DOCSLIB.ORG

Restoration Op the Wobld Series of Elephants and Mastodons 1

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Restoration Op the Wobld Series of Elephants and Mastodons 1 BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA V o l . 25, p p . 407-410 S e p t e m b e r 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY RESTORATION OP THE WOBLD SERIES OF ELEPHANTS AND MASTODONS 1 BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN (Read before the Paleontological Society January 1, 1914) Under the author’s direction the animal sculptor Mr. Charles R. Knight has been engaged during the past two years on a series of models of the elephants and mastodons to a uniform scale of 1^ inches to the foot, or a one-eighth scale. Three living and three extinct types have been completed, and the series will finally include the ancestral proboscidian stages as far back as Palceomastodon, all to the same scale. The standards of shoulder height of the recent forms are taken from the well known records of Rowland Ward (1907), and the estimates of shoulder height of extinct forms are taken partly from actual skeletons, as in the case of the mastodon and woolly mammoth, and from fore-limb measurements in the case of the imperial mammoth. These heights in descending order are as follows: Imperial mammoth, Elephas imperator, 13 feet 6 inches, estimate of F. A. Lucas. African elephant, Loxodon africanus, 11 feet 8% inches, record of Rowland Ward. Indian elephant, Elephas indicus, 9 feet 10 inches, record of Rowland Ward. Indian elephant, Elephas indicus, 10 feet 6 inches, record of Rowland Ward. Hairy mammoth, Elephas primigenius, 9 feet 6 inches, estimated from skeleton. American mastodon, Mastodon americanuss, 9 feet 6 inches, estimated from skeleton. Pigmy African elephant, Loxodon cyclotis, 6 feet 2 inches, present height of type specimen in New York Zoological Park. The tusks in each type, which in these models are also record tusks as to length and curvature, are selected as the most generally characteristic in form and curvature or are actual tusks, as in the casé of L. africanus, E. primigenius, and E. imperator. The living forms have been studied by Mr. Knight directly from types in the New York and other zoological parks. They are regarded by experts as excellent models except in the 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 15, 1914. (407) Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/25/1/407/3413685/BUL25-0407.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 408 H. F. OSBORN --RESTORATION OF ELEPHANTS AND MASTODONS A, American mastodon, Mastodon americanus; B, Imperial mammoth, Elephas imperator; C, Wooly mammoth, Elephas pnmif/enius. Models in the American Museum Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/25/1/407/3413685/BUL25-0407.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 RESTORATION OF ELEPHANTS 409 E F i g u r e 2 .— Restoration of Elephants D, Indian elephant, Elephas indicus ; E, Congo elephant, Loxodon cyclotis ; F, African e lep h an t, Loxodon africanus. Models in the American Museum proportions of the neck, which are far more massive and powerful than as represented by Mr. Knight in the African bull, for example. The mastodon is drawn very closely on the famous Warren mastodon skeleton in the American Museum of Natural History. The imperial mammoth Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/25/1/407/3413685/BUL25-0407.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 410 H. F. OSBORN---- RESTORATION OF ELEPHANTS AND MASTODONS is almost entirely conjectural since the top of the skull has not yet been discovered, and it is not known, therefore, whether the animal had the characteristic peaked cranium of the true mammoth type, or the flattened cranium of the African type, or the bulbous cranium of the Indian type. The hairy mammoth is by far the most probable restoration in the cxtinct series because it is based, first, 011 the complete skeleton, second, on the data furnished by the frozen Siberian mammoth, third, and most important, by the extraordinary likeness which prevails in all the numer­ ous drawings, engravings, and sculptures of E. printigenius by the artists of TTpper Paleolithic times. In preparing these models we were at once struck by the highly dis­ tinctive differences in the contour not only of the forehead but of the backbone. The L. cyclotis, for example, while of diminutive size and with rounded ears, has the distinctive backbone profile of the African elephant, which is hollow between the shoulders and the hips. The back­ bone of the Indian elephant is uniformly arched upward; that of the mammoth rapidly falls away toward the hind quarters, and a similar character is doubtfully attributed to the imperial mammoth. The extraordinary dome over the head of the woolly mammoth, sepa­ rated by a deep valley from the dome over the back, is probably due to an accumulation of hair and wool and possibly to the presence of a storage reservoir of adipose tissue, because we know that this rounded form does not coincide at all with the peaked, flattened forehead of the skull within. For purposes of casting, the hair, which nearly touches the ground be­ neath the neck and belly of the mammoth and constitutes a uniform fringe around the lower part of the limbs, is reduced. Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/25/1/407/3413685/BUL25-0407.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group GAJAH
    NUMBER 46 2017 GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group GAJAH Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 46 (2017) The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and conservation of Asian elephants both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by which everyone concerned with the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), whether members of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group or not, can communicate their research results, experiences, ideas and perceptions freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can benefit. All articles published in Gajah reflect the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Editor Dr. Jennifer Pastorini Centre for Conservation and Research 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa Julpallama, Tissamaharama Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected] Editorial Board Dr. Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando School of Geography Centre for Conservation and Research University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Kajang, Selangor Julpallama, Tissamaharama Malaysia Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Dr. Varun R. Goswami Heidi Riddle Wildlife Conservation Society Riddles Elephant & Wildlife Sanctuary 551, 7th Main Road P.O. Box 715 Rajiv Gandhi Nagar, 2nd Phase, Kodigehall Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058 Bengaluru - 560 097 USA India e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Dr. T. N. C. Vidya
    [Show full text]
  • Teacher Guide: Meet the Proboscideans
    Teacher Guide: Meet the Proboscideans Concepts: • Living and extinct animals can be classified by their physical traits into families and species. • We can often infer what animals eat by the size and shape of their teeth. Learning objectives: • Students will learn about the relationship between extinct and extant proboscideans. • Students will closely examine the teeth of a mammoth, mastodon, and gomphothere and relate their observations to the animals’ diets. They will also contrast a human’s jaw and teeth to a mammoth’s. This is an excellent example of the principle of “form fits function” that occurs throughout biology. TEKS: Grade 5 § 112.16(b)7D, 9A, 10A Location: Hall of Geology & Paleontology (1st Floor) Time: 10 minutes for “Mammoth & Mastodon Teeth,” 5 minutes for “Comparing Human & Mammoth Teeth” Supplies: • Worksheet • Pencil • Clipboard Vocabulary: mammoth, mastodon, grazer, browser, tooth cusps, extant/extinct Pre-Visit: • Introduce students to the mammal group Proboscidea, using the Meet the Proboscideans worksheets. • Review geologic time, concentrating on the Pleistocene (“Ice Age”) when mammoths, mastodons, and gomphotheres lived in Texas. • Read a short background book on mammoths and mastodons with your students: – Mammoths and Mastodons: Titans of the Ice Age by Cheryl Bardoe, published in 2010 by Abrams Books for Young Readers, New York, NY. Post-Visit Classroom Activities: • Assign students a short research project on living proboscideans (African and Asian elephants) and their conservation statuses (use http://www.iucnredlist.org/). Discuss the possibilities of their extinction, and relate to the extinction events of mammoths and mastodons. Meet the Proboscideans Mammoths, Mastodons, and Gomphotheres are all members of Proboscidea (pro-bo-SID-ia), a group which gets its name from the word proboscis (the Latin word for nose), referring to their large trunks.
    [Show full text]
  • The Childs Elephant Free Download
    THE CHILDS ELEPHANT FREE DOWNLOAD Rachel Campbell-Johnston | 400 pages | 03 Apr 2014 | Random House Children's Publishers UK | 9780552571142 | English | London, United Kingdom Rachel Campbell-Johnston Penguin 85th by Coralie Bickford-Smith. Stocking Fillers. The Childs Elephant the other The Childs Elephant of the scale, when elephants eat in one location and defecate in another, they function as crucial dispersers of seeds; many plants, trees, The Childs Elephant bushes would have a hard time surviving if their seeds didn't feature on elephant menus. Share Flipboard Email. I cannot trumpet this book loudly enough. African elephants are much bigger, fully grown males approaching six or seven tons making them the earth's largest terrestrial mammalscompared to only four or five tons for Asian elephants. As big as they are, elephants have an outsize influence on their habitats, uprooting trees, trampling ground underfoot, and even deliberately enlarging water holes so they can take relaxing baths. Events Podcasts Penguin Newsletter Video. If only we could all be Jane Goodall or Dian Fossey, and move to the jungle or plains and thoroughly dedicate our lives to wildlife. For example, an elephant can use its trunk to shell a peanut without damaging the kernel nestled inside or to wipe debris from its eyes or other parts of its body. Elephants are polyandrous and The Childs Elephant mating happens year-round, whenever females are in estrus. Habitat and Range. Analytics cookies help us to improve our website by collecting and reporting information on how you use it. Biology Expert. Elephants are beloved creatures, but they aren't always fully understood by humans.
    [Show full text]
  • Elephant Escapades Audience Activity Designed for 10 Years Old and Up
    Elephant Escapades Audience Activity designed for 10 years old and up Goal Students will learn the differences between the African and Asian elephants, as well as, how their different adaptations help them survive in their habitats. Objective • To understand elephant adaptations • To identify the differences between African and Asian elephants Conservation Message Elephants play a major role in their habitats. They act as keystone species which means that other species depend on them and if elephants were removed from the ecosystem it would change drastically. It is important to understand these species and take efforts to encourage the preservation of African and Asian elephants and their habitats. Background Information Elephants are the largest living land animal; they can weigh between 6,000 and 12,000 pounds and stand up to 12 feet tall. There are only two species of elephants; the African Elephants and the Asian Elephant. The Asian elephant is native to parts of South and Southeast Asia. While the African elephant is native to the continent of Africa. While these two species are very different, they do share some common traits. For example, both elephant species have a trunk that can move in any direction and move heavy objects. An elephant’s trunk is a fusion, or combination, of the nose and upper lip and does not contain any bones. Their trunks have thousands of muscles and tendons that make movements precise and give the trunk amazing strength. Elephants use their trunks for snorkeling, smelling, eating, defending themselves, dusting and other activities that they perform daily. Another common feature that the two elephant species share are their feet.
    [Show full text]
  • Asian Elephant • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • Elephas Maximus
    Asian elephant • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • Elephas maximus Classification What groups does this organism belong to based on characteristics shared with other organisms? Class: Mammalia (all mammals) Order: Proboscidea (large tusked and trunked mammals) Family: Elephantidae (elephants and related extinct species) Genus: Elephas (Asian elephants and related extinct species) Species: maximus (Asian elephant) Distribution Where in the world does this species live? Most Asian elephants live in India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand with small populations in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. Habitat What kinds of areas does this species live in? They are considered forest animals, but are found in a variety of habitats including tropical grasslands and forests, preferring areas with open grassy glades within the forest. Most live below 10,000 feet (3,000m) elevation although elephants living near the Himalayas will move higher into the mountains to escape hot weather. Physical Description How would this animal’s body shape and size be described? • Asian elephants are the largest land animal on the Asian continent. • Males’ height at the shoulder ranges from eight to ten feet (2.4-3m); they weigh between 7,000 and 13,250 pounds (3500-6000kg). • Females are between six and eight feet tall (1.95-2.4m) at the shoulder and weigh between 4,400 and 7,000 pounds (2500-3500kg). • Their skin is dark gray with freckled pink patches and sparse hair; the skin ranges from very thin at the ears to one inch thick (2.54cm) on the back. • Their most prominent feature is a long trunk that has a single finger on the upper edge.
    [Show full text]
  • The Royal Elephant of India
    The Royal Elephant of India A Mixed Media Social Justice & Eco-Justice Art Education Project Artist Piya Sharma Inner City Angels Inspiration The Blind Men and the Elephant ~ A Picture of Relativism and Tolerance The Blind Men and the Elephant is a famous Indian fable of six blind sojourners that come across different parts of an elephant in their life journeys. In turn, each blind man creates his own version of reality from that limited experience and perspective. In philosophy departments throughout the world, the Blind Men and the Elephant has become the poster child for moral relativism and religious tolerance. Holi ~ The Indian Festival of Colours In Indian Mythology, devas (gods) and asuras (demons) stirred the ocean in the hopes that it would bring about their immortality. Lo and behold, this stirring caused nine jewels, also known as the navratnas, to surface from the ocean. One of these jewels was an elephant. Since then, the elephant has been regarded as a sacred and precious animal. The Elephant Festival is a unique event held annually in Jaipur, the capital of the north Indian state of Rajasthan. Groomed to perfection, glittering in gold, row upon row of elephants catwalk before an enthralled audience. The elephants move gracefully in procession, run races, play the regal game of polo, and finally participate in the spring festival of Holi. It is festival time for the elephants. The Ivory Trade and Elephant Endangerment Ivory comes from varied species of animals including elephants. The ivory trade is illegal on an international scale. It is illegal to poach the ivory from the elephant tusks (this results in the death of the elephant) and it is illegal to buy and sell the trinkets and jewellery made from the ivory.
    [Show full text]
  • The Human-Elephant Conflict
    Gajaha 30 (2009) 41-52 The Human-Elephant Confl ict: A Review of Current Status and Mitigation Methods B. M. A. Oswin Perera Faculty of Veterinary Medicine & Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Globally, wild elephants are present in 50 of the ecosystems they inhabit. Due to their countries, 13 of which are in Asia and 37 in requirement for large areas of forest habitat, Africa. At present the number of wild Asian conservation of elephants will automatically elephants (Elephas maximus) is between 35,000 ensure the conservation of other species that and 50,000 (www.elephantcare.org), while the co-exist in the same habitat. However, they can number in captivity is around 16,000. The trend also modify the environment in positive as well in almost all Asian range states has been a drastic as negative ways by their actions. The elephant decline in wild elephant numbers, due to a range is also a ‘fl agship’ species, especially in Asian of anthropogenic factors related to increasing countries, being closely associated with the social human population, loss and degradation of forest and cultural aspects of people, and this factor can habitat, fragmentation of breeding populations and be harnessed to promote its conservation. increasing human-elephant confl ict (HEC). The Asian elephant is categorized as an ‘endangered’ Many studies have been carried out on HEC both species in the Red List of the World Conservation in Asia (Sukumar 2003; Jayawardena 2004; de Union (IUCN, 2008: www.iucnredlist.org) and is Silva & de Silva 2007) and Africa (Hoare 1999; classifi ed with the Convention for International Walpole & Linkie 2007), but despite the lessons Trade of Endangered Species (CITES, www.
    [Show full text]
  • African Elephant
    Species fact sheet: African Elephant A powerful symbol of nature, the world’s largest land animal is still under threat African elephant, Kenya. © WWF-Canon / Martin Harvey African elephants are the largest living land animals. Once 2. The forest elephant (L. a. cyclotis) is smaller and darker numbering millions across the African continent, their than the savannah elephant, has straighter, populations had been decimated by the mid-1980s by downward-pointing tusks, and lives in central and western systematic poaching. The status of the species now varies Africa’s equatorial forests. Forest elephants are more greatly across Africa. Some populations remain generally threatened than the savannah sub-species due endangered due to poaching for meat and ivory, habitat to poaching and loss of forest habitat. loss, and conflict with humans, while others are secure and Elephant numbers vary greatly over the 37 range states; expanding. some populations remain endangered, while others are There are two sub-species of African now secure. For example, most countries in West Africa elephant: count their elephants in tens or hundreds, with animals scattered in small blocks of isolated forest; probably only 1. The savannah elephant (L. a. africana), also known as the bush elephant, is the largest elephant in the world, with three countries in this region have more than 1,000 a maximum shoulder height of 4m and weighing up to animals. In contrast, elephant populations in southern 7,500kg. It is recognizable by its large outward-curving Africa are large and expanding, with some 300,000 tusks, and it lives throughout the grassy plains and elephants now roaming across the sub-region.
    [Show full text]
  • Southern India Project Elephant Evaluation Report
    SOUTHERN INDIA PROJECT ELEPHANT EVALUATION REPORT Mr. Arin Ghosh and Dr. N. Baskaran Technical Inputs: Dr. R. Sukumar Asian Nature Conservation Foundation INNOVATION CENTRE, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE 560012, INDIA 27 AUGUST 2007 CONTENTS Page No. CHAPTER I - PROJECT ELEPHANT GENERAL - SOUTHERN INDIA -------------------------------------01 CHAPTER II - PROJECT ELEPHANT KARNATAKA -------------------------------------------------------06 CHAPTER III - PROJECT ELEPHANT KERALA -------------------------------------------------------15 CHAPTER IV - PROJECT ELEPHANT TAMIL NADU -------------------------------------------------------24 CHAPTER V - OVERALL CONCLUSIONS & OBSERVATIONS -------------------------------------------------------32 CHAPTER - I PROJECT ELEPHANT GENERAL - SOUTHERN INDIA A. Objectives of the scheme: Project Elephant was launched in February 1992 with the following major objectives: 1. To ensure long-term survival of the identified large elephant populations; the first phase target, to protect habitats and existing ranges. 2. Link up fragmented portions of the habitat by establishing corridors or protecting existing corridors under threat. 3. Improve habitat quality through ecosystem restoration and range protection and 4. Attend to socio-economic problems of the fringe populations including animal-human conflicts. Eleven viable elephant habitats (now designated Project Elephant Ranges) were identified across the country. The estimated wild population of elephants is 30,000+ in the country, of which a significant
    [Show full text]
  • Elephant TAG/SSP Key Messages
    Elephant TAG/SSP Key Messages The most important thing that we can do to positively influence visitors about elephants and elephant conservation is to be clear about the messages, communicate them positively and succinctly and to use staff to reinforce them personally. San Diego Wild Animal Park Introduction: The Elephant TAG/SSP Steering Committee has drafted these Elephant Key Messages for AZA institutions to incorporate into their on-site elephant graphics and/or presentations. We also hope that they will be a useful resource as you craft future programs or refine current ones. Our goal was to create elephant natural history, conservation, management and welfare messages that would be meaningful, relevant and inspiring to all. With so much confusion around the general public’s view of elephant management, this document includes important, consistent information to share with visitors about the high quality of elephant care and welfare in responsible AZA institutions. These messages are not meant to be delivered all at once, but rather to select one or a few messages that suit a program’s objectives. NATURAL HISTORY MESSAGE 1 Elephants have special features that are unique in the animal world. • Elephants are the largest land animals in the world. • Their unique trunk acts as part nose, part hand to assist in breathing, detecting odors, manipulating objects, social interactions, eating, dust bathing, drawing-up water and releasing water into the mouth. • Elephants have the longest gestation of any land animal of 21.5 months. • Elephants have the largest brain of any land animals. • Elephants are long lived. Studies have shown that life expectancy at birth in African elephants is 41 years for females and 24 years for males.
    [Show full text]
  • The Distribution of Proboscidea (Elephants) Professor Dr
    The Distribution of Proboscidea (Elephants) Professor Dr. Erich Thenius [In: Kosmos #5, May, pp. 235-242, 1964, Stuttgart] When I speak here about animals with a trunk, I do not mean the tapirs or pigs, but I refer only to the elephants and their ancestors, like the Mastodons and Dinotheria which we call the Proboscidea (after the Greek: proboscis = trunk). Their main characteristic is their remarkable trunk which has been fashioned to become a “gripping” organ. That organ was not present in the geologically oldest ancestors whose skeletons stem from the deposits of the Eocene (old Tertiary) in Africa. Even though we have no “soft tissues” of those animals, their skeletal features suffice to tell the scientist just what their bodily characteristics would have been. Thus also, we are not really going to discuss much about their distribution in historic times, but rather, we will concentrate on the development of these characteristic mammals, from their inception to their distribution in the past. A history of the Proboscidea is necessarily a history of their distribution in time and space. Information of these animals is available from numerous fossil findings in nearly all continents. But, before we even consider the fossil history, let us take a quick look of the current distribution of elephants which is shown in Figure 1. Nowadays, there are only two species of elephants: the Indian and African elephants. They not only differ geographically but also morphologically. That is to say, they are different in their bodily form and in their anatomy in several characteristics as every attentive zoo visitor who sees them side-by-side easily observes: The small-eared Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) has a markedly bowed upper skull; the African cousin (Loxodonta africana) has longer legs and markedly larger ears.
    [Show full text]
  • Captive Elephant Population of North America: 1986 Sandra Lash Shoshani
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Digital Commons@Wayne State University Elephant Volume 2 | Issue 2 Article 15 9-6-1986 Captive Elephant Population of North America: 1986 Sandra Lash Shoshani Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/elephant Recommended Citation Shoshani, S. L. (1986). Captive Elephant Population of North America: 1986. Elephant, 2(2), 123-130. Doi: 10.22237/elephant/ 1521732027 This Brief Notes / Report is brought to you for free and open access by the Open Access Journals at DigitalCommons@WayneState. It has been accepted for inclusion in Elephant by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@WayneState. Fall 1986 LASH SHOSHANI - CAPTIVE ELEPHANTS 123 CAPTIVE ELEPHANT POPULATION OF NORTH AMERICA: 1986 compiled by Sandra Lash Shoshani 106 E. Hickory Grove Road Bloomfield Hills, Michigan 48013 USA Table I. Summary of captive elephants in 76 North American zoos and 5 private institutions, as reported by the International Species Inventory System (ISIS), for the year ending December 31, 1985, courtesy of Nathan Flesness. U. S. Zoos Canadian Zoos Total African 129 15 144 elephant (20M, 109F)1 (3M, 12F) (23M, 121F) Asian 128 5 133 elephant (13M, 115F) (2M, 3F) (15M, 118F) Totals 257 20 2772 1 F=female M=male 2 Of these 277, 6 Asian and 8 African were reported captive-born, since 1979. In addition to the data from ISIS, Toby E. Styles has sent us an estimate of the number of elephants in Canada, as of June 1986. Among those not represented in the ISIS census are four more reports, with the following numbers: African elephant 1 (0M, 1F) Asian elephant 5 (1M, 4F) Recent figures for the number of elephants held in circuses have been compiled in part by several groups of people and individuals.
    [Show full text]