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CHALLANGES AND FUTURE NEEDS FOR MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA

Sigit Supadmo Arif1 and Murtiningrum2

ABSTRACT

Irrigation can be viewed as a system with several subsystems which interact to its surroundings. Therefore changes from its environments may affect to irrigation system which requires adjustment in . and instituion arrangements, needs, deterioration, and environment degradation challenge the irrigation management in Indonesia. In order to respond to the challenges, future needs include institution strengthtening, infrastructure development and rehabilitation, economic and financial policy, and irrigation-related reseaches.

INTRODUCTION

Water is an essential element for because is used by crops for photosynthesis, nutrition transport, transporation, and so on which in turn make crops produce biomass for human need. Water is also used for creating favorable condition for preparation. In Indonesia, which lays in a tropical monsoon region, rainfall is the main water source for agriculture. However, rainfall varies spatially and temporarily so that it sometimes cannot fulfill crop water requirement at the optimal time. Irrigation supply crop water requirement among variation of rainfall. In irrigation management, it is necessary to consider the specific characteristics of . Water is a finite reources as the number of water in the world remain the same. Because of hydrologic cycle, water is considered as quasy renewable. Water is also a vulnerable resources because it is affected by its surrounding including its users. Therefore the abstraction of water for irrigation should take these characteristics into account. Besides for irrigation, water is required for many different purposes, functions and services. Holistic management, therefore, has to involve consideration of the demands placed on the resources and the threats to it. Holistic management involves the management of natural systems as as human activities which create the demands for water, determine land uses and generate water borne waste products. In more and more complex nowadays and in the future, irrigation management as part of water management is getting more challenging. This paper aims to reveal problems confronted in the future followed by alternatives to deal with them.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

An irrigation system is defined as human intervention to modify water resource spatially and temporary therefore all or a part of it can support crop growth and improve agricultural production (Small and Svensend, 1992). The definition implies that in irrigation human is an important factors in managing natural resources especially water. The Government Regulation No. 20/2006 on Irrigation explicitly stated that human resources is a part of irrigation system besides infrastructure, water, management, and institution of irrigation management (Anonimous, 2006). The purpose of irrigation management is to provide the best service for farmers to achieve optimum production. Irrigation management is a process in which water resources is allocated and utilized sustainabli and effectively in term of budget (Malano and van Hofwegen, 1999). Irrigation management can be focused on on three elements, namely water, physical structures, and social

1 Profesor, Department of Agriculture Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural 2 Lecture, Department of Agriculture Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Technology

1 organization. (Uphoff, 1986). The three irrigation elements interact to each other so that it is more simple to analysis each components followed by their interactions of the history of irrigation in Indonesia (van Setten van Meer, 1976 and Lombard, 1996) shows that irrigation is an important aspect of food supply although it is located in the tropical monsoon region with a lot of . Because it affects the livelihood of many people, irrigation has been a to strengthten the government political power. At some point, irrigation has became a critical aspect to determine the development of agricultural country (Arif, et al, 2010). Basically, the irrigation management consist of five elements, namely infrastructure, human resources and institutional, legal basic, financial and economic, and the environment (Burton, 2010). To deal with future challenge of irrigation management, recent performance of each component should be known and current constraints should be analyzed. Although there are some different among experts in categorizing irrigation elements, there is a similarity agreed that irrigation consists of multi elements. The elements interact to each other results in overall irrigation performance. The change or disturbance to one element of irrigation system may effect to other elements furthermore this result in the change of irrigation system as a whole.

CHALLENGES OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA

This part reveals the challenges of irrigation management in Indonesia in the future. The explanations are arranged according to the component of irrigation systems.

Multi-Institution In the past, Indonesian irrigation development and management has always focused on the construction of irrigation infrastructure. However, the only successful infrastructure development without human development as the basis for community participation and development institutions may result in the unsustainability of irrigation system. Therefore, both Law No. 7 / 2004 on Water Resources and the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 on Irrigation requires participatory in the implementation of development and management of natural resources and irrigation. Although institution is considered as essential element and the central issue in irrigation management, policy of national irrigation institution development is absent. In the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 on Irrigation said that the asset management of irrigation consists of irrigation infrastructure and supporting assets. Both of the assets in the form of institutional support and human sumbardaya nirwijud is an asset. Policies on infrastructure asset management as a form of assets could have done but kebiujakan about nirwujud asset management has not been done. Currently irrigation development and management held by many institutions. At the national level task performed by at least five ministries, namely: The Ministry of National Development Planning (BAPENAS), The Ministry of Public Works (PU), The Ministry of Agriculture, The Ministry of Internal Affair, and The Ministry of Finance. Among those five ministries, none of them is designated as a leading sector, which coordinate all irrigation activities in Indonesia. The absence of the leading institution may leads on the lack of responsible institutions so that it will be difficult to determine the source of inappropriateness when it occurred. This was worsen by the absence of dialog forum to discuss about programs as well as to share any information to support to each other performances. In provincial and district levels, multi-institution has also taken place together with problem of unavailability of dialog forum. In addition, form of provincial and district offices which responsible to irrigation management are different among areas. This followed by various scopes of works, authority, and responsibility which may result in different performace of irrigation management.

2 Human Resources Some facts said that human resources is the weakest point in irrigation management recently. Althouth it is stated in the Government Regulation No. 20/2006, policy regarding human resource development and management is absent. Human resources is characterized by its numbers, distribution, education, and competency. Most of human resources in irrigarion management are civil servants and some others are non-permanent workers in field levels. Problem of human resources is related to retirement of many field staffs without proper recruitment recently. Moreover the new staffs receive inadequate trainings to do their daily jobs. In district levels, the local government sometimes rearrange the local staffs among departments without considering education and work experiences. This resulted in incompatibility between staff competencies and job requirements.

Food Requirement Food is a basic requirement for every human to survive therefore fulfilling the food requirement become attention of the government. Indonesia is a big country with more than 237 million people (BPS, 2010) to be feed. The population number is increasing by 1,52% per year. Besides number of population, The food requirement depends also on job opportunity as measurement of access to food. The problem of fulfilling food requirement is the fact that food requirement increase faster than food availability. The food requirement increase as a resulted of population increase, economic growth, and dietary change. Food consist of food and drink from crops, , and fish both primary product and processed food. Food requirement is then stated by (kcal/capita/day) and protein (gr/capita/day). The minimum food requirement is 2500 kcal/capita/day and 55 gr/capita/day for energy and protein respectively (Suryana, 2005). Both sources of energy and protein in Indonesia are generally from as shown in Table 1. Although during the last 15 years, there has been a dietary change, Table 1 shows that rice has become the majority food source. Rice supplied more than 50% of energy and more than 40% of protein. Therefore, the irrigation management is more focussed on rice cultivation.

Table 1. Share in Dietary Energy and Protein Consumption

1990 - 1992 1995 - 1997 2000 - 2002 2005 – 2007 Energy - Rice 54 52 52 50 - Corn 7 7 7 9 - Wheat 5 5 5 6 - Sugar 5 5 5 6 - 5 5 5 6 - Others Protein - Rice 48 41 41 40 - Wheat 7 7 7 7 - Pelagic fish 7 7 7 7 - Groundnut 5 5 5 5

3 Infrastructure Deterioration The issue of infrastructure is very important, because it is difficult to manage irrigation well without good infrastructure. In the past, the irrigation development focused only on infrastructure development. Infrastructure development which was done based on of modernization theory with top-down method and disregard the participatory approach give very few benefits to the community, especially farmers as main beneficiary. Top-down developed system resulted in some poor characteristics of irrigation system. First, the government is very dominant in policy formulation and implementation. Second, the government controlled the technology so that transfer of technology and knowledge was limited. Third, role of technology and local knowledge were decreasing. Last, irrigation management was considered only as input of food production systems as anticipatipon of climatic anomaly. At present the total area of irrigation system in Indonesia amounted to 7,469,796 ha or 33,210 systems consist of 2,851,006 ha (241 systems) of central government authority, 1,423,222 ha (1,109 systems) of provincial government authority, and 3,195,568 ha (31,860 systems) of district government authority (Ministry of Public Works, 2010). These figures show that most of irrigation systems in Indonesia are small systems with less-than-1000-ha areas under district government authority. Problems arise from these systems may be location specific, however some of them may be difficult to solve. Numbers of command area of small irrigation systems show that the district government has a strategic role in the development of local management. The greater attention given to the development and management of irrigation, the greater the contribution of irrigation at the national level. Therefore, it is important for the district government to pay the attention to the performance of irrigation in each region. In wider irrigation systems as ones under central government and provincial government authorities problems arisen are different. Issues such as infrastructure deterioration will have impact on the other components of irrigation management with greater scale and chain effect. Damage of a part of will result on social problem, institutional commitment offense, conflict, and eventually unsustainability. Table 2 provides data on condition of irrigation in Indonesia. The data shows that performance of existing irrigation infrastructure condition is unsatisfatory. It is required a lot of financing for major rehabilitation as well as operation and maintenance of existing irrigation systems. The financial issues of irrigation systems become a major problem ini some places especially after local autonomy policy. The problems were especially related to the authority and ability to finance as well as the relationship among authority levels in term of financial responsibilities.

Table 2. Detailed Irrigation System in Indonesia 2010

No. Authority Area (ha) Number of Condition System Good Fair Poor Ruined 1. Central 2,682,897.8 244 1,455,115 342,131 752,180 113,467 government 2. Provincial 556,780.30 349 219,665 68,647 203,247 65,219 governments 3. Dictrict 442,888.62 3,338 214,563 87,542 88,908 51,874 government Source: Ministry of Public Works, 2010

Some large systems, for instance Jatiluhur System, has already over its lifetime. This type of irrigation system need to be reconstructed with new criteria because its strategic and ecological environment has already been changed. Since several years ago, some countries have developed and implemented the concept of modernization of irrigation. In Indonesia, the concept of

4 modernization of irrigation is now formulated by an expert team. Although Indonesia has had some experiences, it is difficult to decide how to implement it.

Environment Degradation In Indonesia, the by the 1,52% annually in the last decade. The population growth may result in the increase of land requirement for housing and industries consequently this also cause the high rate of land conversion. High economic development also caused the conversion of irrigated to other use. Other environment issue which has impact in irrigation is watershed deterioration. Only a few irrigation systems in Indonesia served by to supply water. Most of irrigation systems depend their on dam on . Therefore, water supply is highly depend on watershed condition. The problem is critical watershed is increasing day to day which result in fluctuation of river discharge and may reduce water availability for irrigation.

Global Warming El Nino and La Nina events were shown by SOI value (Southern Oscillation Index). El Nino events were shown by large negative SOI which brings dry years, while La Nina events were correlated with positive SOI which related to wet years. The frequency of El Nino has tended to increase from once per 8 years during 1876-1976 to once per 4 years during 1877-2000 as shown in Table 3 (Irawan, 2002). The extreme negative SOI, which resulted in drastic decrease of rainfall, particularly occurs in March, April, June, July, September, and October (Irawan, 2003). This pattern gave a disadvantage for Indonesian agriculture, because September/October is planting time and March/April is the maturing period for wet season farming, which contributes more than 60% of yearly production of food crops.

Table 3. El Nino and La Nina events by 25 year interval in 1876-2000 Period El Nino Events La Nina Events 1877 – 1901 3 events 3 events (1877, 1888, 1896) (1879, 1880, 1886) 1902 – 1926 4 events 3 events (1905, 1912, 1914, 1919) (1910, 1916, 1917) 1927 – 1951 2 events 2 events (1940, 1941) (1938, 1950) 1952 – 1976 2 events 6 events (1965, 1972) (1955, 1956, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975) 1977 – 2000 9 events 3 events (1977, 1982, 1983, 1987, 1991, (1988, 1989, 1999) 1992, 1993, 1994, 1997) Source: Irawan, 2000

The El Nino events of in 1982 and 1997 are the biggest ones in history. The 1997 El Nino caused a decreased of rainfall as much as -30.8% and -62.2% for wet and dry seasons respectively. In 1982, rainfall decreased -17.3% and -44.0% for wet and dry seasons respectively (Irawan, 2002). During those two El Nino, Java and Sulawesi sufferred more decrease of rainfall compared to the average over all provinces. Since Java and South Sulawesi are major food producers, El Nino events could disturb national . The 1997 El Nino resulted in a decrease of water storage of about 33% at the Jatiluhur and about 30% at the Rentang Reservoir in West Java. Decrease of

5 water debit also occurred in reservoirs in Central Java of between 5% and 60% in 20 observed reservoirs. The decrease of the food crops harvested area caused by El Nino was estimated at about 1.25 million ha (-8.6%) and 1.18 million (-6.4%) in 1982 and 1997, respectively (Irawan, 2002). El Nino, which causes decreased rainfall, stimulated farmers to their food crops earlier to avoid harvest failure from water insufficiency. This reflected the farmers’ response in facing climate uncertainty. This strategy, however, resulted in lower yield and poor quality.

FUTURE NEED

Strengthtening Institution Strengthtening irrigation management institution is the main requirement because from good management came from robust institution. The strengthening institution in the future needs : 1. Establish an institution that can act as a leading sub-sector so that the performance of irrigation in both the national and regional level can be maintained because of a coordination between actors 2. Establish a sharing job and responsibilities among institutions in all levels 3. Establish a forum among institutions of irrigation management in every level and among levels 4. Prepare the guidelines and procedures for the implementation of minimum service and irrigation audits 5. Develop the guidelines for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for development and management of irrigation in national level and convert it to be applied in district and provincial levels 6. Develop a database of irrigation development and management 7. Utilize the evaluation results to improve of managerial development and management of national irrigation.

Human Resources Development The importance of human resources is obvious because human is the center of managament. Many people involve in the irrigation management, ranged from farmers, field staffs, office staffs, to high- rank officials in ministery offices. To ensure that all parties can carry out the duties and obligations, it is necessary to apply participatory approach. Generally, the need for human resources development can be chategorized as: 1. Develop the concept and implementation of the principle of human capital to grow individual learners and organization learners based on information source of knowledge and decision making 2. Revitalize the training and empowerment units for farmers and bureaucracy to broadcast knowledge 3. Develop the participatory method in accordance with the socio-cultural communities

Infrastructure Development and Rehabilitation Possibility to broaden irrigated land is restricted by limited land availability besides the funding limitation. Most of available land sized less than 3000 ha. Some irrigation systems, which are beyond their technical age, need major rehabilitation, upgrading, and modernization. These processes are not only to restore the infrastructure but also develop the management function as a service to the farming community. Furtheremore, irrigation infrastructure will resurge as more effective and efficient systems to serve as provision irrigation management. Irrigation infrastructure development and rehabilitation in the future needs: 1. Develop a map of potential areas for new irrigation system development

6 2. Conduct dialogs among institutions on accelerated development of new irrigation system 3. Change of mindset that rehabilitation, upgrade, and modernization of irrigation systems are efforts to improve provision-based irrigation management 4. Perform new construction, major rehabilitation, upgrade and modernization participatorily and gradually in accordance to funding ability and people need.

Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation System Operation and maintenance activities are now receive limited attention in irrigation management. Attention in O&M is mainly paid to technical and financial aspects while institutional aspect is often neglected. Therefore an O&M paradox arised that everyone said that O&M is important but it is neglected so that built-neglect-rebuilt attitude is occured. Therefore, the main O&M issue is to develop O&M attitude by developing O&M institution whic is strong technically, financially, and institutionally. Considering the O&M issue, in the future the O&M development need : 1. Strentghten institution of O&M to develop the O&M culture 2. Improve the capacity of O&M staffs as well as fulfill their work requirements 3. Provide incentives and disincentives for O&M staffs 4. Provide forum of sharing knowledge and experiences as well as documentation of the learning process 5. Develop an O&M manual for each irrigation system which is flexible to anticipate climate change and other changes 6. Provide O&M fund based on actual O&M requirements 7. Develop a shared database among institutions to support the O&M activities 8. Develop an information system based decision support for O&M activities.

Economic and Financial Arrangement Increasing complex problems of irrigation development and management leads to the increase of the irrigation financing problem. So far, irrigation management depend only on the government budget therefore it is now necessary do consider other funding sources especially from beneficiaries and users of irrigation assets. Irrigation financing policies may need: 1. Establish legal basis for irrigation financing policy from several source of income especially from the users and beneficiaries 2. Conduct financial planning periodically 3. Evaluate the completed irrigation financing schemes 4. Develop the documentation process of the implementation of grands and loans for future lesson learn.

Research In Indonesia, research on irrigation has been conducted independently by may institutions. Documentation of completed research and dialog among researchers are important to avoid ‘re- inventing the ’. 1. Develop a documentation of outcomes of irrigation-related researches conducted by all institutions 2. Conduct cooperation researches among research institutions and users 3. Organize dialog between researchers and users to determine relevant research topics.

CONCLUSION

7 Irrigation as a system consists of several sub systems which interacts to each other. From time to time, the of strategic environment of irrigation system has been changed which may result in the change of the systems. Therefore, a set of policies and actions are needed to anticipate the changes. Issues of irrigation management can be chategorized as human resources and instituion arrangements, food requirements, infrastructure deterioration, environment degradation, and global warming. In order to respond to the challenges, future needs include institution strengthtening, infrastructure development and rehabilitation, economic and financial policy, and irrigation-related reseaches.

REFERENCES

Anonimous, 2006, Government Regulation No. 20/2006 on Irrigation. BPS, 2010, Statistics Indonesia, Central Bureau of Statistics, http://www.bps.go.id (last accessed November 30, 2011) FAO, 2010, Food Security Statistics, http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/ess-fs/en/ (last accessed November 30, 2011). Irawan, Bambang, 2002, Stabilization of Upland Agriculture under El Nino-induced Climatic Risk: Impact Assessment and Mitigation Measures in Indonesia, CGPRT Working Paper No. 62, Ecosoc of the UN. Lombard, Denys, 1996, Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya I (Batas-Batas Pembaratan), Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Malano, H. M. and van Hofwegen, J.P.M, 1999, Management of irrigation and problem, A service approach, IHE Monograph 3. Rotterdam : A. A. Balkema Publisher, 1999. Ministry of Public Works, 2010, Web Unit data Sumber Daya Air, http://www.pu.go.id/satminkal/index.asp?Site_id=0400 (last accessed November 30, 2011). Small, L. E and Svensend, M., 1992, A framework for assessing irrigation performance, Working paper on irrigation performance 1, . D.C. : International Food Policy Research Institute. Suryana, Ahmad, 2005, Kebijakan Ketahanan Pangan Nasional, paper on Simposium Nasional Ketahanan dan Keamanan Pangan pada Era Otonomi dan Globalisasi, Faperta, IPB, Bogor Uphoff, Norman, 1986, Improving International Irrigation Management with Farmer Participation: Getting the Process Right, Boulder : Westview Press. Van Setten Van Der Meer, Nancy Claire, 1979, Sawah Cultivation in Ancient Java: Aspects of Development During the Indo-Japanese Period, 5th to 15th Century, Australian National University Press.

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