; and the scientific study anatomy , both as regards the nude figure and the dissection o f the individual parts , m beca e the necessary training o f the student . Of all the m o f m asters this period , the pal for excellence in drawing the naked figure must be awarded to Luca Signorelli (1442 from whose work Michael Angelo is known

to have profited . The alliance between skilled anatomists and master

artists was of reciprocal benefit . The anatomical studies which were made conjointly by Leonardo da Vinci and m the celebrated teacher of anato y , Marc Antonio della

Torre , were lost to the world by the untimely death of

the latter , before he had fini shed a magnificent treatise INTRO DUCTION 9

m ’ m on human anato y . Leonardo s anato ical sketches , if

his m they had been published during lifeti e , would have revolutionized a n atomy both as regards discoveries in the body and the teaching of the structure o f man . These masterpieces o f anatomical illustration long remained hidden from the world ; they were published only in the 2 year 190 . Even now their cost is so great that only a ’ s m few wealthy libraries can pos ess the . Leonardo s long unpublished drawings show him to have been a most ac m m m curate anato ist . At the sa e ti e , he constantly kept in view the aim of fine art , which , in so far as practical m anato y is concerned , needs a knowledge of only the bones and the muscles . Nor was Leonardo the only artist who made dissec

B r h l m tions . Raffaello Santi , Michael Angelo , a t o o au s

o r Civoli Torre , Luigi Cardi , Jan Stephan van Calcar ,

M n en s Giuseppe Ribera , Arnold y t , and Pietro da Cortona ’ m - studied practical anato y . Ru b en s s long lost sketch ’ o n e - book , which was published hundred and thirty three years after his death , shows with what care he had studied

' ’ m r human anato y . Albrecht D ij er s Trea tise on the Pro

ortion s of the Hu ma n Bod m p y is also worthy of ention . m In the nu ber and fame of her Universities , Italy show ed supremacy . At the end o f the fifteenth century she

o f m could boast of sixteen seats learning , a nu ber equal

o f m F to that the co bined institutions of Britain , rance , m Germany , Hungary , Bohe ia and Bavaria . m This digression has led us away from the Hu anists . m m Their list is a long one . A ong the were Poggio

1 i r T héorie de la fi g ure h uma n e . Pa is, 1 773 . 10 AN DREAS VESALIUS

m I n s titu Bracciolini , who discovered the anuscript of the tion s o f Q uintilian and the writings of Vitruvius ; Polizia

o f t ran sla no , the first poet the fifteenth century , and the tor o f the works o f Hippocrates and Galen ; Pontanus , whose De S tellis and Ura n ia were much admired by

Italian scholars ; Sannazzaro , whose epic on the birth of

him o f i hr is Christ cost twenty years labor ; V da , whose C tia d and other poems were much admired ; and Fracas

S hilis m . toro , whose yp was hailed as a divine poe From the viewpoint of the medical historian an im 1443 m portant event occurred in the year , when Tho as of Sarzana , later known as Pope Nicholas V . , discovered a manuscript copy o f the De Med icin a of Aulus Cornelius m Celsus . This classic , which had been lost for any cen

u rie o n e m s t s, was of the first edical books to pa s through the press . It gave physicians an insight into Hippocratic medicine without the disadvantage of an imperfect trans lation . Physicians took an active part in the Renaissance .

Leon ic en u s Thus Nicholas , of Ferrara , translated the Aphor is ms of Hippocrates and the Na tura l His tory of Pliny ; and Winter o f Andernach did similar labor for

A e in ta the writings of Galen , Alexander , and Paulus g e . Their efforts seem insignificant in comparison with those

A n u tiu s Fo esiu s m of , a hu ble practitioner of Metz , who spent forty years of his life in preparing a complete Greek

o f edition the works of Hippocrates . The New Learn

ing was brought to England by two physicians , Thomas

Linacre and John Kaye (Caius) .

m o f m So e the Hu anists were printers . The history o f printing in Italy naturally forms a part o f the history of

12 AN DREAS VESALIUS

bowed before the shrine of classical literature . Even in the christening of children the Christian name was sacri m fic ed to paganis . The saints were forgotten , and the names most frequently chosen were those from heathen mythology . The polite authors described scenes , events and actions in their writings in terms which long since have been banished from good society . A spade was m m called by its true na e . Be bo , the secretary of Leo X could write a hymn to Saint Stephen or a monologue for

m of Priapus with equal ease and elegance . The a ours the high and the low were flaunted in print . The nation de generated into an intellectual and sensual state which in volved even the Popes . Scholars and rich men alike vied with one another in returning to those pursuits , habits , and methods o f thought which had ruled ancient Rome

in her most corrupt days .

Such a condition could not exist forever . The turning 1527 point came in , when Charles the Fifth , engaging in m war with Pope Cle ent VII . , captured and sacked the f m city o Ro e . After that event everything was changed . m Not only had the scholars lost their influence , but any m of the had lost their lives . Valeriano , who returned to m “ Ro e after the siege , pathetically exclaims : Good God !

when first I began to enquire for the philosophers , orators ,

poets and professors of Greek and Latin literature , whose m m na es were written on y tablets , how great , how borri ble a tragedy was offered to me ! Of all those lettered

men m se m who I had hoped to e , how any had peri shed

m m s iserably , carried off by the ost cruel of all fate , over

m m d o f whel ed by undeserved cala ities ; some ead plague , INTRODUCTION 13

b some rought to a slow end by penury in exile , others m ’ slaughtered by a foe an s sword , others worn o u t by daily m m tortures ; so e , again , and these of all the ost unhappy , ” - driven by anguish to self murder . Such was the end of m the men who ade the Italian Renaissance . The Span iard s , the Inquisition , and the changed policy of the

Church prevented a second revival of Humanism . While the sack of Rome marks the end of the Human i ts s , the Revival in Medicine continued to grow in vigor and extent . Many of the greatest discoveries in anatomy were made , and most of the important books on this su bjec t were written , in the middle and latter part of the sixteenth cen tury . Italian history is rich in contradictions . While peace , ease and comfort are generally considered to be meces sary to the development of science and culture , Italy offers the strange spectacle of the steady increase in medical m knowledge in spite of wars and alar s . The Inquisition , m 1224 which had been introduced fro Spain in , was given

m 1540 a a new and horrible i petus when , in , Paul II I . p

six o f pointed cardinals to add to its tortures , One them , 1 5 Caraffa , became Pope Paul IV . in 55 , and four years

I n d x E x ur a toriu later originated the e p g s . Torn by civil and foreign wars , and terrorized by the Inquisition , which

n o was t abolished until late in the eighteenth century , Italy gradually lost her commercial and intellectual su h m m premac y . That s e should have acco plished so uch

m n ow under such unfavorable circu stances , is a matter m of wonder ent . The origin o f the Renaissance in Italy was due to

e n many causes . The early Roman civilization was not 14 AN DREAS VESALIUS tirely blotted out by the invasion of the barbarians o f the

m o f os North . And in the atter language the Italians p m sessed an advantage , since the transition fro Latin to

o Italian was easier than from Latin t Spanish , French ,

English or German . The fertility of the country ; the mildness o f the climate ; the division into semi - in d epen d ent states; the infusion of new northern blood into the veins of the Italians ; the removal of the papal court to

Avignon in 1309 ; and the gradual rise - o f a powerful mid m m dle class , whose e bers included the devotees of the

o f m professions law and edicine , were factors which de termin ed F that Italy , rather than rance or Spain , should

f r be the field o the Revival o f Letters . To Italy , then , belongs the glory of having been the first to free herself from the trammels of ancient scholas tic ism m and the fetters of ediaeval theology . She aban d o n ed the wordy dialectics and metaphysical gymnastics l o d . m of the philosophers of In place of ortification , penance and solitary confinement in cloistered monaster

she ies and convents , began to have a proper conception

man of the dignity of and his relation to nature . m Italy , in the time of her freedo , received the torch m of learning fro Greece ; Italy revived its brilliancy , and , m when her ti e of adversity and ruin arrived , she passed it o n o f to the nations Northern Europe . They in turn have transferred it to America , to Australia , to India , and m to the utter ost parts of the earth . The Anatomical Renaissance Italy in the sixteenth century was the fount from which

issued a ceaseless stream o f anatomical discoveries . The INTRODUCTION 15

ancient and illustrious Universities of Bologna , Pavia ,

m o f Padua , Pisa and Ro e , eclipsed the schools Paris and

Montpellier , of Toulouse and Salamanca ; and the Italian m m peninsula , which , in early ediaeval ti es , had gloried in

o f of l rn u m m the skill the physicians Sa e , a second ti e be m m ca e the edical centre of Europe . Vesalius and his

m o f pupil , Fallopius , taught at Padua ; the ancient fa e

Bologna was supported by Arantius and Varolius ; Vidius , m returned from establishing the anato ical school at Paris , m taught at Pisa ; Eustachius was at Ro e , Ingrassias lec tu red m at Naples , and the fa e of the New Anatomy spread throughout the world . The Italian cities were filled with m students fro foreign lands . Padua had more than one thousand new students every year , salaries were paid to

on e m her hundred professors , and edicine was looked upon as a noble profession .

While the Italians were the leaders in progress , the

m o n Ger ans were still lecturing Galen and Avicenna , the m English had done al ost nothing , and the College de

France was not established until 1530 . Legalized by imperial authority and sanctioned by the m Church , dissection was no longer regarded as a cri e . A

1 00 fo r bull by Pope Boniface VIII . , issued in the year 3 , bidding the evisceration of the dead and the boiling o f their bodies to secure the bones for consecrated ground , as was done by the Crusaders , was wrongly interpreted as forbidding anatomical dissection . Two centuries later the

o f m Popes , standing in the vanguard science , per itted dis m m sections to be ade in all the Italian edical schools , m and paved the way for the Anato ical Renaissance . 16 AN DREAS VESALIUS

Great things were done in the sixteenth century . Un

revolu der the scalpel and pen of Vesalius , anatomy was

n iz tio ed . Surgery was guided into new paths by Ambroise

Paré; and obstetrics , thanks to the labors of Eucharius

Rho ion Gu ill meau i d and Jacques e , began to assume ts m l m legiti ate p ace among the edical sciences . Servetus , visionary and argumentative , correctly described the pul mo n ary circulation in a theological work which was burn

i s m ed with t author . Eustachius , Colu bus and Fallopius widened the path which had been blazed by Vesalius .

Ca sal in Arantius , e p u s and Fabricius added materially to anatomical science . The labors of all these great masters prepared the way for the greatest event occurring in the m ’ seventeenth century , namely , Willia Harvey s discovery of the circulatory movement of the blood .

INITIAL LETTER BY VESAL IUS “ ” From th e a ri a 543 ( F b c , 1 ) C HAPTER FIRST

An atomy i n Ancie nt Times

GYPT AN D GREECE WERE TH E sources o f the medical learning o f the

ancient world . Although the Egyp tians and early Greeks possessed a cer

o tain amount f anatomical knowledge , which was gained in the one instance by the practice of embalming and in the other by an examination of the bones , no real progress

o f m an d re u could be made because the laws , custo s p j

m ’ h l T dices bf t ose anci ent peop es . hus we find the Egyp — “ ' tian s stdn i n n ié b perator who opened the abdomen in order that the body might be embalmed ; and the Greeks

o in flicted the death penalty o n those f their generals who ,

o r m o f after a battle , neglected to bury burn the re ains the slain . In the time of Hippo crates , whose life extended approximately over the pe rio d 460 - 37 between 7 B . C . , Greek medici n e emerged from the domination o f the

o r o f Asclepiadae , priests

Aesculapius , who had fol lowed it as an hereditary and secret art . Prior to this time in the numerous As “I PPO CRATES 18 AN DREAS VESALIUS

ia m c lep , or Te ples of Aesculapius , votive offerings had

m o f m . been accepted , so e which were of anato ical interest Thus the Temple at Athens received a silver heart and gold eyes . Pausanias states that Hippocrates gave to the

Temple of Apollo , at Delphos , a skeleton which was 1 Moeh en as made of brass . Possibly , as s believes , this w a metallic figure representing a man who was much ema

o f c iated by the ravages disease . In the Hippocratic

o f writings , some which are undoubtedly spurious , are few references to the opening o f a dead body ; and these ex amin atio n s concern the investigation o f the thorax and abdomen in order to determine the cause of death . While

o f m m the Greek physicians knew little the hu an uscles ,

m o f o f the nervous syste and of the organs sense , they were well acquainted with the anatomy of the bones .

Their dissections were held upon the lower animals . It is impossible to determine whether or not the Greek physicians o f the Hippocratic period dissected the human “ m ” body . It has long been a atter of debate , says John ’ “ Bell , whether the ancients were , or were not , acquaint m ed with anato y , and the subject , with its various bear m ings , has been uch and keenly agitated by the learned . m m If anato y had been uch known to the ancients , their knowledge would not have remained a subject of specula

tion . We should have had evidence o f it in their works

o n but , the contrary , we find Hippocrates spending his m ti e in idle prognostics , and dissecting apes , to discover ” the seat of the bile .

1 Mo ehsen : V erze i n is e in er amml un von Bild n issen l . Ber in 1 ch S g . 177 ; p age 59 . 2 Bell : O b se rvat io n s o n Ital Ed in b ur 18 5 a e y gh , 2 ; p g 257.

20 AN DREAS VESALIUS

introduced into Rome in the year 291 B . C . Livy relates that the god o f medicine in the guise o f a serpent was

o f transported from Epidaurus , in Greece , to the Isle the

Tiber where a temple was built in his honor . m m The Ro ans , like the Greeks , were accusto ed to

d on aria leave votive offerings , or , in their temples . Such

m a li gifts included surgical instru ents , pharmaceutical pp an c e n m s, painted tablets representi g iraculous cures , and great numbers of images of various parts o f the human

- frame shaped in metal , stone or terra cotta . Among the remains o f Roman anatomical art is the marble figure

o f which was unearthed in the villa Antonius Musa , the

o f m favorite physician the E peror Augustus . It is a hu m an torso ; the front o f the chest and abdomen has been removed so as to expose the

viscera . The heart is plac ed vertically in the middle

of the thorax , thus corres ponding to the position o f this organ as described by Galen who made his dis

on sections apes . It is a human thorax with simian

contents . The figure is ALEXANDER THE GREAT supposed to have been c o n structed for the purposes of a teacher o f anatomy .

It was in the famous Alexandrian University that hu man m m anato y was first studied syste atically and legally . 2 Alexander the Great , after the fall of Tyre (33 B . C .)

o f and the siege Gaza , ordered his fleet to sail up the Nile ANATOMY I N ANCI ENT TIMES 2 1 as far as Memphis while he proceeded overland with the

m . was m ar y It probably on this arch , while viewing the pyramids and other marvelous works o f the ancient

Egyptians , that he conceived the grand idea of founding m d a city upon the banks of the Nile , which should be a o el of of architectural beauty , a centre intellectual life and a lasting monument of his o wn greatness and magn ifi cence . The foundation o f Alexandria was laid by the warrior whose name it bears ; but the credit o f instituting the Library belongs to one o f his lieutenants , Ptolemy

Soter . The new city which for centuries was the intellectual f and commercial storehouse o Europe , Africa and India , was of oblong form . Lake Mareotis washed its walls on the south , while the Mediterranean bathed its ramparts o n the north . Pro

id ed v with broad streets , it was adorned with m ag

if ien m n ic t houses , te ples and public buildings . At the centre o f the city was the Mausoleum in which ”O L EMY SOTER

o f m m was deposited the body Alexander , e bal ed after the f manner o the Egyptians . Alexandria was divided into ’ R io or u o r three parts : the eg J ud ae m Jews quarter , in

o n the northwest ; the Rhacotis , o r Egyptian section , the m west , containing the Serapeu with a large part of the

an d o n the Br ucha eu m o r Library ; north , the , Greek por 22 AN DREAS VESALIUS

Mu tion , containing the greater part of the Library , the

m o f . seum , the Te ple of the Caesars and the Court Justice The population was cosmopolitan in character ; the stat ues of the Greek gods stood by the side of those o f Osiris and o f Isis ; the Jews forgot their language and spoke m Greek ; and under the Ptole ies , who were of Greek de m scent , Alexandria beca e a centre of intellectual life and culture . To the medical historian the most interesting feature of Alexandria was the Museum or University . Here were assembled the intellectual giants of the earth : A rc hime des and Hero , the philosophers ; Apelles , the painter m m Hipparchus and Ptole y , the astrono ers ; Euclid , the m geo eter ; Eratosthenes and Strabo , the geographers ;

Manetho , the historian ; Aristophanes , the rhetorician ;

C allimic h Theocritus and u s, the poets ; and Erasistratus m m and Herophilus , the anato ists , all of who labored in quiet upon the peaceful banks of the Nile . The early Christian church drew from the divine school at Alex ” m andria such e inent teachers as Origen and Athanasius .

m zo olo Here were a che ical laboratory , a botanical and g m ical garden , an astrono ical observatory , a great library , m and a roo for the dissection of the dead . In the Alexandrian school o f medicine Erasistratus and Herophilus taught the science o f organization from actual dissections . The generosity of the Ptolemies not m m only furnished the with an abundance of dead aterial , but condemned malefactors were used fo r human vivisec 1 tion . Celsus states that the Alexandrian anatomists o b

‘ Ce l sus : De Me d ic ma ib L . l . ANATOMY I N ANC IENT TI MES 23

ain ed t criminals , for dissection alive , and contemplated , even while they breathed , those parts which nature had ” before concealed .

Herophilus made many anatomical discoveries . H e traced the delicate arachnoid membrane into the ventricles f of the brain , which he held to be the seat o the soul ; and first described that junction o f the six cerebral sinuses o p

o i e p s t the occipital protuberance , which to this day is

H r hili torcula r e o . H a called the p e s w the lacteals , but

u s o f knew not their e , and regarded the nerves as organs sensation arising from the brain ; he described the differ

qf ent tunics the eye , giving them names which are still retained ; and first named the duodenum and discovered the epididymis . He attributed the pulsation of arteries to the action o f the heart ; the paralysis of muscles to an affection of the nerves ; and first named the furrow in the

a lamus scri torius . fourth cerebral ventricle , calling it c p Erasistratus gave names to the auricles o f the heart ; declared that the veins were blood - vessels ; and the arter

- ies m . , fro being found empty after death , were air vessels H e believed that the purpose o f respiration was to fill the m arteries with air ; the air distended the arteries , ade them

m . beat , and in this anner the pulse was produced When

be once the air gained entrance to the left ventricle , it

o f came the vital Spirits . The function the veins was to carry blood to the extremities . He is said to have had a vague idea of the division of n e rves into nerves o f sensa

tion and o f motion ; to the . former he assigned an origin in the membranes of the brain , while the latter proceeded from the cerebral substance itself . He recognized the 24 AN DREAS VESALIUS

u se of the trachea as the tube which conveys air to the lungs . A catheter , the first invented , which was figured

m o f in ancient surgical works , bore the na e the catheter

u s as of Erasistratus . He gravely tells , the result o f his

i hat m anatomical stu d es, t the soul is located in the embranes of the brain . The practice of human dissection did not long exist

o f in the city its origin , and after the second century was unknown . Then science underwent a retrogression ; observations and experiments were replaced by useless discussions and subtle theories . The decline of the Alex andrian University was due to a series o f disasters which began with the Roman domination and reached their cli

o i max with the capture the city by the Arabs . l Claudius Galenus , the ce e b rated Roman physician whose writings were for centuries ac c epted as authority and whose reputation was second only to

o f a o li that Hippocrates , w s b g ed to base his anatomical treat ises largely upon the dissection m of the lower ani als . He ad vised his pupils to visit Alexan GALEN dria , where he had studied , in m m order that they ight exa ine the human skeleton . He — complained that the physicians o f his time in the reign — o f Marcus Aurelius had entirely neglected anatomical knowledge and had degenerated into mere sophists . He

m o f m appreciated the i portance anato y , particularly to a ANATOMY IN ANCIENT TIMES 25

n surgeo who is called upon to treat wounds and injuries .

has D A Hence he endeavored in the four books , e n a to mi Ad min i r ion ibu eis st a t s , to cover this part of anatomy as exhaustively as possible . Galen ’ s voluminous writings form a precious monu ment o f ancient medicine . The works of the Alexandrian m f anato ists having been destroyed , we know o their labors

m ha chiefly fro what Galen s said of them . His treatises

al show a remarkable familiarity with practical anatomy , m though his dissections were ade upon the lower animals . ’ Galen s knowledge of osteology was extensive . He de

o f n scribed the bones the skull , the cra ial sutures , and the

o f m m m essential features the alar , axillary , eth oid and sphenoid bones . He divided the vertebrae into cervical , m dorsal and lu bar classes . H e knew that both arteries and veins were blood - carrying vessels ; he described the valves o f the heart , and recognized this organ as the source

n er en ric o f pulsation . He erroneously taught that the i t v t ular septum presents foramina through which the two m m kinds of blood beco e ixed .

In myology Galen made numerous advances . Pre ” ‘ “ vion s to his investigations , says Fisher , much confusion existed as to what constituted a single muscle ; he adopt ed the general rule o f considering each bundle o f fibers that terminates in an independent tendon to be on e mu s m cle . He was the first to describe and give na es to the

m m o i - platys a y des, the sterno and thyro hyoides , and the

o f popliteal . He described the six muscles the eye , two

o f o f m muscles the eyelids , and four pairs uscles of the

1 F Cl d G l l f n ato m an d S ur e r V o l IV a e 216 . u i a n us . An n a s o ish er : a us e A y g y , p g 26 AN DREAS VESALIUS

— m lower jaw the temporal to raise , the asseter to draw to

one side , and two depressors , corresponding to the digas tric and internal pterygoid muscles . H e described also

s hin c the brachialis anticus , the biceps flexor cubiti , the p m ter and levator ani , and the straight and oblique uscles m of the abdo en . In short , he described the greater por m tion of the uscles of the body , his treatise differing chiefly from a modern one in the minute account of these organs and in the omission of some of the smaller mus ” cles . Galen studied the brain and named the corpus m m m m callosu , the septu lucidu , the corpora quadrige ina and the fornix ; but erroneously stated that the nerves o f m sensation arise fro the brain , and those of motion from the spinal cord . He denied the decussation of the optic

s m a h nerves . He described the p n eumogastric and y p t e tic nerves ; seven pairs o f cerebral and thirty pairs of spi nal nerves ; and claimed the discovery o f the ganglia of m the nervous syste . He located the seat of the soul in m in the brain , which also is the source of the rational ind ;

him o f the heart to was the source of courage and anger, ’ and the liver was the seat o f desire . Many of Galen s anatomical statements show that be derived his knowledge from comparative dissections . The Galenic era was followed by that long period o f ig n oran c e m o f , of slu ber and inaction which is justly known

as the Dark Ages . While a few Greek and Arab writers , m who ca e after Galen , contributed to the literature o f med

ic in e and surgery , they did nothing for anatomy . After the end o f the fifth century even the wo rks of Galen were

. m forgotten At this period , when edicine was chiefly in

28 AN DREAS VESALIUS which gives minute directions regarding the manner in which the animal is to be dissected . Another anatomical

f o f S alern ian work o later date , written by a member the

Demon stra tio A n a tomica faculty , is entitled it also deals only with comparative anatomy . In the thirteenth cen m 123 1 . tury (A . D . ) Frederick II , E peror of Germany and

K Sic ilies ing of the Two , and the author of a treatise

m m o f which contained a co plete anato y the falcon , de creed that a human body should be anatomized at Saler num at least once in five years . Physicians and surgeons o f the kingdom were required to be present at the d issec tion . So far as is known , no record has been kept o f these demonstrations . Creditable as was this anatomic decree , the great Hohenstaufen in other respects was n o t m m free fro the errors o f his age . A fir believer in Med i cin a Astrolo ica g , he did not decide upon any undertaking h until t e stars had been consulted . It was not alone at S alern u m that dissection was legal ized in the thirteenth century . A document o f the year

130 8 o f , the Maggiore Consiglio of Venice , shows that a medical college located in that city was authorized to dis

a sect body once a year . This , and other isolated exam

was ples , indicate that the time approaching when anatomy m should be taught from hu an dissections . The credit o f reinaugurating the teaching of this useful department of

of science belongs to Mondino dei Luzzi Bologna . CHAPTER SECON D

M d i t he R s of A on no , e torer n ato my

THE 13 15 N YEAR , IN TH E OLD

o f Italian city Bologna , an event occur red which marks an important epoch in

the history of medicine . A wondering crowd of medical Students witnessed — the dissection o f a human cadaver one of the few procedures o f the kind that had occurred since the fall of the Alexandrian University .

ad Acting under royal authority Mondino , a man far in

o f m vance the age , placed the body of a fe ale upon a table

c ad avera o f where for many centuries before only the apes , o f swine and of dogs had been studied .

as Mu n din u s Mu n din i Mondino , known also , , Rai

o r as mondino , Mondino dei Luzzi , w descended from a prominent Italian family . Little is known of his life . The year o f his birth is disputed ; probably 1276 was near the

H e time . was graduated in medicine in 1290 and in 1306 m he beca e a professor in the University o f Bologna , hold ing his chair with credit until his death in 1326 . Like ’ o f M n in that the illustrious Homer , o d o s nativity has been m clai ed by several rival cities . Guy de Chauliac , writing

1363 : Mun d i in , states that Mondino was a Bolognese ’ n us Bon on ien sis is Chau liac s expression . ’ Mon din o s method o f teaching anatomy is known from ’ “ — Mu n in s o f Chau liac s testimony d u Bologna , wrote on

m m m Bertru c c iu s m anato y , and y aster , , de onstrated it 30 AN DREAS VESALIUS many times in this manner — The body having been placed o n m a table , he would make fro it four readings ; in the m first the digestive organs were treated , because ore prone to rapid decomposition ; in the second , the organs of respi

n ration ; i the third , the organs of circulation ; in the fourth m ” the extre ities were treated . The innovation so auspicious f ly begun was not continued , and after the death o Mon m dino human dissections were ade only at long intervals .

The few instances in which , in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries , the ecclesiastical and civil authorities granted the right to make dissections only prove the contention , that the practical study o f human anatomy did not gain recognition until the sixteenth century . When Mondino began his dissections the epoch o f

Saracen learning had ended , but the influence of Arab m edicine exerted by the writings of Albucasis , Avicenna and Rhazes had not declined . The Arabian physicians m m had acco plished little fo r anato y . In this line the in

o f fluence Galen was still potent , and was rarely question

o f F a brica ed until the publication the of Vesalius in 1543 . During a long period the little treatise of Mondino held m full sway in the ediaeval schools . Medicine was taught in the University of Bologna , which as early as the twelfth

’ century was celebrated for its d epartm eri ts o f literature and of law . These studies were free o f the difficulties which m beset edicine . The prejudice against dissection was so great that for nearly a century after his death few men

o f dared to repeat the acts Mondino . In 13 16 Mondino issued his book which remained in manuscript form fo r more than one hundred and fifty O F MO N DINO , RE STO RER ANATO MY 3 1

14 8 . years , the first printed edition bearing the date 7

S m as mall and i perfect it was , it marks an era in the his tory of science . By command of the authorities this book

o f was read in all the Italian Universities . The work Mondino contained no new facts ; it was compiled largely

e from th writings of Galen and of Avicenna . The de “ sc ri tion s of p , to use the words Turner , are corrupted by

o f his the barbarous leaven the Arabian schools , and Lat in is defaced by the exotic nomenclature o i Ibn - Sina and ” Al- Rasi . Mondino divided the body into three cavities , of which the upper contains the animal members , the

fit gommrfird rumin terim ‘ b cl i rarion e I n z pb . e b out ui zmit 21 fl at t n : a 9 q " ti t t o: fpfii ab oiaroz e m! ‘ b u qri ' ’ claub imt gfm e d aufi6e ap S extra ab muse! a aperiuumt

«om mfo. 3 ( 11m m va ults portan t ve’pozéaem : a: vulmon t

n o n n mo ' s M or T HE 1 513 DIA GRA HEART, m lower the natural members , and the iddle the spiritual members . Many o f his names are borrowed from the

si hac Arab writers . Thus , he calls the peritoneum p , the

m z r bi har us . o entum y , and the mesentery euc His de scription of the heart is much nearer accuracy than would be expected . H e resorted to vivisection , and tells us that when the recurrent nerves o f the larynx are cut the ani ’ m o f mal s voice is lost . In his book we find the rudi ents

c om phrenology . He states that the brain is divided into

ar men o f o f p t ts, each of which holds one the faculties the intellect . 32 AN D REAS VESALIUS

Mondino did not himself make the dissections which him are credited to . According to an ancient custom m which lasted until the ti e of Vesalius , the actual cutting was done by a barber who wielded a knife as large as a

a cleaver . The professor of anatomy s t upon an elevated m seat and discoursed concerning the parts , while a de on

r strato , who also did not soil his fingers , pointed to the ’ Mon din o s different structures with a staff . Originally book contained no figures ; when the art o f wood en grav ing was introduced in the latter part o f the fifteenth cen tury , a few rude woodcuts appeared which represent

ulus Mondino and his method of teaching . In the F a scic

Med icin ae Ke ham of Joannes de t , published at Venice in ’ 14 3 Mon din o s 9 , book is printed with an illustration m showing a de onstration in anatomy . According to Mondino the heart is placed in the cen “ tre of the body . The valves he considers wonderful ” o f m works nature . He describes a right , left and iddle ventricle . The right ventricle has thinner walls than the left , because it contains blood ; the left one contains the vital Spirit , which passes through the arteries to the body; and the middle ventricle consists of many small cavities “

broader on the right side than on the left , to the end m that the blood , which co es to the left ventricle from the m right , be refined , because its refine ent is the preparation

o f for the generation vital Spirit , which should be contin ” u all y formed . Mondino describes five bones of the head , — separated by three sutures coronal , sagittal and occipital .

The brain has two membranes : dura and pia . There are — three cerebral ventricles anterior , posterior and middle ANATOMICAL D EMO NSTRATION IN 14 93

(Joan n es d e K etham) 34 AN DREAS VESALIUS

and in these he locates the various intellectual qualities .

: He describes the cerebral nerves olfactory , optic , motor

m . oculi , facial , vagus , trige inal , auditory and hypoglossal

m n as femoris m n He calls the inno inate bo e ; the fe ur , ca n a coxae; the humer

u s as a d u tori , i ; while the bones of both leg and forearm are nam

focilia m ed , ajor and

minus . Like many anato mists who succeeded

him , Mondino min gled surgical ideas with his anatomical

s tatements . A break in the siphac causes hernia and a swell

ing in the mirach . He treated ascites by puncture and cvac

u ation , m a k i n g a

- valve like opening . Wounds of the large intestines must be

’ TITLE - PAGE o r M O NDI NO S A NATOMY sutured; if the wound BY MELERSTA T be in the small intes (Prin t ed befo re 1 500 ) tines he advises that

you should have large ants , and , making them bite the conjoined lips of the wound , decapitate them instant

36 AN DREAS VESALIUS

15 13 m o f burg edition , , is a small octavo volu e forty

o f leaves . It contains a diagram the heart and an astro logical figure , a cadaver with the thorax and abdomen of opened , surrounded by the Signs the zodiac . Such was the volume which for more than two hundred years was supposed to con tain all that was to

crla ist- le ! be said of human m m . mfl.p b PM g c g m m u u 4mm, d anatomy ! “! m m l l ucbq hotoo as So numerous are the abbreviations in arm cn n n m tim fl ab w ’ m n emrfiemg rift; Mon din o s so book , hi barbarous is s style , that the making of a translation I S a d iffi

cult task . His rea sons for writing are “ these - A work u p on any science o r art — — as saith Galen is issued for three rea

sons ; F irst, that o n e

may help his friend s .

n d ma S eco , that he y exercise his best men

Third tal powers . , that he may be saved from the oblivion in COLOPHON OF THE ANATOMY ” OF 1 513 e ident to o ld age . MONDINO , C HAPTER THIRD

’ M o n d in o s S u cce ssors

OR T W O H U N D R E D YEARS ’ anatomists used Mon din o s book as a text for their lectures and for the same period anatomical writers did little m mm ore than co ent upon this treatise . The new art of wood engraving was turned to anatomical use and crude il lustrations of the various parts o f the body were put into

o f circulation . Some these pictures were in the form o f

F lie en d e Bld tt r i . se o f g e , or fly ng leaves A t anatomical

o f Ric ard u plates this type was issued by a certain s Hela , f 1 o 4 3 . a physician Paris , as early as the year 9 They were m m printed at Nure berg . Their character ay be judged

o f by the accompanying illustration the osseous system . Gabriel de Zerhi

’ One of Mon din o s commentators was Gabriel de Zerhi m (1468 of Verona , who taught edicine , logic and

o f philosophy in the Universities Padua , Bologna and

m A n tomia or oris Huma n i Ro e . His book , a C p , appear m ed at Venice in 1502 . Zerbi i itated Mondino in Style ,

c o n abbreviations and language . The work , however , tains some original observations regarding the Fallopian

l hr m ali m . tubes , the puncta ac y a and the lachry al gland From the fact that Zerhi describes two lachrymal glands

o f in each orbit , it is known that many his dissections were made upon brutes . A OM A L PL RI CA RD US H L 1493 AN T IC ATE BY E A, MO N DINO ’ S SUCCESSORS 39

’ Zerbi s reputation , which extended to all parts of Eu h rope , was the cause o f is death . The Venetians received from Constantinople the request for a skillful physician

o n o f who should treat e the principal Seigniors o f Turkey . The Republic turned its eyes to Zerbi who went to Con stan tin o le p , apparently cured the Seignior , and , loaded

M odern

PEY LI GK ’ S H A 1499 DIAGRAM OF T E HE RT,

o n . with presents , Started the return voyage for Venice

Unfortunately the patient suddenly died after a debauch . The infuriated Turks overtook the ship o n which Zerhi and his son were passengers and carried them back to m Constantinople , where both the anato ist and his son were quartered alive . John Peyligk Among the German anatomists of this period was John

P li k Philoso hiae Na tur a lis ey g , a Leipsic jurist , whose p

om en d iu m 1499 C p , printed at Leipsic in , contains crude anatomical illustrations . Magnus Hundt

Far more important was the A n tropologiu m of Magnus

Hundt ( 1449 o f Magdeburg , which appeared at 40 AN DREAS VESALIUS

Leipsic in 150 1 . It contains four large and several small woodcuts which are among the earliest of anatomical il

lustrations . One of these Shows the tra chea on the right

Side of the n eck , passing downward to the lungs ; on the left Side the oesophagu s is rep

resented . In the thorax are seen the

lungs and the heart , the latter resem bling the figure of this organ as pre sented on old play

ing cards . The pericardium h a s

been opened , and the stomach and in testin es are crude l y figured . The

AN A TOMICAL FIGURE FROM diaphragm is ab M H 1 50 1 AGNUS UNDT, sent .

Lau ren tiu s Phryesen

Early in the sixteenth century a Holland physician ,

Phr esen Phries F riesen Laurentius y ( , ) , residing in the m m Ger an city of Col ar and later at Metz , wrote a po pu MO N DINO ’ S SUCCESSORS 4 1

S ie el d er A r tzn was lar book on medicine , p g y, which pub

o lished at Strassburg in 15 18 . It contains tw anatomical 15 1 illustrations cut in wood , dated 7 , and supposedly made

Waec htlin after the drawings of , a pupil of the Elder

Holbein . These pictures tell their own Story ; they Show

F F M PHRY ESEN 151 8 AN ATOMICAL IGURE RO LAURENTIUS , 42 AN DREAS VESALIUS a marked improvement over the figures which Hundt m Ph published in 150 1 . The other anato ical plate in rye ’ l sen s book is devoted to the Ske eton .

Alexander A c hillin u s

The Italian physician Alexander A c hillin u s (1463 m professor of philosophy and edicine in Bologna , is d eserv

n m ing of mention fo r his a ato ical knowledge . Zealous l m A c hill y devoted to the Arab edical authors , in u s made numerous discoveries which are set forth in his general

m De Human i or oris An a tomica 1 anato y , C p , Venice , 15 6 ; and in a commem tary upon Mon ’ dino s book , I n

M u n d i n i A n a

tomia m A n n ota

tion es , V e n i c e , 1 5 2 2 . H e dis covered the duct o f the sublingual

gland , u s u a l l y credited to Whar ton ; two o f the

auditory ossicles , ALEXANDER A CHI L LI NUS the malleus and incus ; the labyrinth ; the vermiform appendix ; the cae c u m - and ileo caecal valve ; and the patheticus nerve .

Portal credits him with a better knowledge o f the bones and o f the brain than was possessed by his pre d ec s o r e s s.

44 AN DREAS VESALIUS

lic ly upon the body of a pig . Soon the anatomist turned i his attention to human subjects , of which it s said that m ore than a hundred passed beneath his scalpel . ’ Beren gario s later years are said by Brambilla to have been made miserable by the machinations of the agents of the Inquisition , who objected to some of his opinions regarding the organs of generation . He was unjustly — accused o f dissecting living men an accusation which arose from his Statement that the Surgeon Should observe the anatomy o f the living body whenever it was opened

o r by wounds accidents .

’ Berengario determined to improve Mo n din o s book by making corrections in the

text , and by adding suitable

illustrations . No illustra tions were to be found in t he

early editions of Mondino , and those which were added by later editors o f the work

were untrue to nature . To Berengario must be given the credit of furnishing some o f the first anatomical illustra

tions that were published , and that were made from m actual hu an dissections . “ These appeared in his Com men taries of Carpus upon ” m o f Mu n in the Anato y d u s ,

O BY A 1 523 Car i Commen taria su er SKELET N BERENG RIO , ( p p MO NDINO ’S SUCCESSORS 45

An atomia Mun d in i as ) , which w published at Bologna in

- 152 1 . The volume contains twenty one plates which were cut in wood . They have been credited to the celebrated

H . i artist , ugo da Carpi While the drawing s somewhat coarse , the illustrations are true to nature and show a dis tinct advance over precedin g pictures of this class. Ber en gario states that his plates will be o f value not only to physicians and surgeons but also to artists (et istae fig urae m etiam j uvan t pictores in lin ean dis membris) . So e of m his figures are schematic ; for exa ple , those showing the abdominal muscles . So much better are his illustrations than those of his predecessors that it may fairly be claim ed that Berengario was the first author to produce an il lustrated anatomy . Berengario also wrote a Short Introduction to the Anatomy of the Human ” I a o r Body , s g g ae B eves in

An a tomiam Human i Cor poris ; and a work o n Frac ture of the Skull . H e was the first anato mist who described the basi lar part of the occipital bone , the sphenoidal Sinus and the tympanic membrane . Mer l M L R O 1521 yon credits him with the USC ES BY BERENGA I ,

e on : i t i i M r H s or o f Med n e . Lon don 1861 vol. 1 a e 4 79 . y y c , ; , p g 46 AN DREAS VESALIUS

first correct description of the great omentum (gastro colic) and transverse mesocolon ; of the caecal appendix

o f vermiformis , the valvulae conniventes of the intestines ; of the relative proportions of the thorax and pelvis in man and woman ; of the

flexor- brevis - pollicis; o f the vesiculae seminales ; o f the separate cartilages of the larynx ; of the membran ou s pellicle in front of the retina (attributed to Albi

n u s ); of the tricuspid valve , between the right auricle and ventricle of the heart ; o f the semilunar valves at the commencement of the pulmonary artery ; of the inosculation between the epigastric and mammary

arteries , and an imperfect M REN 1521 USCLES BY BE GARIO, account of the cochlea o f the ear He was the first of the mediaeval anatomists to deviate from the Galenic teaching in regard to the st ru c

H e ture of the heart . diplomatically states that in the hu man subject the foramina in the cardiac septum are seen only with great difficulty (sed in homin e cum maxima

d ifficulta te viden ter) . John D ryan der

D r an d er m John y , a Ger an physician , whose true name MO N DINO ’S SUCCESSORS 47

was Eichmann , called himself D ryan der in accordance with the custom o f adopting names derived from the Latin or

Greek languages . He was born about the year 1500 in

the Wetterau in Hesse . After obtain ing pro fic ien c y in mathematics and as

t ron om y , he went to Paris where he studied medi

cine for several years . m Returning to Ger any , he engaged in the study o f practical anatomy and became a professor in i Marbu r 1 g , n which city

he died in the year 1560 . He is said to have c o n

ducted - the first dissec tions that were made in D RY A NDER Marburg , where he taught

- 1 15 anatomy for twenty four years , o r from 536 to 60 .

r n d r D ya e , although he was a partisan of Mondino and da Carpi , and was a fierce and sometimes an unfair oppo nen t of Vesalius , deserves to be regarded as on e of the restorers of anatomy . He made several observations upon the distinction between the cortical and the medullary portions of the brain ; and was one of the earliest prac ti cal anatomists of the sixteenth century to furnish anatom

m o b ical illustrations . He made i portant astronomical servatio n s and was the inventor o f several useful in stru m ments . He was the author of three edical works of 48 AN DREAS VESALIUS

A n atomia Man din i which two were upon anatomy . His , 154 1 which was published at Marburg in , contains forty

Six plates , many of which have been copied from Beren ’ gario s work .

N T M F NN 1545 A A O ICAL IGURE BY ESTIE E, Charles Estienne

aro Charles Estienne , better known by the name of C

l t han us m is us S ep , was a French anato ist whose work 154 5 SKELETON BY ESTIENNE,

( R educed on e- half) 50 AN DREAS VESA LIUS

worthy of remembrance . Born in the early part of the sixteenth century , he was given an excellent education . He belonged to a noted Huguenot family of scholars and m printers who have made the Estienne na e famous .

o f m Robert Estienne , the brother Charles , beca e the vic tim of religious persecution ; he was obliged to flee to m save his life , and for a ti e the publishing business was conducted by Charles Estienne . The latter also suffered

was for his faith ; he thrown into a dungeon , where he 4 died in the year 156 . Charles Estienne wrote numerous books on literature , history , forestry and botany . His

m De Dissection e P a r tia m or or anato ical treatise , C p is

1545 - Huma n i, appeared at Paris in with Sixty two full m page plates which co bine anatomical clearness , beauty

o . ran l f form , and artistic representation A French t s a ’ Es ien n e s was 15 tion of t Anatomy published in 46 . This work was printed as far as the middle of the third book as early as the year 1539 : some o f the plates are dated as 15 0 early as 3 . The illustrations have been excellently cut

m o f in wood ; any them Show the entire body , with much

m so orna entation , that the proper anatomical part seems m f small and irrelevant . So e o the plates show the subject in picturesque and even loathsome attitudes . The text of this work is especially valuable for the history o f anatom ical discovery . Although he was an ardent Galenist , m m n Estienne ade nu erous origi al observations in anatomy .

He described the synovial glands , a discovery which has

been credited to Clopton Havers . Estienne was the first anatomist to discover the canal in the spinal cord ; he de

o scribed the capsule i the liver , a tissue which bears

CHAPTER FOURTH

’ V esalius s Early L ife

DREA S S WESALIUS N S VE ALIU , or as the family name was inscribed prior 1 a to the year 537, w s born in Brussels

o n the last day o f the year 15 14 . From astrological observations made by Jerome Cardan we learn that this event occurred about Six o ’clock in the morning , and under favorable stellar auspices . The pla m centa and caul , to which popular belief ascribed re ark able powers , were carefully preserved by the mother . m m The Vesalius fa ily originally was na ed Witing ,

ittin tin c k tin s (W g , Wy , Wy g , according to various author ities) and adopted the name Wesaliu s from the town o f

Wesele Vesel o f i Wesel , ( , ) , in the Duchy Cleves , wh ch the family claimed as their native place . The three weasels

F le i h ( m s found in the Vesalian coat of arms , testify to this origin . It may be said with truth that medical learning ran in ’ f l A n d rea - the blood o the Vesa ius family . s s great great

P Wesaliu s m o grandfather , eter , wrote a treatise on so e f the works of Avicenna and at great cost restored the man ’ u sc ri s . P son pt of several medical authors eter s , John

Wesali u s, held the responsible position of physician to

o f Mary of Burgundy , the first wife Maximilian the First; in his o ld age John taught medicine in the University o f m m Louvain . Fro that ti e the Vesalius family was closely EARLY LI FE 53

- associated with the Austro Burgundian dynasty . Eber

son o f Wesaliu s hard , John , served as physician to Mary of Burgundy ; he died before attaining his thirty - sixth year , and was long survived by his father . Eberhard , mm who was the grandfather of Andreas , wrote co entaries upon the books of Rhazes and o n the Aphoris ms o f Hip

r l m m po c ates. He was a so noted as a athe atician . Eber ’ so n m hard s Andreas , the father of the anato ist , was apothecary to Charles the Fifth and to Margaret o f m m Austria . He acco panied the great E peror upon his m m 15 8 nu erous journeys and ilitary expeditions . In 3 ’ he presented A n d reas s first anatomical plates to the

m . E peror , and thus opened the way to the court to his son The father remained in the imperial service until the day ’ m o f 1546 . A n d reas s his death , which occurred in other ,

Isabella Crabbe , exercised a great influence upon the youth whom she believed to be destined to accomplish m great things . She it was who preserved the anuscripts and books of the Vesalian ancestors . Isabella happily

see F a br ica in lived long enough to the , to witness the

ll l m o n te ec tu a triu ph of her s , and to know of his activity at the Spanish court .

Little is known of the youth o f Vesalius . The tradi

o f m m tions his ancestors , their acco plish ents in the field of letters and in medicine , and their loyalty to their sovereigns , were themes which his mother must have recounted with

the pleasure . At an early age Andreas was sent to neigh

f the boring city o Louvain , whose University , founded in

424 o f year 1 , in the early part the Sixteenth century

o f eclipsed many institutions greater age , and in the num 54 AN DREAS VESALIUS ber of its students ranked second only to the University

o f of Paris . The theologians Louvain were noted for their orthodox Catholicism ; from the very first days of religious controversy they had battled Strongly against the rising tide o f the Reformation . Her professors of juris

men o f prudence and of philosophy were eminent talents . Within the University were four literary schools which

m P aed a o ia m as tr i P or i L i were na ed g g C , c , ili , and F a l — on is m in si n a z a c , fro their g fort , a pig , a lily , and a fal

. was olle ium trilin ue Buslid ian con Here also the C g g um, which was founded by Hieronymus Bu sleid en

THE O LD UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN

re ted ear in the Fourt een t d d ( E c ly h Cen tury . The New Buil in g ates fro m 16 80 )

for teaching the Greek , Hebrew and Latin languages . Vesalius selected the P aed ag og ium Cas tri which he

m F a b rica . fondly mentions in laudatory ter s in his Here ,

Bu sleidin ia and in the n College , he obtained that thorough

knowledge of ancient languages which , in later years , as ton ished his hearers and served him well in numerou s EARLY LI FE 55

m ’ literary controversies . The na es of Vesalius s teachers 1 are unknown , although Adam States that John Winter o f

Andernach was his professor o f Greek . Vesalius speaks

o f o f his r scornfully one teache s , a theologian , who , in ’ De An im trying to explain Aristotle s a , used a picture of the Marg ar ita Philosophica to Show the Structure o f ’ the brain . Among Vesalius s School companions were

i b r G s e tu s Carbo , to whom the anatomist presented the

F a brica 154 first Skeleton which he articulated ( , 3 , page

Gran ella and the younger v , who later was Chancellor to

Charles the Fifth . At an early age Vesalius possessed a desire to Study

m r the Structure of the hu an body . His powers o f ob se vation were precociously developed . When a boy , learn

m o f ing to swi by the aid bladders filled with air , he noted f the elasticity o these organs , and he referred to the inci

his F abrica 1543 m dent in ( , page When little ore than a child , he tired of dialectics and tried to learn anato my from the scholastic writings o f Albertus Magnus and o f Michael Scotus . He soon discovered that the true road to anatomical science led , not through books but

e through the actual handling o f the dead tissues . He h gan the practical Study of anatomy by dissecting the 2 bodies of mice , moles , rats , dogs and cats .

1 Haidelber ae 16 0 a e 4 . ru d i oru m . 22 Ad am : V itae German o m Me e g , 2 ; p g 2 in eatrum Vitae u man ae BaS ile ae 1 571 . Zw ger : T h H . , CHAPTER FI FTH

S ojou rn i n Paris

NE T HOUGHT WAS UPPERMOST

o f was in the mind Vesalius , and that to follow the profession of his an c es

in tors , just as ancient Greece the sons o f the Asclepiadae naturally

adopted the vocation of their fathers . Andreas possessed an excellent pre liminary education and was especially proficient in the Greek and Latin languages ; he also knew something o f 15 “i ” Hebrew and much o f Arabic . It was in the year 33 that the young Belgian travelled to Paris for the purpose of obtaining a medical education . At that time the French capital was the Mecca of the medical world

m u Paris , that city where classical edicine first secured s p port (u bi primum med icin a m prospere ren asci

Bu d aeu m In Paris , under the leadership of s, Hu anism

Brisso u s had enjoyed a rapid growth ; and here Petrus t , ’ 15 14 after gaining the doctor s cap in the year , produced a revolution by delivering his lectures from the books of Galen in place o f the treatises of Averroes and of Avic en ’ na . At his own expense Brissotu s published Leon ic en u s s ’ o f Ars u ra tiva translation Galen s C , in order that his pupils might not be misled by the incorrect text o f the

Arab authors . It will be recalled that , long before this m m ti e , classical Greek and Latin edical literature had

‘ V e sal i us : Fab ri a 54 3 r f 1 e a e . c , , p c SO JOURN I N PARIS 57 passed through the distorting crucible o f Saracenic translations . At this period medical science , purified

a i n from Arabic dross , w s taught a Splendid manner in P aris by such eminent professors as Jacobus Sylvius , Jean P ernel , and Winter of Andernach . At their feet sat young men from the remotest parts of Europe . The most popular o f the Paris teachers was Jacobu s i Sylvius , or Jacques Dubois , whose Latinized name s m m perpetuated in anato ical no enclature . He was born m 1478 at Louville , near A iens , in . In his early years he was for his m noted scholarly attain ents in the Greek , Lat in and Hebrew languages and was the author of a m French grammar . H is anato ical knowledge was gain

Ta a l m ed under Jean g u t , a fa ous Parisian practitioner and surgical author . Sylvius was noted for his indus try , for his eloquence , and above

n all for his avarice . It was the i ordinate desire for money which led him to abandon philology fo r medicine . While studying under Tagau lt he began a course of med ical lectures , explanatory o f the works of Hippocrates and Galen , with such success that the Faculty of the University o f Paris protested SYLV I US on the Score that Sylvius was not a graduate . He then went to Montpellier , whose medical professors had long held a high position , where , accord ’ ing to Astruc , he received the doctor s cap at the end of 58 AN DREAS VESALIUS

m 152 Nove ber , 9 . He was then above fifty y ears of age .

Armed with this degree , he returned to Paris and imme i l m d ate y entered the lists as an independent edical teacher , but was again halted by the Faculty who ruled that he ’ must first receive the Bachelor s degree . This he gained on 28 153 1 June , . Sylvius then resumed his lectures with such success that his classes in the College de Treguier m P nu bered from four to five hundred , while ernel , who was C orn ou ailles a professor in the College de , lectured m m 1550 to al ost e pty benches . In , Henry the Second

m o f a na ed Sylvius Professor Medicine , s the successor of

Vidus Vidius , in the recently established College d e 13 1555 France . Sylvius died January , , and was interred ’ in the paupers cemetery as he had wished . Sylvius was not only an eloquent lecturer but he was m also a de onstrative teacher . He was the first professor m m m 4 in France who taught anato y fro the hu an cadaver . In his lectures o n botany he used a collection of plants to

he - elucidate t subject . His chief fault was a blind rever é ’ ’ ence for ancient authors . He regarded Galen s writings as gospel ; if the cadaver presented structures unlike Ga ’ len s description , the fault was not in the book but in the m dead body , or , perchance , hu an Structure had changed ’ m ! ’ since Galen s ti e In one of his early books , Sylvius ’ declared that Galen s anatomy was infallible ; that Ga ’ De Usu P a r tia m len s treatise , , was divine ; and that further progress was impossible !

The character of Sylvius was contemptible . H e was m m a man of vast learning and at the sa e ti e was rough ,

S lvrus : O rd o c t O rdin is Ratio in Le en dis Hi oc ratis et Gale n ib y g pp i L ris, 1539

60 AN DREAS VESALIUS highest honor in the Medical Faculty of the College ‘ de France . Sylvius rendered valuable service in naming the mu s

hi n s e . cles which , prior to time , were desig ated by numb rs ’ “ al These , says Northcote were differently applied by

o as most every author ; s that it w the description , and not m m the na e , that ust lead one to know what part was meant by such authors ; and this required a previous thorough knowledge of anatomy” He is the first writer who mentions colored injections and is supposed to have m discovered this useful adjunct of anato ical study . H e was the first anatomist who published satisfactory de sc ription s of the pterygoid and clinoid processes o f the

o He Sphenoid bone , and of the s unguis . gave a good account of the sphenoidal sinus in the adult but denied i a Fal ts existence in the child , s had been affirmed by ’ lo piu s . Sylvius also wrote i n telligently concerning the i vertebrae but incorrectly described the sternum . H s observation concerning the valves in the veins gave rise to much discussion ; the honor o f priority in the disc ov — ery , however , belongs to other anatomists Estienne and

Can n an u s. His discoveries in cerebral anatomy have

hi u t f caused s name to be attached to the aqued c , the is sure and the a rtery of S ylvius .

ll l w s foun e b ran i th irst is n li t n The Co ege Roya de Fran ce a d d y F c s e F . T h e gh e ed patron o f the scie n ces an d arts reco gn ize d the me rits of sc ren t i fic me n an d rewarde d them He esta is e the Collé e d e ran e wit twe ve With his mo n ey an d his frie n d ship . bl h d g F c h l

- ri l e n o ro f ssor i o n e o f w i was evote to me i in e. T he le tures ch y d we d p e sh ps. h ch d d d c c The rst in um en t of the air o f me i in e were free to all who d esire d to atte n d . fi c b ch d c was Vid us Vid iu G uido G uidi of Floren e who fill e d t is ositio n fro m 154 to s, , c , h p 2 154 8 uc u es o ll ow hi l abor t at o n his return to tal his ex rien e in . S h s cc s f ed s s h , I y, pe c ari a b i i ti i en it Vid ius v it i P s w s the su ject o f th s w t c sm : Vid us v , id , V d us vicit . 2 Nort ote i tor o f n tom n o n a e 6 . hc : H s y A a y . Lo d , 1772 ; p g 5 ’

o i t ir d t ie . aris 65. P rtal : s o e e l An a o mi de l irur P 17 0 vol. a H e et a Ch g , 7 ; 1, p ge 3 SOJOURN I N PARI S 6 1

The manner in which Sylvius conducted his anatom

u s hi ical course is known to by s own writings , by the

‘ ’ m o f o testi ony Moreau , and by that f Vesalius . Thus the 1535 course for the year began with the reading , by ’ o f D Sylvius , Galen s treatise e Usu P a rtiam. When the m middle of the first book was reached , Sylvius re arked that the subject was too difficult for his Students to under stand and that he would not plague his class with it . m He then ju ped to the fourth book , read all to the tenth m book , discussed a part of the tenth and o itting the eleventh , twelfth and thirteenth , he took up the fourteenth m and the remaining three books . Thus he o itted all that m Galen had said concerning the extre ities . A second Galenic work which Sylvius used was the anatomico

fr De Musculor um Motu . in e physiologic treatise , Not quently the professor was unable to demonstrate in dis

o n on section the parts which he had lectured . Thus , one occasion , the students succeeded in finding the pul mo n ary and aortic valves which Sylvius had failed to find on the preceding day .

Joannes Gu in teriu s o f Andernach

Another famous member o f the Paris Faculty o f this

man - period , and a whose life story reads like a romance ,

u in riu s o f . was Joannes G te , the beggar Deventer Guin

Gu in ter W o r teriu s (Gonthier , Guinther , , inter , Winther) , who is often called John Winter o f Andernach , from the name o f the town in which he was born , lived between

oreau Vita lvu in lvii O era Medi a. Gen eva 1635 . M Sy , Sy p c , a V u di C in ae e istol a 1 4 6 a e s 151 152 esali s De ra ce h p , 5 p g , 62 AN DREAS VESALIUS

1487- 1574 m the years , and rose to e inence in both the liter

m o f ary and the edical worlds . Born humble parents , he was sent at an early age to the University of Utrecht . Leav

W INTER OF ANDERNACH

his ing this institution because of poverty , he went to Deventer where he was reduced to the necessity of beg ging in the Streets . He drifted to the University o f

Marburg , and here displayed such brilliant talents that he SOJOURN I N PARIS 63 soon obtain ed employment as a teacher in the small town

H is of Goslar , in Brunswick . growing reputation for learning led to his appointment to the chair of Greek in the noted University of Louvain .

m Guin eri P Desiring to Study edicine , t u s went to aris 1525 ’ 1528 in ; he received the Bachelor s degree in , and m the full edical title two years later . He passed a bril liant examination which won for him the commendation m m of the ost eminent professors . Re aining in Paris , he

o engaged in practice and in teaching , and rapidly rose t

’ I n ad i i eminence . d t on to conducting courses in anatomy , he translated into Latin the writings of the most noted — i o f Greek medical authors of ant quity the books Galen ,

o f Caeliu s of Oribasius , Paul of Aegina , of Aurelianus , — and o f Alexander o f Tralles all of which were held in i m high esteem in the sixteenth century . H s fa e reached

o f F far beyond the boundaries rance . Christian II I . , the

n o f D m as enlightened ki g en ark , who w noted for his love of literature , sought to attach him to the Danish court ,

a m but the honor w s refused . Having beco e a convert to

o f G in eriu the religious views Luther , u t s found that his life was in danger ; he left Paris and resided fo r a time in

was Metz . He soon removed to Strassburg , where he received with distinguished honors and was appointed to a professorship in the University . Owing to the activity hi i of s enemies , h s position became insecure ; according l y , he resigned his chair and Spent a considerable time in travelling throughout Germany and Italy . In the year

562 I o f 1 , Ferdinand . , in appreciation of the great merits

n teri s Gu i u , raised him to the highest distinction by plac 64 AN DREAS VESALIUS ing him among the nobles of the land ; and thus the beg m gar o f Deventer became a noble an of Strassburg . His

4 1574 . life ended October ,

in eriu s a Like Sylvius , Gu t w s a teacher of men who be m — came greater than hi self Vesalius , Servetus and Ronde

sa . let t upon his benches Like Sylvius , he placed his faith in Galen and failed to grasp the great truth that m i anato ical Science s based , not on the writings of the

Fathers but on dissection of the dead body .

JEAN FERNEL Jean Pernel

The third bright Star o f the Paris constellation was

P 1485 m as Jean ernel ( of A iens , who was regarded SOJOURN IN PARIS 65

the ablest physiologist o f his time and was physician - in

H rn l ordinary to enry the Second . Fe e dipped deeply into philosophy , geometry and mathematics . Before entering the medical profession he issued three books on mathematic and geometric subjects . He received the m 15 m edical degree in 30 , but continued his study of ath ematic s with such ardor that he was almost ruined finan

ll o f c ia y . On the advice his friends he entered upon the practice o f medicine in Paris a n d met with remarkable

m ac success . He was Skilled in anato y and surgery and companied his sovereign upon numerous military expedi i m tions . H s medical writings are contained in any volumes and concern a variety of subjects , such as physi m ology , therapeutics , surgery , pathology , the treat ent of fevers and the venereal diseases . ’ Fern el s medical views were powerfully influenced by

o f the teachings an unfortunate French philosopher , Pierre

m e o r m m de la Ra e , Ra us , who , like any other Protestants , m ’ lost his life o n Saint Bartholo ew s Night . Brutally as assin a ed as u o f s t , his body w dragged thro gh the Streets Paris and then was thrown into the Seine ; but his system o f philosophy survived and exercised a potent i n fluence until it was eclipsed by the doctrines o f De scartes .

m m m o f Ra us , who was an unco pro ising opponent the

o u S u Aristotelian philosophy , pointed t the defects and g gested the reforms in the system o f University education . H e compared the teaching o f medicine with that o f the

m m o f ology , uch to the disparage ent the latter The ” “ m reason , said he , why edicine is better taught , and the

s lectures are better attended than in theology is , that tho e 66 AN DREAS VESALIUS

who teach it know it , and practice it , and their disputa tions are chiefly o n the books o f Hippocrates and Galen ; whilst the theologians observe a strict reticence on ques H tions of the Old Testament , which they read in ebrew ,

a o f as well s the New , which they read in Greek , but display their learning in subtle questions respecting the l ” l pagan philosophy o f Plato and A ristot e . Ramus en d eavo red to withdraw the minds of both physicians and medical Students from the authoritative dogmas of the ancient physicians and to Substitute therefor the in telli

gent study o f Nature . The practical trend of his mind is shown in his suggestion that in stitu tions Should be arran g

ed for clinical teaching . Just as Ramus had become an Eclectic in

philosophy , so Fern el sought the best from various sources and dif

feren t m medical syste s .

Like Ramus , he cast off the yoke which au thority had placed u p on him ; and proposed RAMUS carefully planned prin c i les p which should lead to the discovery o f truth . Like

m Fern el Ra us , presented his views in a clear style and in

’ r ives Curieuses d e 1 istoire d e A ch H Fran ce .

68 AN DREAS VESALIUS

and carried o u t the dissection in a systematic manner . H is zeal and learning won the admiration of Gu in teriu s who Spoke o f Vesalius and Servetus in loving terms “ m an o f first Andreas Vesalius , a young , by Hercules !

Singular zeal in the Study of anatomy ; and second ,

n m Michael V illan ova u s ( Servetus ) , deeply i bued with learning of every kind , and behind none in his knowledge of the Galenic doctrine . With the aid of these two , I f have examined the muscles , veins , arteries and nerves o

d . an d m m the whole b o y , de onstrated the to the Students Vesalius must have had many blue days in Paris—days when he longed to have a free hand in dissection . A weaker character than his would have fitted peacefully

o f into the established order things , but not of such stuff was Andreas made . The difficulties which beset his path only Stimulated him to work the harder ; he firmly re solved to devote his energy , his talents and his life to m anato ical study and teaching . He decided to secure the opportunity to dissect the human body and to rival the ancient Alexandrian professors who taught the su b “ ” “ jec t . Never , he says , would I have been able to ac m m co plish y purpose in Paris , if I had not taken the ” n work into my ow hands . The Book of Nature which m Sylvius lauded , but kept his pupils fro Studying , was n o w opened by Vesalius . He dissected numerous dogs and studied the only part of human anatomy that was

m . I n fo r available , na ely , the bones his search materials m for a skeleton he haunted the Ce etery of the Innocents .

o n e On occasion , when he went to Montfaucon , the place

1 uin te iu i i G r s : An ato m carum I n stitut o n u m, 1539 . SOJOURN IN PARIS 69 where the bodies of executed criminals were deposited and

- bones were plentiful , Vesalius and his fellow student were m m attacked by fierce dogs . For a ti e the young anato ist was in danger of leaving his own bones to the hungry scavengers . By such dangers he gained what the Paris m professors could not supply . He became a aster of the

so osseous system , much so that , when blindfolded , he was able to name and describe any part o f the Skeleton which was placed in his hands . His talents were recog n ized by both professors and Students ; and at the third anatomy which he attended in Paris he was requested to take charge of the dissection . To the satisfaction o f the

a m o f students , s well as to the astonish ent the barbers , he made an elaborate dissection of the abdominal organs

m rm and of the uscles of the a .

VIVISECTION OF A PIG “ ” From t he a ri a 1 54 3 ( F b c , ) CHAPTER SIXTH

V esalius Return s to L ouv ain

N THE LATTER PART OF TH E 1536 year , owing to the outbreak of

- m the third Franco Ger an war , Vesalius

returned to the University of Louvain . During this period he secured a hu

man skeleton by secret means . Ac m co panied by his faithful friend , Reg

mm m m as as nier Ge a , known as a athe atician well a physician , Vesalius visited the gallows outside the walls of Louvain in order to search for bones . Here he found a Skeleton which was held together simply by the liga ments and still possessed the origins and insertion s of the “ muscles . Morley states that the body was that of a not ed robber , who , Since he deserved more than ordinary hanging , had been chained to the top of a high stake and roasted alive . He had been roasted by a slow fire made of straw , that was kept burning at some distance below his feet . In that way there had been a dish cooked for

was the fowls o f heaven , which regarded by them as a

o f Special dainty . The sweet flesh the delicately roasted thief they had preferred to any other ; his bones , there

su s fore , had been elaborately picked and there was left pended o n the stake a skeleton dissected o u t and cleaned k l by many beaks with rare precision . The dazzling S e e m ton , co plete and clean , was lifted up on high before the m eyes of the anato ist , who had been striving hitherto to RETURN TO LOUVAIN 7 1

piece together such a thing ou t o f the bones of many people , gathered as occasion offered ’ Such a prize could not be lost . With Gemma s assis tance Vesalius climbed the gallows and secured the skele ton which he secretly conveyed to his home . The treas

a m ure , however , w s not co plete ; one finger , a patella and m a foot were issing . To this extent was Vesalius the owner of a human skeleton . In supplying the missing parts Vesalius was obliged to incur new dangers . He

o f m stole out the city in the nightti e , climbed the gallows unaided , searched through the mass of decaying bodies , and , having found the coveted bones , he stole into the city by another gate . These secret expeditions , however ,

o f soon became unnecessary , for the Burgomaster Louvain generously furnished an abundance o f material for ’ Vesalius s students . — It was at this period late in the year 1536 o r early in 1537— that Vesalius con ducted the first public anatomy that had been held in Louvain in eighteen He r m m performed the dissection and lectu ed at the sa e ti e , which was an innovation . Some remarks he made c o n cerning the seat o f the soul caused him to be c ritised by the theologians . A further cause for suspicion was his association with such firm Protestants as Gu in teriu s an d Sturm of Paris ; and his friendly relations with the pub

h V el iu li e r i s s. s Resc u s, and the physician Fortunately the suspicion of heresy did not lead to any formal charges , but the affair seems to have rankled in his memory and

m F a br ica so e years later , in his , he sought to clear his

m f o f na e o even the appearance heresy . 72 AN DREAS VESALIUS

Vesalius began his career as an author by issuing a paraphrase , or free translation , of the ninth book of the ’ A or liber lman s of the celebrated Rhazes . This book , a d Alman sor m Al e , or work dedicated to the Caliph

‘ M an sii r , was written by a learned Arab physician who

- lived between the years 860 932 . The Alma n sor consists o f ten books and was designed by the author for a c om l p ete body or compendium of Physic . The first book m m treats of anato y and physiology ; the second , of te per

m o f m m a ents ; the third , food and Si ple edicines ; the

o f m o f fourth , eans for preserving health ; the fifth , Skin m diseases and cos etics ; the sixth , of diet ; the seventh , of m surgery ; the eighth , of poisons ; the ninth , of treat ent of all parts of the body ; the tenth , or last book , deals with

m o f the treat ent fevers . The ninth book , which Vesalius translated from the barbarous version into a readable m for , was so highly prized in mediaeval times that it was read publicly in the Schools and was commentated by m learned professors for ore than a hundred years . By this publication Vesalius furnished a valuable contribution m to edical literature . The numerous marginal and inter m linear notes , which he supplied , Show his inti ate acquaint ance with classical literature as well as with materia med m ica . Vesalius e phasizes the fact that the book of Rhazes contains many remedies which were unknown to the

Greeks . The value of his edition was increased by the presence o f original drawings of the plants mentioned in the text .

1 Para rasis i n mon u m lib rum Rhaza m di rabi c l ri m n sore m e e i s a ss. ad Re em Al a ph c A g , d e sm ularum o r ori s art ium afi ectuum c uration autor n d r W io ruxellen si g c p p e, e A ea esal B Med icm ae an d id ato . Lovan ii ex offi in ut li F b 3 men s e ruar. 1 5 7 . c c a R geri Res . e C HAPTER SEVENTH

Professor of Anatomy in Pad u a

H O RTLY AFTER TH E PUB LICA tion o f his P a raphrasis in n on um libr u m R hazae . , Vesalius journeyed into Italy It was in the year 1537 that he entered the prosperous and enlightened city o f

Venice . Here the study o f anatomy not only was not tabooed , but was encouraged , particularly by the Theatin monks who devoted themselves to the care of the sick . At the head of this order stood two

men m : . re arkable J Peter Caraffa , who later ascended the papal throne as Paul IV . ; and Ignatius Loyola , the fou n der of the Jesuits . It is a strange circumstance that two strong characters so dissimilar as were Vesalius and

- Loyola Should meet as c o workers in the same field .

The one was filled with a thirst for anatomical knowledge , and was dreaming o f the day when his opus mag n um Should revolutionize an important Science ; the other was enthused with visions o f the world - wide acceptance o f

o f m 1543 the doctrines Catholicis . They met again , in m m m the year which arks two i portant events , na ely , the

F a brica o f publication of the , and the full recognition the

Jesuits by the Pope . In Venice the young anatomist entered into various m m lines of activity . He experi ented with a new re edy , the China root , and besought his acquaintances to observe m its effects in cases of pleurisy . He solicited anato ical .74 AN DREAS VESALIUS material and possibly may have conducted a public de m m is onstration in anato y , although this uncertain . H e m practiced inor surgery ; he leeched and opened veins , particularly the popliteal vein which the barbers of that day did not venture to touch . In Venice he fortunately met his countryman , Jan Stephan van Calcar , who was soon to furnish the drawings for Vesalius ’ s first anatomic al plates .

A N A T O M I C O R V M I N S T R V M E N '

T O R I! M D E L I N E A T I O .

INSTRUMENTS USED IN DISSECTION ( From the In order to gain all the rights and privileges of a full

i n 6th fledged physician , Vesalius settled Padua . On the m 15 hi day of Dece ber , 37 , shortly after having received s

o f degree as Doctor Medicine , Andreas Vesalius of Brus sels was appointed Professor of Surgery with the right to

76 ANDREAS VESALIUS

ink . His anatomical charts were the work of his own hand ; at times he drew the pictures in the presence of his audience . His dissections were made with extreme m neatness and dexterity . He used but few instru ents and

o f m : o f these were the Si plest kind knives different Shapes , mm hooks , cannula , catheter , sounds , bristles , ha er , saw , needles , thread and a Sponge . Forceps and injection ap f paratus were not used ; he rarely used scissors . Much o the actual separation of tissues was done by the aid of the

- m finger nails . A vivisection board co pleted the list d e in str umen tis quae a n atomes s tud ioso d eben t esse ad ma n u m .

’ Let u s now follow o n e Vesalius s public courses in anat o m m m 1 y . It is the onth of Dece ber , in the year 537 . The report has spread that the young Belgian professor will begin his course . Long before the hour set for the lee ture , every available seat has been taken and many persons m are Standing . An audience co prising the professors o f

o f m o f the University , the Students edicine , officials the

o f n city of Padua , and learned persons all ranks , includi g m m o f m e bers the clergy , nu bering more than five hun

m to dred persons , has asse bled do honor to the professor o f anatomy . Vesalius comes into the arena and walks to the table which is closely surrounded by his auditors . He wastes no time ; after a few preliminary remarks o n the impor tance of anatomy and the methods o f acquiring a knowl

o f edge this science , he launches into the practical de m o u onstration . After rapidly pointing t the divisions of m the body , and de onstrating the skin , joints , cartilages, PROFE SSOR IN PADUA 77

ligaments , glands , fat and muscles , he passes to the more

o complex parts , all f which are Shown upon the skinned

o f o r m body a dog of a la b , in order to conserve the hu m man aterial . Now the human cadaver is placed ou the table ; all eyes are turned upon it , for such a demonstra tion occurs only at long intervals . Vesalius speaks first of the difference in the structure of joints at different ages hi m and in different sexes , illustrating s re arks by means of drawings and by an abundant supply of bones of man and of the lower animals .

Now comes the dissection . This is made rapidly and in regular order . Its course depends upon the amount of material at hand ; if the professor resorts to two bodies , 1538 as in the year , the demonstration is handled in grand style . Vesalius uses the first body for a comprehensive

m o f m exa ination the muscles , liga ents and viscera ; whilst the second cadaver is devoted to the relations of the veins ,

o f F a br ica is arteries , nerves and viscera . The text the written according to this plan of public dissection . At times Vesalius attempted to teach the whole o f

m o n o n e was fol anato y cadaver . In this event , osteology lowed by the dissection o f the abdominal muscles layer by layer , the demonstration closing with an examination of the entire contents o f the abdomen . The pelvic organs were reached by incision and separation o f the symphysis m pubis . If the cadaver was that of a fe ale , the dissection began with the mammary glands and then passed to the m m inferior venter . In pregnancy the foetal e branes were removed intact , and were placed in a vessel filled with water . The foetus was opened and its anastomosing 78 AN DREAS VESALIUS

m vessels were found . For de onstrating the cotyledons,

as the uterus o f a Sheep or goat w used . After the thorax had been raised by means of a log or brick , Vesalius

o passed to the face and the anterior part f the neck , freely exposing the muscles on one Side and the vessels and nerves on the other . Then followed the unilateral prepara tion of the muscles of the Shoulder and back , then those m of the mouth , which were approached by eans of divis

o f ion the lower jaw ; and , finally , the pharynx and the larynx were exposed . The rectus anticus muscle was next brought into view , whereupon Vesalius detached the head from the vertebral column . Decapitation was fol lowed by an examination of the cranium ; the skull - cap was sawed and the brain was dissected in its natural po

io n m sit . Then came the exa ination of the eye , which Vesalius dissected in two ways : either by a complete sec

r m tion , o layer by layer fro without inwards . The car and the cavities of the frontal and sphenoidal bones were next opened , provided these bones were not needed for the setting up o f a Skeleton . Finally he took m up the extremities , de onstrating the muscles of an arm and a leg on one Side , and the nerves and vessels on the other . The anatomy lesson ended with the introduction o f numerous vivisections .

Vesalius could not entirely escape disputations , but he m gave to the a close anatomic basis . Theoretical physi ology was repugnant to him ; for him physiology was not Speculation but the sequel of anatomic research . If m he at ti es gave free reign to his views , he indicated them m as ere theories . He did not ignore pathologic conditions , PROFESSOR IN PA DUA 79

but he handled them as briefly as possible . Fearing to

hi his tire s audience with too much variety , he confined m students closely to the structure o f the hu an body . ’ im The merit of Vesalius s public dissections , and the

hi a pression which they made upon s auditors , can be p prec iated only by comparison with similar demonstrations made by his predecessors . The large and enlightened audience remained day by day for a period of three o r four weeks . He says not a word about the physical and mental strain incident to such a strenuous course , in h which is entire time was employed . The courses brought great financial profit to the professor . 153 O n two occasions , probably in the years 9 and 1 4 m 5 0 , Vesalius was called fro Padua to Bologna to con duct public dissections . This was a great honor , for Bologna was the city in which Mondino had revived f m the practical teaching o anato y . These courses were conducted by Vesalius in a wooden building erected fo r

as that particular purpose . Here , in Padua , the professor

as acted demonstrator and lecturer , remaining in this ancient city for a period of several weeks . On the first occasion he was supplied with three human bodies and

as w enabled to handle the subject in grand Style . At the first se'ance he engaged with the celebrated Professor m Matthaeus Curtius , whose acquaintance he had ade in

1538 o f while on a vacation trip , in a deep study the ques tion of venesection . Be fore a large and select assembly ’ he demonstrated in all three bodies that Galen s d esc rip

o f tion the vena azygos was incorrect . On the second convocation Vesalius seems to have di sposed of more 80 AN DREAS VESALIUS

’ the bodies . He reviewed Galen s work on joints , and m by numerous speci ens , which were prepared by the

b e m students , de onstrated the difference in the ancient knowledge of the skeleton . On this occasion he under took the complete dissection o i an ape and presented its

man skeleton , as well as that of a , to Professor John

Albiu s Andreas , who held the chair of Hippocratic med ic in e in Bologna . Little is known of the way in which Vesalius taught

in surgery . The first year he was Padua , he began with ’ m Avicenna s treatise on tu ors . According to the frag m a entary notes in the college book of his rdent pupil , ’ Triton iu s m Vitus , Vesalius co pared Avicenna s teachings

o f with the classical works Hippocrates , Galen , Paul of

n Aegina , and Acti s , explaining and correcting them .

INITIAL LETTER BY VESA LIUS “ ” F ro m t h a ri ( e F b cs , 1 54 3) C HAPTER EIGHTH

F irst Co n trib u tio n to A n atomy

I K E A ALL G R E T TEAC H ERS , Vesalius was ever mindful o f the inter

s ac e ts of his students . Soon after c eptin g the chair o f Anatomy in Pad

n a m , he articulated a hu an skeleton

u se m x for in his cla ss roo . His ne t work was the preparation o f a se t o f

m Ta bu la e A n a tomicae in anato ical plates , , which were

m f r tended to pave the way to anato y o beginners . For the

his b e further benefit of class , edited an edition of Guin

’ e ri I n tit tion u m A n a to mica r u m u t u s s s u , which was iss ed

15 8 . in April , 3 Tabulae A n ato mic ae

The Ta bu la e A n a tomica e were in the form o f en d e Bla tter o r s s o f , loo e leave , and consisted six m m which are now a ong the rarest of edical works . bore the following title

fi ab ulae an atomit ae. Iimpt imebat v en etiis 15 (ern at n in u3) . witalis n euri tis sumptihus Zloan n is %tepban i Qt alt at en sis p regn an t w e.in ottit iua “ ED. IBt rn at Din i. a. 1538 .

In the preface Vesalius says that no o n e can learn

o r m m either botany anato y fro figures alone , but illustra tions are a valuable means toward the i mparting o f 82 AN DREAS VESALIUS

b s knowledge . In pu lishing the e plates he hopes to bene

his fit tho se persons who had attended public dissections . Not a line in the se pictures is unnatural ; all has been m reproduced ju st as he had shown in his de onstrations . m He gives due credit to van Calcar , the artist who ade the drawings of the three skeletons . The other pictures were made by the author himself . The Ta bu la e A n a tomica e were arran ged in the fol lowing order

— m O r n f I . The Portal Syste and the ga s o Generation ;

g — II . The Venae Cavae and Chief Veins ; — — — III . The Great Artery Arteria Mag na and the fi eart ;

- IV . The Skeleton in its Anterior View ; V — . The Skeleton in its Side View ; — i ts . VI . The Skeleton in Posterior View

s m m s The plate are of larg e di ensions , ea uring over

s . sixteen inche in length , and were cut in wood Like

s F a br ica m tho e in the , they were ade in Italy . Owing to

s u se m Ta bu la e their tran ient by edical students , the were s s oon de troyed , although unauthorized editions were

s b printed in several citie . The ook was dedicated to

ss o f s V e rd u n n o V e rtu n eo Narci us Parthenope (Narci o , or )

1520 s s o f s who , in , was fir t phy ician to the crown Naple , 1524 and later , in , was physician and councilor to Charles

o f the Fifth . It is noteworthy that three these plates deal

V s with the skeleton , a subject to which e alius had given m o uch attention . The ab sence f a plate showing the nerv o u s s m s b V s s had sy te is al o to e noted . e aliu such a

CHAPTER NINTH

P u b lication o f t he Fab rica

N TH E FIRST DAY OF AUGUST ,

1542 o f , after three years strenuous

s m F a br ica labor , Ve alius co pleted the , and twelve days later he wrote the last

f E itom word o the p e . The blocks for

F a br ica the , and also those for the

E itome m p , were ade in Italy . In the summer of 1542 they were conveyed to Basel by a me r chant named D an o n i and were safely delivered to the print

in m O o r u s. er , p They were acco panied by a long Latin “ s letter , written by Ve alius to his friend , Joannes Opori ”

s . s nus , professor of Greek letter in Basel He beg Opori nus to take the g reatest care that the printed illustrations Shall corre spond with the proofs which accompany the “ m s so s . block Every detail u t be distinctly visible , that ” each cut shall have the effect of a picture . Early in the following year Ve salius went to Basel to superintend the

s . printing of his book While there , he conducted a de monstration in anatomy— the first which had occurred in — that city since 153 l and pre sented the articulated S ke le

s o ton o f the subject to the Univer ity . Part f thi s skeleton m exists today . It is thou g ht to be the oldest anato ical preparation in existence .

The Fab ric a The heart of Vesalius must have filled with joy when he saw the final page of his book turned from the PU B LICATION OF TH E FA BRICA 85

m m press . The treatise which founded odern anato y bears this title

n n reae s ali r t ll m m a {e s i B u a en sis, %t ii olae t uit ot u

aran in ae rofe mi De i uman i co ori p p ss s, b rp s

iahrica { ib i e e . ma iieae L r s pt m s , M D X L 111

A fortune was lavi shed upon the illustration and pub lic a io o f t n . this grand work To use the words of Fisher , “ mo n it was and is a glorious book , a rare and precious u men t of genius , industry and liberality It abounds with curious initial letters bearing quaint and interesting m o n e s . anato ical conceits , each teaching its les on One

s of the e , reduced in size , introduces the present chapter ; and it was this letter that Vesalius used in his opening sentence :

OS ca eter a r u m homin is pa r tia m es t d u rissimu m

' rd issimu ér a m, max i ” ma que ter res tre 8 fr ig ” id u m 6 sen s us d en i ue , q pr a eter solos d en tes expers . The first edition o f the F a br ica is a folio volu me with mag n ifi cent illustrations on wood , all carefully print ed by Joanne s O po rin u s

150 7 - 1568 o f ( ) Basel . j o A NNES O PO RI NUS 86 AN DREA S VESALIUS

The title - page is a beautiful engraving which repre

m is sents Ve saliu s at work dissecting a fe ale subject . He surrounded by interested spectators who crowd the amphi

s theatre . The abdomen o f the subject is opened . Ve a lius has raised his left hand ; his right hand grasp s a m s all rod which rests on the viscera . The great teacher is talking to his pupils . Placed at the head of the dis sec tin g table is an upright skeleton which grasps a long

its m staff with right hand . In the audience are any per

m n m sons o i different rank . To the left a naked a is cli b ing a pillar , while to the right , and below , a dog is bein g b T l rought into the arena . o the eft , and below , is a monkey which appears to enjoy the demonstration .

Above , in the architecture , we V I R T V T I see the monogram of the pu b

lish r O o rin u s e , p ; in the cen

o n s tre , a hield , are the three m weasels of the Vesalius fa ily ,

and below , is a shield which

bears the privilegiu m . This old engraving is o n e o f the most spirited and elaborate t o b e found in the whole range of ‘ V ’ l 9 2 1725 medical literature . In the M A R O O PO RI NUS K F W an d elaar edition , for which Jan

o f s made copperplate reproductions the original figure , — the title - page is altered the monogram o f O po rin u s is

ab sent and the architecture is Slightly changed .

Who was the unnamed artist ! It is noteworthy that

s o r Ve sali u s doe s not State who drew the illu trations , who

8 8 A N DREA S VE SA LI US

s b his remained undimini shed until hortly efore death , 1 m which occurred in 576 . He had the ability to ake

n s is b the Vesalian illu stratio , but it dou tful if he had the

A m a s ti me . lthough Titian y have taken an intere t in

m s is n o w these anato ical plate , it not believed that he m drew the .

J A N S TE PI I A N V A N CA LC A R

The V e sali an pict u re s have been attributed to Chri sto

o an b u t b s foro Cori l o ; he could not have een the arti t , m 1568 i si n ce his e arlie st work date s fro . He s known to

’ have fu r n i sh e d the drawing s for Jerome Mercuriali s s

’ De A r te G mn a s tica fo r s Lives o f the P a in t r y , and Va ari s e s . R o th is o f the opi n ion th at Vesalius himself made mo st o f t he illu st rati o n s ; b u t su c h a View would credit the PUB LICATION OF TH E FA BRICA 89 comparatively Short and bu sy life of the g reat anatomist m m m with too uch acco plish ent .

s fo r F a br ica I conclude that the illustration the , like

s Ta bu la e An a tomica the o seous figures in the e , which 1538 m Vesalius issued in , were ade by Jan Stephan van 1 S an d rart Calcar the favorite pupil of Titian . states that van Calcar made the drawings for the F a br ica ; that he went to V enice in 1536 o r 153 7 ; that he studied under Titian ; and that his paintings were of such merit

m o f that they were often istaken for those Titian , Raphael ,

s and Ruben .

m K alc k r Van Calcar was a Fle ing , a native of e in the f f b u o o n o . D chy Cleves . The date his irth is t known 154 H is death occurred at Naples in 6 . He was highly “ esteemed by Vesalius who speaks o f him as ranking with ” m the divine and happy wits of Italy . The anato ical

s s 1538 m plates which Ve alius i sued in were ade , he states , — by van C alc ar z s u mptibus J oa n n is S tepha n i Ca lca ren

i m o f is . n s These plates , which appeared the for pictor

s F lie en d e Blatter ma to ial broad heets , or g , y be likened the Herald who goes in advance to announce the coming

K . o n of the ing They were engraved wood , and , like

m F a br ica n u their co panion pictures in the , they were m precedented in magnitude and in inutene ss . l m m The Ve salian plate s vary great y in erit . The ost sati sfactory ones are those depicting the undissected body

n o t and the bones and muscle s . The artist was at his

s m m best in drawing the nervous yste , although it is clai ed th at Vesalius had p repared his neurologic s pecimens

1 r rt e u tsc h c ade m ic Nurii be r 168 5 : vo l I a e 4 3 San d a . T e A g , I p g 2 SECOND VESA LI A N PLA TE OF THE MUSCLES “

ro m t h - ( F e F ab ri i a 1 54 3 R ed uc ed on e half)

A N D R E AS V BS A L H B RV X BL L B N S I S

NINTH VESA LI A N PLA TE OF THE MUSCLES

m t ro he - ( F Fab ri c a 1 54 3 R ed uc ed o n e half) PUB LICATION OF THE FABRICA 93

m - m o n o f o n . e nu erous works art anato y Thus , in the earliest books o n anatomy for the use o f artists (Abrég é ’ d a n a tomie a ccommodé a ux a r ts d e pein tu re et d e scu lp

tu re . 1 Paris , 667 , Rogers de Piles and Francois To rtebat have used the three skeletons and seven my o lo g

E itom ic figures taken from the F a br ic a and the p e . In

o f s n o t the preface his book , de Piles say that he does think it is possible to produce better figures than those

n o t found in the works o f Vesalius . That he was alone

s m in thi opinion is Shown by the fact that any other artists ,

m s o n - m who have co posed treati es art anato y , have drawn m m freely fro the Vesalian Storehouse . An Italian , Giaco o

m o f s A n a tomia Moro , in his anato y for the use artist , (

’ id o tta a d o t r r us d e ittori e sc u l o i . p Venice , ’ o f reproduced nineteen Vesalius s figures in copperplate .

’ The popularity o f Vesaliu s s a n atomical figure s among

s was d ue s painter , not only to the intrinsic worth of the e

a illustr tions , but also to the erroneous belief that the orig

o f inal drawings were the work Titian . This opi n ion found expression o n the title- pages of several works o n

- m . m 170 6 M o sc he n bau e r o f art anato y For exa ple , in , ,

m s Augsburg , issued a folio volu e illu trated with Vesalian — s z A n d reae esa lii figure cut in wood , with this title V ,

Br uxellen sis d es er s ten besten A n a tomici Zer lied er un , , g g d es men schlichen Kor ers a u f Ma hler e u n d Bild h a uer p y ,

K a n s t er ichtet d i F i n T e uren o itia n ezeich n et . g , g v g An

m Notomia d i Tita n io anony ous book , , appeared in Italy 1 about the year 670 . The Ve salian figures of the skeleton were also issued

m h n in sin gle sheets with oralistic verses appended . M o e se 94 AN DREAS VESALIUS cite s one of these with the in scri ption printed in French

b s re b u é De cet o jet affreux tu paroi tt ,

’ Est c est c c que dan s peu cependant tu dois etre

A ren s m c o n n oi re pp , ortel , a te t

’ m est le o u s Ce iroir seul , tu n e t point flatté

Another legend reminds the reader that he is only “ s he m s z— Vous es tes ou d re ! du t , and to dust u t return p ,

’ ” vous retou r n eres en ou d r p e .

A HUM A N SKULL RESTING ON THE SKULL OF A DOG “ ( F ro m t he Fab ri c a 1 54 3 )

’ TITLE - PA GE OF VESA LIUS S EPITOME 1 54 3 PUBLICATION OF TH E EPITOM E 97

i r m portrait also s present . F o the fact that the dedication

s : P atavii id ibus A u usti 15 4 2 bear the inscription , g , the erroneous opinion arose that this work preceded the F a brica .

Among the illustrations found in the Epitome are

m m o lo seven that are not in the large book ; na ely , five y g ic plates , and the figure o f a naked man and one o f a E woman . The myologic figures in the pitome differ from those in the F a br ica in this respect : the muscles

are drawn in their natural position , group , and order , so

s that the urgeon , in treating wounds and in performing m operations , ay have the correct relations o f the parts in m ind . Also , the one Side of the figure differs from the

: m other the one Showing the superficial uscles , while the m other exhibits the deeper usculature . The muscles in

F a brica m the , with the exception of four co plete my o lo g ic figures, are represented as they appear in an atomical demonstrations , particular attention being given to their

Fo r o f origins and insertions . the purpose the artist , the best figures are the three skeletons and the four complete m yologic figures which are found in the F a brica .

o f E itome o n Two beautiful copies the p , printed vel l m m u , are in existence . One is in the British Museu and is thought to be the copy which was owned by the cele b rated Dr . Richard Mead ; the other one is in the pos session of the University o f Louvain .

m o f E itome Vesalius Speaks odestly the p , which

as o f F a brica he regards an index or appendix the , m an d is for the u se of beginners in anato y . SKELETON BY VESALIUS “ From the Fa ri a e u e e - ( b c 154 3 . R d c d on half)

A N D R E AE V E S A L H B R V X E L L BN.“ ' Q V t N T A ' M V S C V L o. s v n T a n v

FIFTH VESALIA N PLA TE OF THE MUSCLES “ rom t he ri a 4 e - ( F Fab c 1 5 3 . R duc ed on e half) CONTENTS OF TH E FAB RICA 10 1

o f m as well as the first illustrations co parative anatomy . Vesalius portrays a human skull resting upon the Skull of m a dog . He also shows a Si ian and a canine sacrum and ’ m as coccyx , to prove his contention that Galen s anato y w

derived from dissection of the lower animals . The F ab m rica is ore than an anatomy . ( Throughout the work physiology goes hand in hand with the anatomical de

o f scription . The use and function— each part of the body

s is given in short , clear sentence 1

The F abrica is built upon a practical plan . It treats of anatomy in a logical manner and is composed of seven 1 — books , which deal with the following subjects : ( ) Bones — — and Cartilages ; (2) Ligaments and Muscles ; (3) Veins — — and Arteries ; (4) Nerves ; (5) Organs of Nutrition and — — Generation ; (6) Heart and Lungs ; and (7) Brain and

Organs of Sense . The First Book

Vesalius devotes one hundred and sixty - eight pages to

the bones and cartilages , treating these structures with a m m thoroughness that a azed his conte poraries . H e was the first author who correctly described the osseous sys

em a n m t s a whole . E nu erous instances Vesalius places h i mself in direct opposition to the opinions o f Galerg!H e o f denied the existence the intermaxillary bone in adults , and showed that the inferior maxilla does not consist o f

two pieces , as has been asserted by Galen! The seven o bones o f the sternum were reduced t three by Vesalius . ’ !He denied Galen s Statement that the bones of the sym physis pubis separate during parturition] He was the first anatomist to give an accurate description o f the I n “ u t a v n a C O RP O R I O “ e at e n L I B B R rr. D V O D E C I ‘ M A M 7 8 0 7 .

' ' L O R V M 1 s. O V LL

DEEP MUSCLES OF THE BACK BY VESALIUS “ Fro m th F ri e u e on e- a ( e ab ca 1 54 3. R d c d h lf)

V M A N I c A D e H o s p o s t s F A B R I C "1. g” I NT E G R A T O T I V S M A G N AE I E w e J K T E K A O M N I B V G p u p, t dclmeaa o duobud ro imé uc “ a 116mIzbcn p x fig n hé C lm. baacomman ix.

PLA TE OF THE ARTERIAL TREE BY VESALIUS “ ro m t h F i 4 edu ed on e - a (F e abr ca 1 5 3. R c h lf) CO NTENTS OF TH E FABRICA 105

hat the intercostal muscles merely separate the

ribs without expanding o r contracting the thorax . He held the view thatEi e nerves and muscles do not stand in any relation of proportionate strength to one an otherj

large nerves often being distributed to small muscles . LH e also held that the tendons are similar in structure to the ligaments Vesalius ’ s plates of the superficial muscles are among m the ost beautiful that have ever appeared . They have

n m been copied in practically all later treatises o anato y ,

n - a d have been used extensively by art anatomists . His

o f m plates the deeper uscles , while naturally not so

fu . pleasing to the eye , are wonder lly near accuracy The different muscles are drawn to Show function as well

as structure . The Third Book

o f thé F a brica m The third part , co prising sixty pages , V is devoted to the veins and arteries . esalius begins with

o f f the definition a vein , and describes the structure o m “ ” these vessels in general . The ter artery is treated in m like manner . He introduces several s all illustrations

which serve to elucidate this part o f the text . His first

large plate in this section is devoted to the venae portae .

‘ EI his is followed by a full - page picture o f the entire ven o us syste The arterial system is fully described and i l

elaborately To these is added another plate , in which both arteries and veins are represented in their

natural order . In other plates he Shows the special cir — n m c u latio s cerebral , portal , and pul onary . DISSECTION OF THE A BDOMEN BY VESALIUS " ( Fro m t he Fab rica 154 3)

10 8 AN DREAS VESALIUS

His account of the brain—contained in the seventh book— is elaborately minute considering the time when it was written . His illustrations and description of this organ surpass those of scores of later authors . Vesaliu s fully describes the position of the brain ; the membranes

' v ia s h the which cover it ; the cavities , or et é , wit in it ;

m a d divisions of cerebrum , cerebellu , n medulla ; the anat

m o . o y f the base , and the origins of the cerebral nerves These structures are illustrated from different points of view . The Fifth Book m m The fifth book , co prising ore than one hundred

o f pages , is devoted to the organs nutrition . Here we m m find an ad irable account of the peritoneu , the mesen

er m m t y , the omentu , the Sto ach and intestines , the liver , — - o f the Spleen , and the genito urinary tract all which

Structures are described and fully illustrated . In this book Vesalius aw The Sixth Book

In less than fifty pages Vesali us describes the contents t o f i m . He writes intelligently the membrane lining the thorax , and then gives an account of the arteria m m aspera , as the trachea was for erly na ed . Passing on m to the lungs , he next takes up the anato y of the heart . m He describes its position , for , and structure in better m m ter s than had been done by preceding anato ists . The m auricles , ventricles , and valves are carefully exa ined .

o His illustrations f both lungs and heart are excellent .

1543 o f F bri a In the edition the a c , Vesalius adopts CONTENTS OF TH E FABRICA 109 the erroneous view of Galen that openings exist in the

m o f o f septu the heart . In the second edition his book ,

1555 thatl in flu en c ed o f published in , he says l by the views

Galen , he believed that the blood passes from the right to m to the left ventricle of the heart , through the septu , by means o f the pores] Vesalius immediately adds that the septum of the heart is as de nse and compact as the rest m of this organ , and that not the s allest quantity of blood m passes through the septu . H is account o f this subject is best given in his own — “ words I n recounting as above the structure o f the

o f heart , and the use its different parts , I have followed in the main the doctrines of Galen : not that I regard them in all particulars as consonant with the truth , but because , in attributing new functions and uses to a number o f

o f m n o parts , I am Still distrustful yself , and t long ago should hardly have ventured to differ from that Prince o f ’ Physicians by so much as a finger s breadth . As for the m dividing wall , or septu , between the ventricles forming m the right side of the left cavity , the student of anato y

Should consider carefully that it is equally thick , compact , and dense , with all the rest of the cardiac substance em

n ot i h closing the left ventricle . And accordingly , w t standing what I have said about the pits in this situation , and at the same time not forgetting the absorption by the m portal vein from the Sto ach and intestines , I Still do not see how even the smallest quantity o f blood can be trans

o f fused , through the substance the septum , from the ” right ventricle to the left . Vesalius and other anatomists knew of the hepatic 110 AN DREAS VESALIUS

u a ion circulation , or at least believed in some comm nic t —“ between the portal and hepatic veins The branches of this vein —vena cava—“distributed through the body of

of the liver , come in contact with those the portal vein ; and the extreme ramifications of these vein s inosculate

s with each other , and in many place appear to unite and ” be continuous . Vesalius knew that in several particulars the accepted physiology of the vascular system was wrong . If he could have lived a few years longer , it is possible that he might have solved the great problem which was made clear by l William Harvey . In the ight of our present knowledge ’ some of Vesalius s words are suggestive “ When these matters are taken into account , many things at once present themselves in regard to the arterial system , which deserve careful consideration ; especially the fact that there is hardly a single vein going to the

o r u i s Stomach , the intestines , even the spleen , witho t t

m o f acco panying artery , and that nearly every member the portal system has a companion artery associated with

its . it in course Again , the arteries going to the kidneys are of such size that they can by no means be affirmed to serve merely for regulating the heat of these organs ; and Still less can we assert that so many arteries are d is tributed to the S tomach , intestines and spleen for that purpose alone . And there is, furthermore , the fact , which m m we ust for any reasons admit , that there is through the arteries and veins a mutual flux and reflux o f mate

an d rials , that within these vessels the weight and gravi ” tatio n o f their contents has no effect .

12 AN DREAS VESALIUS

l Portal has paid a splendid tribute to Vesalius . Vesa “ m o f men lius he says , appears to e one the greatest who m ever existed . Let the astrono ers vaunt their Copernicus , the natural philosophers their Galileo and Torricelli , the m athematicians their Pascal , the geographers their Colum

I h V . b u s, s all always place esalius above all their heroes

m m n i The first Study of an is a . Vesalius has th s noble

m ha object in view , and has ad irably attained it ; he s made on himself and his fellows such discoveries as Columbus could make only by travelling to the extremity of the m world . The discoveries o f Vesalius are of direct i por tance to man ; by acquiring fresh knowledge o f his own

man m d i structure , see s to enlarge his existence ; while s c overies in geography or astronomy affect him but in a ” very indirect manner . V hi Like Harvey , esalius was obliged to defend s h writings from fierce attacks . The most desperate of is

o ld m ac ob u s wa o opponents was his aster , J Sylvius , who s s wedded to the Galenic teachings that he asserted that Since Galen ’ s time the thigh bones had changed their

m e an shape . He spoke of Vesalius as a mad an , V s u s, ” whose pestilential breath poisons Europe . Ponderous discussions were carried o n between the friends and op pon en ts o f the great anatomist . The complete overthrow of the Galenists resulted . m m If Vesalius had re ained professor of anato y in Padua ,

o f b ein o in ted instead glépp physician to Charles the Fifth , 154 at Madrid , in 42] it is probable that the circulation of the blood would have been discovered by him .

1 ’ o rt a : isto ire d e l an at i P l H om e e t d e la i r i P . 99 . ru e aris 1 770 vol. a ch g , ; I , p ge 3 CONTENTS OF TH E FABRICA 1 13

In recent years attempts have been made to Show that it was not Vesalius , but Leonardo da Vinci , who was the founder of modern anatomy . A considerable amount of m controversial literature has accu ulated on this subject . For ou r purpose it may suffice to quote the conclusions o f ‘ “ Mc Mu rric h : Leonardo was the first to create a new anatomy , but he created it for himself alone ; Vesalius de mo n ra e m st t d a new anato y to the world . It was the pub ’ lic io o f F r m at n Vesalius s a b ica that revolutionized anato y , ’ while Leonardo s drawings were lying unpublished , at first the cherished possessions of his favorite pupil Melzi , m later in the A brosian Library in Milan , and Still later m forgotten in the Royal Library at Windsor . We ust credit Leonardo as being the forerunner o f the new anat ” o m a i y , but Vesalius must be recognized s ts founder

INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS “ " From th F ri ( e ab ca , 1543)

McMurric h : Medi al Lib rar n d H istori al ourn al e e mber 906 . c y a c J , D c , 1 C HAPTER TWELFTH

Contemporary An atomists

H O RTLY AFTER TH E PUBLICA

f F a brica wa tion o the , great activity s

manifested in anatomic research , and numerous opponents and critics of Vesalius appeared in the arena of m science . The criticis of such men

ac o bu s D r n r as J Sylvius and John ya d e , m m while it was of a violent type , was of uch less i por

o f m tance than was that Eustachius , Colu bus and Fallo

n ot o f pius . Vesalius was without his partisans , whom

n f m Ingrassias and Can n a u s are worthy o ention .

Bartholomeus Eustachius m Eustachius was born at San Severino , a s all city near m 1520 m Salern u , about the year . He Studied anato y in

Rome and made remarkable progress in this science . In

1562 m O uscu la An a tom the year , as he infor s us in his p

o f m ica , he was professor edicine in the Collegio della

m m men Sapienza at Ro e . Like any other of genius , 15 4 Eustachius died in poverty . In August , 7 , having been m called by the illness of Cardinal Rovere to Fosso brone ,

Eustachius died upon the journey . To Eustachius posterity is indebted for a series of Splendid copperplate engravings which were designed to m m illustrate the anato y of the hu an body . These plates , m the handiwork of Eustachius , and the first anato ical

116 AN DREAS VESALIUS

m only the lower ani als , and was not an accurate observer , i m as h s view that goats breathe through the ears, a ply testifies . Eustachius discovered the tensor tympani and

BRAIN AND NERVES BY EUSTACHIUS

( Reduc ed on e - half) m Stapedius muscles , the odiolus and membranous cochlea , and the stapes . The honor of the discovery of the stapes

is claimed for no less than five renowned anatomists , CONTEMPORARY ANATOMISTS 117

m Collad u s namely , Fallopius , Ingrassias , Colu bus , , and

Eustachius . It is unnecessary to discuss this disputed m claim to priority . The truth see s to be that the stapes

MUSCLES BY EUSTA CHIUS

( Re duc ed on e- h alf) was discovered by both Ingrassias and Eustachius , each

1546 1n rassias independently o f the other . In g publicly 118 AN DREAS VESALIUS demonstrated the little bone o f the ear in his lectures at

n m Naples . Fallopius , after learni g fro an eyewitness that Ingrassias had actually discovered and named the ossicle , relinquished his claim to the discovery . Colum

o ll d u bus and C a s filed their information at too late a date . i m Eustachius , as previously stated , finished h s anato ical 1552 h plates in . His seventh plate s ows , among other — subjects , the auditory ossicles malleus , incus and stapes and tensor tympani muscle . These objects are delineated m as taken from a human subject , and also fro a dog .

Eustachius discovered the origin of the optic nerves , and the Sixth cerebral nerves . He gives excellent pictures o f the corpora o livaria and corpora py ramidalia ; of the

Stylo - hyoid muscle ; of the deep muscles of the neck and

o f throat ; the suprarenal capsules , and of the thoracic duct . He also described the ciliary muscle . Eustachius was the first anatomist who accurately studied the teeth m and the pheno ena of the first and second dentition . In m m his researches he e ployed agnifying glasses , macera m tion , exsiccation , and various ethods of injection .

Reald u s Columbus

The first anatomical treatise containing an account o f m m the lesser , or pulmonary circulation , was the onu ental

De Re An atomica i ri x l work , , l b v . , written by Rea d u s Columbus and sumptuously published at Venice in the

155 ac year 9 . This , however , was not the first printed count o i the lesser circulation . Six years prior to the publication of the book of Columbus , the unfortunate

s Servetu , in a theological treatise , described correctly the

120 AN DREAS VESALIUS

Columbus frequently made experiments upon living m an i als . He was the first to use dogs for such purposes ,

II II o f o f preferring them to swine . Book X . the work

V s u n i r s ExT o rn hizNicolai Ben ihc x , yp g p qu , u o C vu n t v u n ru .

' TITLE- PAGE OF COLUMBUS S ANATOMY ( Reduced on e- half)

Columbus is upon the subject of vivisection , De section e m . In this he tells us how to e ploy living CONTEMPORARY ANATOMISTS 12 1

m m in de onstrating the move ents of the heart and brain ,

o f m the action the lungs , etc . Colu bus was the first anatomist who demonstrated experimentally that the blood m “ passes from the lungs into the pul onary veins . When ” m “ the heart dilates , says Colu bus , it draws natural blood from the vena cava into the right ventricle , and prepared blood from the pulmonary vein into the left ; the valves being so disposed that they collapse and permit its ingress; m but when the heart contracts , they beco e tense , and close the apertures , so that nothing can return by the way m it came . The valves of the aorta and pul onary artery m m opening , on the contrary , at the same o ent , give pas sage to the spirituous blood for distribution to the body at large , and to the natural blood for transference to the ” lungs . m Like Servetus , Colu bus held to the idea of spiritus Harvey was the first physiologist who recognized the cir him culation as purely a movement of blood . All before assumed the existence of a mixture of air and blood .

m o f Colu bus , pupil and prosector Vesalius , like his great m master , denied the existence of fora ina in the cardiac septum . Gabriel Fallopius

1523 Gabriel Fallopius ( of Modena , was a noted

m - Italian anato ist . In his twenty fifth year he was made

m o f professor of anato y at Pisa . Although the span his

a m m life w s short , he will be re e bered always as the dis m coverer of the tubes which bear his na e . According to “ car m m Fisher , Fallopius described the ore inutely than had ever before been done . He discovered the little 122 AN DREAS VESALIUS canal along which the facial nerve passes after leaving the auditory ; it is still called the a quaed uctus F allopii. He demonstrated the fact of the communication o f the mastoid cells with the cavity o f the tympanum ; and also described the fenestrae rotunda and ovalis . In the treat m o f ent diseases of the ear , he used an aural speculum ,

GABRIEL FA L LO PI US and employed sulphuric acid for the removal of polypi m m m fro the eatus . In so e o f his supposed discoveries m he had long been anticipated ; for exa ple , the tubes which bear his name were known and accurately d esc rib ed by Herophilus , over three hundred years before the

s s Chri tian era , and also by Rufus of Ephe us , of whom

124 AN DREAS VESALIUS

This was written as a supplement to the anatomy of

Vesalius , for it follows the same order , passes upon the same subjects , corrects the inaccuracies of the Vesalian

i . treatise , and supplies what s wanting Throughout the V work Fallopius treats esalius with great respect , and him h never mentions wit out an honorable title . Vesalius

e bser ation um wrote an answer to this work , entitl d , O v

F llo ii exa men a p , in which he acknowledges the courtesy

as of Fallopius , but , argument progresses , appears to be m out o f te per . After the death of Fallopius it was thought that no successor except Vesalius could be found competent to fill his place . Accordingly Vesalius was chosen . The news o f his appointment reached him while he was re turning from a pilgrimage to Jeru salem . Unfortunately

as he w Shipwrecked and perished , otherwise history would have afforded an example of the master filling the chair of the pupil . John Philip Ingrassias

15 1 - 5 Ingrassias , who lived between the years 0 1 80 ,

’ was a graduate of the celebrated Paduan School . H e

m o f described minutely the anato y the ear , including the m m ty panu , fenestrae rotunda and ovalis , the cochlea , the

m - m i se i circular canals , and the tensor tympani uscle . H s admiring pupils caused his portrait to be painted and placed in the Neapolitan School , with this inscription hi To Philip Ingrassias , of Sicily , who , by s lectures , re stored the science of true Medicine and Anatomy in

Naples , his pupils have suspended this portrait as a mark ” of grateful remembrance . Ingrassias was a voluminous CO NTE MPORARY ANATO MI STS 125

his on writer , chief work being a treatise osteology , which

- was published twenty three years after his death . When

P m 1575 was the plague depopulated aler o , in , his devotion such as to c am for him the title o f the Sicilian H ippocrates . Few men have been more earnest workers in medical sc i

o f ence . If his fame as an anatomist has not equalled that others , the cause is to be sought in the multiplicity of m co petitors , not in lack of zeal and ability .

INGRASSIA S C HAPTER THI RTEENTH

Comme ntators an d Plagi arists

E DIC AL HI STORY FURNI S H E S

m m o f nu erous exa ples literary theft . In many instances an entire set of ana to mic al plates has been pirated by u n

scrupulous publishers . In a few cases both text and plates have been appro ed m p riat by edical authors . The most notorious example of this form of theft was furnished by William Cowper (1666 an English surgeon and m anato ist , who , having secured three hundred copies of Bi l ’ m d oo s set of one hundred and five anato ical plates , in 1 1697 issued the work as his own . Cowper added a few

original illustrations to the book . Vesalius suffered severely at the hands of the plagia

lae A n a tomica e rists . Pirated editions of the Ta bu were

m As printed in several cities , chiefly in Ger any . regards

F a bri a m a sa the c , we y y that it has been the fountain from which many anatomical writers have derived prac ti

o f cally all o f their illustrations and much their text . The fame of the F a brica soon Spread throughout Eu I rope . t was published in Germany , in Holland and in

m n England . An epito e of its conte ts was issued in Latin ,

1545 m o r m in , by Thomas Ge inus , Ge ini , under the title

om en d i to mia in tio aere xara tum C p os a totia s An a e d el ea , e

r Thoma I o f he V alian e emin a m . t c on ain d t es p m . G t e forty

CO r W e : T he n atom o f H u man Bod i es . O xford 1 697 . p A y ,

128 AN DREAS VESALIUS

A few of these persons have possessed en ough o f in divi duality to deserve recognition .

H amu sc o i a Juan Valverde di , a Span ard who w s born 1500 m about the year , studied anato y at Padua and later

m His toria d e la Com osicion d el at Ro e . His book , p

H m n o uer o u a 1556 . C p , was published at Rome in It

- - contains forty two copperplates and an engraved title page . Although the author says he has used only the Vesalian plates , his work contains several plates which are not to ’ m be found in Vesalius s writings . For exa ple , Valverde

muske ma n hi shows a l n with his Skin held in s right hand , the left grasping a dagger which may have been used in the skinning process . Other original drawings Show the m m b abdo en and intestines , a pregnant wo an with the a m do en opened , and illustrations of the superficial veins .

Valverde was physician to Cardinal Juan de Toledo ,

of m is Archbishop Santiago , to who the work dedicated . The illustrations were drawn by Gaspar Becerra and were ’ engraved by Nicholas Beat rizet . Valverde s book went m m through several editions . It for s a land ark in the — m o f a m edical history Spain country which , for any years ,

o f m was behind other States Europe in atters of science . To name the list o f anatomical writers who have de rived their artistic inspiration from the F a brica would re quire much more Space than is at our disposal . It must

o f suffice to say , that , for a period two centuries , nearly all treatises on anatomy contained illustrations which were

m o f taken fro the writings Vesalius . With few exceptions , these reproductions were little better than caricatures of the original figures . CO M MENTATO RS AND PLAGIARI STS 129

Of the numerous editions of the F a brica there are 1 4 three which are highly prized , namely , the first one , 5 3 ;

1555 i i the second , issued in , conta n ng eight hundred and

- twenty four pages , with many changes in the text ; and the 1725 edition o f the collected writings o f Vesalius . The last named is a huge volume which was published at

e o f L yden under the supervision Boerhaave and Albinus , ‘ n l r with the illustrations cut in copper by Jan W a d e aa .

F a brica E itome E istola d e It contains the , the p , the p

Ra d icis Ch n ae m o f y , various anato ical treatises a contro ver ial hirur ia Ma n a s character , and the C g g which has been wrongly attributed to Vesalius . Morley says of this — “ book After his death a great work on surgery appear

in hi m ed , seven books , signed with s name , and com only

his is included among writings . There reason , however , to believe that his name was Stolen to give value to the

wa m book , which s co piled and published by a Venetian ,

P Bo aru c c i rosper g , a literary crow , who fed himself upon the dead man ’ s reputation ”

1 An drc ae V esalii O pera O mn ia A n atomica et Chirurgica in d uos to mo s distributa c ura erman n i oer aav e n ar ie frie bin i u dun i atavorum H B h e t Ber h di S g d Al . L g B , 1725. CHAPTER FOURTEENTH

Th e Court P hy sician

E A LI S S U , H A V I N G FINISH E D

F a br ica the , intended to write a work on the practice o f medicine which

o n Should be based pathology . He makes mention of this in the preface

F a br ica m o f t h e , and i n nu erous places in the body o f the book he de scribes the pathologic appearances which he found in

s di section . ’ h Returning to Padua after a year s absence , e found that the University for which he had strenuously labored was a very hotbed of opposition . His former pupil and

Reald u s m friend , Colu bus , who was now lecturing on m him anato y at Padua , had turned against . How deeply

man m m Vesalius was wounded by the who he had ade , can be appreciated only by those who have been placed m in similar circu stances . The controversy between Columbus and Vesalius was of a bitter and personal character .

o f On all Sides the views Vesalius were attacked , and the defenders of Galen joined hands with men like Colum m m Di bus in an effort to bes irch the great anato ist . s m 44 gusted with such treat ent , Vesalius , early in 15 , went m to Pisa . Here he conducted a course in anato y . Leav m ing Pisa , he went to Bologna where he made so e Special m dissections upon two bodies . About this ti e he declined

132 AN DREAS VESALIUS

Vesalius left Italy and took up his residence at Madrid .

A Arc hia ru H e was now in his thirtieth year . s t s he ac m companied the E peror in the fourth French war , in which he gained his first experience as a military surgeon . He also acted as physician to Charles and to the members o f the imperial household . The war ended in September 1545 1544 . In January , , Charles went to Brussels , and m m remained in the Netherlands for any onths . Vesalius hi 154 was now in s native country , and in April , 6, he visited the graves o f his ancestors at Nymwegen and m Wesel . In the sa e year he published a new edition of his treatise on the China root .

- 1555 On the twenty fifth day of October , , amid a scene

o f of pomp and Splendor , in the presence the assembled representatives of the Netherlands , Charles formally su r rendered to his son all his territories , jurisdiction and au

- thority in the Low Countries . This was the first of a series o f acts by which the Emperor gradually relinquished hi m the reins of power , in order to spend s re aining days in a cloister . Philip thus became the heir to a vast dominion . Vesalius was continued in office as A rc hiatru s by the new m Emperor . Fro both Charles and Philip , Vesaliu s t e c eived many marks of honor . It was he who rescued

Charles from what was thought to be a mortal disease . At ’ on D a later date , when Philip s unfortunate s , on Carlos, received a severe injury to the head , and after the treat m ent of the Spanish physicians had failed , it was Vesalius

his . who saved life by an operation These cures , and the accurate prediction o f the death - day of M aximilian ’ d E mon t g , placed the fame of Vesalius at high tide . CHAPTER FI FTEENTH

Pilgrimage an d D eath

UD L DEN Y , EARLY I N THE YEAR

1564 ha , for a reason which s never been

explained satisfactorily , Vesalius left

Madrid . Apparently he was at the

height of success . H e was famous as a physician and surgeon ; he was a favorite at the Spanish court ; he had amassed a fortune ; and seemingly he was destined to pass his remaining days under the most favorable surroundings . A S occurs to all great men , he had excited the jealous animosity o f many of the members of his profession . The efforts of the Madrid physicians to ignore the talents of o n e whom they regarded as a foreigner , long since had reacted to the advantage o f the Ar

c hiatrus. During the twenty years that he had filled the post

r r l of A c hiat u s, the Scalpe O f Vesalius was rusting but the controversy con cerning the infallibility of

Galen was still raging . The violent criticisms of Sylvius upon the F a brica had been

Silenced by death , but PHILIP T HE SECOND 134 AN DREAS VESALIUS others took up the cause of Galen where Sylvius had left it . But the passing years had brought a new coterie P of professors , who , like Fallopius at adua ; Rondelet at u Montpellier ; Massa at Venice ; and Fuchs at T bingen , were boldly teaching many things that were contrary to

Galen . Life at the Spanish court was not favorable to the Study “ ” ’ “ o o f science . The hand f the Church , says Foster , was heavy o n the land ; the dagger Of the Inquisition was stab m bing at all ental life , and its torch was a sterilizing flame sweeping over all intellectual activity . The pursuit Of m natural knowledge had beco e a crime , and to search with the scalpel into the secrets o f the body Of man was ac

r - n i n or counted sacrilege . It was fo a life in priest ridde , g ant , superstitious Madrid that Vesalius had forsaken the freedom Of the Venetian Republic and the bright aca m m de ic circles of Padua ; in Madrid , where , as he hi self ‘ o n o m has said , he could not lay his hand s uch as a dried m m ’ skull , uch less have the chance Of aking a dissection .

m o f Moreover , he ust have felt the loss Charles , who , whatever his faults , recognized the worth of intellectual m hi m efforts , and in any ways had Shown s sy pathy with ’ o f m n o Vesalius s love knowledge . Such sy pathy could t be looked for in the narrow and bigoted Philip ” About this time Vesalius received a copy o f the Obser “ “ v a tion es A n a tomica e his u il Of p p Fallopius , who , having m learned all that his aster had taught Of anatomy , con tin u ed his studies with great skill and industry . Such a

m un m book , co ing at an opport e time , ust have seemed

1 Fo ste r . L ec tures o n t he H isto r o f P sio l o Camb rid e 190 1 a e 17 y hy gy g , , p g

136 AN DREAS VESA LIUS

o f wards to the knowledge this , were not satisfied with prosecuting him for murder , but accused him to the In

u isitio n o f m q i piety , in hopes that he would be punished with greater rigor by the judges of that tribunal than by those of the common law . But the King Of Spain in

r o ed te p s , and saved him on condition that by way of atoning fo r the error he should undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Land ”

m was The pilgri age made , the Holy Sepulcher was visited , and the weary wanderer had started for Padua to take the chair which was made vacant by the death o f m Fallopius . A violent stor swept the Ionian Sea . Vesa ’ liu s s Ship was wrecked upon the island of Zakynthos ,

O f 1 h where , on the fifteenth day O ctober , 564 , the Arc iat ru s O f died exhaustion . Such was the miserable end Of Andreas Vesaliu s o f

man Brussels , a , who , before he had attained his thirtieth m year , had beco e the greatest anatomist that the world has ever seen .

140 I N DEX

An ton ius M usa An tropologium of Magn us H un dt Apelles Aphorisms of Hippocrates Apollo

Aquaeductus Fallopi i Aqueduct of Sylvius Arabs Aran tius Archimedes 22 Archiatrus 131 132 135 136 Aristophan es 22 Aristotle 19 55 65 66 67 Ars Curativa of Ga len 56

Art - An ato my Artery of Sylvius 60

u e ius ar us A r l , M c

Avicen n a

Ban ister ohn , J Base v ew o l , i f Beat rizet i ho as , N c l Bece ra Gas ar r , p Be ohn ll , J Be mbo Ben edictin e M on astery

Bertruccius

Bo 4 5 ccaccio ,

Bo i ros e 1 9 garucc , P p r 2 Boe haa e 1 9 r v . 2 B 43 130 ologn a 6 , 15, 27 , 29, 30 , 37 , , I N DEX 141

Bon iface VIII

Brambilla

Brissotus, Petrus Bruchaeu m

Bud aeus

Busleid en ie on mus , H r y

Caelius Aurelian us 63 Caesalpin us 16 10 1 Caj etan Petrioli . 1 5 Calamus sc ripto rius 23 Callimichus 22

a ca an Ste han van 9 4 8 83 89 C l r, J p 7 2 Cari n a coxae 34

51, 60

Caraffa 13 73

a o Gisbertus 55 C rb , 52

a i ui 9 C rd , L gi Car i ei n eu d e 43 p , S g r Carpus 43- 46 Carol us Stephan us 48 Caxt on

Au us orn elius Ce lsus, l C Charles th e Fifth 53 55 82 87 95 112 119 131 hauliac Gu de 29 C , y Chin a root 73 Ch ristian III 63

Cicero 4 , 5

Cimabue

Clemen t VII Clem en t XI Collad us Collegiu m trilin gue College d e Treguier 142 IN DEX

Co llege d e C o rn o uailles 58 C o e e d e an c e 15 58 6 ll g Fr , , 0

C u m us 16 114 11 11 - 1 1 ol b , 7 , 8 2 , 130 C ope rn ic us 2 C oph o 27 C o rio an o C r st o o ro l , h i f 88 C rt o n a e d o , Pi tro a 9 ’ Co im o d e e di i s M c 5, 13 1 C osim o I

C ow er i iam p , W ll C ra e sa e a bb , I b ll

C ke elk a roo , H i h Crusad e rs

C u rti s att aeus u , M h .

d a Car Be ren ario 43- 46 47 pi , g , d a Car u o pi , H g D an o n i

D an te A i hie ri , l g D ar es n at o m in th e k Ag , A y d a V in c Le o n ard o i , d c Ke tham oan n es , J D e a To rre arc An ton o ll , M i D escartes

D ev e n te r the Be ar , gg Of 64 d e Ze rbi Ga rie , b l 37 , 39 D omaria of An ato mical I n te rest 20 132

D an d e r o n 46 - 1 ry , J h 48 5 114

D u ois ac ues b , J q 57

D u re r re , Alb cht 9

Ecl e ctic Philosophy Egyptian An ato my Eichm an n

i a et ue El z b h , Q Empe d oc l es o f Agrigen t u m i a Ep d u rus .

144 IN DEX

Glisson G ran v ella

G e e e n atom in r c , A y Gregory the Great Guid o Guidi 60

a es Guille meau , J cqu 16

Guin terius oan n es 6 1- 64 6 8 , J , 7 , 6 , 7 1, 81

am co uan Va ve e di H us , J l rd 128 ar e i iam 16 1 H v y, W ll 10 112 121 avers o to n H , Cl p 50 e a Ri card us H l , 37 38 H en ry the S econ d 65 22 H erophilus 22 23 122 Historic of M an 127 Hippocrates 10 17 18 57 66 67 80 125 o e n the e H lb i , Eld r 4 1 29 7 H u go d a Carpi 45 an an d u man ism 4 9 H um ists H 10 11, 13, 56

u t a n s 39- 4 4 H n d , M g u 0 , 2

Ign atius Loyola 73 I n dex Expu rgatorius 13 n ra ia oh n hi i 15 11 118 1 4 1 I g ss s, J P l p , 7 , , 2 , 25 13 44 136 I n quisition , , Isago gae B rev es I n stitution u m An atomicaru m I taly an d th e Ren aissan ce

t a v an a car 9 74 8 83 89 Jan S eph n C l , 2 , a 86 1 9 Jan W an d ela r , 2 J erome 27 J ero me M ercu rialis 88 J esu its 73 oa e am 3 3 J n n es d e K th 2, 3 IN DEX 145

Kalcker .

Ketham oan n e , J s d e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Lau ren tiu s Ph ryesen Leo n ardo d a Vin ci

L eon icen us ic o as , N h l n acre T om as Li , h Liv y . ’ Loren zo d e M edici Louv ain n ivers t of 53 54 7 1 , U i y , Lo o a n at us y l , I g i Lu ca Sign o re lli Lu igi Cardi Luthe r

Lu n in o d ei zzi , M o d

M aggio re C o n siglio of Ven ice a n us A e rt us M g , lb a atesta ac o o M l , J b

M an et h o .

arc An ton i o d e a To rre M ll . M argarita Philosophica M assa ’ M axim ilian d Egm on t

ead D r . R chard M , i M e dicin a Astrol o gica

erc u ria is e rom M l , J o n war M ery , Ed d Mic h ae l An gel o Mi rac h

ehsen . C M o . , J W M o n din o d ei Luzzi ’ M o n din o s An atho mia

’ M o n din o s Su ccesso rs 146 IN DEX

M o n te Cassi n o M o reau

o r e en r 70 1 9 M l y, H y , 2 ,

M osch e n b auer

sa An ton ius M u , seu m A e an d r an M u , l x i n ten s A n o d My , r l

M c M urrich

Narcissus of Part h en ope Nic h o las V

No rt hcote, W

O o rin us oan n es 84 6 p , J , 85, 8 , 95, 99 O ribasius 63 O rigen 22 22

Pad ua n ve rsit of 15 74 75 76 79 80 1 11 1 13 , U i y , , , , , , 8 , 2, 23, 6 ’ — Vesalius s Soj o u rn in 56 69 Paed agogiu m C ast ri 54 Pa an sm 11 1 g i , 2 Para h rase of Rha es p z 72, 131 aré Am rois P , b e 16 Paris An ato mic a teach n at 9 , l i g 56 , 6 art e n o e arcissus of P h p , N 82 Pascal Pau lus Ae gin eta 10 63 80 Pausan ias 18

Pe trarc h 3 4 , 5 Pe uce r Cas ar , p 135 Pe li k oh n y g , J 39 Philip th e Seco n d 95 131 Ph r ese n Lau re n tius y , 40 , 4 1, 42

Pierre d e la Ram e e 65, 66, 67

148 IN DEX

Sain t Basil Sain t Steph en Salern u m

San d rart San n azzaro

San ti Ra ae o , ff ll

Scotus ic ae , M h l Serv etus 64 6 118 119 1 1 , 8 , , , 2 Sicilian Hippo c rates 125 Sid n e Phi i y, l p 135 Si n o re i g ll , Lu ca 8 Siph ac Spiegel d er A rtz n y Ste han us Caro us p , l

Stir in - a we Sir i iam l g M x ll , W ll Stu rm

S viu s aco us 5 - 61 6 68 11 1 yl , J b 7 , 7 , , 2, 13 S m o n d A s . 3 y , J

Tab ulae An at o micae

Ta au lt ean g , J Te mples of Aesc u l apius Te ren c e Theatin M o n ks Th eo c ritus Th o m as of Sarzan a Titian To rc ular H erophili To rre arc An ton io d e a , M ll To rrice lli To rteb at ran ois , F c Traj e cto riu m Tra es A e an d e r ll , l x Of T rito n ius V tus , i V al erian o

V a ve rd e uan di H am l , J u sco van c u e Ey k, H b rt an d J o h n V arolius IN DEX 149

88 7 1

6 , 73 89 93 118

Ven ice a io re Co n si o of 8 , M gg gli 2 V erd u n n o , N arciso 82

Vesa iu s irt of 5 l , b h 2 d eath o f 136

- 8 ed u cation Of 53 55 56 67 , 6

V a es n u s 59, 112 Vid a 10 Vi u s V d u s 15 60 di , i , V illan ovan u i h ae 68 s c 0 , M l 0 0 0 0 0 0

V n ci Le on ar o d a 8 9 1 13 i , d 2, , , 10 Vitruviu s .

V tus Trito n 75 80 i ius ,

W aec htlin

W an d elaar an , J W esalius Family Wharton Win te r o f An de rn ac h

Za n t os s an d ky h , i l of Ze rbi Ga rie d , b l e