A History of Modern India Ishita Banerjee-Dube Frontmatter More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-65972-8 - A History of Modern India Ishita Banerjee-Dube Frontmatter More information

A History of Modern India

Ishita Banerjee-Dube

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First published 2015

Printed in India A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Banerjee-Dube, Ishita. A history of modern India / Ishita Banerjee-Dube. pages cm Summary: “Takes up the subject of modern India, tracing developments that have occurred from the eighteenth century to independence”– Provided by publisher. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-107-06547-5 (hardback) — ISBN 978-1-107-65972-8 (paperback) 1. India–History–British occupation, 1765-1947. I. Title. DS463.B24 2014 954.03–dc23 2014010480

ISBN 978-1-107-65972-8 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

For Saurabh

Captain Hodson arresting Bahadur Shah Zafar, 1857; a nineteenth century illustration by G. H. Thompson

Contents

Photographs, Maps, Posters and Figures viii About the Author xi Acknowledgements xii Prologue xiv

1. The Colourful World of the Eighteenth Century 2–41 The End of an Empire Causes and Consequences TheLand of Kings: Rajasthan The Mighty Marathas Nawabs of Bengal The Deccan and the Nizam The Eden of the East: Malabar Mysore and Meddling Merchants Beginnings of a New Empire An Independent Century? Lucknow, Once More 2. Emergence of the Company Raj 42–79 The First ‘Revolution’ Merchants, Commerce and Dual Government Stepping Stones Orientalist Governance Law and Order A ‘Permanent’ Settlement? The Impact of Ideology Conquest and Consolidation Taming the ‘Oriental Despot’: Tipu Sultan The Maratha Chiefs Wellesley’s Administration New Measures

vi Contents

3. An Inaugural Century 80–133 Forces of Change—Free Traders, Evangelicals, Utilitarians ‘The Age of Reform’ The Classical and the Modern Reforming Men and Women Rethinking Religion Trends in Islam Land and Revenue Forests and Frontiers Unrest and Uprising 1857: Different Visions Unfolding Processes A Peoples’ War? 4. Creating Anew 134–176 Proclamations and Promises: The New Imperial Rule Imperial Knowledge and Imperial Governance Caste and Caste Identity The Muslim Minority Issues of Economy More on Famines 5. Imagining India 178–219 Imperceptible Beginnings Language, Nation, History Domestic Difference Rights, Reform, Retribution Masculinity, Effeminacy, Consent The First National Organization ‘Moderate’ Nationalism Subaltern Nationalism Promising Futures 6. Challenge and Rupture 220–259 The First Partition of Bengal Boycott and Swadeshi The Surat Split Radical Trends Muslim Politics Reforms and After

Contents vii

7. The Mahatma Phenomenon 260–302 Formative Influences Beginnings of a Political Career: South Africa India Anew A New Leader Congress, Khilafat, Non-Cooperation People’s Gandhi Khadi, Nation, Women 8. Difficulties and Initiatives 304–345 Swaraj Party, Hindu Mahasabha, Communal Conflict Capitalists, Workers, Communists Depression, Simon Commission, ‘Terrorism’ Nehru Report, Bardoli, Purna Swaraj Civil Disobedience, Khudai Khidmatgars, Women The Act of 1935: Centre, States, Princes 9. Many Pathways of a Nation 346–385 Critiques of Caste: Non-Brahman and ‘Untouchable’ Movements Babasaheb: A New Leader in the Making Contending Visions: Bapuji and Babasaheb Toward Self-Rule: Business, Congress and the Provincial Government The Great Divide: Congress and the Muslim League The Left and Labour The Federation and the Princes 10. The Tumultuous Forties 386–435 British Moves: The Cripps Mission The Call to ‘Quit India’ Netaji and the Azad Hind Fauj Negotiation and Confrontation: The Rough Road to Freedom Final Moves: Elections and Cabinet Mission Partitioned Freedom 11. 1947 and After 436–465 The Imponderables of Partition The Constitution: Democracy, Majority and ‘Minorities’ Caste and Equality Secularism in Crisis Centre–State Relations Political Economy Index 467

Photographs, Maps, Posters and Figures

Photographs Page number

1. M. K. Gandhi at Juhu Beach, Mumbai, May 1944. Cover image Image Source: © Dinodia Photos/Alamy 2. Independence Day celebration procession on the streets of Mumbai, Front inner cover and 15 August 1947. Image Source: © Dinodia Photos/Alamy Back inner cover 3. Captain Hodson arresting Bahadur Shah Zafar, 1857; a nineteenth iv century illustration by G. H. Thompson. Image Source: © Timewatch Images/Alamy 4. Shah Alam reviewing the East India Company’s troops; c. 1781 2 illustration, artist unknown. Image Source: © Timewatch Images/Alamy 5. Surrender of the two sons of Tipu Sultan during the siege of Seringapatam 42 in 1792; artist unknown. Image Source: © Classic Image/Alamy 6. Mounted rebel sepoys charging through the streets of Delhi in May 1857; 80 c.1895 engraving, artist unknown. Image Source: © Image Asset Management Ltd./Alamy 7. The Illustrated London News showing people praying to Nandi for relief 134 during the famine in Bengal, February 1874. Image Source: © Image Asset Management Ltd./Alamy 8. Abanindranath Tagore’s epic painting ‘Bharat Mata’, 1905. Image Source: By kind 178 permission of the Victoria Memorial Hall and Rabindra Bharati Society, Kolkata 9. ‘Where the mind is without fear …’ from Rabindranath Tagore’s 220 Gitanjali published in 1912. Image Source: MS Eng 1159 (1); Houghton Library, Harvard University 10. M. K. Gandhi visits textile workers in Lancashire, 1931. 260 Image Source: © DIZ Muenchen GmbH, Sueddeutsche Zeitung Photo/Alamy 11. Abdul Ghaffar Khan with ‘Red Shirts’ in the North West Frontier 304 Province, 1931. Image Source: © DIZ Muenchen GmbH, Sueddeutsche Zeitung Photo/Alamy

Photographs, Maps, Posters and Figures ix

12. Pencil sketch of B. R. Ambedkar 346 13. Election symbols of national and major regional parties, 1952. Image Source: Schwartzberg’s A Historical Atlas of South Asia 371 14. Women demonstrators during the Quit India movement, 1942. 386 Image Source: © Dinodia Photos/Alamy 15. Jawaharlal Nehru at Bhangi Sweepers Colony, Delhi, October 1946. 436 Image Source: © Dinodia Photos/Alamy 16. M. K. Gandhi and Muhammed Ali Jinnah in Mumbai, September 1944. Image Source: © Dinodia Photos/Alamy Back endpaper

Publisher’s note: Cambridge University Press would like to thank the following for granting us permission to reproduce photographs: Alamy (for photographs 1–7, 10–11, 14–16), Houghton Library, Harvard University (for photograph 9), Victoria Memorial Hall and Rabindra Bharati Society, Kolkata (for photograph 8), Joseph E. Schwartzberg, Distinguished International Emeritus Professor, University of Minnesota (for photograph 13 from A Historical Atlas of South Asia).

Maps 1. Extent of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1556 2. Extent of the Mughal Empire, 1556–1857 3. India, 1765 4. Stages in the Expansion of British Power, 1819 5. Stages in the Expansion of British Power, 1819–1857 6. The Indian Subcontinent, 1857 7. The Revolt of 1857–1859 8. Territorial and Administrative Changes, 1857–1904 9. The Bengal Partition and Related Territorial and Administrative Changes, 1905 and 1912 10. Territorial and Administrative Changes, 1913–1947 11. The French in the Indian Subcontinent 12. Major Administrative Divisions, 1947 13. Proposals for the Partition of India, 1930–1946

Publisher’s note: Cambridge University Press would like to thank Joseph E. Schwartzberg, Distinguished International Emeritus Professor, University of Minnesota, for granting us permission to copy and adapt maps 1–2 and 4–13 from A Historical Atlas of South Asia for use in this book. A map depicting the ‘Political Events of the Nationalist Period, 1879-1947’ from the same atlas is available as an online resource. Map 3 is from Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909. Maps have been made available to us by the Digital South Asia Library, http://dsal.uchicago.edu. We are grateful to them for their support.

Posters 1. Ruling Princes of India. Chromolithograph printed in halftone by A. Vivian Mansell & Co., London, after a painting by an Indian artist.

x Photographs, Maps, Posters and Figures

2. Independence is our Birth Right, c. 1940. Chromolithograph printed by Bolton Litho Press Bombay, after a painting by an Indian artist with reference of different photographs. 3. Last Journey of Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948). Chromolithograph halftone printed at Brij Basi Press, Mathura, after a painting by Narottam Narayan Sharma, Nathdwara.

Publisher’s note: Cambridge University Press is extremely grateful to Anil Relia, Manan Relia and the Archer Art Gallery, for granting us permission to reproduce images from The Indian Portrait III: A Historical Journey of Graphic Prints up to Independence in this book. Anil Relia is one of India’s most prominent art collectors, with a rare and valuable collection. Under his able guidance the Archer Art Gallery has published limited edition serigraphs of renowned artists like M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza, K. G. Subramanyan, Manjit Bawa, Jogen Chowdhury and many more.

Figures Page number 1. Governmental Organization of British India, Indian Councils Act 1909, 253 Revised in 1913 2. Governmental Organization of British India, Government of India Act 1919 275 3. Governmental Organization of British India, Government of India Act 1935 339 4. Organization of Pakistan, Constitution of 1962 430 5. Organization of India, Constitution of 1950 445 6. Constituent Assemblies of India and Pakistan 447

About the Author

Ishita Banerjee-Dube is Professor of History at the Centre for Asian and African Studies, El Colegio de México, Mexico City, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI), Mexico, where she holds the highest rank. Her authored books include Divine Affairs (2001); Religion, Law, and Power (2007); and Fronteras del Hinduismo in Spanish (2007). Among her eight edited volumes are Unbecoming Modern (2005); Caste in History (2008); and Ancient to Modern (2009).

Acknowledgements

In the five years over which this book gestated, developed, and culminated, I have received support and solidarity from many, many people. It is impossible to thank them individually. My apologies, but I presume they know who they are. At the same time, I would like to begin by thanking Debjani Mazumder, the person who conceptualized the project, invited me to write the book, and has sustained it since with care, enthusiasm, and professional skill. My editors Doel Bose and Qudsiya Ahmed at Cambridge University Press have kept me company through the long process, shared in and added to my excitement and passion. Their editorial expertise and research on photos, maps and other pedagogical elements for the book have enriched and improved the manuscript in significant ways. I wish to thank the several anonymous readers—of the book proposal, the initial chapters, and the final manuscript—for their incisive comments and constructive suggestions. My friend and fellow historian Shashank Sinha extended support and advice, while Shinjini Chatterjee, my cousin and a talented editor, went out of her way to offer critical advice at different stages. Ajay Skaria’s arrant enthusiasm and critical insights have enhanced the project in countless ways, and the advice of my teachers Sekhar Bandyopadhyay and Gautam Bhadra has steered me through the arduous process of writing and revision. I am grateful to Tanika and Sumit Sarkar, David Arnold, Mrinalini Sinha, Ajay Skaria, and Anshu Malhotra who have offered valuable encouragement by writing endorsements. Charu Gupta’s practical help and Anupama Rao’s infectious excitement concerning the book have bolstered my fledgling efforts at several moments. Edgar Pacheco, Eduardo Acosta, and Luis Quiñones—at once students, research assistants and younger friends—have made this work possible through their zeal in digging up sources and materials as well as their meticulous care in checking references. Discussions with different cohorts of students at the Centre for Asian and African Studies, the Centre for International Relations, and the Centre for Historical Studies of El Colegio de México have stimulated me in distinct ways, as have the interest expressed by colleagues at the institution. Neha Chatterjee, Atig Ghosh, and Bodhisattva Kar have induced me to think and reflect more with their ideas and criticism. Rajat Sur has lent a hand by checking references at the National Library; Nivedita Mohanty has answered queries and provided references on Odisha at short notice; Amit Sanyal has helped to tie up loose ends on several occasions; and Sharmita Ray has searched for and supplied interesting pedagogical elements. My thanks go out to all of them. My sister and nieces, extended family of cousins, aunts, and uncles, and my friends Sarvani

Acknowledgements xiii

Gooptu, Gina Mathai, Sushweta Ghosh, Rupa Dutta, Susmita Mukherjee, Moushumi Mukherjee, Sayanti Mukherji, Kakoli Bandyopadhyay, and Anuradha Gupta have made the going easy by being there. Sarvani Gooptu, in particular, has answered numerous calls for help and shared her own insights on the history of modern India. My historian mother, Gitasree Bandopadhyay, has searched for references and engaged me in discussions on meanings and understandings of India’s pasts. To her, I owe my first lessons in history. The thought that my philosopher father—Sankari Prosad Banerjee—gone for over a decade now, would have been irrepressibly happy and proud, has kept me going through this long and intense process. Saurabh Dube—fellow academic and life partner—has endured, with fortitude, especially in the midst of immense personal loss, the times and travails of a book that entirely consumed me. My sternest critic and staunchest ally, Saurabh has prodded me to read and reflect by setting an example—of immersion in thought and ideas, while inhabiting at once intellectual arenas and social worlds. This book is dedicated to him.

Prologue

The photograph that serves as the cover to this book depicts Gandhi as walking towards a distant horizon, leaning on the shoulders of a young man and a young woman. Under an overcast sky, does Gandhi appear tired? Or, is there determination in his posture and gait? Is Gandhi exhausted on account of shouldering the burden of freedom, worn down by the enormous cost of Indian independence? Or, is he confidently walking towards a new beginning, the birth of an independent nation? There is purpose in beginningA History of Modern India with the uncertainty that marks the photo on the cover of the work. For, this book is aimed as an open-ended account that both unravels the making of modern India yet questions the intimate linkages between the writing of history and the narration of the nation. Here, I wish to engage students and scholars of history (as well as general readers) in a dialogue and debate concerning the nature of pasts and formations of the present.This is to say that, instead of a singular, seamless story, the chapters ahead offer a tapestry of diverse pasts and different perceptions that shaped modern India. The open-ended account in itself has a past, formed and transformed over the last five years over which the book has taken shape. On the one hand, there is much owed here to hermeneutic traditions of history writing that emphasize interpretative understandings of the past and the present. On the other hand, it is equally the case that as I wound my way through numerous imaginative writings and immense historical materials, which of course provoked further reading and reflection, the chapters acquired lives of their own. Indeed, the writing of the book has been an enormous learning process, changing my understandings of Indian history and its formidable heterogeneity. The book seeks to convey a sense of such plurality of pasts. Here, coherence and sequence help in the telling of various tales—rather than just one story—that best portray the making of modern India; and tales told from distinct viewpoints offer divergent perspectives on the same processes and personalities. The book reflects particular inclinations towards socio-cultural history, including the perspective of gender as crucial to understanding the past and the present. Thus, the text features the clash of sensibilities between distinct Indian aristocracies and European trading companies; the debates over ideology in the framing of land revenue (and governance) policies by the East India Company; the creation of the colonial archive and its implications for Indian society; formulations of Indian ‘tradition’ that draw upon orientalist scholarship; insights offered by the work of the Subaltern Studies collective; feminist readings of nationalist discourses; and key implications of environmental histories. Economy, politics and political-economy find due respect with detailed discussions of, for example, revenue settlements, famines, and the contentious debate on ‘de-industrialization’. At the same time, the central

Prologue xv

focus is on the exploration and interpretation of social and cultural processes, which have often not found adequate reflection in histories of modern India. The chronology of modern India offered in this book runs from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries, a time when India is said to have become a modern nation. At the very outset, however, the work discusses the concept of the ‘early modern’ in order to raise questions about when and how the modern begins and what it stands for. The different connotations and implications of the notion of the ‘modern’ that run through the subsequent chapters consider processes set in motion by Britain’s self- conscious projection of itself as a modern state that was superior to ‘traditional’ Indian society, which came to be widely diffused and reinterpreted on the subcontinent. In Britain as well as India, projections of the modern were now premised upon a rupture with the past and innately associated with Western science, reason and progress, carrying profound implications that continue into the present. Indeed, in the work, chronological sequence is interwoven with thematic threads running through the chapters, which makes for interpretive overlaps and conceptual continuities.The first chapter presents invigorating worlds of the eighteenth century on the subcontinent. Here were to be found port cities on the Indian Ocean with thriving trade and cosmopolitan cultures; and provincial capitals where nawabs and European adventurers vied with each other as collectors of arts and antiquities. In these eighteenth-century worlds, the lines between politics, art and consumption were blurred; conscious national identities (of Europeans and Indians) were conspicuous by their absence; and the gradual dismantling of an immense central administration, that of the Mughal state, was accompanied by the rise of several smaller states, their dynamic economies and vibrant energies. Chapters 2 through to 4 track the events and processes as well as the ideas and ideologies that shaped East India Company’s forms of rule alongside the making of Indian society from, roughly, 1757 to 1900. The making of colonial cultures, their intersections with Indian ideas and practices, and, finally, Indian endeavours and responses find a place here. All of these together resulted in the changeover from Company to Crown Rule in 1858. The discussion begins with the distinct styles of governance across the second half of the eighteenth century of the first four important British governors: the dual government of Robert Clive; the Orientalist-cosmopolitanism of Warren Hastings; the Whig inheritance of Cornwallis; and, finally, the open imperialism of Wellesley that brought large parts of India under Company rule. The account analyses, for instance, the impact of Hastings’ search for and codification of ‘Gentoo laws’; Cornwallis’ attempts to make the administration more British, while permanently settling the land revenues of the vast province of Bengal; and Wellesley’s drive to train the Company’s servants toward improved rule through better knowledge of Indian customs, measures reflected in the establishment of the Fort William College in Calcutta. This sets the stage for exploring the intimate intersections between the colonial ‘civilizing mission’ and the educated Indians’ enthusiasm for Western learning, science and reason. Such linkages generated ardent debates over social reform and the condition of women, resulting in diverse apprehensions and articulations of Indian ‘tradition’. At the same time, at work during this period was the unequal impact of colonial cultures and British policies on distinct groups and different regions, including the cartographic demarcation of spaces and peoples into plains and hills and forests (as well as the spread of railway networks), on the subcontinent. All of this underlay the Revolt of 1857, and the book discusses

xvi Prologue

the period, critically and extensively. The account then considers the divergent processes set in motion by the direct takeover of India by the British crown. These include the British policies of classifying, mapping and enumerating Indian society by means of census and other surveys; imperial institutional reforms designed to prepare Indians for eventual self-rule; and the contending consequences of these policies and reforms, especially claims toward greater political representation by different groups of Indians, including the assertions of lower-castes in these terrains. Chapters 5 to 10 follow the fortunes of Indian nationalism, especially examining its contradictions and contestations. Highlighting a gendered analysis of the cultural discourse of Indian nationalism, these chapters point to the complex interplay between imperial initiatives and Indian endeavours. This dynamic underlay processes of insurgency and accommodation, resistance and resignation, collaboration and conflict, and (eventually) freedom and Partition. The narrative undertakes different tasks. It traces the discrete paths of nationalism, including engagements at once with colonial politics and subaltern peoples. It tracks the efforts to ground the sentiments of nationalism in an economic collective that was being ‘drained’ by colonial exploitation. It reflects on the cultural exuberance produced by the nationalist endeavours, inspired by the first partition of Bengal and the resultant Swadeshi movement alongside their contradictory economic and social impact. It brings into relief the material grounding of the discursive space of the nation in Gandhi’s active enterprise of promoting khadi. Exploring the many worlds of business, labour, peasants and groups that participated only tangentially in nationalist initiatives, these chapters attend also to the articulations of politics, high and popular, of leaders such as Gandhi, Ambedkar, Jinnah and Nehru. Taken together, the aim is to probe the different ways in which a nation is imagined and brought into being, asking also whether nation and nationalism mean the same thing to all people. The discussion also includes those groups and communities who could not relate to the notion of the nation. Unsurprisingly, along these tracks, the account does not project the Partition as inevitable, unravelling it instead as the result of contending agendas of peoples, those included within and excluded from the nation. Beginning with the pain and suffering that accompanied independence and Partition, the final chapter explores the distinct visions and conflicting ideologies that shaped the Indian Constitution, a landmark document that simultaneously signalled a break with the colonial past and retained some of its important emphases. It focuses on the manifold ideals of justice and equality, development and modernity that went into the drafting and implementation of the constitution, and reflects on the experiments with positive discrimination and legal pluralism in India, which in turn have produced furious debates on the nature of secularism on the subcontinent. India today forms an instructive example of the problems and possibilities that underlie the working out of democratic ideals. At the end, it bears mention that historical maps, old photographs, imaginative time-lines, and intimations of cutting-edge research complement the narratives at the core of A History of Modern India. These visual and textual aids and devices not only add to the textures of writing but they facilitate further understanding. In tune with the times it discusses, the book uses Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and not Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai, and Simla and Orissa in place of Shimla and Odisha. If the book encourages its readers—scholars and students—to pose new questions about the past and the present, it would have served its purpose.

Extent of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1556

68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O 96O

36O 36O

Kābul

O 32O 32 Lāhor

Dehlī 28O 28O

Āgra

Patna

O 24O 24

O 20O 20 Arabian Bay Sea of Bengal

16O 16O

68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O

Maximum extent of area at some time controlled by Mughals Core areas Capitals Other places of importance Note: Map not to scale

Extent of the Mughal Empire, 1556–1857

64O 68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O 36O 36O

Kābul

Srīnagar

32O 32O Qandhār Lāhor Multān

Dehlī 28O 28O

Ajmer Awadh Āgra Thatta

Allahābād Bihār O Dacca 24 24O Ahmadābād

Māndū

Asīrgarh Katak Illichpur 20O 20O

Arabian Ahmadnagar Bay Sea Bīdar of Bījāpur Golkonda Bengal

16O 16O

m a

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c h

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Maximum extent of area at some time controlled by Mughals Capitals Other places of importance Note: Map not to scale

India, 1765

68º 72º 76º 80º 84º 88º 92º

36º 36º

Kabul AFGHANISTAN KASHMIR Peshawar Attock N

32º 32º A Sikh Kangra PUNJAB TIBET H Lahore Multan Patiala Kumaun G R U P L Panipat Rohilkhand NEPAL F A 1761 W 28º A MUGHAL A H 28º A B Delhi RAJPUT BHUTAN Agra SIND Jaipur Lucknow Gorakhpur Jodhpur Jat OUDH Ajmer Gwalior Kora Patna Assam Buxar 1758 R Tatta Monghyr Allahabad 1764 A Bundelkhand H Benares E Udhunala B 24º 1763 24º Murshidabad Cossimbazar MARATHA Plassey Dacca C u 1757 t c h Malwa Bhopal BENGAL Chinsurah Indore Chandernagore 1758 1757 Calcutta Baroda TERRITORY Chittagong GUJARAT Sambalpur 1756 Nagpur Surat Khandesh BERAR ORISSA 20º 20º Aurangabad Cuttack Bassein Salsette Ahmadnagar Bombay Poona Bankot KONKAN NIZAM Satara Bay NORTHERN CIRCARS Bijapur Hyderabad of Yanaon 16º Gheria Guntur 16º 1756 Bengal C Masulipatam Bellary Arabian Goa 1759 Cuddapah Sea MYSORE

Arcot Bangalore 1751 Madras Seringapatam CARNATI Mangalore Wandiwash 1746 12º 12º 1760

L Tellicherry Mysore Pondicherry 1761 a Gingee

c Mahe Ft St David 1758 c

a Calicut Trichinopoly Devikota d 1752

i Karikal v

e Tanjore

Travancore I

l Dindigul

d Note To Colouring

s Anjengo British Territory 8º 8º Hindu Territory CEYLON Muhammadan Maldive Islands Note: Map not to scale

4º 4º 72º 76º Longitude East 80 from Greenwich 84º 88º

Stages in the Expansion of British Power, 1819

68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O SIKH KINGDOM AFGHANISTAN 32O 32O

CIS-Sutlej T I Sikhs B E T BALUCHI- Delhi N E P A L SIKKIM STAN DAUDPUTRAS Bikaner 28O 28O B Jaipur E Jaisalmer N Oudh BHUTAN G A AHOMS Marwar L SIND Bundelkhand P ur ip Kotah R n Mewar a E a i S M O h \ 24 d I G D Cutch n Rewah E A a i Bhopal N M i B k S C Y R w O Calcutta U a Holkar B Kathiawar M r B A Y Bhonsle 20O 20O

P Bombay R E Bay S The Nizam Jeypore Arabian I of Satara D E

Sea N Bengal

16O C 16O Y Goa Kurnool

PRESIDENCY

A n

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British Acquisition in India Indian States under British Boundaries and Ceylon Protection* International, as of late 1819 Prior to 1767 Before 1806 Internal (in India only), late 1819 1767-1791 From 1806-1819 Selected pre-1819 boundaries (within 1792-1805 Hindu and Sikh-ruled states India only) 1806-1819 Muslim-ruled states Note: As of 1819 precisely delimited boundaries indicated on this map are based on *Quasi-protectorates existed also with respect to Note: Map not to scale subsequent determinations of the situation Sindhia, Nepal, Sikkim and several other minor states. presumably existing at that date.

Stages in the Expansion of British Power, 1819–1857

68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O 96O 100O KUNDUZ Petty C 36O 36O Tribal States Kabul Jammu and Kashmir H Chamba 32O PUNJAB I 32O Garhwal AFGHANISTAN Lahore N A T I Patiala B Kalat E Lhosa N. W. PROVINNEPAL T Independent Tribes Bikaner SIKKIM 28O Bahawalpur Delhi 28O Khairpur Agra Oudh Jaisalmer Dholpur BHUTAN Ajmer- Katmandu Merwara Jaipur Lucknow BALUCHISTAN Jodhpur C Khasis SIND Gwalior E S L Garos B Sirohi 24O A Hill Manipur 24O Udaipur Rewah G Cutch O Tippera BURMA N Mayurbhanj Indore Bhopal Calcutta M BarodaCENTRAL INDIA AGENCYE Mandalay Kathiawar B B 20O 20O A Karenni

Y Bay Pegu SIAM Janjira Hyderabad Bastar Jeypore Rangoon S of 16O A Bengal 16O to Bengal Arabian R Goa

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68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O 96O

British Acquisition in India and Ceylon Indian States under British Protection Prior to 1820 Before 1820 Hindu and Sikh-ruled states 1820-1838 1820-1838 Muslim-ruled states 1839-1857 Buddhist-ruled states Note: Map not to scale

The Indian Subcontinent, 1857

INDEPENDENT 68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O 96O 100O TARTARY BADAKSHAN 36O KOONDOOZ EAST TURKISTAN O C 36 KAFIRISTAN Independent H Tribes Cashmere HERAT (Goolab Singh’s I N A Dominions) N T S Trans-Sutlej I E 32O N Hill States A S 32O H E G F CIS-Sutlej E A T M P I R E Kapoorthella I Hill States B P U N J A B E T Sikh-Protected N A T States Rampoor O S N N E P A U L 28 I o Sikkim H Bahawulpore r 28O th C W

O BHOTAN Independent Tribes es Oude O Rajputana t L P Khyrpoor r E ov L

B Ajmere- i Cooch-Behar nc Merwara es Cossya and B Garrow Hills Muneepoor 24O SINDE A O A g e n c 24 n d i a y Tipperah O l I Chandernagore (Fr.) G Cutch r a BURMAN n t Nerbudda e r & C o rritories N EMPIRE ug Te s Guzerat M a e E t s S a l (Guicowar’s B t a S h Dominions) Nagpoor a e O s M 20 is k O Diu Damaun Territories c 20 B r ta O t (Port.) (Port.) u Sattara Hyderabad C Bay Jaghires Assigned Districts Bustur Pegu Arabian A Hyderabad Jeypore of (Nizam’s Dominions) S Sea Southern Mahratta 16O Kolapoor Yanam (Fr.) Bengal 16O Jaghires A Y SIAM Goa R (Port.) Bunganpully

D Mysore 12O Andaman Islands

12O A

a Mahe Pondicherry (Fr.) c

c (Fr.)

M Carricall (Fr.) a d

i Poddoocottah v

e Travancore- O (Tondiman’s Dominions) 8

s Cochin

a 8O n d Nicobar Islands s CEYLON (Crown (Claimed by Denmark) Colony)

68O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O 96O Atjeh

British India and Ceylon Native States Non-British Colonial Possessions

Presidencies and Provinces States within State Agencies Note: Map not to scale

The Revolt of 1857–1859

KUNDUZ t Tribes CHINESE TARTARY nden epe Ind HERAT KAFIRISTAN Kashmir

AFGHANISTAN C Punjab H I E N R E S E E M P I

Rohilkhand TIBET NEPALSikkim Oudh BHUTAN Independent Tribes N o r t h BALUCHISTAN W e s B t P u n r o v L B d e i n c l k h e a n d A O G BURMESE EMPIRE Malwa N M B E

A Bay S Arabian Hyderabad of Y A Sea Bengal R

n d

Mysore a

a k

A n

N w

c e M

I r

I l s a l a n n d d s s CEYLON

Limits of area within which British administration was disrupted States actively aiding British

Princely states in rebellion Neutral Princely States

States in which princes were loyal to British, but British India contingent troops were in rebellion Posts at which Indian troops mutinied Note: Map not to scale

Territorial and Administrative Changes, 1857–1904

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Peshawar JAMMU AND P KASHMIR Kabul F Srinagar AFGHANISTAN W

N Lahore CHINESE EMPIRE Quetta PUNJAB

NEPAL Punakha

Agra Katmandu PERSIA RAJPUTANA BHUTAN UNITED PROVINCES OF Shillong BALUCHISTAN Ajmer AGRA AND OUDH Ajmer- Gwalior Jhansi Merwara Allahabad BENGAL ASSAM B AGENCY DIA O IN Chandernagore (Fr.) AL TR M Baroda EN Calcutta Parts of C BURMA Baroda Baroda Nagpur B Diu Daman CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR (Port.) (Port.) A Bay SIAM Bombay HYDERABAD Y Rangoon of Arabian Hyderabad S Yanam Sea Bengal A (Fr.)

Goa R

(Port.) A

D n d

MYSORE a

m a Madras

A a

k Bangalore

Mercara n s Port Blair

h Coorg a a Pondicherry (Fr.) n

d Mahe M

d w Karikal (Fr.) e (Fr.) N

e i

p c

o I b s a l a r n I d s s la n CEYLON d Colombo s

Political Status as of 1904 Changes In Political Status, 1857 To 1904 Capitals British India and Ceylon Area added to Indian Empire Of countries Princely states and protectorates Areas added to British India from Of provinces and major princely states princely states Specially administered areas Areas added to princely states from Boundaries as of 1904 States in special treaty relations with British British India International, demarcated French and Portuguese colonies Areas transferred from one province to International, undemarcated Other independent states another or from one state to another Note: Names of Indian Provinces created Areas restored by British to Nepal Note: Map not to scale since 1857 are underlined

The Bengal Partition and Related Territorial and Administrative Changes, 1905

Boundary symbols for map CHINESE EMPIRE N National, demarcated E National, undemarcated P Cooch Behar State A remains administratively Provincial, post–1905 L a part of Bengal Provincial, pre–1905, ASSAM where different from Prior to 1905 above U. P. Shillong Princely state within a EAST BENGAL AND ASSAM province B E N G A L After 1905 Partition CENTRAL INDIA Prior to 1905 partition British districts Dacca B E N G A L Native states and Five Chota Nagpur States protectorates transferred from Bengal to After 1905 Partition Central Provinces Calcutta Muslim majority districts (as per 1901 Census in BURMA CENTRAL PROVINCES map ) Sambalpur District and Frontier area Five Oriya-speaking states transferred from Central Provinces to Bengal Note: Map not to scale

The Reunification of Bengal and Related Territorial and Administrative Changes, 1912

CHINESE EMPIRE Boundary symbols for map N National, demarcated E Delhi P National, undemarcated A Sikkim Capital of India L BHUTAN Provincial, post–1912 transferred to Delhi in ASSAM Provincial, pre–1912, December 1911. Territory U. P. excised from Punjab to After 1912 where different from above form new Chief Patna Shillong Commissioner’s Princely state within a province 1912 A EAST BENGAL and ASSAM S province S 1905–1912 CENTRAL INDIA I R B E N G A L O British districts After reunification in 1912 d n a BENGAL Native states and R 1905–12 BURMA A protectorates H After 1912 Calcutta CENTRAL PROVINCES I B Muslim majority districts (as per 1911 Census in map ) Frontier area

Note: Map not to scale

Territorial and Administrative Changes, 1913–1947

U.S.S.R

Jammu and Kabul P. Peshawar Kashmir F. Srinagar AFGHANISTAN W. REPUBLIC OF CHINA N. Lahore Quetta Punjab States New Delhi NEPAL Sikkim Punjab Punaka IRAN Delhi Rajputana BHUTAN United Katmandu Gangtok BALUCHISTAN Ajmer Provinces Assam Gwalior Shillong

Sind Allahabad Patna

Karachi t Eastern States Bengal

t Bihar S

States of t Chandernagore

r Western a

j Central (Fr.) u

India G Provinces Calcutta BURMA To Baroda and &

Gujarat States a and Berar d o r a Nagpur B Diu Daman Cuttack

(Port.) B

(Port.) Bay

o Bombay m Hyderabad Arabian Orissa of THAILAND

Kolhapu Hyderabad b r an Sea d Rangoon

D Bengal a

c s Yanam (Fr.)

y n a

Goa A t

n s

(Port.) r d a

Mysore m a

Bangalore Madras n Mercara a

a n Coorg Pondicherry (Fr.) d

N M i Mahe (Fr.) c Madras States Karikal (Fr.) o b a r

I s la n CEYLON d s

Boundaries as of July, 1947 Political status, as of July 1947 International, demarcated British India, Burma and Ceylon

International, undemarcated Princely states and Protectorates Provinces, major princely states, and states agencies Specially administered areas Capitals Independent states Of countries French and Portuguese colonies Of provinces and major princely states Indicates that discontiguous areas are within the same major administrative jurisdiction (where not Note: Map not to scale otherwise evident)

The French in the Indian Subcontinent

32O 72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O 96O

28O 28O

Patna 24O O 24 Dacca

Chandernagore

Balasore Surat 20O 20O

Bay of

Yanaon Bengal 16O

O 16 Masulipatam

Arabian A

Sea n

a m

a 12O

12O a n

Mahé Pondicherry d

Calicut

Karikal o

l a

s 8O 8O

72O 76O 80O 84O 88O 92O

Limit of states in which French at some time Lands assigned by the Nizam to the exercised a dominant political influence personal government of Charles Bussy

Capitals Other places of importance Places underlined remained under Note: Note: Map not to scale French control from 1816 to 1950-54

Major Administrative Divisions, 1947

U.S.S.R

Sinkiang Gilgit N.W.F.P. C States Jammu & AFGHANISTAN H Kashmir I N.W.F.P. N Punjab A T I B IRAN E T Punjab States Rampur Sikkim Delhi (Prot.) Bahawalpur NEPAL BALUCHISTAN (Punj.St.) United Provinces Khairpur Bhutan (Punj St.) Rajputana (Prot.) Baluchistan states Ajmer- Benares Khasi States Assam Coochbehar Gwadar SIND Merwara Gwalior Bihar Manipur Gujarat Bengal E States of a Tripura s Chandernagore Western te rn (Fr.) BURMA s India Central India ta te Diu s (Port.) Baroda Central Provinces Arabian Bombay Daman (Port.) Bay Sea Nagar Haveli Hyderabad s of (Port.) a Bengal Yanam Kolhapur and Deccan States r (Fr.) Goa (Port.)

A n

Mysore d

a m a

Coorg a

a Pondicherry (Fr.) a n

k Mahe

h M

Karikal (Fr.) N a (Fr.)

c d

o w

e Madras a

e r

p I States s

l I a

s n l a d

n s

d s CEYLON

Non-British Colonial Possessions British India, Burma and Ceylon Indian States Agencies and Protectorates (Names are underlined in black) Note: Map not to scale

Proposals for the Partition of India, 1930–1946

Sir Muhammad Iqbal's suggestion for a 'Northwest Indian Muslim State', 1930 Legends for maps a b and c

Internal boundaries as of date of proposal

Proposed boundaries of new sovereign states (Degree of sovereignty never clearly specified) Proposed internal territorial boundaries

Conjectural boundaries of above two types

Names of proposed sovereign states are in red Names of proposed internal territorial units are in black

Princely states not specifically provided for in proposal

Muslim majority areas as of 1941

Hindu majority areas as of 1941

As above with proposed Muslim control

Foreign enclaves a Note: Map not to scale

Choudhary Rahmat Ali's scheme for three independent Muslim League Demand for a Sovereign Muslim Muslim 'Nations' to be formed into a 'Triple Alliance', 1940 State Of Pakistan,1946*

* Note: Though demands did not cover princely states, the Kashmir probability of accession of certain of them to the new AFGHANIA nation was assumed Punjab (West)

Pakistan Assam BALOCHISTANPakistan (East) SINDH Bang-l-Islam Pakistan Rajistan Bengal

Hindoostan Maharashtar Usman- Spellings are those Istan of the author. Boundaries are slightly adjusted to eliminate cartographic inaccuracies. b c Dravidia (Pakistan alone conceived in 1933)

‘With the emergence of Indian-run chromolithograph presses in the late 1870s, mass-produced images came to occupy a significant position in India’s public and domestic spaces. Mostly every house in India had a Ravi Varma print. These prints provided an entrée into the modern world – a world where icons such as nationalist heroes and leaders could be bought for a pittance. The trends set by the Poona Chitrashala and the Ravi Varma Press encouraged others to set up presses and cash in on the print- making movement. While the images were mostly of gods, goddesses, historical warriors and nationalist leaders, they extended to posters, labels and other advertisement prints.’ The Indian Portrait III: A Historical Journey of Graphic Prints up to Independence. 2014. Ahmedabad: Archer, p. 130.

Ruling Princes of India