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Advisory Editors Mitja Brilly, Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Richard A. Davis, Department of Geology, School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA Nancy Hoalst-Pullen, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, USA Michael Leitner, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA Mark W. Patterson, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, USA Márton Veress, Department of Physical Geography, University of West Hungary, Szombathely, Hungary The Springer Geography series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific books, aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in geographical research. The series includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference proceedings. It covers the major topics in geography and geographical sciences including, but not limited to; Economic Geography, Landscape and Urban Planning, Urban Geography, Physical Geography and Environmental Geography. Springer Geography—now indexed in Scopus

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10180 Mohammad Zaman · Mustafa Alam Editors

Living on the Edge Char Dwellers in Bangladesh Editors Mohammad Zaman Mustafa Alam Hohai University University of Dhaka Nanjing, China Dhaka, Bangladesh

ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic) Springer Geography ISBN 978-3-030-73591-3 ISBN 978-3-030-73592-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73592-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Char at a distance within a river (source www.dhakatribune.com) This book is dedicated to the teeming millions of riverine and coastal char dwellers in Bangladesh, who impress us with their resilience in ‘living on the edge’; to whom we owe an obligation of ensuring a life better than what they currently eke out. Preface

The idea of this book triggered following a series of op-eds by Mohammad Zaman in the Financial Express, Dhaka (March–June 2019) on the plight of communities living in chars within the rivers of Bangladesh. Mustafa Alam, who earlier conducted extensive studies on chars under the aegis of the Flood Action Plan, followed up on the op-eds, suggesting we could together edit a book on the subject of chars in Bangladesh. We were both enthused by the idea and sent out a Call for Papers in June 2019, which received encouraging responses from many of our erstwhile colleagues and other professionals around the globe. It is gratifying to note that our initiative has brought together a multidisciplinary and global team of international and national experts, contributing chapters to the book on the diverse physical, environmental, socio-economic and institutional issues concerning chars in Bangladesh. We hope all this will prove valuable to academicians, policy planers and development practitioners alike. Looking back, compiling this volume was not an easy task. As editors, it was a challenge going through multiple levels of professional interaction with all so many authors, providing feedback on their drafts and pulling the net together at the end. This truly collaborative task was possible only because we received full and continuous support from all concerned in the entire process. We like to thank Jakia Akter and her Team at the Centre for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS) in Dhaka for producing a number of maps used in the introductory part of the book. We also want to thank Dr. Robert Doe, Editor of the Springer Series in Geography/Human-Environment Research, and the Springer Production Team Lead Rajan Muthu and Ritu Chandwani for their understanding support. Sadly, Hugh Brammer (1925–2021), one important contributor to the volume, died of COVID-19 in January 2021. A geographer and a soil scientist of repute, he had a deep love for Bangladesh, which he considered his second home. He was advisor to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)—Bangladesh. He will be remembered for his wisdom as well as his warmth and generosity. Our objective, and indeed, the driving force behind the book, has been to bring the isolated chars and char people into the forefront of development discourse in the

ix x Preface country. We will consider our sincere effort in producing this volume a success only when this objective is met. Finally, our families and friends shouldered additional burdens in more ways than one during the stretch of time over which we prepared the manuscript of the book. We thank them all.

Vancouver, B.C., Canada Mohammad Zaman Vancouver, B.C., Canada Mustafa Alam About This Book

Panoramic view of charland in the dry season (source The Daily Star, Dhaka)

In Bangladesh, the chars within the river channels are an important part of its land- scape. However, these land masses continue to remain isolated, deprived of services, and pockets of poverty in the country. The char dwellers are vulnerable to natural hazards like flood and erosion. In addition to these hazards, the coastal chars are faced with the imminent problem of widespread inundation due to sea level rise resulting from climate change. Within this context, the book Living on the Edge: Char Dwellers in Bangladesh has brought together valuable scholarship on the diverse issues relating to the chars and the communities living in there. This comprehensive collection, with contribution of experts on the subject from across the globe, provides an understanding of the

xi xii About This Book problems faced by the char dwellers and also comes up with policy prescriptions for ensuring overall welfare of char communities in the country. Contents

Part I Introduction 1 Background, Approach, and Issues ...... 3 Mohammad Zaman and Mustafa Alam

Part II The Delta and Charlands 2 The Delta Frontiers: History and Dynamics ...... 15 Mohammad Zaman and Mustafa Alam 3 South Asian Chars as Destabilizers ...... 25 Jenia Mukherjee and Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt 4 Dynamic Land and Adaptive People of Bengal Basin and Its Charland ...... 41 C. Emdad Haque and Mohammad Jakariya 5 Char Dwellers’ Right to Development in Bangladesh ...... 57 Indrani Sigamany and Jay Drydyk

Part III Chars in Bangladesh: The Geo-Physical Context 6 Geographical Perspectives on Riverbank Erosion, Charlands, and Floodplains ...... 73 Harun Rashid and Munshi Khaledur Rahman 7 Application of Remote Sensing to Study the Behavior and Dynamics of Riverine and Coastal Chars ...... 89 Iffat Huque, Maminul Haque Sarker, and Knut Oberhagemann 8 The Morphology of Riverine Chars ...... 121 Knut Oberhagemann, Maminul Haque Sarker, and Iffat Huque 9 Formation and Dynamics of Coastal Chars in Bangladesh ...... 141 Maminul Haque Sarker, Jakia Akter, Iffat Huque, Knut Oberhagemann, and Md. Kamruzzaman Akand

xiii xiv Contents

10 The Soils of Charlands in Bangladesh ...... 167 Hugh Brammer 11 Evaluating Future Threats of Climate Change on Riverine and Coastal Chars ...... 185 Shampa, Anisul Haque, M. Ashiqur Rahman, Delowar Hossain, A. Alauddin Azad, and Samsunnahar Mita

Part IV Flood and Erosion Disasters: Coping Strategies and Survival 12 Floods, Charland Erosions and Settlement Displacement in the Ganges-Padma River Basin ...... 215 Shafi Noor Islam 13 Coping Strategies of People Displaced by Riverbank Erosion in the Lower Meghna Estuary ...... 227 Bimal Kanti Paul, Munshi Khaledur Rahman, Thomas Crawford, Scott Curtis, Md. Giasuddin Miah, Rafiqul Islam, and Md. Sariful Islam 14 Role of NGOs in Post-Flood Rehabilitation in Chars ...... 241 Babul Hossain 15 Flood Proofing to Reduce the Vulnerability of Char Communities: Experiences and Future Directions ...... 253 Ian Tod and Monzu Morshed

Part V Livelihood Vulnerability, Adaptation and Gender Dimension 16 Agriculture in Riverine Chars: Vulnerabilities to Climate Change and Community-Based Adaptation ...... 275 Zobaer Ahmed, Hermann Lotze-Campen, and Md. Humayun Kabir 17 Crop Production Patterns and Marketing in Char Areas: Adapting to Hazards and Vulnerability ...... 291 M. Aminur Rahman, M. Shahjahan Mondal, Hamidul Huq, Nandan Mukherjee, and M. Rezaur Rahman 18 Out Migration as a Survival Strategy for Char Dwellers ...... 307 Hafiza Khatun, Md. Humayun Kabir, and Lutfun Nahar 19 Women in Chars: Challenges and Social Development Opportunities ...... 323 Suzanne Hanchett Contents xv

Part VI Case Studies on Major Experiments in Char Development 20 The Chars Livelihoods Programme: Experiences and Learnings ...... 341 Muhammad Lokman Hossain 21 Sandbar Agricultural Technology and Innovations in Chars ...... 361 A. Z. M. Nazmul Islam Chowdhury 22 Char Development and Settlement Project: Experiences and Reflections ...... 371 Koen de Wilde 23 Livelihood Development in Coastal Chars in the Meghna Estuary: The Danida Experience ...... 387 Harvey Demaine

Part VII Char Administration and Governance 24 The Charland Administration and Governance: Need for a Paradigm Shift ...... 403 Mohammad Zaman and Md. Akhtar Hossain 25 Discourses on Char Development in Bangladesh ...... 415 Atiur Rahman

Part VIII Summary and Conclusion 26 Rethinking Char Development in Bangladesh ...... 429 Mohammad Zaman and Mustafa Alam

Glossary ...... 439 Index ...... 443 Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Mohammad Zaman is an international development/resettlement specialist and advisory professor, National Research Center for Resettlement, Hohai University, Nanjing, China. He carried out extensive ethnographic research on disaster and displacement in the Brahmaputra-Jamuna floodplain. For many years, his core research has been on char settlement, their economies and social organizations and how these have been historically shaped by the colonial and post-colonial land tenure and administration with regard to alluvial and diluvial lands. He is a Fellow of the Society for Applied Anthropology, and advisor to the Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad, India.

Mustafa Alam, a Professor (Retired) in Economics, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh, has a rich background in research on issues relating to integrated water resources management. He participated as a professional team member in several Flood Action Plan study components in Bangladesh, where his involvement in the multidisciplinary Charland Study figured prominently. Prof. Alam gained valuable experience about char life in the country through this study, whereby he carried out extensive fieldwork in numerous chars spread around all the major river systems of the country. Apart from miscellaneous reports he produced on issues relating to chars in Bangladesh, he has a number of valuable publications to his credit on the subject. Given this background, Prof. Alam’s role as an editor of this volume certainly adds value to the discourses therein.

Contributors

Zobaer Ahmed Arkansas State University, Arkansas, USA Md. Kamruzzaman Akand CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh

xvii xviii Editors and Contributors

Md. Akhtar Hossain Bangladesh Bridge Authority, Dhaka, Bangladesh Jakia Akter CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh Mustafa Alam Professor, Department of Economics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh A. Alauddin Azad Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh Hugh Brammer FAO Agricultural Development Adviser, Dhaka, Bangladesh Thomas Crawford Department of Geography, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA Scott Curtis The Dr. John Lining Professor of Physics, The Citadel - The Military College of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA Koen de Wilde Former Team Leader, CDSP, Utrecht, The Netherlands Harvey Demaine Bangkok and Roi-et, Thailand Jay Drydyk Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada C. Emdad Haque Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada Suzanne Hanchett Planning Alternatives for Change, LLC, Pasadena, CA, USA Anisul Haque Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh Babul Hossain Department of Sociology, Hohai University, Nanjing, China Delowar Hossain Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh Muhammad Lokman Hossain Dhaka, Bangladesh Hamidul Huq Department of Economics, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Iffat Huque Remote Sensing Division, CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh Md. Sariful Islam Department of Geography, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA,USA Rafiqul Islam Department of Agronomy, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh Shafi Noor Islam Department of Geography, Environment and Development Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD), Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam Mohammad Jakariya Department of Environmental Science and Management, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Editors and Contributors xix

Md. Humayun Kabir Department of Geography and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh Hafiza Khatun Department of Geography and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt Resource Environment and Development Program, Craw- ford School of Public Policy, College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia Hermann Lotze-Campen Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Potsdam, Germany Md. Giasuddin Miah Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural Univer- sity, Gazipur, Bangladesh Samsunnahar Mita Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh M. Shahjahan Mondal IWFM, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Tech- nology, Dhaka, Bangladesh Monzu Morshed Development Specialist, Dhaka, Bangladesh Jenia Mukherjee Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India Nandan Mukherjee C3ER, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Lutfun Nahar Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh A. Z. M. Nazmul Islam Chowdhury Innovator and Founder Director, Pumpkin Plus and Sr. Advisor-Agriculture, 2030 WRG, Global Water Practice, The World Bank, Dhaka, Bangladesh Knut Oberhagemann Northwest Hydraulic Consultants, Edmonton, Canada Bimal Kanti Paul Department of Geography and Geospatial Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA Atiur Rahman University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh M. Aminur Rahman Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia M. Ashiqur Rahman Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh M. Rezaur Rahman IWFM, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Tech- nology, Dhaka, Bangladesh Munshi Khaledur Rahman Department of Geology and Geography, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA xx Editors and Contributors

Harun Rashid Department of Geography and Earth Science, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, USA Maminul Haque Sarker CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh Shampa Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh Indrani Sigamany Free Lance Researcher and Capacity Building Consultant, Oxford, England, UK Ian Tod Independent Water Resources Specialist, Cambridge, UK Mohammad Zaman Advisory Professor, NRCR/Hohai University, Nanjing, China Abbreviations

A2F Access to Finance AC Assistant Commissioner (Land) ADC Additional Deputy Commissioner AED Alternate Wetting and Drying AGEP Agricultural Growth and Employment Program ASA Association for Social Advancement ASPS Agricultural Sector Programme Support ATP Asset Transfer Programme AUSAID Australian Aid for International Development BAC Bank attached chars or forced bar BADA Bengal Alluvion and Diluvion Regulation Act of 1825 BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics BBS HHIES Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Household Income and Expenditure Survey BCR Benefit-cost ratio BDP 2100 Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 BFRI Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute BI Braided Index BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee BRCS Bangladesh Red Crescent Society BUET Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology BWDB Bangladesh Water Development Board CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere CARE-BD CARE-Bangladesh CBCs Char Business Centres CBOs Community Based Organization CCM Cyclone Classifier Model CDA Char Development Authority CDSP Char Development and Settlement Project CEGIS Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services CFPR Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction

xxi xxii Abbreviations

CFPR-TUP Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction Targeting the Ultra Poor CIDs Char Input Dealers CIRM Centre for Insurance and Risk Management CLP Chars Livelihoods Programme CPHHs Core Participant Households CPK Char Pushti Karmi (Char Nutrition Worker) CPP Cyclone Preparedness Programme CSK Char Shasthya Karmi (Char Health Worker) CSO Civil Society Organization DAE Department of Agriculture Extension DANIDA Danish International Development Assistance DC Deputy Commissioner DEM Digital Elevation Model DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (of Australia) DFID Department for International Development DFID-B Department for International Development-Bangladesh DG-LRS Director-General, Land Record Survey DLS Department Livestock Services DMB Disaster Management Bureau DMC Downstream mid-channel chars DOF Department of Fisheries DPHE Department of Public Health Engineering DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DRTD Declaration on the Right to Development EBSATA East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act (1950) EDP Estuary Development Project EEP Economic Empowerment of the Poor FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAP Flood Action Plan FFS Farmer Field School FFWC Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre FGDs Focus Group Discussions FGMs Focus group meetings FYP Five-Year Plan GBM Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna GDP Gross Domestic Products GED General Economic Division GIS Geographical Information System GNAEP Greater Noakhali Aquaculture Extension Project GoB Government of Bangladesh GUK Gono Unnayan Kendra GUP Gono Unnayan Prochesta, Rajoir, Madaripur GUP Gram Unnayan Parishad HH Households Abbreviations xxiii

ICT Information and Communications Technologies IDPs Internally displaced persons IEP Infrastructure Employment Project IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IGA Income-generating activities IMD Indian Meteorological Department IMOs Implementing Organizations INCA Integrated Catchment Model INGOs International Non-governmental Organizations IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPF Integrated Prawn Farming IRB Institute of Review Board ISISA International Small Island Studies Association IWFM Institute of Water and Flood Management IWMI International Water Management Institute IYCF Infant and Young Child Feeding KIIs Key informant interviews LFs Local Facilitators LGB Lower Ganga Basin LRP Land Reclamation Project LSP Livestock Service Provider M4C Making Markets Work for the Jamuna, Padma and Teesta Chars M4P Making Markets Work for the Poor MAEP Mymensingh Aquaculture Extension Project MES Meghna Estuary Studies MIS Management Information System MMS Manob Mukti Songstha MODMR Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief MOF Ministry of Finance MOFL Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock MoLRD&C Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Cooperatives MoU Memorandum of Understanding MPRVD Multipurpose River Valley Development MRP Main River Flood and Bank Erosion Risk Management Project MSP Maxwell Stamp PLC NAM Non-Aligned Movement NCA National Char Alliance NGOs Non-Government Organizations NSPS National Social Protection Strategy OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (Founded in 1942) PA Practical Action PKSF Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation PMG Producer and Marketing Group PO Presidential Order (1972) PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal xxiv Abbreviations

PSF Pond Sand Filter RCS Red Cross Society RDRS Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Services REIS Riverbank Erosion Impact Study RFLD Regional Fisheries and Livestock Development RFLDC Regional Fisheries and Livestock Development Component RIMES Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System RLGS Rural Local Government System RS Remote Sensing SDGs Social Development Goals SKS SKS Foundation SLDP Smallholder Livestock Development Project SLR Sea Level Rise SOP Standard Operating Procedure SRI System of Rice Intensification SSNP Social Safety Net Programs STW Shallow tube well SWC Storm Warning Centre SWFF Securing Water for Food TSU Technical Support Unit UMC Upstream mid-channel chars UMIC Upper Middle-Income Country UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNHCHR United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund UP Union Parishad UPDMC Upazila Parishad Disaster Management Committee USAID US Aid for International Development USD United States Dollar USS Udayan Swabolombee Sangstha UTC Coordinated Universal Time VDCs Village Development Committees VGF Vulnerable Group Feeding VPISU Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University VSL Village Savings and Loan WARPO Water Resources Planning Organization WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WWII Second World War List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 River systems of Bangladesh ...... 5 Fig. 1.2 Index map of the char regions, 2020 ...... 8 Fig. 1.3 Area of charland (in ha) by region 2000–2020. Source CEGIS, December 2020 ...... 9 Fig. 2.1 Map of the Bengal delta. Source Banglapedia 2018 (https://en.banglapedia.org/) ...... 19 Fig. 4.1 Bengal basin and the GBM river system. Source (Haque 1997) ...... 43 Fig. 4.2 Comparative maps of the Bengal deltaformations. Source (Haque 1997) ...... 45 Fig. 4.3 Causes of displacement (%) in char Jananat Union. Source Data adapted from Islam (2010) ...... 52 Fig. 4.4 Comparison of displacement frequency (%) in Shibchar and Kazipur chars ...... 53 Fig. 6.1 Rivers of Bangladesh. Source Munshi Khaledur Rahman) .... 75 Fig. 6.2 Results of Geospatial Analysis: Erosion of Bhola Island, 1989–2019. Source Original figure prepared by Munshi Khaledur Rahman, based on Landsat 5 TM, 21 February 1989, Landsat 5 TM, 17 February 1999 and Landsat 8, 8 March 2019 ...... 83 Fig. 6.3 Results of geospatial analysis: erosion of Kutubdia Island, 1989–2019. Source Original figure prepared by Munshi Khaledur Rahman, based on Landsat 4 TM, 21 February 1989, Landsat 5 TM, 13 December 2000, and Landsat 8, 1 February 2019 ...... 85 Fig. 7.1 Development of a cluster of bars in the Jamuna River into a char over. Source CEGIS (2013) ...... 92 Fig. 7.2 Development of Urir Char and surrounding areas in the Meghna Estuary. Source CEGIS (2009a) ...... 93

xxv xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 7.3 Flowchart showing steps in the processing and analyses of satellite images for studying morphology of rivers, riverine chars, estuaries and islands, and outcomes corresponding to each step ...... 95 Fig. 7.4 Change in water surface area derived from time series of satellite images with time. Source Sarker and Thorne (2009) ...... 96 Fig. 7.5 A satellite image and a classified image of a reach of the Jamuna River. Source CEGIS ...... 97 Fig. 7.6 Satellite image of Jamuna River showing various planform features—channels, chars, sand bars and banklines. Source EGIS (2002) ...... 98 Fig. 7.7 Shoreline of Bangladesh delineated from IRS P6 LISS III satellite image mosaic, 2008. Source CEGIS (2009a) ...... 100 Fig. 7.8 Method of estimating the width of Jamuna River. Source EGIS (1997) ...... 100 Fig. 7.9 Method of estimating reach averaged width of Padma and Lower Meghna rivers. Source Sarker and Thorne (2009) ...... 101 Fig. 7.10 Illustration of relative maximum bank erosion and relative radius of curvature extracted from satellite image. Source EGIS (2002) ...... 101 Fig. 7.11 Illustration of deviation angles extracted from satellite image. Source EGIS (2002) ...... 102 Fig. 7.12 Erosion-accretion along the Jamuna River 1973–2018. Source Sarker and Hore (2002) ...... 104 Fig. 7.13 Jamuna River—cumulative erosion. Source CEGIS...... 105 Fig. 7.14 Erosion and accretion in the Meghna Estuary during the period of 1973–2008. Source Sarker et al. (2011) ...... 106 Fig. 7.15 District-wise distribution of erosion and accretion during the period of 1973–2008. Source Sarker et al. (2011) ...... 106 Fig. 7.16 Changes in length averaged width of the Padma River with time. Source Sarker and Hore (2020) ...... 107 Fig. 7.17 Changes in braiding intensity of a Jamuna, b Padma, and c Lower Meghna rivers. Source Sarker and Thorne (2009) ...... 108 Fig. 7.18 Age of selected chars of the Jamuna River in 2013. Source CEGIS (2013) ...... 110 Fig. 7.19 Relation between relative height and age of char from two different studies. Source CEGIS (2013) ...... 111 Fig. 7.20 Relation between age of char and vegetated area within the study area. Source CEGIS (2013) ...... 111 List of Figures xxvii

Fig. 7.21 Age of different parts of the coastal islands of Bhola, Hatiya, Sandwip, Monpura, and Urir char as observed in 2018 satellite images. Age is calculated from Rennell’s map (1776), Tassin’s map (1840), topographic map (1943), and satellite images of 1973, 1984, 1998, 2008. Source CEGIS ...... 112 Fig. 7.22 Definition diagram showing the method of estimating straight, meandering, and braided widths. Source CEGIS (2009b) ...... 112 Fig. 7.23 Changes in straight, meandering, and branching width of the Mawa reach of the Padma River. Source CEGIS (2009b) ...... 113 Fig. 7.24 Erosion and accretion in the southwest of Bhola over time. Source CEGIS (2009a) ...... 114 Fig. 7.25 Erosion prediction and vulnerability assessment of the Jamuna River. Source CEGIS (2019) ...... 116 Fig. 7.26 Process-response model describing the response of the braided rivers to the changes in bed material load. Modified from Sarker and Thorne (2009) as observed from satellite images and other field data ...... 117 Fig. 8.1 The braided Brahmaputra System. Source Authors ...... 123 Fig. 8.2 Population development in Bangladesh. Source Bangladesh Bureau of statistics and national water management plan ...... 125 Fig. 8.3 River widening of Jamuna and Padma Rivers. Source Processed CEGIS bankline data ...... 125 Fig. 8.4 Jamuna: Upazila wise population and bankline developments: 1973/4, 2001 and 2011. Source Authors basedonBBSdata ...... 127 Fig. 8.5 Upazila and union population density along the Jamuna River. Source Authors based on BBS data 2011 ...... 128 Fig. 8.6 Changes in the Jamuna river corridor over the last two centuries. Source CEGIS Dhaka ...... 129 Fig. 8.7 Area of water (blue), sand (yellow) and land (green) along the main part of the Jamuna River. Source NHC and EMM (2020) ...... 130 Fig. 8.8 Char age for upper reach (left) and central reach (right). Source NHCandEMM202 ...... 131 Fig. 8.9 Char dynamics in the central Jamuna over a period of one decade. Source NHCandEMM202 ...... 132 Fig. 8.10 Sandy char soil with vegetative cover. Source Leadauthor .... 132 Fig. 8.11 Reeds (catkin) slow down flow velocities and encourage the deposition of fertile finer particles during the flood season. Source Leadauthor ...... 133 xxviii List of Figures

Fig. 8.12 Vertical char growth. Source EGIS (1997) and CEGIS (2013) ...... 133 Fig. 8.13 Superimposition of the Old Brahmaputra course in 1765 and its modern-day channel ...... 134 Fig. 8.14 Area of water (blue), sand (yellow) and land (green) along the main part of the Padma River. Source NHC and EMM (2020) ...... 135 Fig. 8.15 Char age in the Padma River. The red line indicates the alignment of the Padma Bridge. Source NHC and EMM (2020) ...... 135 Fig. 8.16 Char age at the confluence with Upper Meghna. Source NHC and EMM (2020) ...... 136 Fig. 8.17 Historical development of the Upper Meghna Course. Source NHC and EMM (2020) ...... 137 Fig. 8.18 Local dredging of sand in Padma for construction industry. Source LeadAuthor...... 138 Fig. 9.1 Meghna estuary area in Bangladesh as per IRS LISS satellite image of 2018. Source CEGIS ...... 142 Fig. 9.2 Map of (A) Paleo-geographic map after Goodbred and Kuehl (2000a) and (B) the Pathways and timing of the phases of late Holocene growth of the lower delta plain associated with the Ganges (G1, G2, G3), Brahmaputra (B1, B2), and Combined Ganges– Brahmaputra (GB1) after Allison et al. (2003) ...... 148 Fig. 9.3 Historical development of the Meghna estuary ...... 149 Fig. 9.4 Direction and relative importance of river and tidal flows in influencing sediment discharge (based on Sokolewicz and Louters 2007) ...... 151 Fig. 9.5 Process of land formation in the Meghna estuary. Source Sarker et al. (2011) ...... 152 Fig. 9.6 Erosion/accretion in the Meghna estuary from 1943 to 2008 ...... 154 Fig. 9.7 Net accretion in centennial and decade scale ...... 155 Fig. 9.8 Changes in surface area and shore line retreat of Bhola, Hatiya, and Sahdwip ...... 156 Fig. 9.9 Changes of area of Bhola, Hatiya, and Sandwip over time .... 156 Fig. 9.10 Centennial scale erosion/accretion of the Island ...... 157 Fig. 9.11 Decade scale erosion/accretion of the islands ...... 158 Fig. 9.12 Century-scale stability of the islands and delta progradation ...... 161 Fig. 11.1 Study area of riverine chars (Source Authors) ...... 188 Fig. 11.2 Land persistence or age of lands in selected compound riverine chars. Source Authors ...... 190 Fig. 11.3 Study area of coastal chars. Source Authors ...... 190 List of Figures xxix

Fig. 11.4 Model grid and bathymetry for riverine (upper) and coastal model (lower). Source Authors...... 192 Fig. 11.5 Discharge boundary conditions of the simulation: a Brahmaputra–Jamuna. b Ganges. c Upper Meghna. Source Authors ...... 194 Fig. 11.6 Example of sea boundary condition (base condition). Source Authors ...... 195 Fig. 11.7 Flood inundation at peak flood time under different scenarios. Source Authors ...... 197 Fig. 11.8 Distribution of flood velocity in present-day extreme scenario. Source Authors ...... 198 Fig. 11.9 Flood hazard map for selected climatic scenarios. Source Authors ...... 201 Fig. 11.10 Fluvio-tidal inundation in coastal area. Source Authors...... 203 Fig. 11.11 Flood hazard map of coastal chars during fluvio-tidal flooding. Source Authors ...... 205 Fig. 11.12 Typical water-level variation during normal tidal and during storm surge in river near Dublar char ...... 206 Fig. 11.13 Inundation due to SIDR like cyclone in changing climatic conditions over time. Source Authors ...... 207 Fig. 11.14 Flood hazard map due to Sidr like a cyclone in changing climate over time. Source Authors...... 209 Fig. 12.1 Study village and surrounding chars. Source Islam et al. (2010) ...... 217 Fig. 12.2 Location of Padma Bridge vis-à-vis Char Janajat. Source Islam et al. (2011) ...... 219 Fig. 12.3 Population density and settlement patterns (1970–2008). Source Islam et al. (2011) ...... 220 Fig. 12.4 Omar Ali and his family’s displacement and migration history in and around Char Janajat. Source Author 2020 ...... 221 Fig. 12.5 Conceptual model for charland settlement and livelihoods. Source Author 2020 ...... 223 Fig. 13.1 Study area within the Meghna Estuary. (Source Bimal Paul)...... 231 Fig. 13.2 Perception on riverbank erosion by respondents. Source Field Survey 2018 ...... 234 Fig. 14.1 Map of the study area location. Source https://www.the bangladesh.net/rangpur-division ...... 243 Fig. 14.2 Comparison between the pre- and post-flood housing conditions. Source Field Survey June–September 2018, December 2018–April 2019 ...... 246 Fig. 14.3 Loan repayments modality and schedule. Source Field Survey June–September 2018, December 2018–April 2019 ...... 248 xxx List of Figures

Fig. 14.4 Quality of housing materials provided by NGOs. Source Field Survey June–September, 2018, December 2018– April, 2019 ...... 249 Fig. 15.1 Charland Classification. Source FAP 23 (1993) ...... 254 Fig. 15.2 Change in riverbank Alignment in Mollikpara, Maijbari Union, Kazipur. Ian Tod/Google earth ...... 258 Fig. 15.3 Layout of raised homestead. Source Care Bangladesh 2008 . . . 260 Fig. 15.4 Design and drawing of a multipurpose cyclone shelter. Source CARE Bangladesh 2010 ...... 265 Fig. 16.1 Study area. Source Google earth application ...... 278 Fig. 16.2 Topography and climate data on the study area. Source SENTINAL 2, LANDSAT 8- band 10, 5 and 4 satellite andworldclimaticdata...... 282 Fig. 16.3 Monthly mean temperature variability near the study char. Source Global Surface Summary of the Day Weather Data .... 284 Fig. 16.4 Monthly mean rainfall variability near study char. Source Global Surface Summary of the Day Weather Data ...... 284 Fig. 16.5 Community-based climate change adaptation framework. Source King, 2014 modified ...... 286 Fig.17.1 Mapofthestudyarea ...... 293 Fig. 17.2 Chilli drying at a chatal in Bogra. Source Research Team 2013 ...... 297 Fig. 17.3 Crops covered against rain at another chatal Source Research Team 2013 ...... 298 Fig. 17.4 Preservation of chilli at household level. Source Research Team 2013 ...... 301 Fig. 17.5 An industrial scale dryer in Bogra. Source Research Team 2013 ...... 303 Fig. 18.1 Location of the study chars. Source Modified from ASB (2017) ...... 310 Fig. 18.2 Migration pattern of the study chars. Source Field Study (2019) ...... 314 Fig. 19.1 Abandoned house plot (on the left) due to fast approaching erosion. Women helping to rebuild house plinths to relocated new site. Source Suzanne Hanchett (1993) ...... 325 Fig. 20.1 CLP’s pathway out of extreme poverty to livelihood security. Source Conroy et al. (2010) ...... 345 Fig. 20.2 Women’s empowerment scorecard ...... 351 Fig. 21.1 Aerial view of sandbar cropping in 2020. Pumpkin Plus, Bangladesh 2019 ...... 363 Fig. 21.2 Farmers dig holes using local technology for ground water (left) and harvest rainwater (right) for pumpkin and other high-value winter crops. Sources Mizanur Rahaman 2018 (left) and Salman 2020 (right) ...... 364 List of Figures xxxi

Fig. 21.3 Pit preparation for pumpkin cultivation (women providing most of the labor). Source Mizanur Rahaman (2018) ...... 365 Fig. 21.4 Pest control kit in pumpkin field. Source Nazmul Chowdhury (2020) ...... 366 Fig. 21.5 Pumpkins ready for harvest (proud female farmer holding couple of pumpkins in her hands). Sources Mamun (Kurigram 2018); Nazmul Chowdhury (Gaibandha 2008) and Mehrab Gani (Rangpur 2012) ...... 366 Fig. 21.6 In-house storing of pumpkin and transportation to local/long distant markets by pikers. Sources Iqbal Hossain (Gaibandha 2008) and Mizanur Rahaman (Rangpur 2020) ...... 367 Fig. 22.1 Project area and location of CDSP I–IV. Source CDSP (2018a, b, c) ...... 373 Fig. 23.1 Areas under the “New Chars” of CDSP Phase IV (Source CDSP IV (2013)) ...... 389 Fig. 25.1 Comparison of access (i.e., time taken) to different services for char dwellers and rest of the country. Source Data from the HIES 2016 report of BBS ...... 419 Fig. 25.2 Incorporating river erosion management into comprehensive char development strategy. Source author...... 424 List of Tables

Table 4.1 Areas of water, sand and chars, 1984–1993 ...... 47 Table 4.2 Percentage distribution of cropping patterns by zone in Kazipur (Multiple responses possible) ...... 51 Table 6.1 Jamuna River: instability analysis of a sample reach ...... 77 Table 6.2 Morphological characteristics of the Padma River ...... 78 Table 9.1 Char name and area (km2) in the Meghna estuary area ...... 142 Table 9.2 Mean annual suspended loads, based on sediment measurement of FAP 24 from 1994 to 1996 ...... 146 Table 9.3 Time required for land development at different locations in the Meghna estuary ...... 152 Table 9.4 Comparison of erosion and accretion rates from different studies (MES II 2001) ...... 153 Table 9.5 Comparison of erosion and accretion for the current study . . . 153 Table 9.6 Erosion/accretion, net accretion of Bhola, Hatiya, Sandwip, and Manpura Island ...... 160 Table 10.1 Proportions of alluvial sediments and soils in Bangladesh’s riverine and estuarine floodplain regionsintexturalclasses ...... 169 Table 10.2 Land accretion and erosion in the major rivers of Bangladesh ...... 171 Table 11.1 Climatic conditions and criteria considered ...... 187 Table 11.2 Morphological aspects of selected riverine chars ...... 189 Table 11.3 Morphological aspects of selected coastal chars ...... 191 Table 11.4 Description of the hazard scale ...... 195 Table 11.5 Flooding characteristics of riverine chars in the base condition ...... 196 Table 11.6 Inundation characteristics of riverine chars in different scenarios ...... 199 Table 11.7 Characteristics of fluvio-tidal flood in coastal chars in base condition ...... 202 Table 11.8 Depth-average flood velocity in coastal chars during fluvio-tidal flood ...... 204 xxxiii xxxiv List of Tables

Table 11.9 Areal extent of flooding due to cyclone SIDR ...... 206 Table 11.10 Percentage of inundated areas due to cyclonic conditions .... 208 Table 13.1 Post-relocation support for resettlement ...... 236 Table 14.1 Amount of financial help as loan from NGOs ...... 247 Table 14.2 Types of assistance received for agricultural rehabilitation ...... 249 Table 16.1 Socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the char dwellers ...... 280 Table 16.2 Char dwellers’ impact rating perception on local hazards and vulnerabilities ...... 283 Table 16.3 Community-based climate change adaptation strategies in the study char ...... 287 Table 17.1 Crop-specific hazards, impacts, coping and adaptation measures ...... 299 Table 18.1 Profiles of the study chars ...... 311 Table18.2 DestinationpreferredbytypeofHHmembers(%) ...... 315 Table 18.3 Extent of migration from the sample chars ...... 316 Table18.4 Reasonsformigration ...... 316 Table18.5 Migrants’employmentsintheplaceofdestination ...... 317 Table 18.6 Use of remittance money ...... 319 Table 19.1 Women’s vulnerabilities in flood crises’ ...... 326 Table 20.1 CLP’s graduation criteria ...... 353 Table 23.1 Characteristics of household fish culture in new chars ...... 392 Table 23.2 Profile of large livestock rearing in the new chars ...... 393 Table 23.3 Profile of poultry rearing in the new chars ...... 394 Table 25.1 Social safety net allocations for projects/programs directly related to char development ...... 423