DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 431 868 CE 077 566

TITLE Focus on Basics, 1998. INSTITUTION National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy, Boston, MA. SPONS AGENCY Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. PUB DATE 1998-00-00 NOTE 118p. CONTRACT R309B60002 AVAILABLE FROM Focus on Basics, 44 Farnsworth St., Boston, MA 02210-1211; e-mail: [email protected] PUB TYPE Collected Works - Serials (022) JOURNAL CIT Focus on Basics; v2 n1-4 1998 EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Academic Persistence; Adult Basic Education; *Adult Literacy; Educational Change; *Educational Practices; *Educational Research; *Literacy Education; *Outcomes of Education; Program Effectiveness; Student Motivation; *Teaching Methods IDENTIFIERS *General Educational Development Tests

ABSTRACT This volume contains the four 1998 quarterly issues of this newsletter that present best practices, current research on adult learning and literacy, and information on how research is used by adult basic education teachers, counselors, program administrators, and policy makers. The following are among the major articles included: "Power, Literacy, and Motivation" (Greg Hart); "The First Three Weeks: A Critical Time for Motivation" (B. Allan Quigley); "Build Motivation by Building Learner Participation" (Barbara Garner); "Staying in a Literacy Program" (Archie Willard); "Stopping Out, Not Dropping Out" (Alisa Belzer); "Where Attendance Is Not a Problem" (Moira Lucey); "Getting into Groups" (Michael Pritza); "The GED [General Educational Development Test]: Whom Does It Help?" (John H. Tyler); "Project-Based Learning and the GED" (Anson M. Green); "Describing Program Practice: A Typology across Two Dimensions" (Barbara Garner); "Retention and the GED" (Jamie D. Barron Jones); "The Spanish GED" (Anastasia K. Cotton, Bertha Cantu-Lujan); "Changing Approaches to Math" (Cynthia J. Zengler); "Why Is Change So Hard?" (Marcia Drew Hohn); "How Teachers Change" (Virginia Richardson); "Dinosaurs and Upstarts: Organizational Change at CASA Latina" (Hilary Stern); "A Story of Improvement" (Jane Cody, James Ford, Kathleen Hayward); "Facilitating Inquiry-Based Staff Development" (Jereann King); "An Unexpected Outcome" (Edith Cowper); "Lessons from NCSALL's [National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy] Outcomes and Impacts Study" (Hal Beder); "Less Teaching and More Learning" (Susan Gaer); "Knowledge in Action: The Promise of Project-Based Learning" (Heide Spruck Wrigley); "Turning Obstacles into Opportunities" (Deborah L. Johnson); and "Voter Education, Registration, and Action (VERA)" (Andrea Nash). Each issue also contains regular features and resources. (KC) Focus on Basics

Volume 2

1998

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 1:1 This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy.

0 U BEST COPYAVAILABLE Focus on

tor_

World Education/NCSALL, Connecting Research and Practice, Volume 2, Issue A, March 1998

LEARNER MOTIVATION

Contents

Welcome by Editor

Power, Literacy, and Motivation by Greg Hart

The First Three Weeks: A Critical Time for Motivation by B. Allan Quigley

Build Motivation by Building Learner Participation by Barbara Garner

Staying in a Literacy Program by Archie Willard

Stopping Out, Not Dropping Out by Alisa Belzer

Where Attendance is Not a Problem by Moira Lucey

Getting Into Groups by Michael Pritza

Focus on Research: NCSALL's Learner Motivation Study by Barbara Garner

Blackboard: A List of Suggested Readings.

Editorial Board

How to Subscribe to Focus on Basics Focus on Basicsis the quarterly publication of the National Center for the Studyof Adult Learning and Literacy. It presents best practices, currentresearch on adult learning and literacy, and how research is used by adult basic education teachers, counselors, programadministrators, and policy makers.Focus on Basicsis dedicated to connecting research with practice, to connecting teachers with research and researchers with the reality of theclassroom, and by doing so, making adult basic education research more relevant to the field. All subscription and editorial correspondence should be sent to:

Focus On Basics Attn: Diem Nguyen World Education 44 Farnsworth Street Boston, MA 02210-1211 e-mail address: [email protected]

Focus on Basicsis copyrighted, but we urge readers to photocopy and circulate the publication widely. When reprinting articles, please creditFocus on Basicsand the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. Editor: Barbara Garner Associate Editor: Diem Nguyen Illustrations: Mary White Arrigo

Focus on Basics ispublished by the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL). NCSALL is funded by the Educational Research and Development Centers Program, Award Number R309B60002, as administered by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement/ National Institute of Postsecondary Education, Libraries, and Lifelong Learning, U.S. Department of Education. For more information on NCSALL, please see the article "The New Center for Adult Learning and Literacy."

The contents ofFocus on Basicsdo not necessarily represent the positions or policies of NCSALL or the National Institute on Postsecondary Education, Libraries, and Lifelong Learning; World Education; the Office of Educational Research and Improvement; or the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government.

L.; 4 Focus on 1111111..moi

Welcome to Focus onBasics

Dear Readers, Everyone who works in adult basiceducation has a story about the student who persevered despite myriad challenges. My favorite story is theclass of 25 women on Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), who were studying forboth the tests of General Education Development (GEDs) and their nursing aide certification at the same time.After the first month of the program, I commented on their almost perfect attendance, and one studentsaid, "I bet you didn't expect us all to be here." I told her that no, I didn't. She vowed that they woyuldall be there every month. She was right. The entire class, which had become quite a tight group, graduated.The students had near perfect attendance for nine months of class, 20 hours a week. Since the drop out ratein adult basic education programs tends to be above 50 percent, this was more than remarkable, it wasastonishing. My iinterest in "persisters" -- those who reaminin adult basic education programs and meet their educational goals despite the forces acting against them --had begun in the same program three years earlier. I watched one class of students persevere while anotherclass of students with similar socioeconomic make up floundered. What motivates some to persist,while others disappear?

In plaaning this issue, I sought out people who wereconsciously grappling with these questions and asked them to write for us. As I read the articles they submitted, eachof which presents a different theory or approach to supporting learner motivation, I was struck bythe role that community seems to play in all of them. Greg Hart writes that learners and programstaff are motivated by event just a taste of power that community activism can convey.Was it the power, or the sense of community developed during the struggle, or both? Allan Quigley's research suggests that staff should work quickly toidentify those most likely to drop out. He found that one-on-one support andsmall classes work well. Michael Pritza and his colleagues switched from individualized to small group instruction and sawattendance leap. Moira Lucy obeserves that the English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL)classroom, where learner persistence is not such a problem, provides a safe haven for learners, a placewhere friendships are born. Archie Willard identifies the strong relationship his tutor built with him as one key to hison-going motivation as a learner, while Marvin Lewis feels that being involved in the runningof his program was a factor in his persistence. While the strategies differ, in each of these examples, a communityof learners is being created and, somehow, the motivation that propelled learners to enter programsis sustained.

The drop out rate from adult basic educaation indicatesthatwe have not managed to find the right mix of strategies to do this consistently. It does seem, however, that we are making progress. Wehope that the articles in this issue provide you with ideas that will make a difference.

Sincerely,

Barbara Garner Editor

L 5 Power, Literacy, andMotivation by Greg Hart

Will you support the construction of an adult education center on the south side of Tucson? Please answer YES or NO." Lina Prieto, working on her GED, the single mother of two sons, put the question to each city council memberand each county supervisor as they stepped up to the microphone. It wasSeptember, 1996, and 2,000 people in the auditorium waited for each to answer. An occasional "grito" (shout) rose up out of the crowd. Even the children waited intently beside their parents, aware that something unusual was happening. Signs demanding support for adult education lined the huge room at the Tucson Convention Center and bobbed above the crowd. The politicians stepped up to the microphone one at a time to answer her. "Yes!" "Yes!" "Yes!" Eleven times "Yes!", eleven times a huge eruption of shouting from the crowd, and on the last "Yes!" we rose to our feet and raucously celebrated victory. We -- immigrants, drop outs, single mothers on welfare, minimum-wage workers, under-paid part-time adult educators -- hugged one another, waved our signs, and gave "high fives" all around. The politicians looked out with wonder over the scene until they, too, were engulfed by the thrill loose in the room. A building for adult education was going to be built, for sure, but this jubilation was about more than that. It was about power. At Pima County Adult Education (PCAE), we have come to believe that literacy is a means to greater power and personal freedom, not an end in itself. It is the prospect of achieving power and not the concept of literacy that truly motivates both students and teachers. Lina Prieto, the other adult education students who had spoken before her, and the audience itself were acting with intent to influence their own destinies and their community. Literacy had helped them to act, but the excitement and satisfaction they felt arose from the knowledge that they were, in those moments, powerful.

My colleagues and I at PCAE have grown weary of working with people desperate to change their lives, only to contend with the fact that from one year to the next about 50 percent of PCAE's 10,000 students drop out before achieving their learning goals. We know that the reasons for that are numerous and complex, and that many are associated with what it means to be poor. We also know that some students leave because what we are able to offer as a program simply doesn't appeal to them. We believethat many students sense what some adult educators already know: that our own status as adult educators relative to other public educational institutions is a mirror image of their own powerlessness. We think that far too many conclude that getting a GED or learning to read at a higher level probably won't change their lives, and, painful as it is to admit, at PCAE we believe they may be right. An Investment We held a series of formal and informal meetings and discussions throughout 1992 and 1993, some in the context of a series of day-long staff retreats. As a results, we decided to invest time, energy, and money to introduce the potential for power and civic engagement in an integrated way into our curriculum. We did this to motivate students to use and respect literacy as a tool of action rather than to regard it as a concept unrelated to the realityof their lives and their powerlessness. We also did it to motivate ourselves throughdeepening our commitment to the meaning and potential of our work asadult educators. The philosophies and practices of Myles Horton, the great plain-speakingAmerican =adult educator, and, to a lesser degree, his friend, the great and courageous Paulo Freire, provided fodder for our discussions and models for ouractions.

An experience in 1988, when PCAE students and staff staged alarge public demonstration that led to a 200 percent increase in funding, had taught us something important: students and adult educators changed when they felt they had some say in their lives. Students involved in planning and organizing the demonstration stayed involved with the program for years, some as paid teaching aides. Teachers involved in and inspired by the powerful impact on themselves and their students grew increasingly discontent with the standard academic, skills-based curriculum that, despite endless tinkering, never seemed to have an impact on attrition levels. Despite that previous experience, however, we still didn'T know how to introduce and sustain ongoing with our students about power. We weren't entirely sure how to identify issues of common concern or how to organize broad-based civic actions and interventions designed to address them, or how we would connect all of that to the adulteducation classroom. We needed help to proceed. We got it, from the Pima County Interfaith Council (PCIC), an organization associated with the Industrial Areas Foundation (IAF), founded in the 1940s by the late organizer and radical Saul Alinsky. The PCIC worked originally with faith-based constituencies and a few secular institutions to research issues of importance to the Tucson community, especially those affecting the poor. Some of the issues coming to light based on PCIC's work included lack of child care and transportation, inadequate job training for living-wage jobs, low wages, latch-key children, and the disintegration of families, neighborhoods, and schools. PCIC's lead organizer and I began to meet and form the basis for a working partnership that recognized mutual interests. With PCIC's help and guidance and PCAE's commitment of training, staff time, and leadership -- including the creation of the position of Coordinator for Civics and Citizenship -- we began to convene forums and one-to-one meetings for students and staff to identify issues affecting their lives. During these forums and one-to-one meetings, student and staff leaders began to emerge. Issues such as low wages, gang and crime-burdened neighborhoods, and parents' sense of disconnection from their children's schools came to the fore. At times with and at times without teacher guidance, small groups of students began to research issues. Their research included the analysis of public policy documents, the development of effective questions and agendas for meetings with public officials, the preparation of speeches and position papers, and learning how to reach consensus on strategy and conclusions through dialogue. The use of high level literacy skills was, of necessity, essential to all of these tasks. Training for staff and students also included public speaking skills, the mechanics of presenting at large public meetings, and conducting smaller group meetings with public officials and others. In fact, most of these activities were pointed towards meetings with public officials, of which there were eventually many. Student and staff skills were tested and refined during those encounters. Under the guidance of the Civics and Citizenship Coordinator, six student leaders took paid positions with PCAE as student advocates and student mentors. Their responsibility included, among other things, assisting student

7 councils and identifying other students with leadership potential. Eventually, a core group of about 40 students and staffformed a group called the "Friends --and Students of Adult Education." They continue to meet regularly and to take an active and public role in issues of concern to adulteducation students and adult education in general. Staff and student participation in this civic process was and remains a matter of self selection at PCAE. Individuals determine whether or not they want to be involved and their level of involvement. They demonstrate their interest through attendance at meetings and their willingness to volunteer for assignments such as research, meetings with public officials, or disseminating and explaining information to other students and staff. At any given time at PCAE, we may have 25 or so student leaders who are actively involved and a few of hundred who stay informed by attending student council meetings and meetings of the "Friends and Students." In the beginning of our relationship with PCIC, some of our approximately 170 staff were immediately interested, and others were skeptical. Some of those who were most cautious have since become ardent proponents of civic involvement. Others were ambivalent at the inception, and remain that way to this day. Everyone had questions and concerns: Is this type of civic involvement appropriate for an educational program? Might we lose our funding if we antagonize the powers that be or get caught up in partisan politics? Does PCIC have a hidden religious agenda? Will my job be threatened if I choose not to participate? Today, most teachers appear to be comfortable or are becoming more comfortable with PCAE's efforts to link adult literacy education with the notion of power. Clark Atkinson, a teacher with more than 25 years of varied experience as an adult educator and a strong advocate for teachers' rights, was one of the most dubious at the outset of our involvement. He said recently that he believes that our work with civic engagement has been the most important thing PCAE has ever done.

We have had a number of outward successes based on the issues identified and addressed by students and staff. They include hosting the candidates for Governor and State Superintendent of Public Instruction in our classrooms, where they were challenged to publicly commit and demonstrate support for adult education.This later materialized into a statewide family literacy initiative. Adult education students played pivotal roles in the development of a city-wide program that nearly doubled the number of after-school programs for elementary-age children. In partnership with teachers, they have formed a non-profit corporation called Adults for Community Transformation (ACT). They confronted powerful local bureaucrats over the placement of a swimming pool at a local neighborhood center instead of a long promised adult education center. Ultimately, they got not one facility, but two. They worked with staff and parents at a troubled high school to create a jobs program for students that is now being lauded and duplicated throughout the city. Hundreds of students studied interviewing skills and participated in a walking canvass of some of the city's more troubled neighborhoods and later helped to present the results to the City Council and the County Board of Supervisors. Working with some of the city's most influential political and business leaders, they have been instrumental in the creation of a new job training strategy that guarantees employer-pledged, living-wage jobs with a career path. In the spring of 1997, students worked with the Board of Supervisors to get $2.25 million included for adult education buildings in a county bond issue. After the bonds passed in a very tight election, 500 attended a County Board of Supervisors meeting in July of 1997 to successfully request that the money be allocated ahead of schedule.

8 These successes speak for themselves. But what aboutthe impact on students, their learning, and their willingness to stay involved?Skills of involved individuals have certainly grown. Right now, our attrition rateremains about the same, and we report about the same number of studentgoals achieved as in the past. And, there has been a price to pay: power generatesopposition. Former allies, both individuals and institutions, have growndistant and, in some cases, inimical, as theyperceive that their interests and their access to resources may be threatened by an activeadult education constituency competing for those same resources. The risk is real that in questing for power we might lose some, or, in the worst case,all of our ability to even offer educational programs. We might lose our jobs, too. We also clearly recognize another risk: that we as teachers, i.e., the literate, might exploit students. That possibility requires constant vigilance and introspection. The buildings we have won, for example, cannot just end upbeing nicer places to work for adult educators; they must serve and strengthen the adult learner community. We must be vigilant also that PCAE itself is not similarly exploitedby the IAF or PCIC for their own purposes. We will not understand the full impact of our work for many years to come. We have shown ourselves that linking literacy education with the notion of power transforms the perspectives and motivations of educators and students alike. We have seen people's lives and the lives of their families change. When GED student Lina Prieto, who questioned city and county officials, speaks powerfully to a room of 2,000 people, she knows she has the ability to influence the direction of her community: she has power. Her seven-year-old son sitting in the audience sees it, too. Whenteachers see students involved in the civic process, they recognize that they themselves are engaged in meaningful work: they have power. When government officials see that the community they serve has a voice, they see that power belongs rightfully to the people. For the people at PCAE involved in this process, adult literacy education, and power will never rightfully be separate from one another again.

About the Author Greg Hart is the director of Pima County Adult Education in Tucson, Arizona.

9 The First Three Weeks: A Critical Time for Motivation

by B. Allan Quigley

T 1 sn't there anything I can do to keep my students motivated?" This is the question I asked back in 1972, when I lost two students from my first adult basic education (ABE) class. At the time, my reaction was: "I must do better." I tried harder. I searched for more and better materials. I employed the best techniques I could find. I was as supportive as any teacher could be. But, somehow, even with my best efforts, things didn't change much. Some students stayed. Some didn't. I just couldn't get a handle on it. My best wasn't enough. In the late 1970s, as an ABE program director, my staff and I tried everything we could think of to improve our retention rates. We had full-time, part-time, and drop-in courses. We had block and continuous intake. We had centralized and decentralized classes around the city. We had large individualized classes, team-taught classes, childcare in some, computers in others. Still, even with our best ideas and best efforts, some students dropped out while others persisted. Our collective best still wasn't enough.

Entering doctoral studies in 1984, I believed the books in the library would hold the answers. However, after working on this issue for almost 11 years as a professor and researcher, I still don't have the answer. A quarter century of worrying about the same question is a long time. I nevertheless think the contemporary literature and some of what I have found recently may be taking me closer to a better understanding of how to keep students motivated. While others may disagree, I like to think we are getting closer to answers. Let's see. Different Perspectives

Looking back, I think neither my excellent co-workers nor I were really able to analyze our world because -- and here's the conundrum-- we saw it as our world. You might notice in the above story that at no point did my co-workers and I draw upon the perspective of the learners. I think this is a serious self-limiting condition in ABE. As educators, we often seek to reproduce the experiences that worked for us. Most of us basically liked school and succeeded at the schooling process. Educators have a common experience that separates us from our students. The culture of school that we so enjoyed is not necessarilya culture into which our students fit. We must keep that in mind when we design programs and instruction.

Our learners are not a "different species," as some would have us believe (Quigley, 1997), and I must say immediately that I hate the negative stereotypes of our learners. Yet the common characteristics within our learner population, the one that distinguishes it from other populations in the educational spectrum, is that most of our students dropped out of school. Furthermore, most didso under unhappy circumstances. While our learners have many characteristic in common with mainstream adult students, they also have some radical differences. We can certainly learn from theories and research done with the larger adult population in mind, but we cannot extrapolate freely.

10 A Framework That said, a model provided by Patricia Crossin 1982 suggests that ABE learners -- like all adult learners -- must overcome threebarriers to enroll and stay in ABE classes. First, ABE learners,like all the rest, must negotiate family, financial, health, transportation, and other problemsif they are to come and to stay. These are the situational barriers; they arise outof learners' day-to-day lives. Many researchers have identified anddiscussed these barriers in ABE (see, for instance, Hayes, 1988; Malicky and Norman,1994; Wikelund, Reder, & Hart-Landsberg, 1992). Second, ABE learners, likeadult learners everywhere, must confront the institutional barriers our agencies seem inevitably to create. Which adult students don't have to deal with some typeof institutional red tape, or program fee, or scheduling inconvenience attheir learning institutions? Our learners face institutional rules and procedures that too often seem to serve the institution, not thelearners. So, when we add up the problems that may cause learners to leave, we can separate some of them into these two categories, situational and institutional. We can try to help our students with the situations they face by referring them to resources. But we can only refer them, we canOt bethe resources. Situational barriers are often those about which we in ABE can do very little. This is an area where we need to realize ourlimitations and reduce the personal guilt we feel when we see our students floudering in the face of these barriers. Likewise, we can and should keep chipping away at institutional barriers -- we do have some control over these -- but, again, I don't think this is where we should expend most of our energy. I have become convinced that the third barrier holds the most promise. The third -- and most enigmatic by far -- is the area of dispositional barriers. Hereinlies the curious inner world of unique attitudes, personal values, and unstated perceptions. Our learners often carry into our programs mixed emotions, many of which are negative, born of past schooling experiences. These may take up more space in their dispositional baggage than we usually want to acknowledge or are willing to explore.

Our students come to our programs with hopes, fears, and expectations, just like other adult learners. But, as I have said, our students' feelings grow from negative schooling experiences. The "answers" we offer may exacerbate the problems they bring. Faced with students who show low self-esteem or an apparent lack of confidence in ABE programs, Fingeret (1985) found that ABE teachers often "try to be all things to each individual student&334 (p. 112). But, as Fingeret concludes, even the total devotionof a caring teacher in the face of apparent low self-esteem may not be enough. While Fingeret agrees that such "are admirable aspirations it is possible that instructors ... may actually undermine the adult student's ability to use the program as an area for risk-taking, growth, and learning" (p. 112). As Fingeret found: "Many students do not simply remain in a program because it feels good' to them. They remain because they see the potential for meeting their goals" (p. 112). I would add, despite the unquestionable value of a caring teacher and learner-centered approaches, these are not the singular answers for retention. If they were, the dropout rate in the U.S. would not have been a staggering 74 percent in the 1993-94 year (U.S. Department of Education, 1995).

I now believe that the gap in perception created by our school-based experiences, when contrasted with those of our students, is a source of serious unseen, under-researched problems. I think that if we canunderstand dispositional barriers better, if we can see the differences between our dispositions and theirs more clearly, we can become more effective at our tutoring, teaching, counseling, and retention. Dispositional Barriers As I noted earlier, schooling experiences in the formative years have a lifelong effect on learners. Cervero and Fitzpatrick (1990) found, through a longitudinal study of 18,000 students from 1,200 U.S. schools, that adults who had been early school-leavers -- drop outs -- had extremely mixed feelings toward past schooling. Early school leavers participated in credit and non-credit adult education opportunities at a rate well below the norm for mainstream adults who had completed school. The researchers concluded that those who quit school are "shaped...by a powerful set of social circumstances" (p. 92).

Taking the same point further, Nikelund, Reder, & Hart-Landsberg (1992) found that undereducated adult "participants and potential participants tend to perceive and experience the adult education programs...as extensions or continuations of the school programs in which they have previously experienced failure, loss of self-esteem, and lack of responsiveness to their personal needs and goals" (p. 4). This is another important conclusion thatcan help us think more critically about our programs. In a study I conducted in 1992, we held in-depth interviews with potential students who chose not to attend ABE programs even though they knew they were probably eligible to attend. We found that the terms education' and learning' were understood positively if applied to the children and the friends of the resisters. These two constructs implied absolute good. Whenwe mentioned ABE' or literacy' -- when we flat out asked if they would go to the local ABE programs and register -- they heard school.' They said they did not want to "go back to school" although we had never used that word. Theories of Participation

If we turn to research on the psychological and socio-cultural and socio-economic factors that go into motivation, we comeaway disappointed. But we have no lack of advice. In the past, our field was advised to address motivation and participation using mainstream adult education models. Boshier (1973), and Rubenson and Hogheim (1978), for instance, have argued that mainstream adult education theories should be used in ABE settings. In 1986, Gordon Darkenwald wrote that if we would just use such mainstream adult theories "The quality of ABE participation and dropout research would be vastly improved" (p. 12). Maybe, but, given the differences in learner populations, it does not necessarily follow that mainstream adult education research applies to ABE.

Another model we could consider is Miller's 1960's force field analysis (1967), which says that certain influences pull adults towardsa desired goal as other influences push them away. In the classic Miller force-field theory,we need to research the forces acting on students via a force-field analysis. Miller's theory is, however, constructed on socio-economic status, ignoring prior educationand its effects.

Peter Cookson's (1987) ISSTAL model argues that an individual's social background and roles, combined with a list of other external and internal elements, can act as a series of filters. These either discourageor challenge the learner to the point where she will either engage in further educationor choose

1 ° not to participate. Actually, Patricia Cross (1982, P. 124)had much the same idea in her chain-of-response (COR) model a few years earlier. For Cross, the --adult's decision process begins with self-evaluation and moves through a predictable sequence of links. So, according to Cookson and Cross, if we can just know the filters and links in the sequence, we can predict who will participate. Neither Cookson nor Cross explicitly includes the powerful effects of pre-adult factors such as past educational experiences in their equations. Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) created a model that does allow for several pre-adult influences. Their model takes into consideration eight groups of factors from the prospective learner's experience. This seems relevant until we notice that all types of educational goals and participation are lumped together. Credit-bearing, noncredit-bearing, and variations of both are assumed to be essentially the same, and labeled further adult education. Where does ABE fit into this mix of mainstream goals? Does this theory really do justice to the formative experiences of our learners? More recent research by Roberta Uhland (1995) and researchers at the Center for Literacy Studies (1992) tells us this adult mainstream view of educational attainment can vastly oversimplify the ABE learner's decision process (and see Beder, 1990). Perhaps the theory that, more than any other, perpetuated stereotyping in ABE was Roger Boshier's congruence model (1973, 1977). It classes all potential participants into growth-oriented and deficiency-oriented learners. Boshier effectively says that low-literate adults are at the rock bottom of any Maslowian hierarchy of needs based on 48 motives. They are so seriously deficiency-oriented in the Motives department that it would seem almost impossible for our learners to be motivated at all. As Beder (1990) says, Boshier "perpetuates the very social stigma attached to low literacy, which limits life success and reduces motivation (p. 44).

On the other hand, perhaps the most promising theory for our field from mainstream higher and adult education is the Vroom (1964) expectancy-valence model. It promotes research on two levels of inquiry. First, it asks what the learners' expectations are of the upcoming experience, or program, in this case. Second, it tries to measure the inherent valence -- or worth -- of a program as the learner sees it. The strength of these two, says Vroom, will determine participation and success. While expectancy- valence theory has been used with some success in our field (e.g., Van Tilburg & DuBois, 1989; Quigley, 1992, 1993), we are not sure how dispositional barriers interact with what learners find in programs. We don't really know how expectancy and valence interacts with dispositional barriers. And note that all of the above are theories of participation. They are asking: What influences adults to join programs? They are not explicitly focused on retention: "What influences them to stay or quit?&334 The Drop-Out Weeks We need to go beyond participation theory and find a way to understand what our learners actually experience during the first three critical "drop-out weeks." We do have some understanding of this period, and we have some strategies worth using.

An interesting study by Christophel and Gorham (1995) may be appropriate for us, even though it is based on college students. This study has to do with in-program, not before-program, questions. The researchers found that among young adults in college, motivation "is perceived by students as a personally-owned state, while demotivation is perceived as a teacher-owned

13 problem" (p. 303). --While this finding has yet to be tested in ABE settings, it does make a potentially useful contribution. It introduces the demotivation side of learner experience. And it does square with ABE retention and persistence work (e.g., Bean et al, 1989; Diekhoff & Diekhoff, 1984), which indicates that our learners tend to come to ABE with sufficient motivation to succeed, but things happen that, through their eyes at least, "demotivate" them. It gives us language and a framework to continue the line of reasoning that persistence and motivation are not ultimately "their" problem. This line of demotivation research also indicates that "motivation is modifiable" (Christophel & Gorham, p. 304). Squaring with the nascent ABE retention research, it suggests that teachers can do something. One positive way intervention can occur, according to Chrisophel and Gorham, is if teachers respond to student needs right away. They call this teacher-immediacy. As they learned, "teacher immediacy affects motivation." (p. 304). My own research suggests that "nonverbal immediacy relationships are more slowly established than are verbal immediacy relationships" (p. 304). The point here is that early verbal connections with new learners are critical in sustaining motivation. The value of teacher immediacy was also demonstrated by a study I conducted in 1993. Through in-depth interviews that contrasted persisters with dropouts, two interviewers found that a randomly selected group who had dropped out of an ABE program in the first three weeks due to evidentdispositional barriers had chosen not to talk with their teachers about their decision to quit during the decision period. Instead, they had all gone to the intake counselor. One had done do so up to seven separate times prior to dropping out. This is potentially disconcerting for teachers. In contrast, those in the study who persisted for months did not go to the counselor once in the same critical period. Instead, persisters talked to their ABE teachers regularly. Thus, the "immediacy" role of the intake counselor or intake person may be at least as important as the role of the teachers among the potential dropout population. Those learners asking for counselor assistance were not the ones who, to the teacher, appeared to need assistance. They were basically invisible in the classrooms. It was the potential persisters who squeaked and seemed to get noticed. As time goes by, say Christophel and Gorham, the teacher-learner relationship becomes increasingly important in sustaining student motivation. They make it clear that the first few weeks are crucial. If teacher immediacy is not established early, the odds that students will drop out increase. It is imperative that we figure out who needs such attention. Identification Most programs have an intake person. It may be a counselor, a teacher, a receptionist, or the program administrator. Research I have done (Quigley, 1997) suggests that some new learners -- not all -- will need more attention than others, both inside and outside the classroom. I believe it is worth building a sensitive interviewing process for new learners at initial contact, and right after intake, and to use the same personnel to follow up with learners who need more attention. It is also advisable that this person, or persons, not be the same as those actually teaching the learner. As I will explain, some learners may need a safety valve. To make this degree of interview and follow-up manageable, consider ways for staff -- not only the teachers -- to look systematically for

14 "at-risk indicators" (Quigley & Kuhne,1997). "At risk" here means those learners who probably have the highestchance of dropping out in the first few -critical weeks by virtue of the dispositionalbarriers they must overcome. The overall logic here is that some new studentshave more significant dispositional barriers than others. These "at-risk" learners canoften be identified and assisted to stay in programs longer. The study we conducted involved 20 at-risklearners and a control group. The intake counselor, a male, looked for body languageand verbal cues that suggested dispositional barriers were at work,barriers sufficient to cause the applicant to drop out early on. These cues includedskepticism, hostility, hesitancy, and uncertainty. This observationoccurred during a meeting at the beginning of the program. The second meeting wasthe student intake, about two weeks later, during which thecounselor once again looked for the same behaviors and attitudes. At this point, if he saw the samebehaviors or attitudes, he referred the student to another counselor, afemale. She conducted a more in-depth interview with the new learner about her pastschooling experiences. Having toured the program by now, the student was asked to comparethe past with her future expectations for this program. The PriorSchooling and Self-Perception Inventory, which contrasts aspect of past performanceand relations with peers with what the potential learner was anticipatingin this program, was created and usedfor this more lengthy interview (Quigley, 1997, pp. 245- 246). With these three procedures, we had identified an at-risk group: learners we hypothesized were especially susceptible to demotivators. But now what? Remember how we usually place so much emphasis on a caring teachers' ability to raise self-concept? Other possibilities weretested. Those who now appeared to be at-risk were referred at random to four separateclassroom settings. None were aware they were part of astudy. The first randomly selected group was referred to the mainstream just like the others that came to the center. This control group was placed among the usual classes of anywhere from 15 to 20 students, taught by one teacher. Another randomly selected group received team support. This meant their teacher was made awarethey were at-risk students and the female counselor visited each in this group at least once per week. The counselor and teacher used the Inventory as a baseline to see how the learner was progressing. So, this "team-supported group" received all the support that a teacher and a counselor could possible givewithin the program's structure. We hypothesized that if caring teachers and counselors arevital to retention, this approach would result in the highest student retention rate. The third randomly selected group went to small classes of five or six students. This option played down the teacher's importance; we hypothesized that more peer attention, not just more teacher attention, would have a positive impact on retention. The final randomly selected group were assigned to one-on-one volunteer tutors rather than to a classroom, giving them the most teacher attention one could ever get in ABE. What happened? All three special treatment groups retained students past three weeks and beyond the control group. Our goal was met. The small group option held the most students the longest. This suggests that increased peer support as well as enhanced teacher support for the at-risk, through the small group setting during the first three weeks, may provide an "absence of negatives" sufficient for many at-risk learners. In all events, any of the three treatments were an improvement over the traditional classroom for the at-risk. Implications What does this suggest for program design? First, identify those least likely to stay. The at-risk group should be identified by an experienced intake person in the first one-on-one meeting. These observations should be verified during a second interview, using the Prior Schooling and Self-Perception Inventory (Quigley, 1997). Although using this instrument hardly constitutes scientific prediction, it at least provides a profile based on the new students' own expressed expectations and personal concerns. And it grounds observed behaviors and learner self-perceptions in dispositional barriers. I recommend also using the Witkin Embedded Figures Test (Quigley, 1997; Witkin et al, 1971). This test assesses learners' field dependence and field independence, which, simply put, means levels of needing to belong. This means making informed judgements early on in programs. Some programs will be able to place the at-risk in classes of five or six students. Some will not. Most programs can have the intake person act as follow-up support to the at-risk by meeting with these students individually at least once a week to go over their progress, using the Inventory as a baseline. The follow-up should include informing the teacher that these students will need more support than others, even if they do not always request it. Finally, the intake person and the teachers can meet and work as a team. In any case, the intake person should be someone other than the teacher so that another interested person is available to the students. This provides a second, less symbolically authoritative figure with whom the at-risk can consult.

Other team support techniques suggest themselves here. Groups within classrooms can be formed to create a smaller peer support group for the at-risk. After-class support groups can be created and the at-risk can be encouraged to attend. Approaches such as mentoring and "buddy systems" can be used with good effect. The idea is to build more support for the at-risk using peers as well as teachers and intake personnel. Finally, many programs can add volunteer tutors to ABE programs, either in or outside of ABE classrooms. The last model tried in the study was to give fuller attention through tutors. It worked better than nothing did. Why not add a tutor to help the at-risk in ABE if this is the approach available?

No one is suggesting that situational and institutional barriers will not creep up on many learners during or after the critical three weeks. We are dealing with adults here. Little is predictable; less is "controllable." But, based on this study and the success of programs that have acted on these same suggestions, we know that we can: 1) understand the time frame in which we must identify the at-risk, 2) identify an at-risk group upon which to focus energy, and 3) employ various groupings found to provide support for the at-risk. Above all, wecan at least begin to untangle some of the complex issues of retention and nmkea better, more informed start. Yes, there is something I can do. The Answer

If I knew how to enhance motivation, I would have done it 20 years ago. I only wish I had taken the time to question, to analyze, and to be more self-critical in ways that allowed for greater learner input. The efforts of recent researchers, and emerging trends such as action research for the classroom (Quigley & Kuhne, 1997) are positive.

Here are some questions I think we should be asking. What are the differences dispositional, cognitive, age, gender, and cultural-- between those who stay and those who do not? What is the actual process of disengagement? Are there stages of dropout? Do demotivators -- especially things done or not done by the

,_, 1 6 teacher -- trigger them? What role does learning style play in motivation? And how can we -- practitioners, researchers, and learners alike -- share and learn from our experiences so that, as a field, we are not reinventing the same aisjointed solutions? In my view, just being able to communicate and share ideas through such means as Focus on Basics is a major step forward.

References

Bean, R., Partanen, J., Wright, A., & Aaronson, J. (1989). "Attrition in urban basic literacy programs and strategies to increase retention." Adult Literacy and Basic Education, 13(3), 146-154.

Beder, H. (1990). Adult Literacy Education: Issues for Policy and Practice. Malabar, FL: Kreiger.

Boshier, R. (1973). "Educational participation and dropout: A theoretical model." Adult Education, 23. 255-282.

Boshier, R. (1977). "Motivational orientations revisited: Life space motives and the educational participation scale." Adult Education, 27, 89-115.

Center for Literacy Studies (1992). Life at the margins: Profiles of Adults with Low Literacy Skills. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee.

Cervero, R. & Fitzpatrick, (1990). "The enduring effects of family role and schooling on participation in adult education." American Journal of Education, 99(1), 77-94. Christophel, D. & Gorham, J. (1995). "A test-retest analysis of student motivation, teacher immediacy, and perceived sources of motivation and demotivation in college classes." Communications Education, 4, 292-305.

Cookson, P. (1987). &334The nature of the knowledge base of adult education: The example of adult education participation." Educational Considerations, 14(2-3), 24-28. Cross, P. (1982). Adults as Learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Darkenwald, G. (1986). Adult Literacy Education: A Review of the Research and Priorities for Future Inquiry. New York, NY: Literacy Assistance Center, Inc.

Darkenwald, G., & Merriam, S., Adult Education: Foundations of Practice. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Diekhoff, G. & Diekhoff, K., (1984). "The adult literacy attrition problem: Identificationat intake." Adult Literacy and Basic Education, 4, 34-47.

Fingeret, A. (1985). North Carolina Adult Basic Education Instructional Program Evaluation. Raleigh, NC: Department of Adult and Community- College Education, North Carolina State University.

Hayes, E. (1988). "A typlogy of low-literate adults based on perceptions of deterrents to participation in adult basic education." Adult Education Quarterly, 3 9, 1-10. Malicky,G. & Norman, C. (1997). " Participation patterns in adult literacy programs." Adult Basic Education, 4 (3), 144-156.

Miller, H. (1967). Participation of adults in education: A force-field analysis. Boston,MA: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults.

Quigley, A. (1992). " Looking back in anger: The influences of schoolingon illiterate adults." The Journal of Education, 174 (4), 103-115.

Quigley, A. (1997). Rethinking Literacy Education: The Critical Need for Practice-Based Change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Quigley, A. (1993). Retaining Reluctant Learners in Adult Literacy Programs. State College, PA: Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy.

17 Quigley, A. & Kuhne, G. (1997). " Creating Practical Knowledge: Posing Problems, Solving Problems ancrImproving Daily Practice Through Action Research."NewDirections for Adult and Continuing Education series no.73. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Rubenson, K. & Hogheim, R. (1978).The teaching process and a study of dropouts in adult education.Stockholm: Stockholm Institute of Education.

Uhland, R. (1995).Learning strategy behaviors demonstrated by low-literate adults engaged in self-directed learning.Unpublished doctoral dissertation. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State University. U.S. Department of Education, Division of Adult Education and Literacy (1995).Adult education program statistics for fiscal year 1994.Washington, D.C. Van Tilburg, E., & DuBois, J. (1989. " Literacy students' perceptions of successful participation in adult education: A cross-cultural approach through expectancy valence ". Proceedings, 30th Annual Adult Education Research Conference(308-313). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, WI.

Vroom, V. (1964).Work and Motivation.New York, NY: Wiley.

Wikelund, K., Reder, & Hart-Landsberg, S. (1992).Expanding theories of adult literacy participation: A literature review.(Technical Report TR92-1). Philadelphia, PA: NCAL..

Witkin, H.; Oitman, P.; Raskin, E.; & Karp, S. (197 1).A manual for the embedded Figures-tests.Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.

About the Author Allan Quigley is an Associate Professor of Adult Education and the editor of the Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education at St. Francis Xavier University in Nova Scotia, Canada.

18 Build Motivation by Building Learner Participation by Barbara Garner

TheGoodwill Learning Center in Seattle is in an enviable position: supported by Goodwill Industries and private grants, it is not dependent upon government funds. The staff are free to experiment. Students suggest courses, and those with special skills teach them to others. The current roster of classes includes traditional topics such as English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), math, reading, writing, and preparation for the tests of General Educational Development (GED). At the students'suggestion, the roster also includes public speaking, passing the written driving exam, small business, and cash English'. In cash English, students learn the standard spoken English they need to succeed in the formal economy. Director Pat Russell-Sims feels that participation motivates students, builds their confidence, and opens them to new vistas. At the Goodwill Learning Center, participation comes in two forms. It can mean being involved with the general running of the school; it can also mean being involved with other students. Learners, who include those studying ESOL and all levels of adult basic education (ABE), participate in hiring staff and in setting organizational policy. The students in each class determine their own rules; for example, students decide whether snacks can be eaten during class, whether children can be brought to class, and whether homework should be given. There's a peer tutoring program, and four of the Center's staff of seven are former students, which indicates that student involvement works. Despite the Center's commitment to the concept, building student participation isn't easy. A student council started a number of years ago by a small group of active students provided the Center with a way to get student input. The group didn't grow, however, and when the core members graduated, it faltered. To complement the work of the student council, another group of students started a newsletter. They write, lay out, and circulate the two-page publication. Students get copies in their mailboxes every week or so. It is entitled the Goodwill Community Learning Center Student Newsletter, News By, For, and About Students. To further increase student participation in the overall running of the school, the Learning Center has instituted quarterly all-school meetings for the students. "We thought about calling them assemblies," explains Marvin Lewis, a former student and now an Americorps volunteer responsible for student involvement, " but assemblies means high school, and lots of people don't like that." To prevent classes from being interrupted, the first two meetings did not coincide with class time. Of approximately 175 students enrolled at the time, about 55 attended each of the first two meetings. They broke up into small groups to generate suggestions about how to improve the Center. Their lists included a request for child care and more computer classes; the administration is looking into the feasibility of both. Another request, for more ESOL classes, was fulfilled almost immediately.

19 Not happy with the attendance at all-school meetings, the Learning Center is experimenting with ways to increase it. They're particularly concerned with attracting night students. Now, all school meetings are held during regular class time. The Center will hold two meetings a quarter, one during the day andone in the evening, so students who go to class in the evening can attend. They serve food: donuts, croissants, bagels, fruit, and juice.

To broaden ownership of the meetings, responsibility for facilitation rotates. " A lot of students bring a lot of experience with them-- from church or other places, " Lewis points out, and the Center runs a public speaking class,so finding students to facilitate isn't hard. Lewis works with the facilitators, helping them prepare for the meeting.

Lewis is an example of a student whose motivation was enhanced by being given the opportunity to participate in the running of his school. He shares his story with us hcre. He would be the first to admit that, while building learner participation is not easy, it can be effective. Staying in a Literacy Program by Archie Willard

Iwas54 years old when I got started in a literacy program. It was oneof the hardest things I have ever done. I had struggled all mylife with my reading and had been told so many times that I could not learn to read. Thathad always bothered me. Deep down inside, I thought I could do better than whatothers had said about me. Getting started in a reading program was one ofthe best things I have ever done for myself. After my first reading lesson Itold myself, " I'm going to try to make a difference in the literacy field." When I was five years old and started kindergarten I was right in themiddle of everything at school. I was eager to learn. Sometime in the first grade when I had my first reading lesson, things changed. I really struggled in thatlesson. From then on the teacher's voice seemed different when she talked to me.When the other children in my class did things, I was not included anymore. So, when we had reading class, I just sat downin my seat and tried not to be noticed. I would be so worried about being called on to read that I lost the concentration that I needed as well as the content of the lesson. I lived in fear, thinking I was not good enough to learn how to read. It was not long after thatfirst reading lesson that I gave up on being a formal learner. Then, after time went by, I became angry because I was being left out of the mainstream of life. I didnt want to be an angry person, but it just happened. I faintly remember that there were some meetings between my mother and someone from the school. But this was the 1930's, and no one understood learning disabilities then. If you were not learning to read, you were looked at as a dummy. My mother could not read very welland she could not help me with my school work. As I look at my dyslexia and my symptoms I can see some of these same symptoms in my mother'slife. I now feel that she must have been dyslexic, too. My father could read quite well but he was a conductor on the Chicago Northwestern Railroad and he worked ten to 12hours a day, sometimes seven days a week. He did not have the time or energy to help me. My parents were kind to me and encouraged me to do the best that I could do in school. There was a lot of love in our home and it was a place where I could escape from all the frustration at school.

My teacher placed me in the back of the room away from the rest of the students. I was in a room full of other students, but I felt like I was there all alone. I was passed from grade to grade. I graduated from high school, and because I did well in football I attended college and I played football there for two years. Then I was told that I could no longer stay in school because my grades were not good enough. When I left school, I took a lot of frustration and anger with me. I then went to work for Hormel Packing Company. I worked with my hands and did not need to know how to read. I married, and my wife and I had one child, a daughter. Hormel was a good company to work for and my family got along fine financially. I worked therefor 31 years until the plant closed and I received early retirement. One day in 1984, my wife read a newspaper article about Bruce Jenner, who had won a gold medal in the 1976 Olympics. The article told about his athletic

21 achievements, but it also told about his being dyslexic. My wife suggested that the "symptoms " of dyslexia that Bruce Jenner exhibited could have been a description of me. That story started me thinking that maybe I had a learning disability. Maybe I wasn't a dummy, after all, as I had been told so many times at school! I was motivated to be tested to see if I had a learning disability. I then went to the University of Iowa Hospitals and was diagnosed as having dyslexia. I was elated to finally know that there was a reason why I had struggled to learn to read. I decided that I was going to seek reading help and, at age 54, enrolled in an adult reading program at Iowa Central Community College to make changes in my life and to try again. I wanted a quick fix. I hoped that I could learn to read in three to six weeks, then leave the program and never look back. Of course it never happened that way. It had been 34 years since I had been in school and it was hard to get over the hump and get started again. After the experiences from my school years, I came into the program with a lot of frustration and was defensive. I would rather be looked at as someone who didn't care about learning to read than someone who cannot learn to read. Until I saw the program and tutor as non-threatening, I could not start learning to read again.

My tutor was a retired adult basic education program administrator. She had never tutored anyone before. She worked with me from her heart. She was not going to let me get out of this program without teaching me to read. She asked me to do reading outside of class. I did not want to be seen at the public library getting books that were at my reading level, so I read 26 Nancy Drew books which my daughter had collected when she was a young girl. My tutor had an ability to look at me and see the little things that could keep me going in the program. We started each lesson talking about things that had happened in the world since our last lesson. Sometimes we would read from the newspaper to help in our discussion. She helped involve me in what was happening in our community. Every second Thursday, the public library held noon programs with presentations about various topics. After our lesson on those days, she and I would take sack lunches and go to these presentations. My tutor became someone I could call "friend." Because of this friendship, I felt comfortable in this reading program and I wanted to work harder to improve my reading. One of the most important things my tutor did for me was to enable me to function in my new job. Although I had received early retirement from Hormel Packing Company, this retirement pay was not going to keep a family of three going without some supplemental income. I still needed to work. It was hard to find a job for someone over 50 who couldn't read. I feel that because my wife helped fill out my application and I did well in my interview, I got a job as an insurance adjuster with Farmers Mutual Hail Insurance Company. This job was extremely hard for me to do, but my tutor helped me learn how to spell words that were used in insurance. We practiced writing insurance reports. Because of her help I was able to work for this company for 14 years.

About a year after I got into my reading program, when I was ready to do more, my tutor got me involved in other parts of the program. I did public speaking, I told my life story to schools, I was on the advisory board for the reading program, I went to a support group, I helped plan the first Iowa State Literacy Congress, and I grew from all this. All of this involvement also helped me to keep going. I began to feel good about what I was doing. The more I reached out, the more confidence I gained. I became open about having dyslexia.

22 My tutor then encouraged me to find out more about my learning disability, dyslexia. I attended an Iowa State Orton Dyslexia Conference. I learned that 70 to 80 percent of the adults who seek reading help have some kind of a learning disability. I went to more conferences to learn more, and began meeting and networking with people who were professionals in the learning disability field. I heard researcher Dr. Albert Galberta tell about his work and how cells (ectopic cells) get misplaced in the development of the brains of dyslexics, which causes us to have processing problems. Again, I subconsciously heard, "You are not a dummy! You can learn, but you learn differently." I stayed in my reading program for two and a half years. Many things kept me going. Initially, perhaps the most important motivation to me was that I wanted to prove to myself and the rest of the world that I was not a dummy. This motivation led to learning which led to more motivation to learn more... Somehow I got a spark in my life and I became a formal learner again. Another thing that helped me was to stand up and say, "I'm an adult learner." This forced me to set standards for myself because others were watchingme as an adult who was learning to read. My wonderful tutor, my understanding of dyslexia, my involvement in literacy issues, the discovery of who Iam, were some of the things that motivated me. The chemistry in my home helped to keep me going. I got all the encouragement and support I could want frommy wife and daughter who was a senior in high school at the time. I knew that had I not sought reading help, my family would have been very disappointed. My learning to read was so important to my daughter, that when she went offto college at the University of Iowa, she became a volunteer tutor to teach adults to read at nearby Kirkwood Community College. She then organized other college students to become tutors and they helped other adultsto read.

Twelve years have passed. I am not an adult literacy studentanymore, but I continue to learn. I have kept up on what the latest research has found inthe field of learning disabilities. I have traveled many miles advocating forliteracy. I have attended Individual Educational Plan meetings at the request ofparents. I'm on three different literacy boards. I have continued to do public speaking about adult literacy and about dyslexia. This has takenme to schools, universities, national conferences, and churches. I have had the opportunityto go to Eastern Europe in 1993 and in 1995 to study how learning disabilitiesare dealt with there. I now work as an adult literacy coordinator for Iowa Central Community College in Fort Dodge, Iowa. Each fall I teachan adult education class at several Iowa community colleges about understanding learning disabilities. In 1996 I completed a fellowship with The National Institutefor Literacy.

Last summer, five other adult learners and I organized and conducteda leadership workshop for adult learners at Illinois State University. The sixof us are now working with mentors to plan a March 1998 meeting at the Highlander Retreat near Knoxville, Tennessee, to form an adult learner national organization. I have a passion to bring adult learners together andto help them find themselves in life and to continue to makea difference in literacy.

6

4 Stopping Out, Not Dropping Out Students and teachers ntay perceive withdrawing from a program differently by Alisa Belzer

To plan this issue, I read many research studies, some quantitative, some qualitative, some teacher research, others done by academics. Alisa Belzer's examination of the process that learners go through in deciding to stay or leave a program and the many factors that influence them presented many findings worthy of discussion, but one in particular intrigued me. She found that some students who were defined as "drop outs " by their literacy programs did not consider themselves as such. This difference in perception can have strong implications for the services we deliver. I asked Alisa to share this aspect of her research with us. -- Barbara Garner When I was teaching and students stopped coming to class or to tutoring sessions, I never really knew quite what to think. Sometimes I blamed myself: "If only I were a better teacher." Sometimes I felt angry at the student, "If only she could get her life together." And sometimes I offered myself a structural interpretation related to the challenges that learners face: "No wonder she can't keep coming, look at what she is contending with...." In fact, I really couldn't explain it.

In 1991, I had the opportunity to lead a systematic exploration of the issue.1 Although I did not conduct the study in my own classroom, the questions I asked and methods I used grew out of my experiences as a teacher and coordinator as well as those of my colleagues in a large, urban literacy program.

It seemed unlikely to me that a learner left or stayed in a program based on any one factor. It seemed more likely that a feeling or attitude about leaving the program developed and a decision got made over time. I designed a study aimed at understanding this complex process better. I was particularly interested in the interaction between the expectations learners brought to a program, their life experiences, and what the program had to offer. I gathered data on the expectations the learners brought, obstacles they and their teachers and tutors encountered, ways in which learners and teachers perceived staying in or leaving a program, and the strategies teachers and tutors employed to promote retention in the program.

One of the assumptions I had, which this article will focus on, was that if students feel badly about leaving a program, it may be difficult for them to return at a later date. This raised the question: How do students feel about leaving? In gathering and analyzing data, I focused in on this issue. Sample

To carry out the study, I used qualitative research methods to gain multiple perspectives on the process of participation in an adult literacy program from

- 24 the point of view of learners, staff, and tutors over time. Four educators -- two teachers and two volunteer tutor coordinators -- randomly recruited two to three learners each to participate in the study. The only criteria for selection that they used were that the learners have phones and be willing to be interviewed. The group of students consisted of five individuals participating in three different classes and five individuals receiving tutoring in two different areas of the city. Beyond stratifying for type of learning context, the sample was one of convenience. Process The study followed ten students from entry into the program for up to four months or until they dropped out. A former staff member and I gathered the data. We planned periodic contact in the form of face-to-face or telephone interviews with students, as well as with their teachers for those in classes, and with the tutors and coordinators of those receiving tutoring, conducting a total of 102 interviews. The ten students were interviewed 47 times, the four volunteer tutors -- one tutor became inactive almost immediately after the study began -- were interviewed 19 times, and teachers and coordinators were interviewed 36 times. One tutor remained active in the program only briefly and did not make himself available for an interview. Of the ten adult learners who participated in the study, five of them were still participating regularly in the program at the end of the study. Perceptions of Stopping

When students stop coming to a program, how do they perceive this action? This was one of the questions in which I was interested. We were surprised to find that the students who left the program did not seem to consider themselves "drop outs." No one would go so far as to say that she had quit the program. Each of those who left planned to return in the future. While they had stopped coming, their intentions to participate had not ended. Although they did not necessarily know when they would be able to return, they all believed it would be possible and desirable to do so. Of perhaps even greater importance to me was that no one expressed a sense of personal failure because of leaving the program. Rather, each simply felt that it was no longer possible for them to continue at that time. They attributed this to factors beyond their control a job, health problems, financial problems, legal problems, or other personal and family problems that would have to solve themselves.

This raises questions for educators who work hard to help learners avoid a feeling of failure. For the most part, the learners we interviewed who stopped coming neither felt they had failed, nor did they feel the program had failed. Instead, they communicated a feeling that the circumstances of their lives had made it impossible to continue. The learners' sense that they have little or no control over circumstances seems in some ways destructive. It implies to me a certain sense of powerlessness and suggests that these learners, at least, may feel unable to get around obstacles not necessarily insurmountable to others. It is also, however, a protective stance. It means that students can leave a program without feeling bad about themselves for being "drop-outs." This, in turn, seems to leave the door open for a return to the program in the future. The fact that nine out of the ten adults in the study had participated in some kind of adult education at least once before and chosen to begin anew seems to bear this assumption out.

,2 5 Students expressed the belief that they have not "completed" the program until they reached their goals.Yet, stopping periodically was not viewed as quitting. Most focussed on what they had been able to accomplish during their time in the program, however brief. For example, one student, who had stopped for thealth reasons, reported that after her time in the program, she was doing more reading and comprehending better. "I feel good about myself...I'm accomplishing something," she said. Another student who remained in the program throughout the study stated that had she beenforced to drop out, she would not have felt like a failure. Rather, she would feel good about the fact that she had made the effort and "I would just go to class the next year or to some other class." A student who was re-enteringthe program for the third time when the study began explained that she had never felt like a failure when she left in the past because she always knew that she would return. She believed that this in-and-out pattern of participation would serve her until she is able to reach her goals. Two students did admit that if they quit, they would feel unhappy. One said, "If I quit, I wouldn't like myself. This time I'd rather finish all the way." The other said that if she dropped out she "would feel blue for a while." Fortunately both of these students persisted despite severe obstacles." Implications If one agrees with the study participants' perceptions that departure from a program should not necessarily be viewed as a failure, but rather as a temporary hiatus, the question then arises: what implications does this have for programs? Teachers and tutors could make sure that students have materials they can work on outside of class or tutoring; they should also ensure that learners know how to use those materials. Program staff could emphasize life-long learning skills, such as encouraging the habit of reading and writing every day, so that students continue practicing their literacy skills when they are unable to attend. In addition, programs might want to consider printing and distributing class lists for students to encourage contact between students outside of class. On a broader scale, teachers and program managers should plan their program structures, curricula, and assessment procedures on the assumption that even under the best of circumstances, students will come and go, and, hopefully, come again. Many of the other findings from this study, not detailed here, af firm the notion that attempts to increase retention based on a cause and effect explanation, to frame the issue in terms of single differentiated obstacles, or to assume that decisions around dropping out come at a single point in time, are missing out on much of the complexity of the issue. The question of how to improve student retention cannot be solved with simple or single answers. The same obstacles or supports can create different outcomes for different students. Since often many complicated and interrelated factors are involved in the decision to continue participation in a program, a simple or single solution may make no difference. It is, however, still useful to try to identify potential obstacles, whether they arise during the recruitment and enrollment phase or as a student participates in a program, and to seek strategies that can help retention.

The sample size of this study was small and the time for data collection was relatively short. As with all qualitative studies, the findings here are not necessarily generalizable to an entire population. Rather, they are meant to be suggestive and provocative. I am hoping that this study can help practitioners reconsider a familiar problem in a new way and that it can help clarify understandings of a complex issue through learning about the perspectives of a small group of students and the literacy practitioners with whom they worked. It can neither provide the field with definitive answers of how to cure retention

L)LJL. 26 problems nor suggest how to motivate all students. It can help us to think hard about how we formulate programs, curricula, and learning contexts that best respond to the realities of adult learners' lives. Other Questions Many retention questions remain to be investigated, using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Although this study has strongly suggested that no single answers to improving retention exist, data on various program factors would certainly aid programs in their efforts. Here are some of the questions in which I am interested. Is there a relationship between tutor or teacher retention and student retention? Do students participating in classes, on average, have retention rates different than those who participate in one-to-one tutoring? What happens to students when they leave the program? Do they go to other programs? How often do they return? How long do they stay away? How do the retention rates of open-entry open-exit programs compare with programs that use semester systems, and what does that suggest? Programs might develop their own questions about retention and use their investigations as a way to help them develop retention strategies and set policy. They should also think about how to best structure themselves to address reality: some students will always be coming and going.

Endnote

1 The study was funded by the Pennsylvania Department of Education, Bureau of Adult Basic and Literacy Education, with funds from the U.S. Department of Education.

About the Author

Alisa Belzer is project director of the Pennsylvania Adult Literacy Practitioner Inquiry Network (PALPIN) and an doctoral student at the University of Pennsylvania. She has worked as a ABE/GED teacher, tutor, volunteer coordinator, and trainer.

L. 2 7 Where Attendance is Nota Problem Sonw thoughts on why ESOL students often persist despite considerable obstacles Moira Lucey

Accordingto a U.S. Department of Education national evaluation of federally-supported adult education programs completed in 1994, enrollment numbers and class sizes tend to be larger in English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) programs than in adult basic education (ABE) and adult secondary education (ASE) (Fitzgerald, 1995). In addition, studentsenrolled in ESOL classes receive an average of 113 hours of instruction beforeleaving a program, which is three to four times more hours of instruction than students leaving ABE or ASE get. As a result of the high level of participationin ESOL classes, the study found improved basic skills, literacy skill, andemployability in learners.

Why are participation and retention rates higher in ESOL thanin ABE or ASE classes? What motivates an adult to attend ESOL classes?I can only respond to these questions by first reflecting on our ESOLprogram at the International Institute of Boston and on my experience with ESOLlearners. As is typical in many adult educationprograms, at the International Institute of Boston we end each term with a ceremony. It is always thesame. Students, teachers, and other staff fill a room. Brief speechesare made. Those students finishing our highest level classare handed diplomas. Those who got full time jobs but still come to classevery day are applauded. Attendance certificatesare handed out. As names are read, those who had perfectattendance rise. Then those who missed only one day stand. Those who willbe returning next term sit in the audience looking pleased that theyare able to come back. They come from many countries and backgrounds. Theyare all ages and sizes.

Each semester, year after year, I continue to be amazedas I address the group. I see students busily snapping pictures of the graduates,groups of friends, and teachers. I hear those students whoare completing our highest level class approach their teachers, begging for permissionto enroll class for just onemore term. I look into the eyes of those who have full-time jobs butstill manage to attend class 15 hours a week. I observe thegroups of newly formed friends sitting together, laughing and sharing storiesand food. I think of what it really takes for adults to embarkon the process of learning a new language and literacy and what is at stake if they do not learnto function in English atsome level. I marvel at the fact that the vast majorityof these students have studied well beyond the nationalaverage of 113 hours of instruction before leavingour program. The main reason why students from our ESOL classes donot complete a term is most often job related; it's rarelyrelated to motivation.

For ESOL students, improved English language andliteracy skills are not the only reason for participating ina program. ESOL classes provide the key to understanding more about how to operate in Americanculture. They give students the opportunity not only to practice languagebut to learn why something is said or how language changes ina given cultural context. Students

L'JL2 8 learn what to say or not say on a job interview or how to make a doctor's appointment for a sick child. Students share experiences with each other. As they gain language skills and a better understanding of America, their ability to function more effectively in their communities, workplaces, and neighborhoods increases. Having the freedom to attend school is a privilege for some learners, one that may not have been offered them in their native countries. Whether it is a young man denied entrance to college because of the political affiliations of his family or a woman who was never permitted to go to school because women in her country did not attend school, these students are determined to learn. This is their opportunity. ESOL programs provide learners with a chance to interact with other adults who may have similar life experiences, come from the same country, or are facing the same challenges. Students, especially those who have recently come to the U.S., are often separated from friends and family. Class is a place to make new friends. The social isolation many ESOL learners feel because of their inability to communicate with neighbors or co-workers in English lessens as friendships form and networks develop.

Of the ESOL students surveyed in the U.S. Department of Education's national evaluation, 92 percent said that they read well or very well in their native languages. Half of the ESOL students had completed at least high school Unlike many of the students enrolled in ABE or General Educational Development (GED) classes, ESOL students have not necessarily had failure experiences prior to enrolling in a program. They may be well educated and speak more than one language. They enter programs with excitement. That, in turn, contributes to their ability to learn English. For most, studying ESOL carries no stigma: it is not looked at as remedial education. Even if ESOL students have little or no formal education in their native countries, we often see a high level of motivation to learn English and basic English literacy. In fact, these learners often stay in our ESOL classes for a year or more, attending regularly.

External factors can also influence students' participation in a program. Whether it is an employer who is recommending class attendance or a worker from the welfare department, expectations and requirements may, if met, result in a reward. For students on public assistance, it is cash and food stamps, medical assistance and child care. For students whose bosses have requested that they enroll in ESOL classes, it can be better positions or maintaining current jobs. Many students acknowledge the need to improve their English language and literacy skills for their jobs. That is why they come to class.

Certainly the quality of a program influences attendance and retention rates. Support services, especially bilingual support, allow programs to more effectively and comprehensively reach out to adult populations with needs that may go beyond education. Flexibility and options in scheduling allow students unable to continue in a daytime class, for example, to attend an evening class. The quality of the teaching staff is also critical. Massachusetts now has a number of masters-level ESOL teacher training programs producing well-trained teachers. This, combined with resources from the state allocated to training and professional development, helps us recruit and support talented teachers.

While many of our students show impressive attendance and retention rates, I do not want to ignore the fact that some students do not complete a semester.

1A-q-, 29 As with all adult learners, our students have other roles and responsibilities. Some situations necessitate dropping out: lack of childcare, health problems, a move tdanother area, and employer demands are the most common. Factors that relate to the program also cause learners to disappear. If the classschedule is inconvenient or the goal of the learner and theprogram differ, students may leave. But even if a learner drops out, the motivationto learn often remains in the form of an intent to continue studying when the time is right.It is this motivation and determination to learn that characterizes the adultESOL learner, and it is also what keeps somany of us working in the field from "dropping out."

References

Fitzgerald. N.B. (1995) ESL Instruction in Adult Education:Findings from a National Evaluation. ERIC Digest. Washington, D.C.:National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education. (EDRS No EDO --LE-- 95-03).

About the Author

Currently working as Director of Programsat the International Institute of Boston, Moira Lucey has extensive experience inadult education. She has taught, planned, and administered both ESOLand literacy programs in the U.S. and abroad. She was one of the authors of the teacherhandbook Preventive Mental Health in the ESL Classroom, and iscurrently involved in the development of a citizenship educationprogram at the International Institute.

s 3 0 Getting into Groups

In Gilmer County, Georgia, a shift from individualized instruction to classes and group discussion increased student retention aned participation by Michael Pritza

Iam an instructor at the Gilmer County Adult Learning Center in Ellijay, Georgia. Gilmer county lies at the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains in the extreme north and central part of the state. Like many rural counties, Gilmer, once relatively isolated, is rapidly becoming a satellite community ofa major urban area, in this case, Atlanta. Our students are a diverse group in terms of age and academic development; the youngest is 16, the oldest is 92. They range from non-readers to those who have completed the tests of General Educational Development (GED) and are studying for entrance to technical school or community college. With the exception of a dozenor so currently enrolled Hispanic students, all are Caucasians in the middle- to low-income brackets. Women outnumber men by about I've to one.

Like many others in the field of adult basic education,my colleague, Art LaChance, and I were concerned with student retention. Our dropout rate was consistently about 34 percent. About ten percent of these would enthusiastically enroll, but never return. A larger number began well but their attendance gradually tapered off until they finally disappeared without noticeor explanation. A surprising number, perhaps another ten to 15percent, were within easy reach of their goals when they suddenly and inexplicablyleft the program. Follow- up calls to these students did not yield results. We both felt personally and professionally frustrated by our apparent inabilityto keep these students engaged for the full course of the program. We knew that theywere falling short of their goals, and we felt a lack of effectivenessas an organization. We wondered if we could do anything to change thispattern, or whether it was an unalterable fact of adult education. We hadnever looked at the problem critically, however, until we participated ina practitioner inquiry project sponsored by the University of Georgia's Department of Adultand Continuing Education in Athens. It was with this project thatwe really began to consider the possible causes for such high numbers of dropouts.

We began by brainstorming ideas about whatwe could do to increase retention. Would different methods of intake or the creation ofa weekly student orientation affect retention rates? Would awards and certificates oflevel completion have an impact? What about askingour students about the kinds of study and activity they preferred? We wondered about creating regularly scheduled classes in reading, writing, or math, whichwe didn't have at the time, or starting discussion groups based on current events. We had success with some team building and discussion-prompting activities in the past,so this idea seemed to have merit.

We then considered our students. All of themwere influenced by variables over which we had no control: problems with family,money, illness, transportation, child care, and the like. Many of them toldus that they had never seen education as a necessity. Even in the face of recent industry lay offsor the inability to find work, many still saw educationas irrelevant. "Why," they

c.L. 3 1

2. asked, "do we have to know this stuff?" As I mentioned, we had been offeringindividualized, self-paced study with instructor assistance and self-directedcomputer-based programs. We began to wonder whether these methods werecontributing to our high attrition rate. Students had liked the few group activities wehad led. Perhaps a more successful method would include greaterparticipation from both students and instructors alike. This hunch began to takeprecedence over other ideas. We eliminated most of our other questions and focused onthe issue of participation. Our research question became: Will groupparticipation in structured classes and discussion groups increasestudent motivation and retention? The first step in our investigation wasstraightforward. We asked our students to respond to a simple questionnaireabout the possible instructional approaches we could use at the Center.Choices included individual study with either text materials or interactive computer programs such as PLATO(which we were already doing), study in pairs, or group study in a classroomenvironment. The groups would focus onlanguage, math, and writing skills. More than 85 percent of about 50 students answered that they wouldprefer studying together as a group. Student Input We then interviewed students in more depth to determine atwhat point and in which subjects they felt they most needed help. We began tohold loosely organized classes two or three times a week based on the needs of the greatest number of students. We included students at all levels and leftattendance to their discretion, rather than making it mandatory. Since we have two instructors, one of us was always available to those students who preferred to work individually. Classes were at first informal and unscheduled. Wewould simply move around the Center and ask "Who wants to do class?" and get together for an hour or so, creating a lesson from whatever students were working on at the time. As we progressed, the classes became more structured and scheduled, though during the span of the project we were careful not to make these sessions seem unnecessarily academic or authoritarian. Wedid not want to re-stimulate negative past experiences,and we considered student feedback and participation to be two of the most important elements. We also began discussion groups based on topics selected by the students and on exercises from "Beyond Basic Skills," a newsletter of classroom ideas published by the University of Georgia. These groups provided a placein which the students could talk about issues they felt were relevant to their lives, like work and personal finance. In these forums, they questioned the relevance of education, asking "How is education going to improve the qualityof my life?" and "How can my life improve by learning percents and geometry?" Hard Questions Sometimes answering these questions was hard. During our project, Ikept a log of my observations and reflections. The log entries seem to be mostuseful in shedding light on recurrent themes about student needs and observations. In reviewing the log entries, I discovered the importance of makingmaterial relevant to students' lives. "Today," I wrote in my log, "Linda and Troy[names have been changed] asked why they have to learn this stuff. Can wemake more money?' If I say No, but your quality of life will improve,' theyask really hard questions: How would my life improve without more money?'There seem to be

JtJL32 very few students who will buy the academic reasoning."

As part of our inquiry project, we turned to attendance recordsfor data, extracting the cumulative monthly hours of all students whowere not mandated to attend and comparing them to hours of attendance in the monthsbefore the project began. The data are displayed in Figures 1 and 2,found on page 22. We were struck by the fact that the average number of attendance hours for non-mandated students had increased about 50percent during the project. At first we were skeptical about sucha large increase, but a review of attendance records showed the data to be correct.

Art and I interpret this data to be an indication of thesuccess of our project, and because of this we have incorporatedgroup classes and discussion into our present methods of instruction and curriculum presentationwith some real success. Classes are full and students actually make time to includethem in their daily schedules. Both the classes and thediscussion groups generate energy and enthusiasm in the students, which leads to greaterparticipation and time spent in the program. Participation, especiallyin the discussiongroups, is open to all students, making the classes multi-level. Thisexposes many of the learners to ideas and subject matter that theywould not otherwise encounter and fosters student interaction. Itseems to spark in some of our beginning ABE students a desire to participate further: theysay they feel good about "going to class." We have noticed that class participationseems to foster study groups, with more advanced students often helpingthose who are less far along. Because of this, students actuallyseem to be spending more time involved in their studies.

Of course, this study also createdsome new problems and challenges. We need to recognize that many factors which influencemotivation and retentionare probably beyond our influence, andso concentrate on those that we feelwe can help to change. As instructors,we realize that we should constantly remain open to change and to restructuring our methods of approachaccording to the needs of the students, bothas a group and as individuals. What worksone time, with one group, may not necessarily workthe next. Certain constants, suchas the need for relevant content,may be extrapolated from our daily work, but the solutions to the problemswe encounter may vary from time to time andgroup to group. This has led us to believe that there isno single solution to the problems of retention and motivation, butmany solutions must be applied according to the demands of the timeand the needs of the students.

References

Valentine, T. and Sandlin, J. (eds.) (1997),Beyond Basic Skills, Vol. 1, No.3.

About the Author

Michael Pritza began work in adult literacyas a volunteer with the Gilmer County Reading Program in 1992. In 1993,he accepted a position with the program, where he now serves as an ABE/GED instructor.Pritza has been involved in practitioner inquiry researchsince 1995, and is currentlyworking on a degree in Alternatives in Education from SkidmoreCollege in New York.

3 3 OP, II

Learner Motivation

"We're trying to get a picture of the complex set of obstacles and supports that students have as they attempt to persist in a program," explains Dr. John Comings, the director of the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL) and principal investigator of the NCSALL study on learner motivation. "We will use that information to design an intervention that we think will help students persist, and then test out the efficacy of that intervention using traditional experimental research methods."

NCSALL has embarked on a multi-phase research process involving innovative and traditional qualitative research and traditional quantitative research techniques to better understand learner motivation and apply that knowledge to the classroom. The non-traditional aspects of the project grew out of research assistant Andrea Parrella's teaching experience. Her students had trouble answering in-depth questions "cold." They needed a chance to reflect before they could produce substantive answers. She felt that the same might be true for participants in this study, so the research team designed an activity that involves potential research study participants in exploring a topic similar to the research topic to "warm them up" before the research interview. By participating in this activity, research participants also get some exposure to the interview team, and are thus more comfortable talking with them during the interviews.

Comings and his team weighed the value of doing this activity as part of their research. "There's a fine line between leading participants and helping them to think more deeply about the question," he says. They wanted to be sure they would have a rich set of responses, and built in checks and balances to ensure that they would be getting valid data.

This activity is only one small part of the project. Following the activity, Parrella and research assistant Chaunda Scott conduct 30-minute one-on-one interviews; they are planning to do a total of 200 at 18 sites around New England. During the interviews, they ask learners to discuss the forces acting upon them three times, in three different ways, to ensure that they are getting an accurate picture. They will return four months later and re-interview the participants to see if the supports they have and obstacles they face have changed.

The research team will use this data to give them a picture of the major forces acting for and against learner persistence. They will then design a classroom activity or set of activities that they feel will help learners to understand these forces and balance them. This activity will be tested using a traditional experimental control model with random assignment. In other words, students will be randomly assigned to classes that use the same curriculum; the main difference between the classes is that in some the teacher will use the motivation-enhancing activity and in others-- the control groups -- the teacher won't. The persistence of the two sets of learners will be compared. By using this design, the effect -- which the researchers hope will be stronger motivation-- can be attributed to the intervention rather than some other variable.

u 3 4 Researchers fake into account substantive and financial issues when choosing a sample upon which to focus. This team is looking at adult basic education learners who have reading levels on the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE) that fall between grades five and eight. They chose this level because they felt that students reading below it may have different motivational issues that relate to learning disabilities. General Educational Development (GED) students were eliminated because many would have completed their tests and graduated before the research team did follow up interviews, creating logistical problems. The team did not include English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) students because of limited resources: in this type of study, ESOL students should be interviewed in their native languages, an expensive prospect. The sample includes learners who range from the age of 16 to 70, it's divided about evenly between men and women, and the learners are white, black, Latino, Portuguese, and Haitian. Learners come from both rural and urban programs. For more on this study, contact Andrea Parrella at Harvard Graduate School of Education, NCSALL, Nichols House, Cambridge, MA 02138-3572; phone: (617) 495-1712; and e-mail: [email protected]. -- by Barbara Garner

, 35 BLACKBOARD

Suggested Readings:

R. Bean, J. Partanen, A. Wright, & J. Aaronson, J. "Attritionin urban basic literacy programs and strategies to increase retention." Adult Literacy and Basic Education, 13(3), pp.146-154, 1989.

Hal Beder, Adult Literacy Education: Issues for Policy and Practice. (Malabar, FL:Kreiger, 1990).

Alisa Belzer, A Research Study in Retention: A Qualitative Approach. Unpublished final project report. (Philadelphia, PA: Center for Literacy, 1992). Patricia Cross, Adults as learners. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1982). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, "Literacy and Intrinsic Motivation," DAEDALUS, Vol. 119, No. 2, Spring 1990. Richard Davis, Retaining Adult Education Students, A How-To Guide for Practitioners, Research Report No. 109. (Learning Resources Network (LERN), Manhattan, KS: 1990). (Hanna) Arlene Fingeret, "Social network: A new perspective on independence and illiterate adults." Adult Education Quarterly. 3(3), 133-145 (1983). Kathleen A. Fitzsimmons, "African American Women Who Persist in Literacy Programs: An Exploratory Study," The Urban Review, Vol. 3, No. 4 1991. G. Malicky & C. Norman, "Participation Patterns in Adult Literacy Programs," Adult Basic Education, 4 (3), 144-156 (1997). B. Allan Quigley, Rethinking Literacy Education: The Critical Need for Practice-Based Change. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1997). B. Allan Quigley, Retaining Reluctant Learners in Adult Literacy Programs. (State College, PA: Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy, 1993). B. Allan Quigley & Gary Kuhne, Creating Practical Knowledge: Posing Problems, Solving Problems and Improving Daily Practice Through Action Research. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education series no. 73. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass 1997). Fran Tracy-Mumford, with T. Baker, P. Bristo, I. Companiony, J. Marshall, D. Mathers, Student Retention: Creating Student Success. (National Adult Education Professional Development Consortium, Monograph Number Two, March 1994).

Karen Wikelund, Stephen Reder, & S. Hart-Landsberg, Expanding Theories of Adult Literacy Participation: A Literature Review, Technical Report TR92-1. (Philadelphia, PA: NCAL, 1992).

3 6 Volume 2, Issue 1 Miriam Burt, Center for, Applied Linguistics, Washington DC Hal Hayden, Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory at Brown University, Providence, RI, Robert MacGillivray, South Sanpete School, Manit, UT Andrea Parrella, NCSALL, Cambridge, MA Sharan Ultsch, Old Orchard Beach/Saco Adult Education, Old Orchard Beach, ME Editorial Board Members Needed Responsibilities Review all manuscripts for interest, clarity, and relevance to the target audience Suggest titles, ideas for illustrations, resources for departments, themes, story ideas, authors for upcoming issues Qualifications Current classroom experience in ABE/GED/ESOL, if possible. Expertise in one of the issue themes, including, if possible, familiarity with the literature.

Small stipend provided. Contact Information If you are interested, please contact: Barbara Garner at (617) 482-9485 or via e-mail: [email protected]

37 Focus On Basics Subscription Form

Subscriptions are $8.00 per year (for four issues).

To subscribe, prini and fill out the bottom form and send it in with a check, money or purchase order for the appropriate amount, payable to World Education.

Name: Mailing Address: Organization:

.City: State: Zip:

Phone: E-Mail:

Please check one of the following:

Four issue subscription: I would like to subscribe to Focus on Basics. I have enclosed a check for $8 made out to World Education.

Multiple year subscription: I would like to subscribe to Focus on Basics for

years. I have enclosed a check for $ made out to WorldEducation.

(Discounts are Available for Bulk Orders)

Please send this form and your check to: World Education Focus on Basics ATTN: Kimberly French 44 Farnsworth Street Boston, MA 02210-1211

We publish 4 issues, approximately 24 pages per issue, each year.

Focus on Basics is a publication of the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy(NCSALL), a collaborative project of Harvard Graduate School of Education and World Education. The Center for Literacy Studies at The University of Tennesee, Rutgers University, and Portland State University are NCSALL's partners. NCSALL is funded by the U.S. Department of Education through its Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) and OERI's National Institute forPostsecondary Education, Librariers, and Lifelong Learning.

38 World Education/NCSALLConnecting Research and PracticeVolume 2, Issue B June 1998

THE GED

MCSALL Research Malang The GED: Whom Does It Help? John H. Tyler 6 Project-Based Learning and the GED Anson M. Green

MCSAILL Research Finding Describing Program Practice: A Typology Across Two Dimensions Barbara Garner 5 Retention and the GED The GED: Whom Does It Help? Jamie D. Barron Jones Results from a new approach to studying the economic II 7 benefits of the GED The Spanish GED Anastasia K. Cotton by John H. Tyler and Bertha Cantil-Luján oes acquiring the GED increase the earnings of drop outs? At 20 least 13 different studies in the last decade have examined Changing Approaches aspects of this question. Not one of these studies, however, was to Math really able to separate the impact of the credential from the contributions Cynthia J. Zengler that unobservable factors inherent in GED holders, such as motivation, might make. A quirk of policy enabled me and my colleagues at the 22 Harvard Graduate School of Education, Richard J. Murnane and John B. Focus on Llesearch: Willett, to develop a unique approach to looking at this question. Our MCSALL's results differ considerably from those of our colleagues. We found that, The Process of Passing unlike almost all previous studies, at least for young white drop outs, the GED acquisition of a credential of General Educational Development (GED) can Barbara Garner have a substantial impact on earnings. Continued on page 3 L. 3 9 T1Focus (Don (a0111g0

Focus on Basics is the quarterly publication of the National Welcome to Focuson Basics Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. It presents best practices, current research on adult learning and literacy, and how Dear Readers, research is used by adult basic Since September, 1997, researchers affiliated with the National Center for education teachers, counselors, the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL) have been conducting program administrators, and policy- makers. Focus on Basics is dedicated studies on a variety of topics of concern to the field of adult literacy. I have to connecting research with practice, described some of them in the column Focus on Research, which appears in to connecting teachers with research each issue. The first results are now ready for the public. and researchers with the reality of the classroom, and by doing so, making In our cover article, John Tyler presents his research on the economic adult basic education research more impact of the General Educational Development (GED) credential. Using a relevant to the field. methodology new to GED-impact research, Tyler and his colleagues find that All subscription and editorial the GED has a substantial economic impact for young white GED holders correspondence should be sent to: whose scores hover near the passing line on the tests. That impact is not found Focus On Basics World Education for nonwhites. These findings are both encouraging and troubling. 44 Farnsworth Street Tyler has also been examining the process of passing the GED. Who Boston, MA 02210-1211 passes the first time? How do pass rates change because of the retest option? e-mail address: [email protected] Which tests are the biggest barriers to passing, and does that vary by gender or Focus on Basics is copyrighted, but we race? Tyler's preliminary findings are on page 22. urge readers to photocopy and circulate Thanks to this research, we know more about the patterns of who passes the publication widely. When reprinting articles, please credit Focus on Basics the GED and what impact it has on income. How do people prepare students and the National Center for the for the tests? Anson Green, Jamie Barron Jones, and Cynthia Zengler share with Study of Adult Learning and us processes they went through to develop intake and instructional strategies Literacy. that work. Editor: Barbara Garner The GED is a widely recognized credential, but many people outside of the Associate Editor: Diem Nguyen field of adult literacy do not know that it is offered in French and Spanish as Illustrator: Mary White Arrigo Proofreader: Celia Hartmann well as English. Anastasia Cotton and Bertha Cantü-Luján provide us with a look at the Spanish GED program in Dofia Ana County, New Mexico. Focus on Basics is published by the As you teach the GED, or pre-GED, or English for speakers of other National Center for the Study of Adult languages, do you use materials drawn from the lives of your students, or do Learning and Literacy (NCSALL). NCSALL is funded by the Educational you have a favorite text that works for you? Do the learners in your program Research and Development Centers help set program policy and determine curriculum and materials? NCSALL Program, Award Number R309B60002, as administered by the Office of researchers Victoria Purcell-Gates, Sophie Degener, and Erik Jacobson have Educational Research and developed a 'map' of practices along these two dimensions: the degree of Improvement/National Institute of relevance to the lives of learners of materials, and the degree of participation in Postsecondary Education, Libraries, and Lifelong Learning, U.S. Department of class and program decision making held by learners. A report on their work Education. begins on page 11. We urge you to consider the research findings and their application to The contents of Focus on Basics do not practice that we have presented in this issue. Contact us with your thoughts on necessarily represent the positions or policies of NCSALL or the National the instructional and policy implications they raise. Institute on Postsecondary Education, On a different note, we were greatly saddened to learn that Michael Pritza, Libraries, and Lifelong Learning; World an ABE/GED instructor in the Gilmer Country Reading Program, Ellijay, Education; the Office of Educational Research and Improvement; or the U.S. Georgia, passed away on April 26th. Michael wrote about his experiences Department of Education, and you shifting from individualized instruction to classes and group discussion in the should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. last issue of Focus on Basics. His contributions to the field and to his program are valued; he will be missed. Sincerely, IlL National cente for thesiody ofAdult L .arning and Literacy x54414-,- KIS Barbara G, WOK! 0 EDUCATION Editor

NCSALL June 1998 -53Poeus 0 on 1@l0110,0

The GED... continued from page 1 DOffereng Meghodopogy different states and these states may As I stated above, these findings have different labor markets, cost of Previous research into the come from a study that uses a living, etc. economic benefits of the GED points different methodology than has to relatively inconsequential previously been employed in GED- Dago increases in hourly wages, annual related research. GED holders are a The data we used to conduct this earnings, or employment for GED self-selected, rather than random, study are also unique to GED-related holders relative to drop outs without group. Given this, failure to account research. Past research relied on data a GED. In contrast, our study shows for factors that may cause some drop sets such as High School and Beyond that young white GED holders outs to pursue a GED while other, or the National Longitudinal Study of receive a large boost in annual seemingly similar, drop outs do not Youth, which do not have details on earnings if they acquire a GED. Our results in estimates biased away from GED scores or attempts at passing. treatment group was drop outs age the truth. For example, if it is the Our data were supplied by the GED 16 to 21 who passed the GED with most motivated drop outs who tend Testing Service and the state scores that were at or just above to pursue the GED, then failure to Education Departments in passing: what could be described as account for this will overstate the Connecticut, New York, and Florida. on the margin of These data contain passing. Our basic demographic comparison information and group was drop critical to our outs age 16 to 21 methodology who had the GIII@MRR GED test scores for same marginal drop outs who were scores on the age 16 to 21 in GED but, 1990, the year they because of last attempted the different passing requirements in effect of the GED on drop outs. Our GED exams. We have data from most, their states, did not receive the methodology accounts for this self- but not all, states on these 1990 GED credential. When we compare our selection bias by starting with a data candidates. Notice that everyone in treatment and comparison groups, set of drop outs who have all chosen our data, passers as well as non- we find that the annual earnings of to attempt a GED. We then use the passers, has 'selected' themselves into the white treatment group of GED fact that different states have the pool of drop outs who would like holders, five years after they received different GED passing standards to to have a GED, as indicated by the the credential, are ten to 20 percent compare drop outs who have the fact that they attempted the battery of higher than the annual earnings of same GED exam scores, but who do GED exams. To obtain an outcome the comparison group of drop outs or do not have a GED depending on measure, we worked with who do not possess a GED. This is a the state in which they attempted the programmers at the Social Security very large percentage increase, but it exams. Administration (SSA) to merge these represents an increase in annual With this methodology, our GED data with SSA annual earnings earnings of only about $1,500, treatment group individuals with a data, yielding a data set containing leaving the clear message that the GED is composed of drop outs basic demographic information GED cannot be counted upon as a who are on the margin of passing, (including states where the GED was sole ticket out of poverty. but have a GED because they are in attempted), GED test scores, and We were able to conduct a state with a lower passing standard. annual Social Security-taxable separate analyses for white and Meanwhile, our comparison group earnings. To allow the GED time to nonwhite drop outs, and we find no individuals without a GED is take effect in the labor market, we statistically significant differences composed of drop outs who are on measure annual earnings in 1995, five between the annual earnings of the the margin of passing, but who do years after our sample last attempted treatment and comparison groups of not have a GED because they are in the GED. nonwhite drop outs. I will discuss a state with a higher passing this rather surprising and distressing standard. We are able to account for [IngegwegagOon finding later and offer possible the fact that our treatment and Understanding the mechanisms explanations. comparison individuals come from through which a GED might have an

June 1998 NCSALL 4 1 DTh Focus0 on c>5@1,011Q0

impact on the earnings of drop outs lowest scoring GED holders those market: is necessary to interpret our results who make up our GED treatment o How large are the average properly. There are three. group acquire very little post- human capital or gateway components of the GED? O If preparation for the GED tests secondary education or training, our tends to increase cognitive skills, and estimates have essentially no gateway c. what is the effect of the GED on if we assume that higher levels of component. This leaves only labor the earnings of the random drop out, a sample that includes drop outs who cognitive skills lead to increased market signaling as an explanation would never voluntarily select into earnings, then there is a 'human for the earnings differences we find the GED pool? capital component' to the GED. between GED holders and o what is the effect of the GED on O Many post-secondary education uncredentialed drop outs. Thus, our higher scoring GED holders? and training programs are denied to results are correctly interpreted as the While it is important to point out uncredentialecl drop outs, but open labor market signaling effect of the the limitations to this study, a to GED holders. To the extent that GED on the earnings of young drop discussion of what we cannot say post-secondary education and outs who choose to acquire a GED should not overshadow what we can training lead to increased earnings, and whose skills place them on the say with this research. Namely, that then the GED's function as a margins of passing. we have very credible findings 'gateway' to these programs would indicating that, at least for young result in higher earnings for GED Minim:Mons white drop outs, there is a substantial holders. This study has certain limitations payoff for individuals who chose to O that result from SSA confidentiality Gaining information about the pursue acquiring a GED in 1990 and future productivity potential of job requirements and the methodology whose skills place them on the applicants can be a difficult and we employ. As a result of federal margin of passing. expensive enterprise.,Employers may guidelines designed to protect the value the GED as a signal of confidentiality of individuals, the data EnOloring ResuElits unobservable or costly to observe released to us by the SSA impose Given the interpretation of our productive attributes. If so, then drop three constraints on our study. First, results, we have to ask why outs who use the GED to 'signal' we have to group all individuals who employers would appear to value the higher levels of motivation, maturity, are not white into a single category, GED as a signal of productive commitment to work, or other thus destroying the ability to examine attributes for young, relatively low- productive attributes would tend to whether the GED affects the earnings skilled white drop outs, but not value have higher earnings than drop outs of African-Americans, Hispanics, it as a signal of the potential who lacked the signal. Asians, and other minority groups productivity of similar nonwhite drop As a result of our research differently. We can only speak to the outs? One possible answer to this design, our estimates measure only overall average effect of the GED on question is that for young nonwhite the value of the GED as a labor this nonwhite group. Second, we drop outs, employers may place a market signal. Two factors lead us to cannot explore potential gender higher value on other signals, such as this conclusion. First, since our differences in the effects of the GED language or residential address, than treatment and comparison groups on earnings. And third, we cannot on the GED signal. To be explicit, have the same GED test scores, the examine the impact of the GED for consider this hypothetical situation. two groups are balanced on the older GED holders. In future work, Two young, nonwhite drop outs human capital dimension: on using different data, we will be able apply for the same entry level job. average, the treatment and to retain our methodology and One has a GED, the other does not. comparison groups have the same explore these important racial-ethnic All things observable to the employer skill levels as measured by the GED and gender issues. being equal, we might expect the exams. Thus, any observed Our methodology, which allows GED-holder to have an edge. In this differences in earnings cannot be the us to address heretofore intractable example, however, I assume that all result of differences in underlying selectivity-bias issues, also imposes things are not equal. The GED-holder skills of the two groups; hence, there some limitations on what we can say. in this hypothetical situation speaks is no human capital component in As a direct result of our methodology, English as a second language (this is our estimates of the effect of the GED we can do no more than speculate observable to the employer), and as a on earnings. about the following questions that are result the employer gives the job to Second, since other research we important to a better understanding the uncredentialed native speaker. have conducted indicates that the of how the GED works in the labor This type of behavior on the part of

NCSALL ED 4 ° June 1998 3Focus0 on DICD=011gO employers could lead to the results candidates passed on the first about the same for everyone in the we find. A parallel example would attempt. We also find that regardless sample; it could represent a world adhere for residential address. of race-ethnicity, about the same where half of the individuals in the Another (and not mutually percentage of first-time failers sample get a big boost out of the exclusive) explanation for our attempt a second or third time. If we GED, while the other half get virtually different white / nonwhite results believe that some unknown no benefit; or, it could represent a contrasts the signaling effect of the proportion of these multiple- world where there is a complete credential for two different `types' of attempters would pass as the result of range of impacts associated with GED GED holders. According to this chance high scores, and that this attainment. We can only present the hypothesis, some individuals actively proportion is the same average effect for young white drop seek to obtain a GED to convey a outs and the average effect for young level of maturity or commitment to nonwhite drop outs. As a result, any work, and some GED holders tend to one piece of anecdotal evidence as to acquire the credential primarily as a how the GED works in someone's 'quasicompulsory' part of some larger community may or may not fit the program such as Job Training story that our estimates present. This Partnership Act (JTPA) training is the limitation of quantitative programs, or Job Corps activities. It research: we cannot say what will may be that the GED conveys very happen to any one individual. This different information when garnered across compares to the limitation of in these two different ways, with racial- qualitative research, which is the employers discounting the 'GED ethnic groups, inability to generalize findings to the signal' when it is coupled with public then the result would be a higher population of interest. Thus, each assistance programs. If this proportion of nonwhite candidates type of research has its own strengths hypothesis were true, and if who have a GED as a result of and weaknesses. Ideally, both types substantially more nonwhite than chance, relative to white drop outs. of research are used to inform policy white GED holders obtained their Furthermore, it is logical that most of and practice, keeping in mind what credential in a quasi-compulsory these 'false positive' GED holders each can and cannot say. manner, then this could explain our (drop outs who have a GED as a results. Our best estimates for the result of chance high scores) have Paley OmplIzallons percentage of 1990-minted GED scores that place them in the `margin- Our research finds that holders who may have acquired their of-passing' zone that we use to employers value and use the GED as credential in conjunction with a construct our treatment and a signal of skills and attitudes they public assistance program are 44 comparison groups. Under this consider to be important in jobs. The percent for nonwhites and only 11 scenario, it is plausible that over time message for policy here is that, at percent for whites. While these employers might tend to discount the least for young white drop outs, the numbers do not prove the signaling value of the GED for GED is serving an important function hypothesis, they at least work in a nonwhites whose skills are relatively for both employers and drop outs. It direction that lends credence to this low, which could explain the white- is a relatively easily accessible and explanation. nonwhite differences we find in the inexpensive way for drop outs with Finally, other work we have data. certain attributes to signal to clone suggests a third explanation employers that they are a good (see page 22). Using data on GED Ikhy' L3e0Orriry employment risk. Put another way, in candidates from Connecticut and A logical question is: How do the absence of more complete Florida, we find that a substantially these results fit my experience? The information, using the GED as a larger proportion of young white important point to keep in mind is signal is a cost-effective way for GED candidates pass on the first that any one person's particular employers to chose among drop out attempt than do African-American or experiences would only represent a job applicants. The puzzling lack of a Hispanic candidates. In these data, tiny fraction of our data. That is, our signaling effect we find for young about 75 percent of white drop outs estimates represent the average nonwhite GED holders is a critical pass on the first attempt, while only impact of the GED over the nation. question. We cannot provide further about 60 percent of the Hispanic and This average could represent a world answers to this question with our 45 percent of the African-American where the impact of the GED is current data, but we are already

June 1998 is3CSALL

- 4 3 --1Focus0 on 0 0EO, working to secure more appropriate data that will be used to address this Project-Based Learning and line of inquiry. Even for white drop outs, the GED however, the elements of good news contained in our findings must be leavened with the fact that the by Ans© Green large percentage effects we find translate into relatively small real earnings gains of only $1,500 per year. Young GED holders have very few years ago, I was encouraging students to work low average annual earnings to start hired to teach a General together toward their academic and with, and so a $1,500 per year Educational Development life goals. My quiet classroom began increase appears as a large (GED) class for public assistance to give way to an excited, open percentage gain. Thus, we should recipients in San Antonio, Texas. I community of learners. By remember that while the GED can had been teaching Western connecting class activities to my lead to important earnings gains, by humanities classes to freshmen students' world a world where itself the credential is not a route out and sophomores at Florida State poverty, domestic violence, abuse, of poverty. University and had no training in and brushes with the law are a teaching under-prepared adults. commonality I was able to Al©the th©r Though I could tell that the increase their motivation to learn. John H. Tyler is Assistant Professor of multilevel nature of the class Though their ages, educational Education, Economics, and Public Policy would make the lecture approach I backgrounds, and race varied, their at Brown University. He completed this used in the university unworkable, shared experiences became the basis work for NCSALL while finishing his doctorate at the Harvard Graduate I was most comfortable with a for instruction. School of Education. Tyler taught middle teacher-centered classroom. I In September, 1996, Project school mathematics for eight years. adopted an approach where FORWARD invited me to join a cadre students silently studied individual of adult education teachers to Full Report Ayable subjects of the GED test using explore innovative teaching The research report upon which this commercial GED textbooks, and I techniques. A major objective was to article is based is available from NCSALL for $10. To order, write to NCSALL provided individual instruction implement a student project in our Reports, World Education, 44 Farnsworth This was somewhat successful in class. Though class projects seemed Street, Boston, MA 02210-1211; or e-mail moving high-level students through like an exciting idea, I never thought [email protected]. the GED, yet I felt stymied in my that they could be a viable means of efforts to motivate and educate those producing the more defined skills who required more remediation. needed to pass GED tests. Our initial Repuin.D pernizeion Months of diligent work writing meeting with Project FORWARD Feel free to reprint articles from our essays from GED textbook prompts Director Barbara J. Baird and publication, but please credit Focus on or studying a science book often left Basics and NCSALL, and send a copy of education consultant Heide Spruck the reprint to NCSALL, World Education, them frustrated. In addition, I felt that Wrigley was spent defining the theory 44 Farnsworth Street, Boston, MA most students who left class, with or and discussing methods of 02110-1211. Thanks! without their GEDs, still lacked the implementation. 2 While the self-esteem, motivation, and approach seemed exciting, I had Bock [Issues teamwork skills needed to get off reservations about how a project Research public assistance and enter the could be tied to the GED Reading Multilevel Classroom workforce. competencies and how my students, Content-Based Instruction My frustration was relieved who are often very 'test driven,' Learner Motivation when I was introduced to the Project would react to the idea. To order back issues of Focus on FORWARD life skills curriculum from Basics, $2.00 a copy, please contact El Paso Community College. 1 The Our ETV Proied Diem Nguyen at World Education via e-mail: [email protected] or curriculum stresses reading and Students in my open-entry class telephone at (617) 482-9485.4. writing activities that foster must attend class 25 hours a week to confidence and motivation by receive their welfare benefits; thus

NCSALL 4 4 June 1998 0 on D1CDIOE0 we provide five hours of instruction others' work and commented that They persisted, however, and, as per day, five days a week. As 'test- they enjoyed debating and arguing ideas began to come together, more driven' as my students can be, they over points of grammar rather than and more students began to provide rarely studied for their GED tests five using worksheets to gain the input. hours a day. After some diligent work knowledge. Since the handbook was On the suggestion of Jennifer's in the morning, they were usually designed for and by JOBS students, case manager, we found a contact at a less productive in the afternoons and the class really began to grow as a local junior high school who was a turned to reading magazines, community. Students realized that counselor. The counselor came to chatting, and even sleeping if they they had common hardships and hear my students' intentions and left had spent a long night up with a sick concerns; new friendships very interested in hosting our child. When I undertook this new developed, and students enjoyed presentation. The meeting was a true teaching initiative for Project working together to solve new watershed. My class began to truly FORWARD, I was hoping that we problems. When we turned from the could make the afternoons more project to more traditional GED productive by using them for project work, I sensed new motivation and "Students time. excitement in the classroom. Much to my surprise, my class When we finally received the realized that they was very excited when I introduced bound copies of our student the idea of spending our afternoons handbook after a brief summer dcommon working on a project. I think part of break, only two students remained in my success in turning them from our open-entry open-exit class who hardships and more traditional work lay in the way I had been involved in creating it. The introduced the idea. Rather than booklets made a strong impression concerns; new telling the class we were going to do on the new students, and they projects in the afternoon, I asked became eager to "one up" the frienil \hips them if they had any ideas that might previous class. I was pleased by the improve the class and add some motivation and had high hopes for developed, and spice to our usually slow afternoons. our next project. I briefly mentioned the idea of students enjoyed working on a class project and at the MOs Year's Proiee same time passed around a book of This year, my class took on a working together student poems compiled by another project that moved them from class. All but two of my 20 students enriching their environment in the were interested, and ideas on what classroom to reaching out and to solve new we could do began to emerge. becoming actively engaged in their That year, my class produced a community: a tall order, but one that problems. handbook for students designed to evolved naturally within the class. help new learners on public Last September, one student, see the potential for the project. A assistance feel more comfortable Jennifer, suggested that our class give counselor, who, when my students coming back to school. The idea younger students advice on the had been in high school, might have came from two new students who dangers of dropping out of school. been a figure to be avoided, was now suggested we make a one-stop Dropping out and the unexpected inviting them to use their experiences resource outlining Aid to Families pregnancy that often preceded it as a positive teaching tool for others. with Dependent Children / Job were experiences that most of my Two of my students had dropped out Opportunity and Basic Skills Training students had in common. I saw a of this same school, making the (JOBS) requirements and containing perfect opportunity to develop a significance of the project even more information on the GED test. 3 powerful project. The potential for profound. The project was a great success building self-esteem, teamwork, and In class, we spent anywhere from for all; students excitedly compiled a communication skills seemed 20 minutes to a few hours a day useful handbook, and I was pleased limitless; plus, the project would working on the details of the project; by the amount of quality essay demand many academic skills. the remainder of the class time was writing and editing skills gained in Unfortunately, only about five of my spent focused on specific GED work. the process. Students edited each 16 students seemed really interested. Some days, when attendance was

June 1998 0 NCSALL 4 5 c73Pocus 0 on @Ialig0

poor or students felt a pressing need students at the Anson Jones Middle A Student's Story to cram for the GED tests, we did not School. Our presentations, entitled by Linda Yzaguirre work on the project at all. We "Something to Think About," focused assigned several students to be in on the extreme hardships and almost The biggest mistake I ever charge of particular sections of the insurmountable obstacles my made was dropping out of school. I project so that when someone was students faced after dropping out of thought going out and working absent or left the class, progress on school. They included a question and were more important, but all I got that section could continue. We kept answer session on the realities of by dropping out was working an informal list of who was working dropping out of school, a budgeting minimum wage jobs, hanging out on what and found it to be a game that emphasized the with gangs, and eventually getting successful way to manage the work. impossibility of making it on arrested. I spent time in jail and am The project seemed to be well minimum wage with no diploma, and currently serving a ten year underway when we ran into a glitch concluded with personal testimony probation sentence. that brought it to a halt. Before from my students. I decided to do our "Something Thanksgiving break we received a The presentations were a great to Think About" presentation phone message confirming that we success. My students were because I thought that if young had approval to do a presentation, congratulated by counselors, students heard my story and all the but that the topic of pregnancy could mistakes I made, they might think not be brought up. I tried to contact about what they are doing now and the counselor for clarification, but how it will effect them later. I never was told she was already out of her did. office for the break. In our presentation, I wanted Even though my students range to stress how important it is to in age from their late teens to graduate and go to college. A high mid-30s, early pregnancy had been a school diploma is no longer major contributor to all of their loss of enough to get a good job. I feel education and opportunity. If they better knowing that maybe I helped could not candidly advise students on someone from making the same this point, how could they truly feel mistakes I made. Maybe by hearing like they were making a difference? my life story, they will decide that Despondent, we left for Thanksgiving they don't want to take the same break. The next week our class road I did. resumed, and, as I expected, work on teachers, and, most importantly, the Since the project ceased. My students had middle school students themselves. doing the lost the impetus to continue. Imagine a scene where 70 presentation, Fortunately, I reached the 12 to 14 year old boys, many of I now have counselor the following week and whom are heading for gangs, are more received some encouraging news. struck silent by a tale of abuse, confidence in The controversy lay in the way we alienation, and abandonment told by myself. I'm treated the subject of pregnancy. As a young woman only a few years now in junior long as the topic remained in the older than themselves. My class had college and personal stories of my students, it was made a significant impression on a feel like I can acceptable. We were, however, not usually impenetrable group. do anything I allowed to direct questions to the Following the presentations, my put my mind to. students that pertained to premarital students were overflowing with sex or contraception. Though it was confidence and actively critiqued abourG..Ghe AA.ovhar an added challenge, the stipulation their performance, while discussing Linda Yzaguirre was a student of the allowed me to involve the class in a what they wanted to do next time. Culebra Road JOBS class in 1997 and is very real critical analysis of a subject They demanded we schedule more currently attending San Antonio that is still controversial in the South. College, where she is studying presentations at other schools. The computer programming. When she's After several more weeks of few students who had preferred to be not in school, she likes to spend time dedicated rehearsal, my class backstage participants, facilitating the with her son Brandon. delivered a series of presentations to presentation, suddenly gained the lis5CSALL (Di 4 6 June 1998 Focus0 on D confidence to volunteer their stories. and still the only woman in the My class worked like never program, Pat has been appointed A Student's Story before toward perfection, probably shop foreman over 28 men in her by Margarita Roman because they were addressing issues class. Accomplishments like this are in which they were the experts. They truly tangible examples of the Participating in this also recognized the need to connect intrinsic qualities gained from project presentation has made me become successfully with the students. In a work. Relying solely on the GED to a better person in school. It has also sense, they were creating their own ensure success is not realistic. A helped me speed up in all skills. curriculum to teach others. As they strong sense of personal The presentation I did with the wrote their autobiographies, responsibility, a solid self-imae, and group was progress for myself and rehearsed them in front of a good interpersonal skills are a vital also helped others. I participated by borrowed video camera, and rewrote addition to the credential. By letting students know how difficult them again and again, they working as a team, my students were it was for me since dropping out of developed the critical analysis and able to turn past mistakes into a school. It was not a good decision. writing skills needed for the GED positive learning experience for My story was part of my life. I essay test. They were writing about themselves and others 4 . advised students on the importance their lives, so they went at it with a This project was ambitious; of staying in school. I shared my passion that a textbook or exam however, implementing project- education and how I've progressed could never inspire. based activities in class need not be in the past year. I shared how I've While creating the budgeting so intensive. Students find it easy to managed 12 years of my life raising game, students gained solid math write about their families. Using my three kids with the help of the skills in truly contextual learning. inexpensive three-ring binders and government, which won't be there What started out to be a simple photographs from home, students for me much longer. I spoke on process of adding and subtracting can create and compile how I've budgeted my assistance paychecks and debts became a autobiographies. Writing comes more through the month with three kids. lengthy' lesson in finance easily and students gain the I also shared what it's like returning supplemented with GED textbook marketable skills of editing, laying to school and beginning learning work in percentages and decimals. out, and organizing a text that is their again, building up new skills, and Real-life problem solving entered the own. Pooling the diversity of the also building up self-esteem and class: What exactly was the F.I.C.A. class into a peer-edited cookbook, a positive attitudes towards tax, and how do we figure it? What collection of student education. are fixed and flexible payments? Is autobiographies, or a letter to the The presentation was very cable TV really a necessity? They local transit authority to request interesting. Our group had all the debated what to include and how to better bus service to your program attention of the students. It felt figure costs, figuring and re-figuring can provide a rich forum for building great having so much attention. until a consensus was found and the a tight community in the classroom, Also our group had a lot of presentation planned. in addition to working on skills questions from the students at Besides academic remediation, needed for the GED. Anson Jones Middle School. I feel my students started gaining the self- like it was very successful. esteem, motivation, and group The Teacher's nolhe interaction skills necessary for Project-based learning allows ALb© *te Aalrg'hor success in the workplace. Pat, a students to become actively engaged Margarita Roman is a 28-year-old single mother. She likes to spend lots of mother of four, successfully entered a in their learning experience. The time with her three kids, Ernest Jr., highly competitive air conditioning instructor takes a back seat while Alfonso, and Concepcion Margarita and heating program taught by Texas students initiate, facilitate, evaluate, Diaz. She enjoys eating out on A & M University just days after our and produce a project that has weekends and going out to recreation presentations. Though very meaning to thern. Instead of creating parks. She also enjoys helping her kids motivated on her own, Pat and directing exercises for passive with their homework, which has helped them improve in the second nine weeks commented that working on the students, instructors become of school, and they also have perfect project helped boost her confidence, coaches, facilitators, and sounding attendance. She enjoys reading books making the transition to a completely boards for student ideas. As a with them. male vocational classroom less teacher, I constantly listen for issues daunting. Now, several months later that really engage the class. This

June 1998 NCSALL 4 7 0 on D@ionco

conscious listening helps me identify without fear of criticism or judgment. in San Antonio, Texas. For the past two key issues that are important to my Only then can the instructor locate real years, he has been a member of the students. I then use these issues as issues of importance to build on in Project FORWARD Master Teacher Initiative. He also teaches English at catalysts for student activities or class. For the instructor, the challenges Texas Lutheran University and projects. 5 Rather than trying to teach lie not so much in carrying out the Humanities at San Antonio College. students how to be critical thinkers actual project but in being able to E-mail is welcome at: by providing readings and writing assume effectively the role of mentor [email protected]. samples on the Louisiana Purchase and coach rather than dispenser of or cellular mitosis from GED solutions. Being actively involved in About the Artist textbooks, I take themes that are the salient issues of the class and then Cindy Barrientes , a 25-year-old mother important to them and help them teasing out what is evocative and of two, attends GED classes on Culebra Road. After getting her GED, she plans to create activities that develop strong meaningful to the students is crucial. attend San Antonio College to become an thinking and language skills. Since Distilling these into a class project, occupational therapist. In her spare time, the focus is relevant, learning though, usually takes care of itself. she likes to get on her treadmill and work becomes natural, unforced, and Students are experts in their own up a sweat.4. engaging. Students work, not simply reality; the biggest challenge is letting to pass a test but to create change or them guide you through it. sp. HikniaD Board add refined meaning to their lives. This approach means I had to Ertdnotes issue B: June 1199 look at my classroom in a different 1 Project FORWARD is an 80-lesson life Miriam Burt, Center for Applied skills curriculum funded through a special light. When I began teaching, I saw Linguistics, Washington DC projects grant from the Texas Education Hal Hayden, Northeast and Islands talking, interaction, and commotion Agency. For information on obtaining the Regional Educational Laboratory in the class due to outside issues as curriculum on disk, contact The Texas at Brown University, Providence, RI deviation from learning. I felt safe Center for Adult Literacy and Learning Jami Bentley, Green River Adult Learning Center, Green River, WY with teacher-guided activities that Clearinghouse at 1-(800)-441-7323. 2 See chapter two of Heide Spruck Wrigley Gladys Geiser, Wayne County Joint produced quiet, individualized and Gloria Guth's Bringing Literacy To Life: Vocational School District, learning. Channeling students' Issues and Options in Adult ESL Literacy Dalton, OH Marti Giese, Woodson Adult High School, energy and concerns into a quiet (San Diego: Dominie Press Inc., 1992) for a Fairfax, VA classroom was often difficult. Now, I thorough account of a variety of classroom Sharon Ultsch, Old Orchard Beach/Saco capitalize on this energy and approaches that emphasize student Adult Education, Old Orchard participation and meaningful learning. Elsa Beach, ME information and use it as raw Roberts Auerbach's Making Meaning, material for student work. Making Change (McHenry, IL: Center for Board Members Needed Furthermore, students who once Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems Inc., Responsibilities expected straightforward test 1992) is also indispensable on these points. Review manuscripts for interest, clarity, preparation, but usually dreaded it, 3 This student project, "RULER," and relevance to the target audience find the open, participatory accompanied by a "How To" guide, is Suggest titles, ideas for illustrations, available through The Texas Center for themes, story ideas, authors for upcoming environment more conducive to Adult Literacy and Learning Clearinghouse issues learning. Students who had difficulty at 1-(800)-441-7323. writing half a page on a regular GED 4 The project, "Something to Think About," Qualifications topic were amazed to find has been published on the Internet at Current classroom experience in ABE/GED/ESOL, if possible themselves writing four or five pages http://members.aol.com/CulebraMom /jrhigh.html. Print copies are available from Expertise in the issue theme, including, of analysis on their own lives for our The Texas Center for Adult Literacy and if possible, familiarity with the literature project. Math work, which often Learning Clearinghouse at Rewards seemed oppressive, was eagerly 14800)-441-7323. Small stipend tackled for our project because it 5 Auerbach (note 2), page 43. Chapter four A free one year subscription to truly seemed relevant. of this book, "Ways In: Finding Student Focus on Basics Themes," provides some useful tips on I feel that much of the success of identifying issues important to your Contact irtformoOion project-based learning activities rests students. If you are interested in serving on the on the creation of a comfortable, board, please contact Barbara Garner at risk-free classroom environment. A© the Author World Education via e-mail: Students must feel they can discuss [email protected], or telephone: Anson M. Green is the instructor for the (617) 482-9485. their lives, beliefs, and mistakes Culebra Road JOBS class for Northside ISD

RICSALL June 1998 4 8 0 on D Ca011100

IL,Ofe-Congentuall / Deconte2gua0 The authors justify examining this dimension by citing theorists who claim that the distinction between life-contextual and life- decontextual appears to be important in light of research showing that students learn most efficiently when instructional materials reflect and Describing Program Practice: A Typology incorporate their prior experience (Fingeret, 1991). Classroom activities Across Two Dimensions using themes taken from the lives of adult learners have been seen to by Barbara Garner facilitate their acquisition of literacy. Adult literacy students have a limited amount of time for attending classes f the adult literacy nature of adult literacy programs. and studying, want skills that they programs participating At the very least, according to the can use in the context of their lives in a recent NCSALL study, researchers, this study provides a (Freire, 1993; Office of Technology 730 percent can be described as data-based description of the Assessment, 1993), and often express using activities and materials array of adult literacy program a desire to use materials geared that are not related to their models currently operating. toward their day-to-day experience students' lives and as teacher Adult literacy programs can be as adults and parents (Nwakeze & directed and controlled rather typed along a number of relevant Seiler, 1993). than collaborative. The purpose dimensions, and Purcell-Gates, of the study was to create a Degener, and Jacobson make no typology of adult literacy claim that those they chose for this programs across the United typology are the only, the most States that describes the relevant, or even the most important distribution of programs along dimensions that could be used. They those two dimensions looked at two dimensions of relevance of materials and instruction contextualized / control of decisions and not to decontextualized and dialogic / test the efficacy of different types monologic because of their of programs, explain researchers interest in the possible relationships Victoria Purcell-Gates, Sophie between these dimensions of adult Degener, and Erik Jacobson, of literacy instruction and increased the Harvard Graduate School of use of print in the actual lives of Use of materials and activities Education. The researchers hope participants over time. The first drawn from the learners' lives is that this information will be dimension describes how much supported by research that helpful to those who may hold program content and materials documents the powerful role of preconceived ideas about how reflect the specific needs and context in learning, the researchers widespread certain practices are, sociocultural context of the learner note. For example, some workplace or about the scope of the with regards to real-life literacy literacy programs teach literacy skills challenge if they are concerned functions. In other words, how as they are needed within specific with changing the status quo. relevant are the content and work contexts. Compared to Furthermore, for policy makers, materials to the learners' lives? The programs that concentrated on more funders, and others concerned second dimension reflects how 'general' literacy, those that with program outcomes, this involved the learner is in decision incorporated job-related materials study provides information making with regards to the activities were associated with larger increases regarding the variety in the of the classroom and programs. in both job-related and general

June 1998 INSCSALL 4 9 0 on D ZIEZ literacy (Sticht, 1989). Once 'life- acquisition of literacy (Lytle, 1994), contextual' activities and materials are the research team says. The studies mass produced and mass prescribed, that have been done have shown that however, according to Purcell-Gates, students' learning is enhanced when they become increasingly distanced they are active partners (Office of or decontextualized from the Technology Assessment, 1993) lives of the learners, in ways that may involved in decision making about reduce their effectiveness. They can their education program (Brizius & be used inappropriately. Foster, 1987). Fingeret (1991) notes that curriculum development is DOullog5¢ / Mono[logic tantamount to teaching, and Purcell-Gates, Degener, and curriculum development and Jacobson define dialogic education as teaching depend upon a knowledge individual tutoring, English for including the student as a participant of students' cultures. In dialogic speakers of other languages (ESOL), and partner in developing the goals, practice, the students can educate the workplace literacy, family literacy activities, and procedures of the class instructors about their cultures and programs, library-based programs, and program. This is in contrast to the histories. Given the variety of and prison education programs. more typical practice wherein cultures represented in adult basic Respondents filled out a one-page students cede authority and power to education classrooms these days, this questionnaire that contained nine the teacher or program structure for education may be crucial (NCAL, questions, some of which had decisions regarding their learning. 1995), according to the researchers. subquestions: What is the structure of They refer to Freire (1993), who calls your program? Whole classes or this latter type of education a Proilea individual tutoring? How often do 'banking' model, where the student is A total of 271 adult literacy classes meet? How many students do the passive recipient of the teacher's programs, distributed across the U.S., you serve? Do you consciously knowledge. The students retain their were represented in the typology follow a model? (e.g., Kenan, Freire, status as objects, according to Freire, study. A wide variety of programs Laubach, etc.); What are the explicit and this precludes real learning or were included: adult literacy classes, goals of your program? What are the any significant changes students' goals? What in their lives. To be Figure 1:Distribution of responses across the dimensional grid. learning activities do you truly liberatory, Freire use in each class: please give maintains, "education at least one example. What must begin with the materials do you use? What solution of the teacher- texts are your students student contradiction, reading and writing? To by reconciling the what degree do students poles of the influence decisions about contradiction so that course content and both are classroom activities? How do simultaneously you measure the success of teachers and students" your program? How are you (p. 53). funded? Can you The research team characterize the feels that a distinction demographics of your between dialogic and student population? monologic is important The team coded the for more than political responses along the two and philosophical dimensions, reflecting how reasons. Little research life-contextualized the has been done on the literacy work was judged to influence of the be and how dialogic the structure of literacy program was judged to be. instruction on students' They developed an axis on

INICSALL 5 0 June 1998 --D-3FocusEZEZ0 on which to chart the responses (see and students are in charge of their assigned. The fewest number of Figure 1). The first continuum, along own learning. A somewhat programs, two percent (fl = 6), fell the x-axis, measured how monologic program was one in within the life-decontextualized, contextualized or decontextualized to which students' goal, interests, and dialogic dimensional space. Looking the learners' lives a program is. needs are taken into account when at the two dimensions separately, Programs that use no skill books and creating course content; teachers and programs were distributed differently have no set curricula, using all students periodically reflect on goals along the two continua (see Figures 2 authentic materials, were considered and whether or not the program is and 3). highly life contextualized. Programs meeting them. In highly monologic that use some published texts, mostly programs, student have little or no Conclusions authentic texts, and concentrate on input into course content. The researchers admit that typing real-life issues were considered programs on the basis of a one-page somewhat life-contextualized. DecongenWeg[lized / questionnaire has validity problems; Programs that are focused on skills, Monollogic they had no opportunity to visit any and tend to use published texts yet The researchers found that the of the programs. They also note that may occasionally use authentic texts majority of the programs fell within the results are limited to those were considered somewhat life the dimensional space of life- programs with representatives who decontextualized. Programs that have decontextualized and monologic. A chose to reply. a set curriculum that focuses on skills total of 73 percent of the programs Despite those limitations, the and phonics were considered highly (12 =197) were judged to consist of authors claim that this study is a first life-decontextualized activities and materials somewhat to attempt to document systematically The second continuum, along highly decontextualized, and these the distribution of some descriptive the y-axis, measured how monologic programs were somewhat to highly features of adult literacy programs in or dialogic a program was. A highly teacher-directed. Programs judged as the U.S. The dimensions they chOse dialogic program was one in which life-contextual and teacher-directed for the typology are theoretically students work with teachers to create made up the next most common derived as potentially crucial to the course and are involved in all dimensional category with 17 percent outcomes for participants in adult aspects of the program. A somewhat (n = 45). This was followed by the literacy programs. Thus, they point dialogic program was one in which dimensional space of life-contextual, out, the typology has theoretical as student input is critical, students work dialogic, to which eight percent (u = well as practical potential for future with the teacher to create curriculum, 23) of the responding programs were studies. Continued on page 14

Figure 2: Distribution of all responses along the Figure 3: Distribution of all responses along the clialogic / life-contextualizecl / life-decontexwalized continuum. monologic continuum.

180 180

160 160

140 Ej Highly Life-Decontextualized 140 0 Highly Monologic D Somewhat Life-Decontextualized 0 Somewhat Monologic 120 0 Somewhat Life-Contextualized 120 0 Somewhat Dialogic 0 Highly Life-Contextualized Highly Dialogic 100 1 co

80 80

60

40 40

20 20

0 0

June 1998 NCSALL 51 C73Focus 0 on (aZOCO

Purcell-Gates, Degener, and monologic. Students worked only Rethinking adult learner assessment." Jacobson reflect that it is not with texts and materials written Literacy Practitioner 2, 1-2, 6-8. particularly surprising that most of exclusively to teach isolated skills; National Center for Adult Literacy (1995). the responding programs were they were assigned to them by Adult literacy: The next generation. (NCAL Technical Report TR95-01). judged to be more life- teachers responding to assessments Philadelphia: National Center on Adult decontextualized and monologic. and to state or district guidelines. Literacy. The model of literacy instruction Purcell-Gates and her team state Nwakeze, P.C., & Seiler, L.H. (1993). wherein students are taught to read that these results will inform a study "Adult literacy programs: What students and to write from skills-based on the relationships between program say." Adult Learning 5, 17-18, 24. materials, and where the teacher is characteristics and change in out-of- Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress (1993), Adult literacy and considered the expert and the classroom literacy activity by adult new technologies: Tools for a director of this learning, is deeply participants. The team's hypothesis is lifetime. (OTA-SET-550). Washington, embedded, they point out. Despite that programs whose content centers D.C.: U.S. Government Printing calls from adult educators for more around real life literacy events, or Office. programs rooted in the realities, potential ones, and whose content is Sticht, T.G. (1989). "Adult literacy expertise, and interests of the reflective and respectful of the input education." Review of Research in Education 15, 59-96. learners (Auerbach, 1995; Fingeret, and participation of the participants, 1987; Freire, 1993), only a small will result in increased reading and Full Report Avcailcable percentage of programs now in writing in the lives of the students The research report upon which this operation and captured by this study compared to those that do not reflect article is based is available from NCSALL reflect those characteristics. these characteristics. It is absolutely for $10. To order, write to NCSALL Reports, World Education, 44 Farnsworth Noting that most of the programs possible, however, they admit, that Street, Boston, MA 02210-1211; or e-mail clustered around the middle of the this hypothesis is either wrong, or [email protected]. two-dimensional grid of simplistic, and that the program that characteristics, the researchers point results in the most change in reading out that the results may be and writing by the students in their comforting to those who worry about out-of-class lives will include a 'extremism.' They suggest that many balance of life-contextualized and teachers and program directors may isolated skill work determined more feel the competing pulls of the two by the teacher than by the students. How can you get it? ends of the continua represented in With the results of this survey, they Focus on Basics is distributed free this study. Most of the programs that have a context for describing through most state ABE systems to used materials and activities from the programs on these theoretically many ABE programs. It is also actual lives of the students retained derived dimensions. cp. available on the Internet: But if you would like to were used, by whom, and when. And References Auerbach, E.R. (1995). "Deconstructing receive your own copy promptly, many of the programs that relied on the discourse of strengths in family please subscribe. published adult literacy materials and literacy."Journal of Reading Behavior 27, You can subscribe at a rate of four skill books made some attempts to 643-661. issues/$8 by sending a check or Brizius, J., & Foster, S. (1987). Enhancing respond to the individual goals and money order for the appropriate adult literacy: A policy guide. Washington, needs of their students. Only a very amount, payable to World Education. few programs attempted to take D.C.:The Council of State Policy and We also accept purchase orders but Planning Agencies. are not able to process credit card Freirean theory to heart and create Fingeret, A. (1987). Directions in programs rooted in the lives of the orders.We publish four issues, 24 ethnographic adult literacy research. pages an issue, each year. Multiple participants and directed largely by Papers presented at the Thirty-second year orders are encouraged. their input and choices. It is worth Annual Convention of the International noting, however, they say, that many Reading Association, Anaheim, CA. Please send your check, money more programs fell into the opposite Fingeret, A. (1991). "Meaning, experience, order, or purchase order to: literacy." Adult Basic Education 1, 1-11. quadrant of the two-dimensional Diem Nguyen Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogy of the Focus on Basics grid. These programs were Oppressed. New York: Garland Publishing World Education considered to be highly Inc. 44 Farnsworth Street decontextualized and highly Lytle, S. (1994). "Living literacy: Boston, MA 02210-1211

lisSCSALL June 1998 5 2 1-3Foctss0 on CI5(aZETI

keep a journal, field notes, and pRetention and the GED anecdotal records. The Ilulgervengion by Jamie D. Barron Jones The GED class I targeted to study was located in a rural community in the mountains of southwestern Pennsylvania. A total of 27 students aving spent 12 years as to stay in class, I thought, the were involved, including a a Director of Social Work problems would have to be identified comparison group of ten who Programs by day and a early on, before the students became attended class from September to GED instructor by night, I have overwhelmed and quit the program. I December and did not participate in long been aware that my students felt I had to find a way to elicit and the retention invervention, and 17 face serious barriers in reaching address the concerns that could new students who did. The students their goals. Just entering a school prevent my students from succeeding ranged in age from teenagers to building is stressful for some. More in class. senior citizens, 20 were female, seven than once I have walked through male, all were white. They worked the parking lot to invite potential Adion Research independently or in groups studying a students, anxious about returning At a teachers' meeting one full range of GED subjects. Classes to schoo4 inside. I have afternoon, my supervisor suggested I met two evenings a week for three manipulated every facet of the join an action research group to hours a night. learning environment and explore strategies to address this My program does not have an curriculum that I could to make issue. Action research is conducted intake center. All orientation and classes user friendly. Students within the confines of the classroom, testing are done in the classroom by complained that they could not sit by the teacher. I would choose the the teacher. Those who are interested comfortably at desks designed for question to be researched and the in joining a class simply walk in high school students, so I changed data collection measures, and the during any scheduled class session the location of the classes to results would be applicable to my and begin. I frequently receive a conference rooms equipped with concerns. I joined the group. phone call from the program large tables and comfortable For my action research project I administrator before a new student chairs. I developed a thorough decided that, when new students arrives, but often learners read orientation and goal-planning came to class, I would interview them. recruitment posters or learn about the program to introduce students to I would attempt to discover why they classes via word of mouth, and arrive classes, answer any questions, and had dropped out of high school, how unannounced. allay their concerns as to what dropping out had affected them, and Prior to conducting this research, was expected of them. I also what goals they had for the future. A I typically chatted with new students individualized my curriculum as few weeks later I would have them about their motivations for attending much as possible to target student elaborate upon this in essays. I would classes and their future goals. needs. The students seemed use this information to refer students Although I encouraged a free genuinely pleased with the classes to appropriate social services. I also exchange, because it was our first and their progress, yet hoped that by demonstrating that I meeting I could not elicit much absenteeism and retention was interested in their lives, I would information. My first intervention in problems persisted. In 1996, by the build stronger bonds with my the action research project involved Christmas break, I was students. My formal research question reformulating this talk into an in- experiencing drop-out rates as became "Will retention be improved depth fact-finding session. Taking high as 60 percent. by using interviews and creative new students one-by-one into a Consequently, during the break, writing assignments to identify separate classroom, I began with I consulted 20 students. I discovered barriers to attendance and providing general questions about why they had an array of problems and concerns referrals to services to address these dropped out and were now enrolling. that affected their classroom barriers?" To document the research, I I asked about the positive aspects of attendance, nearly all of which had would take notes on interviews with their lives, such as families, work, nothing to do with academic ability. students, collect writing assignments, hobbies, and interests, taking notes If students with such problems were maintain attendance records, and throughout. I spent a considerable

NCSALL 5 3 June 1998 1Focus0 on g011gO amount of time on goals and in problem was magnified when I found drop out and then to attend GED reviewing the challenges and support myself with two children barely a classes. Based upon what I learned systems they could expect to year apart in age. My situation landed from these essays and from encounter. The interviews varied in me at the welfare office, someplace I conversations in class, I referred length from ten to 20 minutes. The had never pictured myself going. It is students to a variety of agencies, technique proved somewhat helpful, quite amazing where the choices you including the county assistance office, but, since we were just beginning our make and the path you choose take a local day care center, the Office of teacher-student relationship, the you...The GED classes are doing Vocational Rehabilitation, the Job students were still not all that wonders for me. I feel a sense of Center, medical and vision services, forthcoming. accomplishing something more than Victim Services, drug and alcohol After students had attended four just collecting a welfare check every rehabilitation, and job training. classes and we had established a two weeks. It is a wonderful feeling Sometimes I provided the application rapport, I invited them to complete a to have...We do things in our lives at forms, assisted in their completion, writing assignment about themselves. times that seem right at the moment, and ensured that they were delivered. I explained that I was very interested failing to assess the consequences In other cases, I made phone calls on in their success and wanted to be they may lead to in the future. the behalf of the students. My aware of their concerns. I asked them Dropping out of high school is a experience as a social worker stood to respond in writing to the following choice, and does affect different me in good stead, but all the questions. "People drop out of high people in many different ways. I information about services is school for many reasons. Why did myself have felt the burden of my accessible to the public. The support you decide to drop out of high choice, and I am sure many others services assisted the students in school? How has dropping out of have also." diminishing or removing barriers to high school affected your life and the "The reason I dropped out of success in the program. lives of your family and those closest school was because I was in many to you? What are your goals? Where different foster homes and just the nesulles do you see yourself a year from now? thought of meeting new people Unlike the control group, the Why did you decide to pursue a GED scared me. I was always moving from students in the intervention group at this time?" place to place. I would have friends, arrived early and often stayed late to I was hopeful that the students then I would suddenly be moved to review materials. They formed their would consider their responses another home...I was moved around own out-of-class study groups. I carefully and provide truthful, so much that I never really had the spent my budget to the penny in an comprehensive answers. But I was chance to learn...Then one day I ran effort to keep them supplied with the unprepared for the painfully honest away, and I was nowhere to be materials texts, workbooks, and replies. Here are a few excerpts: found, so they signed me out of study guides that they requested. "Dropping out of school was the school, and I never went back. The These efforts seemed to translate into biggest mistake of my life...and has main thing is that I'm here now, and I academic gain. affected my life tremendously. It really want to learn. I decided to want Of the comparison group of ten lowered my self-esteem a lot. I was something and that's my GED. My students, only four successfully embarrassed to tell people I quit. I goal is to be able to look at the completed the program, for a felt like a failure...My sister quit people that made me not want to retention rate of 40 percent. We school a few months after I did. I learn and say to them...I did this on consider program completion to be don't know if it was because of me my own. I got my GED. And I'm very the receipt of a GED or a one or more and my mom's poor example, but she proud of myself." grade level increase in Test of Adult will find out how hard it will be to These essays provided me with Basic Education (TABE) test scores. make a living without an great insight into the lives of my The intervention group of 17 students education...I returned to school to students. In addition to reading them, maintained an 82 percent retention feel better about myself and try to set I devoted class time to discussing the rate. All 14 of the remaining learners an example for my younger sister." essays individually with each student. who had participated in the "The consequences facing me I became aware of their concerns intervention raised their reading after I dropped out were more than I and, in some cases, phobias about and math levels by an average of two bargained for. I came to find that you academics, and I gained a better grade levels, compared to the are not going to get hired for a job understanding of the circumstances comparison group who raised their much above minimum wage. This that had influenced their decisions to on average only one grade level.

NCSALL June 1998 0 on TIFocusD E011g0

Nine of the 14 students completed applications for postsecondary The ish GED training and one participated in a The Door to Opportunity in Doha Ana County youth work experience program. None of the students in the comparison group enrolled in such by Amish:ask] K. Conon ,nd Bertha Cang(o-Luuifin programs. neReahlon I embarked upon an action assing the GED in Spanish capita income of $6,056, which is research project because I was now rather than in English well below the poverty level. The concerned with retention. The years from now makes major source of income is seasonal intervention I chose learning more sense to many Spanish speakers agricultural labor. Six percent of the about students through interview and whose English language skills are adults over the age of 18 do not essay writing, working to develop a limited. In southern New Mexico, speak English well or at all and 40 rapport, and providing referrals to the Doila Ana Branch Community percent speak a language other than social services resulted in both College Spanish General English at home. increased retention and impressive Educational Development (GED) In my sojourns about the academic gains. The interviews and program provides classes for just county, I continually hear how essays served as an impetus for this purpose. Anastasia Cotton and difficult it is to find a job any job bonding. I continually attempted to Bertha Cantü-Lujan co-authored without a high school diploma or strengthen my relationship with the this story of their program. GED credential. The major students by inquiring about personal Ms.Cotton begins with a employers (New Mexico State interests and providing efforts for description of the region, the University, White Sands Missile them to experience success in the population, and the overall Range, and other governmental classroom. Even if students were program. Ms. Cantfi-Lujdn agencies) demand secondary school unable to complete an assignment describes her students and her credentials, even for custodial and correctly, I encouraged them by approach. food preparation jobs. About a third recognizing the diligent efforts they Barbara Garner of the residents 18 and older have made. We grew as a community of Ms.Cotton: not completed high school. Local learners. The study not only proved As GED Specialist for Doria Ana public schools average a 13 percent successful for the students, but also Branch Community College drop-out rate (DABCC, 1997). Many renewed my zeal for teaching. My (DABCC), I travel throughout a of our immigrant and migrant students' excitement became service area of 126 miles, visiting Spanish-speaking students from contagious. classrooms and talking with teachers Mexico and Central and South I will continue to utilize the and students. Doha Ana County, New America have had little or no interviews and essays, and to provide Mexico, is 3,805 square miles, larger education in their country of origin. referrals with future groups and hope than the state of Delaware. It is In fact, 25 to 50 percent have not to enjoy similar success. In my view, located in south-central New Mexico, finished the sixth grade. although helping students deal with on the Mexican border. The Adult Basic Education intense issues can be emotionally Encompassing high mountain ranges, Program at Doria Ana Branch taxing, I would encourage other fertile valleys, and the high desert, Community College serves county teachers to attempt such strategies. Dofia Ana County terrain is as varied residents by offering instruction in Students cannot thrive academically as its population. Of the 162,849 preparation for both the English and when they are overwhelmed with residents (1995 county census), 56.4 Spanish GED. The Spanish-language outside concerns. percent are Hispanics; about three GED test has been in use since 1969. percent are Native Americans, Asians, The general tests are similar to the About the Ah©r African-Americans; whites make up English versions but are based on Jamie D. Barron Jones is the Director of the balance. the Spanish language, culture, and Employment, Education, and Training The grandeur of the area social norms of Central and South Social Work Programs in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, and a GED teacher contrasts with the poverty of its America, Cuba, and Puerto Rico and at Somerset County Area Vocational people. Unemployment is high. were normed against graduating Technical School. + Hispanics in the region average a per high school seniors in Puerto Rico.

June 1998 NCSALL 55 Fo cus0 on 185 i@lage,

classes have develop confidence, the comfort level more males, needed for learning, and a sense that since many men they are fitting in. study after As the Hispanic family gets working in the settled and begins to stabilize fields during the financially, family members have time day. These to reflect on life, work, and personal figures may be development. My students look at somewhat continuing their education as one skewed because method of achieving a major life goal. some students are enrolled in Rea Digy more than one When facing a roomful of eager, class. Also, adult faces in a Spanish GED class, I approximately sense their expectation that hard 1,000 students work brings just rewards. I want very are studying for much to help them get what they the English and desire for themselves through their Spanish GED own efforts. That means I start with All five major tests mathematics, tests in three learning centers. Some of an honest and straightforward writing, science, social sciences, and these students also attend classes. explanation of the GED process. I interpretation of literature and the Eight of the classes, totaling about talk about the reading level skills arts must be taken within a two- 130 students, are taught in both needed, the math concepts tested, week period, according to GED English and Spanish. These classes are and the degree of written language Testing Service policy in New located in rural areas and a number fluency required. I explain the GED Mexico. Our state requires a sixth are located in colonias: areas where test scores and their meaning, the test, La prueba seis en inglés, the the homes have less than the bare need to possess literacy skills in English language proficiency test. minimums in utilities and other English, and the limited two-week This test may be taken after the two- amenities. Many of these students are window of opportunity to take the week period elapses, but before the at the lowest level of basic skills. The five core tests. three year deadline (GEDTS Web Spanish GED program provides The dose of realism is gulped page, http://www.acenet.edu). The students with access to the formal down, almost audibly, by the English knowledge test, which many education they did not get. What I students. Then I deliver the "you-can- states do not require of their Spanish have noticed in these classes is that the get-it-if-you-rea lly-want-it" speech. test takers, measures reading students want and need time to study. The students get the Adult Basic comprehension and vocabulary in They cannot or will not study at home; Education Center's schedules for English to the tenth grade level. class time is the only time they have tutoring, mini-workshops, and skills Across New Mexico, only five percent quiet, resources, and no interruption. labs; an outline of the required GED of all official test examinees take the competencies and where and how GED in Spanish, while in Doha Ana Ms. Cantii-Lujdn: they can find help outside of class to County, the number is higher: close My students are, for the most part, master the skills they need; and how to ten percent of GED examinees immigrants from Spanish-speaking to get support from the Quintana take the tests in Spanish. countries. The majority have less than Learning Center's staff to meet their At DABCC, 34 GED preparation a sixth-grade education. Their first academic goals. The Test of Adult classes are offered in 18 locations and priority upon arriving in the United Basic Education (TABE), Level M in serve about 550 students. About 25 States is to establish themselves in a Spanish, is the diagnostic test percent of these students are studying community where they feel available for identifying areas of in Spanish (DABCC, 1998), some of comfortable, namely, a Spanish- strength and weakness, such as whom will take the test in English, speaking neighborhood. Membership division of fractions, multiplication of others of whom will study for a few in a community where the manners decimals, measurements, and years before they are ready to test. and customs match those the vocabulary in context. Students who Most of the students in the daytime newcomer already has results in social have low skills can work on identified classes are female. The evening acceptance. This, in turn, helps people areas of weakness at GED

MCSALL June 1998 5 6 Focus 0 on 5CD:011C0 workshops, small group sessions, sole purpose of giving a text to a References and individual tutoring. student is often to foster self-esteem Doha Ana County Branch Community Classroom instruction lasts and create a collegiate atmosphere, College (1997). Annual Adult Basic approximately two hours twice a serving to establish that the student is Education Report, Las Cruces,NM.New a student. Mexico Department of Labor (1997). week for 12 weeks. In mixed-level Annual Social and Economic Spanish GED classes, I usually use Indicators.General Educational the first hour to target a competency Condusiion Development Testing Service;Web page, most of the students seem to need. The Spanish GED program is a http://www.acenet.edu. During this hour the class as a whole valued commodity in Dofta Ana receives instruction, employs County. In the year from September, AI©u the Authors directed learning, and practices the 1996, to September, 1997, the number Anastasia K. Cotton, who has a masters new material. of students taking the complete in education from Edinboro State University, PA, has been the GED The second hour of class is set battery of exams was 155 as compared to 147 the previous year. Specialist at NMSU-DABCC since 1994. aside for the students to work on She started in Adult Basic Education their individual education plans This contrasts with the number of (ABE) as an instructor in Italy in the (IEP). We develop them jointly, after English GED exam takers, which 1970s. Since then she has taught and reviewing the scores on the TABE. In dropped by 200 during the same year. tutored ABE, GED, and ESOL. individual conferences with the Many of our Spanish GED graduates Bertha Cantti-Lujdn has a masters in students, I recommend a short-term continue in English for speakers of other languages classes to become public administration from New Mexico learning goal, such as finding the State University. She has been an ABE common denominator, and two or more proficient in their second instructor since 1980 at different sites in three objectives for meeting that language. They have achieved their Texas and New Mexico. She teaches U.S. target. I document it so that both the short-term goal of passing the GED. Citizenship, ESOL, Spanish GED, English student and I have copies. Most Now they are on their way to meeting GED, and has also been a public school teacher for 13 years.+ students look forward to the second their long-term goals. .cpc.. hour because they get the attention they need, particularly if they have Long-Term Dreams "Poder depender de ml misma con problems understanding the guided- un buen trabajo y ayudar a mis practice items from the first hour of In a recent questionnaire for a hijos" class or the practice sheets they took Spanish GED class, we noted that To be independent with a good job home to do from the previous class. the majority of the students, whose and to help my children The lack of adult-oriented, median age is 35, hold similar Spanish language materials for long-term dreams: to continue "Estudiar algo mds que el GED, una carrera corta" teachers and students has been a their educations beyond the acquisition of the GED certificate. To study something beyond the GED, challenge our program. Many Students responded to the a short course of study (certificate or resources for English for Speakers of question, "What are your long A.A.) Other Languages exist, but content term goals?" with the following area learning materials are hard to answers: "Hacer todo lo mejor, y traer come by. Right now, ARCO prosperidad a mi familia publishes one Spanish GED book. In "Tener una casa propia, estar bien (educación, trabajo y salud)" the fall of 1998, Contemporary Books económicamente, conocer cuidades, To prosper in every way for the estados, ser una mujer profesional, better and bring prosperity to my is scheduled to issue a Spanish GED family (education and work and text and workbook. etc." To have my own house, to be health) Instructors find that the ARCO economically well; to get to know book does not meet the learning cities, states, be a professional `Mis suetios son terminar una needs of most of the Spanish GED woman, etc. carrera profesional y dominar el population in Dofta Ana County. The inglés, para de esta forma abrirme material is designed for the student "Tener una casa nueva y un buen camino en la vida." who has the basic academic skills to trabajo" My dreams are to finish take the official test, but just needs a To have a new house and a good job studies for a career and to become fluent in English, so that I may review. So, most remedial materials "Una casa para mi hip" open roads of opportunity are teacher-made and informally A house for my son in my life. shared among the instructors. The

June 1998 NCSALL 57 0 on -6))FocusD aoligo

read the problem, decide what to do, Chan ing Approaches to solve the problem, and answer the question. They seem easy, but disciplining myself to follow them As the GED changes, so must instruction. Cynthia Zengler was hard. describes how her approach to math has evolved. I noticed that, as students encountered numbers in word problems, they wrote them down, regardless of whether they had by Cynthia J. Zengler completely read the problem or not. Well, I did that myself some times. I decided to model the method to ensure that the students and I hen I began teaching and solving problems (NCTM, 1987). would apply the steps. Now, as the mathematics in the mid- My worlds began to clash. How first step, I have someone read the 1970s, I taught students could I develop textbooks that problem aloud to the class and we all new mathematical concepts and suggested one method of developing listen. followed up with a set of word problem-solving skills and use an The second step decide what problems using these concepts. Of antiquated method in my own to do is the most difficult to teach. course, the problems fit the new practice? The NCTM To help students focus their thinking, concepts and only required the recommendations made me rethink and to wean them from dependence students to identify which new my teaching, which has not been upon key words, I started using three concept was used. I emphasized easy. It is a continuing process that questions: What do you want to find? key words such as 'of for involves reading, reflection, and What do you know? How are they multiplication and 'grouped' for experimentation. related? Once the students answer division. To improve as a teacher, I these questions, they tend to joined the National Council of Me Change understand the problem better. For Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) I taught business mathematics at example, a baseball team won 17 and began to read their literature, a community college and math for more games than they lost. If they but did not really apply it to my the tests of General Educational played 52 games and tied three, how practice. Development (GED) at a community- many games did they lose? The As my career evolved, I had the based program to students who had answer to: "What do you want to opportunity to attend meetings and been less than successful with find?" is how many games did the workshops on mathematics. In mathematics. My students were team lose? You know that the team addition to teaching mathematics part typically older than 25 and trying to played 52 games, tied three games, time for a community college, I improve themselves so they could and won 17 more games than they became an editor, involved in qualify for a promotion at work. I lost. This information is related in this developing mathematics textbooks. I heard the normal anxieties about way: games won plus games lost plus worked with authors who were mathematics. Students would say, "I games tied equals total games, or actively involved in research on could never do mathematics," "I (X + 17) + X + 3 = 52. teaching and learning mathematics. I hope you have patience. You will The third step is often the easiest had to think about trends in math need it," "I really need help," and "I because it is usually a calculation. and what math should look like in hate math." The business course The fourth step, answering the the future. emphasized applying mathematics to question, is not redundant. Often the In 1987, the National Council of various business topics such as mark initial solution only responds to part Teachers of Mathematics published up and mark down, trade discounts, of the question asked. Getting my standards for the mathematics and interest. When I emphasized class to use the model often caused curriculum that included more than strategies in problem solving, I stress for my students and me. Since I just computation. The Council received blank stares and panic. was continuing to refocus myself to suggested including skills such as The NCTM literature I had been include more strategies for problem developing conjectures, reasoning reading suggested a four-step model, solving, I had to reinforce my own through phenomena, building which I began using. The steps, thinking. I began using the model abstractions, validating assertions, which all need to be completed, are whenever we did a problem in class

NCSALL June 1998 5 8 and found this helpful in reinforcing the above values, find five words that various approaches to teach problem the importance of the process. are worth exactly $0.50. [One solving in my practice, I realized I Sometimes I forgot to apply the solution is joy = 10 (j) + 15 (o) + 25 had to refocus my assessment to method. My class would tell me to (y) = 50 cents]. include more open-ended questions stop and ask myself the three Once the students have that challenge the thought process of questions. This helped give my determined the value of their names, my students. As I have developed students confidence in their own I form groups to work on the second assessment over the last several years, abilities. The atmosphere of the question. After allowing a reasonable I have kept in mind the need to classroom changed from "the time for the groups to complete the assess areas such as thinking dreaded math class" to "a fun class." activity, we discuss the various critically, analyzing how to do a Including myself in the learning approaches they used, emphasizing problem, making conclusions that are process created an atmosphere in the fact that many approaches exist. valid, and evaluating the advantages which students felt freer to and disadvantages of a share their ideas. method. I read all the NCTM As I began my teaching journals, finding career, my favorite Mathematics: Teaching in assessment method was the the Middle School the most typical question and answer useful. The more I read method that requires about problem solving, the students to produce a more I encouraged my number. Now, I include students to think and trust essay questions. Sometimes themselves. They could use the students are amazed various strategies to solve when I want them to problems if they could describe their approaches explain how they arrived at to a problem rather than their solution. One strategy produce an answer. "I the students were amazed thought this was math class, that I would allow was not English class," said one guess-and-check. They student. soon realized, however, I also use group quizzes in that guessing takes longer which group members are than a more mathematical solution. One strategy used by the groups is to responsible for ensuring that each As we went over their work, I had the find one word and see if rearranging member understands the concept. students share their approaches. This the letters can form other words. For Each group gives me one paper with provided them with an opportunity example, since joy is worth 50 cents, all the answers. I choose a member of to develop trust in themselves and to do "jyo", "yoj", " yjo", "ojy", or "oyj" the group to present one of their feel less anxious about finding 'the' also make words? This activity can be solutions to the class. Initially way to do a problem. extended by changing the values of students thought that they would the letters or by finding words that have nothing to offer the group, but Examppe equal other values. all students, regardless of their Here is an example of a set of Using a model for solving mathematical level, contribute to the problems I have used as part of the problems has given my students a discussion. The group setting often initial lesson on problem solving. tool for solving any problem, not just provides students a 'safe' way to 1. If each letter of the alphabet those with key words they can discuss their approach to a problem. has a price attached to it (A=0.01, identify. The students in my classes These quizzes have given some B=0.02, C=0.03, and so on), find the have begun to solve more difficult students a new confidence in their price of your name. For example, the problems consistently and with more mathematical ability. John had barely name FRED is worth 33 cents confidence. passed any math class he had taken because F is worth 6 cents, R is worth and truly believed he could offer 18 cents, E is worth 5 cents, and D is AssessmeM nothing to the group discussion. After worth 4 cents. My approach to assessment has one such quiz, he told me that he was 2. Given that the alphabet has also evolved. Once I started using surprised that he could actually teach

June 1998 59 NCSALL 0 on D@ionco the others something about the problem. He was so proud. So was I. Me Mew GED The current GED mathematics test emphasizes problem solving that requires the application of computational skills to life situations. The GED 2000 Series Test, being developed, is shifting the content of The Process of Departments of Education in Florida the mathematics tests to more and Connecticut, he studied the test- involvement with data analysis, Passing the-GED taking process of GED candidates statistics, and probability "Much work has been done on who were 16 to 21 years of age when (Woodward, 1998). The GED Testing the impact of the GED," says John they tested in those states between Service mathematics specifications Tyler, researcher on a National Center 1988 and 1990. He had 15,610 committee has even recommended for the Study of Adult Learning and observations from Florida and 4,600 the use of calculators for the major Literacy (NCSALL) study of the GED, from Connecticut. The study part of the mathematics test (Manly, "We don't know much about the differentiates between whites, 1998). As a GED instructor, I found testing process itself, though. Which Hispanics, and African Americans. that the students had the same tests provide the highest hurdles? For Other ethnic groups were anxieties and panic as my business whom does the re-testing feature of represented in such low numbers mathematics students. I see the need the GED matter the most? Who would that they could not be reported. for those preparing for the GED to be most affected in a move to raise Most GED teachers would say learn how to approach a problem. the passing standards? This study that the math test is the hardest for The new GED will expect the attempts to answer those questions." their students to pass. The next students to analyze a problem and to To obtain a General Educational hardest is the writing test. Tyler's make conclusions based on their Development credential (GED), a research validates this. In Florida and findings. The more confident candidate must take a battery of five Connecticut, among those test takers students become in their tests covering mathematics, writing, who failed to receive a GED, the mathematical abilities, the better science, social sciences, and math and writing tests generated the prepared they will be for not only interpretation of literature and the lowest scores. "But," Tyler says, "we the GED but for the changing work arts. Passage in most states requires found considerable gender place. cP that a test taker's scores on all tests be differences." In both states, the above a minimum standard, and that females who failed to pass the GED References the average of the five tests be above scored lowest on the math test; for Manly, M. (1998). "Calculators in the a minimum standard. The GED males, the writing test was hardest. ABE/GED classroom: Gift or curse?" Testing Service (GEDTS) sets This suggests that male drop outs Adult Learning 9(2), 16 17. NCTM (1987). Curriculum and minimum standards; individual states leave school with relatively poorer evaluation/standards for school can set higher standards. (Policies writing skills than do females; mathematics. Washington, D.C.: NCTM. may vary from state to state, and females leave with relatively weaker Woodward, K. S. (1998). "Next generation were changed in 1997.) math skills. While many studies of K- of GED tests: Blue prints leaving drawing GED candidates can re-take tests, 12 students show similar trends, the board." GED Items 15(1). 1,3,6. and many of them do. While local research Tyler did uncovered stark About the Author policy may differ, GEDTS policy differences. Teachers who take this Cynthia J. Zengler has a masters degree allows candidates to take the tests into account by providing extra help in Mathematics Education and is working individually, in whatever sequence in math for women and in writing for toward a doctorate in adult education. they choose, or all at once. "The men, for example, may improve their She is the project manager for a multi- system is potentially complicated," students' GED pass rates. year evaluation design project for the Tyler explains, "with candidates Across ethnicity, the states Ohio Department of Education, Adult making choices about re-testing or differed, which was curious. In and Basic Literacy Education programs. She has taught mathematics at many quitting, as well as about which tests Connecticut, a much higher levels, including GED preparation to take at each attempt." percentage of African-Americans classes. Using data from the state relative to both whites and Hispanics

INICSALL June 1998 6 0 7-5)Focus 0 on 01:1C0

found the math test to be the hardest. Figure 1: Proportion of candidates who passed on their first attempt and ultimately, by This difference was not found in demographic group, in Connecticut and Florida. Florida. Connecticut Florida Vesoing und Re-Vesging African- African- Tyler and colleagues also looked WhitesAmericans Hispanics Whites Americans Hispanics at patterns of test taking. Do people Pass rates on the 0.775 0.538 0.600 0.762 0.440 0.639 take them all at once, or a few tests at initial attempt a time? Who passes the first time around? Who re-tests? The full battery Ultimate pass rates0.893 0.724 0.723 0.864 0.580 0.750 takes seven hours and 35 minutes to minority group members. What are "Alternatively, what if we found complete, so it might seem appealing the implications of this? Does the that program participants tended to to space them out. Tyler found, GED lead to improved skills for have lower initial pass rates than however, that about 93 percent of minority group members, since they non-participants? That does not candidates in Connecticut and 96 would, on average, have more necessarily tell us that the program is percent in Florida took all tests on the preparation to do to pass the exams? doing nothing. It could be that the first attempt. No significant gender or Or is it possible that the re-testing most unskilled are enrolling in racial differences appeared. feature subverts this possible route to programs, that the programs are As Tyler points out, "People can better skills by primarily serving as a doing a good job on average in take the practice tests and get a pretty 'try it till I pass' vehicle? These racial raising scores, but they are dealing good idea of whether or not they are differences on first attempt have with a very unskilled group relative going to pass. So you'd think that never before been revealed. They are to the non-program population." people would know when they were an important piece that has been ready to take the test, and that missing from our understanding." ROOD Working everyone who took the test would In trying to interpret those Tyler is now working on come pretty close to passing." This is findings, limitations of the data leave understanding who would be not the case. Overall, only about 64 some important questions affected in a move to raise passing percent of those in the study passed unanswered. "We just don't have standards. He is checking to see if on the first attempt, and many had enough information to answer race differences exist for those who results that were far from passing. additional questions, and there will fail on the first attempt but are right Racial differences in pass rates always be unanswered questions," on the margin and those who fail surfaced. Within each state, whites Tyler states. "For example, even if we dramatically on the first attempt. And passed the first time at higher rates had a flag for program participation, he will also look at people who are than Hispanics and Hispanics passed we would like to have information right on the margin of passing and at higher rates than African- on the quality of programs, length of see if the gender differences in math Americans. Across states, the patterns time in programs, what the program and writing exist there. "Maybe when bear further examination: only small did. Even if we had program you get to people with higher levels initial pass rate differences appeared participation information, severe of basic cognitive skills, the gender across states for whites and selection problems would confound differences wash out," he suggests. Hispanics, but the initial pass rates for interpretation. For example, what if For more information on his African-Americans were substantially we found that program participants work, contact John Tyler via e-mail at higher in Connecticut than in Florida. had higher initial pass rates than non- [email protected]. The Data on re-testing, a key feature participants? Would that be an findings of his study of the economic of the GED system, are presented in indication that participation in the impact of the GED begin on page 1 Table 1. While everyone benefits program tended to raise scores of this issue; the full report can be from the re-testing option, the relative to what they would have ordered for $10 from NCSALL African-American pass rate rose the been otherwise? Or, does it indicate Reports, World Education, 44 most. "This finding raises the same that more able and conscientious Farnsworth Street, Boston, MA plausible set of conclusions as the drop outs tend to enroll in programs 02210. The full report on testing section on who struggles most with as insurance for passing, while less patterns will be available from the which test," explains Tyler. "Namely, motivated drop outs tend not to same address next fall. it indicates that whites drop out with enroll? Without more data, we don't a much better set of skills than know the answer to that. by Barbara Garner

June 1998 NCSALL 61 1Focus 0 on i@lag0

C S A LL Research General Educational Development is CulebraMom /jrhigh.html. Print Copies of the full technical reports also available from the GED Fulfillment copies are available from The Texas of NCSALL-sponsored research are Service. Center for Adult Literacy and available from World Education for $10 Learning Clearinghouse at each. To order The Economic Impact GED Items, the newsletter of the 1-(800)-441-7323. of the GED by John Tyler, Richard GED Testing Service, are available free Murnane, and John Willett or US. from the Subscriptions Manager, GED GED Math Adult Literacy Program Practice: A Testing Service, American Council on For online resources related to Typology Across Dimensions of Life- Education, One Dupont Circle NW, Suite GED math, visit the Teachers' Place Contextualized/Decontextualized and 250, Washington, DC 20036-1163. http://www.forum.swarthmore.edu/ Dialogic/Monologic by Victoria teachers/adult.ed/ Purcell-Gates, Sophie Degener, and Information about the tests of Erik Jacobson, contact the NCSALL General Educational Development, a list Spanish Language Literacy Reports Editor, World Education, 44 of GED program contacts in the 50 For a bibliography entitled Farnsworth Street, Boston, MA 02210- states, Canada, and overseas, and GED "Spanish Native Language Literacy 1211; telephone (617) 482-9485; e-mail publications information are available Instruction" (1996), contact NCLE, [email protected]. online at http://www.acenet.edu/ Attn: Product Orders, 1118 22nd programs/CALEC/GED/home.html. Street NW, Washington, DC 20037 CMResources and Research Fax (202) 659-5641. For additional Baldwin, J., Kirsch, I.S., Rock, D. & Johnson, M. & Valentine, T. resources on Spanish language Yamamoto, K. The Literacy Outcomes of GED Graduation: An literacy instruction, visit the NCLE Proficiencies of GED Examinees: Annotated Bibliography of Research web site at http://www.cal.org/ncle. Results from the GED-NALS Reports. (Athens, GA: University of Comparison Study. (Washington, DC: Georgia, Department of Adult American Council on Education and Education, College of Education, 1992). MCSAILL Web Siee Educational Testing Service, 1995). Visit our web site for all issues Available from GED Fulfillment Proied-Based H n struction of Focus on Basics. Service, (301) 604-9073 or fax (301) The project, "Something to Think hup://hugsel.harvard.edu/ 604-0158. GED Statistical Reports and About," has been published on the an information bulletin on the tests of Internet at http://members.aol.com/ -ncsall

75)Focus0 on FirstClass D5 'agEO Postage World Education PAID 44 Farnsworth Street Boston, Mass Boston, MA 02110-1211 Permit No. 53495

Sandra Kerka ERIC Database CENTER ON EDUCATION AND. TRA1NI 1900 KENNY RD Columbus; OH 43210-1016

62 o

World Education/NCSALLConnecting Research and PracticeVolume 2, Issue CSeptember 1998

CHANGE

Why is Change So Hard? Marcia Drew Hohn 7 How Teachers Change Virginia Richardson

II 2 Dinosaurs and Upstarts: Organizational Change at CASA Latina Hilary Stern

II 4 A Story of Improvement Jane Cody, James Ford, & Kathleen Hayward II 9 Why is Change So Hard? Facilitating Inquiry- Based Staff Theories and thoughts about the organizational Development change process Jereann King 22 by Marcia Drew Hohn An Unexpected Outcome Edith Cowper As one of the directors of the Massachusetts system of state literacy resource centers, I have helped introduce and advance many 25 organizational change initiatives. My office has offered training, MCSALL Research technical assistance, political forums, and management round tables to Finclinqs: promote and assist the organizational change process. Despite these Health a Relatively High efforts, good intentions on all sides, and much hard work, many of these Priority initiatives disappeared into programmatic black holes. Programs recognized the need to change and reached out for help, but often got 26 stuck. I was puzzled What was going on here? Do organizations Letter to the Editor inherently resist change? To start answering these questions, I investigated the organizational change process as it is experienced in program and 27 staff development. In this article, I will share some of the insights I gained Focus on Research: and take you on a journey of ships, seas, winds, and icebergs (and to be Staff Development honest, I thought up this iceberg stuff long before the recent release of the movie "Titanic'). Connnued on page 3 63 -5Focusazoco 0 on

Focus on Basics is the quarterly publication of the National Welcome to Focus on Basics Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. It presents best practices, current research on Dear Readers, adult learning and literacy, and how research is used by adult basic Staff developers dedicate their careers to it. Researchers hope their findings education teachers, counselors, will bring it about. Policymakers believe they can legislate it. Teachers do it all program administrators, and policy- the time. What is it? Change. In this issue of Focus on Basics, we examine both makers. Focus on Basics is dedicated to connecting research with practice, organizational and individual change, and consider the staff development models to connecting teachers with research that foster them. and researchers with the reality of Marcia Drew Hohn starts us off with a look at some theories of the classroom, and by doing so, making adult basic education organizational change. The only truly transformative change, she points out, is research more relevant to the field. one that involves a paradigm shift: a fundamental rethinking of premises. This is best done within a change-friendly environment, where information is shared All subscription and editorial and staff are encouraged to take risks. Bringing this about, she cautions, is not correspondence should be sent to: - Focus On Basics easy. World Education Change is happening somewhat more easily since director Hilary Stern 44 Farnsworth Street Boston, MA 02210-1211 instituted weekly reflection meetings for staff at CASA Latina, an adult literacy e-mail address: [email protected] program in Seattle. Reducing staff turnover a common problem in adult basic education also served to increase commitment to long-term change. See the Focus on Basics is copyrighted, but we urge readers to photocopy and article on page 12 for more on this organization's strategies and struggles. circulate the publication widely. When A program in Knox County, Tennessee, is undergoing a paradigm shift. Staff reprinting articles, please credit Focus are using Malcolm Baldridge Criteria for Performance Excellence, an approach on Basics and the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and developed in the business community and adapted for educational institutions, to Literacy. examine systematically their operations and improve them. They have learned, write authors Jane Cody, James Ford, and Kathleen Hayward, that being orderly Editor: Barbara Gainer Associate Editor: Diem Nguyen and using data to make decisions does not necessarily mean 'bureaucratic.' Illustrator: Mary White Arrigo Teacher-educator Virginia Richardson examines the premise that teachers are Proofreader: Celia Hartmann reluctant to change. Teachers change all the time, she has found. The question Focus on Basics is published by the then becomes: What sort of change will lead to student success, and how can it National Center for the Study of Adult be fostered? She shares her views in the article that begins on page 7. Learning and Literacy (NCSALL). Sometimes change is unplanned. Immersion in a truly learner-centered NCSALL is funded by the Educational Research and Development Centers process caused Edith Cowper to rethink her ideas about what it means to be Program, Award Number R309B60002, learner-centered. She soon had a chance to put her newly honed beliefs into as administered by the Office of practice. Jereann King also had to grapple with what it means to be learner- Educational Research and centered, in her case when facilitating a group with an agenda and values quite Improvement/National Institute of Postsecondary Education, Libraries, and different from her own. The facilitator and the learners all learned and changed, Lifelong Learning, U.S. Department of as should be the case. Education.

The contents of Focus on Basics do not We at NCSALL are always learning and changing. In the last issue of Focus on necessarily represent the positions or Basics, we published the results of an important new research study on the policies of NCSALL or the National Institute on Postsecondary Education, economic impact of the GED. A few readers pointed out that some of the Libraries, and Lifelong Learning; World hypothetical examples given in an exploration of the reasons for the results can Education; the Office of Educational be construed as racist, and by not noting those as such, we were condoning such Research and Improvement; or the U.S. Department of Education, and you actions. We certainly do not condone racism in any form, and apologize for any should not assume endorsement by the appearance we gave of doing so. We thank our readers for their thoughtful Federal Government. comments and will watch more carefully for this in the future.

Maki Sincerely, National Cente for the Study of Adult I..arning and I.iteracy

D WORLD EDUCAnON Barbara Gjfier Editor

NICSALL September 1998 6 4 Focus() on D @l0000

Change... continued from page 1 thinking and human processes of Pendulum change ignores the past, those groups (Pfeiffer & Ballew, ascribing no positive attributes to the Whca We (u©w 1991). previous points of view. The new We know from research on belief is often as zealously held as the change in schools that resistance to VauleNes old. and rejection of change can occur for Pfeiffer & Ballew (1991) point to 4. Paradigm change is when we a variety of reasons (Williams, 1993). the work of Marilyn Ferguson (1980) 'step out of the box' for a more William's research has also shown as useful in understanding the fundamental rethinking of premises. that change efforts need to be a varieties of change. Ferguson Discordant information is considered combination of lop-down' and classifies change into four types, and integrated and new ways of 'bottom-up' strategies, strongly led, described here. thinking emerge. As Ferguson (1980) and combining pressure to change 1. Change by exception with the support to do so: support in is where we allow exceptions to our beliefs t/ terms of time, financial resources, "...theaeatest barrier and decision-making power. but do not change our Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1997) beliefs. For example, when to organizational emphasizes that change-friendly we meet someone who organizations are future oriented. does not fit our change has to do with They seek to close the gap between stereotypes, we classify current performance and an them as being an exception the operating paradi organization's potential. Change- to the group. The multi- friendly organizations embrace a pierced, skateboarding ormind set, of the 'learning together' approach teenager who is polite and characterized by a broad spectrum of well-spoken may conflict It/ participation within the organization with our assumptions individuals andoups and among stakeholders. Change- about teenagers as rude friendly organizations form networks and inarticulate, so we that make upan to exchange knowledge and view classify this particular one differences as opportunities to grow. as an 'exception' but we do organization." Their leaders create cultures in which not change our beliefs people are challenged to take risks. about teenagers in general. What I learned from my research 2. Incremental change is so points out, it is only paradigm is that the greatest barrier to gradual that it occurs before we change that promotes transformation, organizational change has to do with become aware of it: usually, a and for transformation, or true the operating paradigm, or mind set, collection of small changes that organizational change, to occur, the of the individuals and groups that ultimately alter our belief systems. beliefs that control behaviors must make up an organization. For example, a teacher may have undergo the more profound mind set Organizations are, after all, groups of started using technology with an change. people connected through common attitude of resistance and disdain, but purposes into a systematic form to gradually changed to a point where ParadigErn achieve particular ends (Morgan, technology became an indispensable A paradigm is a model of how 1997). While groups are sets of tool in her practice. The teacher the world works that permits the people small enough for their could probably not pinpoint the time holder to interpret and use new members to know and interact with where her beliefs about technology information. A paradigm is the one another, organizations are often changed. general perspective from which we large and the individuals who work 3. Pendulum change is when an view the world. A paradigm shapes in them only dimly perceive the total extreme point of view is exchanged perceptions and practices in nearly organization. Most of the human for its opposite. The hawk turns into unconscious and unquestioned ways. processes that happen within a a dove, the heathen turns into a It shapes what we look at, how we formal organization actually take religious zealot, or vice versa. look at things, what we label as place in small groups, and Government programs are seen as problems, what problems we decide organizational behavior can be the solution to social problems and to address, and what methods we understood by examining the ways of then as having no viable role. use. It is a way of filtering and

September 1998 NCSALL 6 5 3Focus 0 on @igpgg making sense of all the information theory helps us understand how melted, they flow into more natural that bombards us daily (Maguire, deeply ingrained assumptions about channels until cooled enough to 1987; Wheat ly, 1992). Ten years ago, how the world works shape our refreeze in more functional and paradigms were rarely applied to the habits and minds and our society's congruent patterns. The new patterns analysis of organizations. Now, organizations and institutions in a remain until they are once again organizations regularly discuss and continuous process of reinforcement. challenged by the perception of the strategize about shifting paradigms. In the organizational realm, need to change again. Lewin's The idea that organizations can shift Morgan (1997), an organizational formula for change is elegantly their paradigms is extremely theorist and consultant, writes that old simple but fearsomely difficult to put powerful. It means that individuals ways of thinking, represented by the into practice. Fortunately, Gareth and groups can define how they view machine concept of the world, are so Morgan (1997) has introduced a way and interpret the world around them, ingrained in us that they are difficult to actualize Lewin's concept of the and begin organizing behavior to recognize, let alone shake off. They change process. around new way of thinking that can have been the basis for the significantly transform organizations. educational and political structures Ornaghimaion and social institutions that guide our Morgan, an organizational Sysfiems neovy lives. Therefore, "...we get stuck in theorist and consultant, introduced At this time in history, we seem taken-for-granted ways of thinking the term and process to be caught between two ways "imaginization"as a way to of thinking: analytical, break free from habits of the expressed by the machine oldways of thinking mind and heart into space that metaphor, and synthetical, allows for acting differently which seeks interconnectedness are so in tned inus within organizations, to and wholeness as expressed in unfreeze, move and refreeze. metaphors such as webs, fluid that theyare di/"/cult to Morgan sees metaphor as the mosaics, and rivers. In the primary means through which analytical way of thinking, the reco izeplet alone we forge our relationship to world is seen as a machine. The the world. According to underlying assumption is that Morgan, the images we hold of phenomena can best be shake off,' ourselves and the world can understood by being broken either constrain or expand 6ur down, reduced into individual parts, and stuck in actions that are potential for transformation. By and examined part by part. In this inappropriate for dealing with the developing an image of an school of thought, the scientific problems and situations at hand. We organizational structure, a problem method, objectivity, linear thinking, operate in narrow, technical concerns, area, or the future, we gain insight either-or thinking, and competition characteristic of the machine age" (p. into how our organization operates are promoted and presumed to be 277). We are unable to make the and what it will take to change. free from values and independent of transformative organizational changes Nature supplies many excellent ideas context. needed to increase our productivity for imaging. For example, we might Synthetical thinking, or 'systems' and address problems creatively. imagine organization as an ant thinking, popularized for colony, a spicier plan, a river, or a organizations by Peter Senge (1990) nree-Pronged Process web. and Meg Wheatley (1992), Kurt Lewin (1951), the father of Morgan's ideas about emphasizes putting things together. organizational development, saw imaginization led me to think about In this view, the system as a whole is change as a three-pronged process: conceiving of an organizational more than the sum of its parts. unfreezing, moving, and refreezing. change initiative in which I was Localness, harmony, cooperation, Unfreezing involves loosening or deeply involved as ships, seas, winds, and a sense of mutual dependence melting ways of thought, behaviors, and icebergs. This gave me a way to are promoted, contextualizeci in the or sets of often unconscious behaviors "imagine" what was facilitating and values and meaning systems of those that work against productivity in what was inhibiting the adult basic involved. Systems theory, being solving social problems and conflict. education programs' abilities to about a world view, helps us Once the ices of thought patterns or engaging in a participatory planning understand paradigms. Systems behaviors inhibiting productivity are process. It was also a way to

INICSALL September 1998 - 6 6 c)Focus (Don D 0E0 understand why programs were support the entire planning process. operating in a participatory, having so much difficulty with a The looming and more hidden collaborative manner, in which staff seemingly simple process. So come icebergs have to do with habit and talk to each other a lot, support each with me on a journey into images. mind set: the paradigm in which the other, and work together, are likely to Think of two adult basic education program and its staff are operating. have receptive organizational programs, one school-based and one These are the potentially formidable cultures. These are usually programs community-based, as sailing ships in barriers to implementing a process where the director has readily shared the organizational sea of a that presumes teamwork, information and decision-making participatory planning process: cold cooperation, and power sharing for power with the staff. Such programs seas where icebergs are common. learning together about solving are like ships with special radar. The Strong prevailing winds help the problems and making improvements. radar detects the iceberg and steers programs begin their journey. Fueling clear of it. However, the ships now these winds are a well thought-out, The Way Business enter dangerous waters that harbor a systematic planning process with a Os Done hidden and treacherous iceberg. Only number of useful and practical The way business is done, or the most sophisticated radar can implementation tools as well as habit, iceberg contains existing detect it hovering deep in the waters, support through training, technical approaches and structures by which waiting to pierce the bottom of the assistance, and dollars allocated for the program operates. This iceberg is ship. This is the iceberg of mind set, staff time. Other sources of not highly visible and has deep and which embraces the many momentum include the jagged edges, which can fatally assumptions, beliefs, and values professionalization and enhanced darnage the ships. If the operating about how the world works. confidence of programs as a result of norms of a program are ones of five years of intense program and isolation, authoritarianism, and The Paradigm keberg staff development, and the desire and mistrust, then the organizational The third iceberg, the hardest to capacity of the programs to plan and environment will be hostile to a detect, is the mind set, or paradigm, deliver quality services. participatory planning process. iceberg. In this iceberg are the People in organizations do not thinking patterns, attitudes, beliefs, The Logiseics [Iceberg organize their behavior around and values that underlie the behavior The two adult basic education processes introduced from the of programs and practitioners. They ships are sailing the organizational outside. They organize their behavior often come into conflict with the seas of a participatory planning around the operating norms that assumptions underlying a process that process. They have made it out of the contribute to the culture of the embraces teamwork, cooperation, harbor and are sailing along with organization. A program in which power sharing and learning together. gusto when the first iceberg appears. staff rarely meet or even talk to each Thinking in terms of processes It is small and highly visible. This is other, and in which helping one and systems, working in teams, and the logistics iceberg, where the another is not valued, is not a likely vesting power in practitioners investment of time and resources place to use a participatory planning throughout an organization are needed to carry out the planning process effectively. Such programs enormously difficult for most people. process is at odds with part-time staff are usually managed by a director Most of us have learned to manage by and capricious and multiple funding whose style is top-down and who meeting short-term numerical goals. sources. In this iceberg are found has little history of consulting staff We have not considered the such difficulties as getting day and about programmatic, funding, and capabilities of the system as a whole evening staff together for planning, personnel issues. Such directors may or the interrelationship of processes, including night-time staff who have act in a highly paternalistic or especially as they relate to overall other jobs during the day, and finding materialistic manner and are unlikely goals. Teamwork is not time to carry out the process and the to share their decision-making commonplace. Collaboration and action plans because some funders power. This type of environment cooperation are often undervalued do not provide funds for planning. tends to generate mistrust and and individual achievement The logistics iceberg is not competition and inhibits the championed over that of the group. insignificant, but the ships slip development of skills necessary to The skills it takes to function around it with creative thinking. The work in a cooperate, participatory successfully in a team, both as a crucial issue is whether a program manner. member and as a leader, are and its management understand and Programs that have already been frequently viewed as 'soft,' having

September 1998 ® 6 7 NCSALL 0 on D EOEZ

little to do with the real work of do we shift to being change-friendly? Harvard Business Review Books. getting business done. Most of us are One way is to develop insight into Maguire, P. (1987). Doing Participatory unfamiliar with and unskilled in why so many change efforts fail. We Research: A Feminist Approach. consensus building, participatory also need to recognize that complex Amherst: University of Massachusetts, decision-making, and all the other change efforts are just plain hard. Center for International Education. Morgan, G. (1997). Irnaginization: New skills needed for teams to function Recognizing the paradigm in an Mindsets for Seeing, Organizing and effectively. Our intellectual training organization and the need to change Managing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. has promoted thinking in absolute it is big step in an organization's Pfeiffer, J.W. & Ballew, A.C. (eds.), categories and either-or terms, ability to plan and implement (1991). Theories and Models in Applied making us uncomfortable with change effectively. Significant Behavioral Science, Vol. 4. San Diego: ambiguity and confrontation. Our organizational and management Pfeiffer & Co. lack of skill and discomfort make us changes may be needed to support Senge, P. (1990). The Fifth Discipline. reluctant to give up old ways. the paradigm shift. New York: Doubleday. Other attitudes and beliefs Shifting paradigms also helps us Wheatley, M. J.(1992). Leadership and important to embracing change have recognize that meaningful the New Science. San Francisco: Berrett- Koehler. to do with what we think about organizational change needs to be Williams, R. (1993). Implications for motivation and power. A participatory systemic and continuous. And, in School Systems or The Research on planning process assumes internal change, loss and anxiety emerge Change. Oxford, Ohio: National Staff motivation and the capacity of each around surrendering old and familiar Development Council. practitioner to recognize and solve ways. Linking change efforts to problems. It trusts that the resulting issues vital to the organization is one &Bala Phe Augilcor shifts in power will be of benefit to way for staff to see the benefits of Marcia Drew Hohn, Ed.D., is Director the organization. A deeply ingrained the change in areas that have of Northeast SABES (System for Adult assumption in our culture, however, personal meaning for them. This is Basic Education Support) located at is that competition is a prime likely to reduce anxiety, but conflict Northern Essex Community College in motivator. Just look at our schools' and anger may erupt out of the stress Lawrence, MA. She has been working grading systems and assessment tests. that true change creates. in the field of adult education for more than 25 years in a variety of And then there are beliefs about The process of organizational environments, including business, power. The participatory planning change is likely to be bumpy, health, municipal management, and process shifts the power in the difficult, and fmstrating: a series of basic education. Her present research organization from the top and spreads two steps forward and one step and writing is focused on the it throughout the organization. If a back. It needs to cut through barriers integration of health and literacy director believes there is only a finite in our hearts and minds as well as in education.. amount of power in any given our organizations. But it does organization, then she is likely to liberate us from addressing problems resist letting go of that power. If a according to our prior approaches. It ReprOng penirdssfion director believes that power grows as moves us from simply tinkering with Feel free to reprint articles from our you give it away, the chances that a the system to using our collective publication, but please credit Focus on Basics and NCSALL, and send a copy of participatory planning process can brainpower to make a difference in a the reprint to NCSALL, World Education, take root are much higher. world. The need to change is our 44 Farnsworth Street, Boston, MA 021 10- One of the programs successfully constant companion. It may be hard, 1211. Thanks! cleared the first two icebergs but but it is always worthwhile. sp. 'wrecked up' when it encountered the Back issues paradigm iceberg. The other program References Research sailed the seas of the participatory Ferguson, M. (1980). Chapter Two in Reading Multilevel Classroom planning into a new world of Pfeiffer, J.W. & Ballew, A.C. (eds.), (1991). Theories and Models in Applied Content-Based Instruction thinking, growing, and doing. This Learner Motivation Behavioral Science, Vol. 4, (223-225) was a change-friendly organization The GED San Diego: Pfeiffer & Co. that took risks to reach a vision of Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in what it could be. To order back issues of Focus on Basics, Social Science. New York: Harper & $2.00 a copy, please contact Kimberly Row. French at World Education via SO000 Kanter, R. M. (1997). Rosabeth Moss e-mail: [email protected] or What does this tell us about the Kanter on the Frontiers of telephone: (617) 482-9485.* organizational change process? How Management. Cambridge, MA:

NICSALL September 1998 6 8 5Pocus 0 on DEonco

Wasley, 1992). As pointed out by How Teachers Change Morimoto (1973): "When change is What will lead to change that most benefits student advocated or demanded by another person, we feel threatened, learning? defensive, and perhaps rushed. We are then without the freedom and the time to understand and to affirm the by Virginia Rich rdson new learning as something desirable, and as something of our own choosing. Pressure to change, 6-6 eachers don't change. best teacher change is carried out in a without an opportunity for They resist change. They way that involves teachers in the exploration and choice, seldom just get in a groove of process, and promotes coherence results in experiences of joy and doing what they have always among teachers in an organization. excitement in learning" (p. 255). done and what they are This article draws on my personal From the 'change hurts' comfortable with." The notion experiences, research that I have perspective, 'teachers don't change' that teachers don't change does conducted, and the broader research really means 'teachers aren't doing not match my experiences. I have literature. The literature I review is what I (or someone else) tell them to been a teacher, a teacher- primarily focused on the K-12 system, do.' As pointed out by Klein (1969) a educator, a supervisor of student but has much relevance for adult number of years ago, "...studies of teaching, and a researcher, and basic educators. have spent considerable time change appear to be taken from the observing teachers in their Change 181uats perspective of those who are the classrooms. I have observed As I looked into the literature on change agents seeking to bring about teachers in such diverse locations teacher change, the sentiment I change rather than of the clients they are seeking to influence" (p. 499). I as Syracuse, NY; Tucson, AZ- found expressed was that teachers do felt that it was time to look at change Vancouver, British Columbia; not change, that change hurts and from the standpoint of teachers Malawi; and Hong Kong. The that is why people do not change, themselves. Do they change? And if teachers I worked with in these and that teachers are recalcitrant they do, why? places were not teaching exactly (e.g., Duffy & Roehler, 1986; Fullan, the same way they did the 1991). The literature suggests that Vohontary Change previous year; nor do I as a teachers resist doing whatever is In my work with teachers, I teacher-educator. In fact, teachers being proposed because they want to noticed that they undertake change change all the time. cling to their old ways. Change voluntarily, following their sense of Where, then, did the view come makes people feel uncomfortable. what their students need and what is from that teachers resist change? And This view of change in teaching working. They try out new ideas. how can this view co-exist with the practice dominated the educational These changes, while often minor notion that teachers change all the literature until the early 1990s. It adjustments, can be dramatic time? This article explores the focuses on the failure of teachers to (Richardson, 1990). following thesis: The differences adopt teaching activities, practices, In a long-term collaborative between these two views of teacher and curricula that are suggested or study of teacher change, my change may hinge on who is mandated by those who are external colleagues and I found that when a directing the change. Teachers often to the setting in which the teaching is teacher tries new activities, she resist change mandated or suggested taking place: administrators, policy- assesses them on the basis of by others, but they do engage in makers, and staff developers. The whether they work: whether they fit change that they initiate: what I call view of the teacher as reluctant to within her set of beliefs about voluntary change. In this article, I lay change is strong and widespread, teaching and learning, engage the out and compare the two views of and is one I have heard expressed by students, and allow her the degree of teacher change. I then examine two many teachers as well. It is classroom control she feels is approaches to staff development, the promulgated by those who think they necessary. If she feels the activity training model and the reflective and know what teachers should be doing does not work, it is quickly dropped collaborative model, and relate them in the classroom and are in a position or radically altered (Richardson, to the differing views of teacher to tell them what to do. In that sense, 1994). change. Finally, I suggest that the it relates to issues of power (e.g., (Continued on page 8)

September 1998 6 9 NCSALL Dm Focus 0 on p 5 @zonco

The decision as to whether a and beliefs. This suggests that some teacher-student interaction new activity works is often direction would be helpful. depending on needs of the student unconscious and may be based on And, the question arises: do population, and to change methods experiences and understandings that learners benefit from teachers acting when research indicates more are not relevant to the particular alone, making changes as they see fit effective practice. setting in which instruction is taking within the confines of their This requires teachers who are place. In other words, a teacher may classrooms? If all teachers make inquirers, questioning assumptions try an activity that worked with decisions autonomously, the and consciously thoughtful about another group of students and fail to schooling of an individual student goals, practices, and contexts. Gary notice that it is inappropriate for the could be quite incoherent and Fenstermacher (1994) suggests that new group. Thus, while voluntary ineffective. This, too, suggests that reflecting on one's work as a teacher change is what teachers actually do help, direction, or encouragement must be undertaken within the in their classrooms, it does not provided to staff rather than to framework of a clear sense of necessarily lead to exemplary individuals could be necessary to purpose in relation to the learner. He teaching. promote change that is valuable to quotes Isrxl Scheffler's view of the the learner. I will come back to this purposes of education: "the Laissez Fake? later. formation of habits of judgment and If teachers make voluntary the development of character, the changes all the time, perhaps they do Vision ch 'Teachers elevation of standards, the facilitation not need help, direction, or Over the course of this century, of understanding, the development encouragement to make change. our concept of teaching has shifted of taste and discrimination, the According to Cuban (1988), the from an industrial model teachers stimulation of curiosity and wonder, changes teachers make in their replicating a specific set of the fostering of style and sense of classrooms are minor and instructional tasks to a "complex, beauty, the growth of a thirst for new inconsequential. Therefore, one dynamic, interactive, intellectual ideas and visions of the yet could argue that teachers need activity" (Smylie & Conyers, 1991, p. unknown" (Scheffler, 1976, p. 206). outside mandates and help to make 13). This shift occurred for many Scheffler's notion of teacher, major changes. This view can reasons, including a change to a however, is quite individualistic. The certainly be debated. We found that much more diverse student body autonomous, individual teacher teachers sometimes do make major (Devany & Sykes, 1988) and changes works with her students in the changes on their own (Richardson, in our economy. We therefore need classroom, and is reflective about Anders, Tidwell & Lloyd, 1991). teachers who approach their work what goes on in that classroom. As I Teachers may, however, make with a change orientation: an suggested earlier, however, there is decisions about change that are spur- orientation that suggests that constant more to consider: the nature of the of-the-moment and based on reflection, evaluation, and educational program through which unwarranted assumptions. Without experimentation are integral students pass. The sense of teacher examining the beliefs underlying a elements of the teaching role. We autonomy must be broadened sense of what does or does not work, now expect teachers to alter curricula beyond the individual teacher to the teachers may perpetuate practices on the basis of new knowledge and group of teachers who are working, based on questionable assumptions ways of knowing, to change styles of over time, with a given student or set of students. Shirley Pencilebury (1990) suggests that we should think of schools or programs as communities of practice whose members are granted equal respect and concern. This requires an agreed-upon understanding of aims and purposes. Thus autonomy should be considered within a community of practice in which there is continual critical discussion about aims, standards, and procedures. In sum, the description of the

NCSALL 0 September 1998 7 0 Q o n DEzuco teacher that I prefer is one that whose beliefs match the assumptions model. One is the following: "We balances autonomy with community. inherent in the innovation; even believe that the innovative practices The teacher is an inquirer, working these teachers might not try out the teachers learn will not be maintained within a community of practice in innovation. It is estimated that such unless teachers and students remain which fellow teachers engage, with staff development garners an interested and excited about their each other, in critical discussions implementation level of only 15 own learning...A good staff concerning aims, goals, procedures, percent (Meyer, 1988). development program will create an and practices. How do we support On the other hand, not all excitement about learning to learn. change compatible with this? What training models result in such limited The question is how to maintain staff development program permits change. A substantial body of momentum, not merely maintain the development of individual research has identified characteristics previously learned behaviors" autonomy but also fosters a of reasonably successful training (Stallings & Krasavage, 1986, p. 137). community of learners within a models. These qualities have been This leads to the question of school or program? An examination summarized by many (e.g., Griffin, long-term goals of these staff of the staff development literature is 1986) and include the following: development programs. Do we want helpful in addressing these questions. The training process should be teachers to continue using a process, school-wide and context-specific. method, or approach into the distant Trcarming ARiodcg ePrincipals (or program directors) future? Probably not. Many of us The more traditional form of staff should be supportive of the process assume that something new and development begins with someone and encouraging of change. better will come along that will be from outside the school determining *The training should be long term, more appropriate for teachers to use. that a process, content, method, or with adequate support and follow This discussion of long-term goals system should be implemented in the up. leads to the second form of staff classroom. The form of staff *The training process should development. (Contained on pa,ge 10) development most suitable for encourage collegiality. achieving change mandated by The training content should outside forces is the training model, incorporate current knowledge which can be a deficit model. The obtained through well-designed training model has a clearly stated set research. of objectives and learner outcomes. *The process should include These outcomes can be teaching adequate funds for materials, outside skills, such as using learner-generated speakers, and substitute teachers to material or teaching critical thinking allow teachers to observe each other. processes. Sparks & Loucks-Horsley Even if the staff demelopment (1990) identified a number of process is successful as determined important assumptions inherent in by the percentage of teacher the training model. Two of these participants who immediately assumptions are 1) that there are implement changes in their behaviors and techniques worthy of classrooms, the longer-term effects of replication by teachers in the training models are questionable. For classroom, and 2) that teacher- example, in a four-year study of a education students and teachers can very popular staff development learn or change their behaviors to program, developed and conducted replicate these techniques in their by Madeleine Hunter, which trained classrooms (p. 241). teachers in a structured approach to Many of the staff development instruction, Stallings & Krasavage programs that employ the training (1986) found that in the third year model are relatively short term, teachers implemented the desired involving teachers in several hours or behaviors much less often than they several days of workshops, with had in the first two years. limited follow-up activities. Such Several hypotheses are used to programs have a chance of explain the disappointing long-term succeeding with those teachers effects of Madeline Hunter's training

September 1998 ® 71 NCSALL 0 on D cD:ZEZ

Refiedive, models are not pre-specified practices. The teachers had become behaviors and skills. The purpose is confident in their decision-making ConaboraNve Moda[ls procedural: to create an ecology of abilities and took responsibility for The second form of staff thinking, deliberation, and what was happening in their development is designed to support experimentation. The goals, classrooms. Thus they had developed the voluntary view of change therefore, may be unstated at the a strong sense of individual described in the beginning of this beginning of the process. autonomy and felt empowered to article. It attempts to develop in In these models, change is not make deliberate and thoughtful teachers a more systematic and consider to be static. That is, a change changes in their classrooms. reflective approach to their own made by a teacher during the staff While the reflective and change process. Gallagher, Goudvis, development process may not be in collaborative model of staff and Pearson (1988) called the place the next year. In fact, it is hoped development works well with approach "mutual adaptation," that teachers will continue to change individual teachers, it does have the which, they suggested, is the best after completing the staff possibility of creating, within a given approach to use to create dramatic development. Each teacher is free to program, a number of effective, change such as shifts in orientations follow her own lines of inquiry and autonomous, change-oriented and beliefs. An example of mutual change. The group is not necessarily teachers who have very different adaptation is a program developed expected to decide on the same beliefs about what should be taught by Patricia Anders and myself change. The outcomes of interest are and how. A student progressing (Richardson, 1994). This was a long- not just changes in behaviors and through the program may become term process in which we met with actions, but also changes in the very confused with these different teachers in groups and with rationale and justifications that approaches. How can we shift individual teachers in their accompany the new practices. Thus, a elements of this approach to these classrooms. We helped teachers measure of success is the degree to considerations? explore their beliefs and practices which teachers take responsibility for through videotaping their their actions,2 assume ownership of Conimunrrgy Proarne classrooms, and talking about their their practices, and are able to What is necessary is the creation practices with them while viewing articulate these actions and their of a sense of autonomy and the tape.1 As staff developers, we did justifications to another person. responsibility that goes beyond the not have specific practices in mind Over the three-year period in individual class and moves to the that we wanted teachers to which we worked with teachers in school, program, and community implement. Instead, we worked with this way, the teachers changed their levels. Judith Warren Little (1992) teachers as they explored their own beliefs and practices in directions that describes this as civic responsibility, practices and determined their own related to the various dialogues we but cautions against "formally directions for change. New practices had with them. Many of them, for orchestrated" collaboration that were sometimes introduced by us in example, moved away from the becomes bureaucratic and contrived. response to requests from the textbook or basal approach to Little suggests that a solution to the teachers, and often by other teaching reading toward the use of individual autonomy versus civic teachers. This process required time literature. Bos & Anders (1994) responsibility tension is the to meet, exposure to new practices, evaluated our project and found that development of "joint work" that and time and opportunity to the students of the teachers who brings teachers together and creates experiment with new practices and participated in the staff development interdependence among them. to reflect. process achieved more in certain One way of bringing teachers in Reflective and collaborative staff aspects of reading comprehension a program together in a non- development models such as the one than did the students in contrast bureaucratic and unforced way is to in which we engaged have a set of classrooms. In a follow up two years focus attention on what happens to similar characteristics. They are not later, we found that the teachers had students over the course of their based on a deficit model of change. continued to engage in reflective program or school career. Our current They assume that reflection and change (Valdez, 1992). It would approach to testing and assessment is change are on-going processes of appear that the teachers had cross-sectional and grade- or assessing beliefs, goals, and results. developed a change orientation that classroom-level based. This tends to They are designed to help develop led them to reflect continually on focus administrators' and teachers' and support a change orientation. their teaching and classrooms, and attention on the individual classroom The desired outcomes of such experiment thoughtfully with new or grade level rather than the

NICSALL 0 72 September 1998 ()on D institution. If we concentrate on what used in the classroom were dictated by forces learning." Harvard Educational Review, happens to students as they move outside the classroom, e.g., "I use the basals in 10(4), 245-257. teaching reading because the School Board Pendlebury, S. (1990). "Community, liberty through a program, the focus for insists on it." Following the staff development, and the practice of teaching." Studies in teachers might shift from the students very few teachers' statements attributed their Philosophy and Education, 10(4), 263-279. in their classroom to students within practices to forces outside the classroom. The Placier, P., & Hamilton, M. L. (1994). "Schools their program. This shifts practices were justified by their own beliefs as contexts: A complex relationship." In V. and understandings of the classroom and of Richardson (ed.), Teacher Change and the responsibility, in part, to the teaching. sp. Staff Development Process: A Case in collective, and requires consideration Reading Instruction (pp. 135-159). New of both individual and organizational References York: Teachers College Press. Bos, C., & Anders, P. (1994). "The study of Richardson, V. (1990). "Significant and change. Teacher autonomy would worthwhile change in teaching practice." not, then, be an individual right and student change." In V. Richardson (ed.), Teacher Change and the Staff Development Educational Researcher, 19(7), 10-18. responsibility, but would be earned Process: A Case in Reading Instruction (pp. Richardson, V. (ed.). (1994). Teacher Change and assumed within a community of 181-198). New York: Teachers College Press. and the Staff Development Process: A Case in Reading Instruction. New York: Teachers practice. Cuban, L. (1988). "Constancy and change in schools (1880's to the present)." In R Jackson College Press. (ed.), Contribution to Educational Change: Richardson, V., Anders, P., Tidwell, D., & Combs Ion Perspectives on Research and Practice (pp. 85- Lloyd, C. (1991). "The relationship between My interest in teacher change 106). Berkeley, CA: McCutcheon. teachers' beliefs and practices in reading Devaney, K. (1977). Essays on Teachers' comprehension instruction." American grew out of what appeared to be two Educational Research journal, 28(3), 559- competing concepts. One proposed Centers. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development. 586. that teachers resist change, and the Devany, K. & Sykes, G. (1988), in A. Scheffler, I. (1976). "Basic mathematics skills: other, based on my own experiences Lieberman, (ed.) Building a Professional Some philosophical and practical remarks." Teachers College Record, 78(2), 205-212. as a teacher, teacher educator, and Culture in Schools. New York: Teachers College Press. Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective teacher observer, suggested that Duffy, G., & Roehler, L. (1986). "Constraints on Practitioner. New York: Basic Books. teachers change all the time. My teacher change."journal of Teacher Smylie M. & Conyers, J. (1991). "Changing Conceptions of Teaching Influence the Education, 35, 55-58. inquiry into this discrepancy was part Future of Staff Development."journal of of a movement that led to ways of Fenstermacher, G. D. (1994). "The place of practical arguments in the education of Staff Development, 12 (1): 12-16. thinking about teacher change as a teachers." In V. Richardson (ed.), Teacher Sparks, D., & Loucks-Horsley, S. (1990). voluntary process, and to staff Change and the Staff Development Process: A "Models of staff development." In W. R. Houston (ed.), Handbook of Research on development programs that take Case in Reading Instruction (pp. 23-42). New York: Teachers College Press. Teacher Education (pp. 234-250). New York: advantage of the voluntary nature of Macmillan. Fullan, M. G. (1991). The New Meaning of change. I discovered, however, that Educational Change. New York: Teachers Stallings, J., & Krasavage, E. (1986). "Program implementation and student achievement in these staff development approaches College Press. a four-year Madeline Hunter Follow-Through may lead to an individually Gallagher, M., Goudvis, A., & Pearson, P. D. (1988). "Principles of organizational change." project". Elementary School journal, 87(2), 117-138. autonomous change process and In S. J. Samuels & P. D. Pearson (eds.), thereby to incoherent educations for Changing School Reading Programs (pp. 11- Valdez, A. (1992). Changes in teachers' beliefs, understandings, and practices 39). Newark, DE: International Reading students. The suggestion I have concerning reading comprehension through Association. arrived at so far is that the the use of practical arguments: A follow-up Griffin, G. (1986). "Clinical teacher education." individualistic and empowering form In J. Hoffman & S. Edwards (eds.), Reality and study [Unpublished dissertation), Tucson, AZ: College of Education, University of Arizona. of staff development be extended to Reform in Clinical Teacher Education (pp. 1- Wasley, P.A. (1992). "Working Together: 24). New York: Random House. the group level, involving all teachers Teacher Leadership and Collaboration" in Klein, D. (1969). "Some notes on the dynamics Carol Livingston,(ed.) Teachers as Leaders: in a given school or program. In such of resistance to change: The defender role." In Evolving Roles. NEAS School Restructuring communities, individual members are W. Bennis, K. Benne & R. Chin (eds.), The Series, National Education Association: Planning of Change (pp. 498-507). New York: granted equal respect and concern, Washington, D.C. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. but the focus is on developing and Zeichner, K., & Liston, D. P. (1987, 23-48). Little, J. W. (1992). "The black box of "Teaching student teachers to reflect." agreeing upon the longitudinal goals professional community." In A. Lieberman Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 3-9. and concerns for all students as they (ed.), The Changing Contexts of Teaching pass through the various classes in [Ninety-first yearbook of the National Society AI©the Ah© the school or program. for the Study of Education, Part 11(pp. 157- 178). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Virginia Richardson is Chair of Meyer, L. (1988). "Research on Endnotes Educational Studies and Professor of implementation: What seems to work." In S. J. Teacher Education at the School of 1.This aspect of the staff development Samuels & P. D. Pearson (eds.), Changing program relied on a form of dialogue called Education, University of Michigan. Her School Reading Programs (pp. 41-57). research interests focus on teacher Practical Arguments (Fenstermacher, 1994). Newark, DE: International Reading 2. At the beginning of the study, many Association. beliefs and change, teacher education, teachers suggested that the practices they Morimoto, K. (1973). "Notes on the context for and staff development.+

September 1998 10 NCSALL 73 0 on T5)Focus05 CDIOE0 osaurs a skirts: Org nix C anget CASLatina When staff turnover is high, how can a capacity for change be cultivated? by Hilo!yStern

don't want to sound small group of activists into an Therefore, every fall, we have defensive. It's not that I think institution. Our education programs experienced a complete turnover in everything is perfect the way now reach more than 700 people a staff as five new AmeriCorps it is now, but we have to look year and include English for speakers members replace their predecessors. critically at the student of other languages (ESOL) classes for Every new team of AmeriCorps suggestions. We can't implement adults and children, family literacy, members begins their year of service them all" I couldn't believe those and theater of the oppressed with a refreshing burst of energy. words were coming from me. But workshops. We also run an They are excited about the work and actually, I was feeling defensive. As entrepreneurial business program. see many possibilities for developing far as the staff was concerned the the programs at CASA Latina. As the whole program was up for Thrnover year wears on, their savings diminish negotiation. High turnover is a common and they start fashioning their post- We were discussing the results of phenomenon in many adult basic AmeriCorps plans. New projects at a series of student focus groups. education (ABE) programs, whether work become the last thing they want Thinking about what the learners had it results from the use of volunteers, to spend their time on. said, one person suggested that we AmeriCorps members, unstable Last spring, five of our seven change our classroom arrangement funding, or part-time, poorly paid full-time workers were going to leave to rows of desks facing the in a few months. Those leaving teacher so that students could were in the process of hear the teacher better and not "Whywasthe staff withdrawing from their jobs, be distracted by their psychologically as well as neighbors. I dismissed this idea promoting professionally, tying up loose as contrary to our philosophical ends and documenting their approach to popular education. orgnizational chAnge, knowledge for their successors. Another staff member They did not want anything new suggested that we add a while Iwastheone thrown their way, anything that conversation program. We had would require new efforts. For tried that four years ago and, putting on the brakes?" example, we had been given the besides, the public library opportunity to fill a new position located a few blocks from us earlier than we had planned, and now has a conversation program. staff. CASA Latina is no different. I suggested that we do it. Emotions in Why not just send our students to Most of the people who work here our staff meeting ran high. The them? I had an argument for every are AmeriCorps members. AmeriCorps members complained new suggestion. Was I becoming a AmeriCorps is a national service that they could not handle any new dinosaur, resistant to change? corps begun just five years ago. In projects. They felt that they were Five years after having co- exchange for a year of service, overworked already. Addling another founded CASA Latina, I am the old- members receive a living allowance person and another project in this timer here. I have seen our of $700 a month and an educational case, rewriting the curriculum for the community-based organization, award of almost $5,000 to be used to intermediate ESOL class would which is committed to educating and pay for higher education. This puts create more work for everyone. organizing the Latino seasonal them in a difficult economic Never mind that the purpose of the worker population that lives in urban situation, ameliorated only slightly by project was to save them work while Seattle, grow from the dream of a the fact that it is temporary. increasing the quality of our classes.

RICSALL 0 September 1998 Focus ()on D g 0[100

They were so stressed that anything and rehearsals of presentations to be who think they are discovering new seemed like a threat. The long- given to our board of directors. These our problems for the first time. It term impact of a new project did not reflection meetings have not only seems as if I am having the same really matter to them because they made us more single-minded in our conversations over and over again, were not going to be here. The staff, understanding of the purpose of our but each time with different people almost all about to turn over, was work, they have drawn us closer who have even less of a sense of the resistant to change. together as a staff. We are considerate history of CASA Latina, of solutions This year, why were the roles of each other, we like each being tried but abandoned. reversed? Why was the staff with each other, we want to help I know the only way to reduce promoting organizational change, each other out. This collective this feeling is to have less turnover. while I was the one putting on the support makes us stronger as a To do that, I need more paid staff brakes? I have a reputation for being organization and more open to taking positions, and a nurturing, a person who has more ideas than on the risks of anyone could possibly implement. organizational What had happened? change. Staffing a UphOOEI BaNDe program with The acronym CASA in CASA volunteers or with Latina stands for Centro de Ayuda AmeriCorps Solidaria a los Amigos, which means members will Center for Help in Solidarity with never result in a Friends. We work with people who stable workforce. are in distress: immigrants who are AmeriCorps poor, homeless, and exploited. Most members can only of the individuals we help will never stay two years, at be able to solve their own problems maximum. This unless changes occur in the social year, however, structures that keep them poor. We only two of our are often discouraged by the nine full-time immensity of our students' problems workers are and by the numbers of people leaving; most waiting to be helped. We get AmeriCorps frustrated by not being able to fix the members are signing on for a second challenging work environment world all by ourselves. year. Since most of the staff are where people are supported in doing Last year, in addition to almost staying, organizational progress does important work. One of our total staff turnover, we did not have a not have to stop. This year, the staff is AmeriCorps members is staying on as mechanism through which we could promoting organizational change a paid staff member because I was air our frustrations. This year, I because they have a developed a able to raise enough money to fund changed our class schedule so that shared vision through our weekly one more full-time position. Next we now hold classes four mornings a reflection meetings and because most year, two members who are staying week instead of five. On Fridays, we of them will be here to follow on will leave unless I can find more close down to the public and meet as through on plans for change. Now, funding to fund their positions. a staff to reflect on the larger purpose the question remains: Why am I, the I dream about a staff that has of our work as well to talk about our director of the organization, resisting little turnover. I imagine that together day-to-day frustrations. We leave our change? we could follow through on all of offices and go to a nearby cafe for a our grand schemes and really make couple of hours. Our reflection CIDd Timer things work, instead of making meetings have included journal As the old timer here, I am the changes that get half lost with the writing, open-ended discussion of only one who has lived through all of next generation of workers who start our feelings and reflections on the the changes and growth this all over again. But if we had all been week, discussions of an article or a organization has experienced. I am here since the beginning, would we chapter of a book, role plays as becoming impatient with all of these all start to feel the same way that I spokespeople for immigrant rights, youngsters regardless of their ages sometimes feel: that I've worked

September 1998 NCSALL 75 D goreoon hard enough, made enough improvements, and now want to A nc[cy IhTwoveunsFH. enjoy the fruits of my labors? I'm afraid that we might. We need An honest look told this literacy program they were not as those upstarts who have little sense of our history to question the status good as they might be. It was time to listen to stakeholders quo and make us defend and and institute a continuous improvement process. rethink our programs. Three IlingredenTs I am realizing that, for an by Jane Cody, James Ford, and organization to remain responsive KotMeen Hayward and flexible, it must have three important ingredients. First, it needs regular time set aside for "The art of progress is to preserve order amid change and to preserve change collective reflection and vision amid order..." making. It also needs the stability Alfred North Whitehead of long-term workers who can see the change through and understand Zooking in the mirror, really to identify program gaps and narrow it within the context of the taking a long, hard look, them. It is also a story of organizational history. And, last, it can be unnerving, even improvement, through the systematic needs an influx of new energy from depressing. We see the blemishes use of stakeholder input, hard data, people who are not necessarily that we hide with makeup. We see and detailed analysis. It is a story, not invested in maintaining the status the bald spots that we cover by about perfection, but about getting quo. creatively combing our hair. We better. CASA Latina has that magical see the ten extra pounds that age mix this year. I hope that we are on has brought. Most of us avoid the Our OrgonOzoihlon the way to having it in the future, problem by not looking, or we take Adult and family literacy as I fund more and more positions a quick glance to make sure we programs in Knox County, Tennessee, and realign our ratio of temporary are properly buttoned and zipped are provided by a unique volunteers to permanent staff. In and ready to appear in public. public/private partnership. The public the meantime, I can build Perhaps we make a silent member is the Knox County School community over and over again so resolution about dieting or System and, specifically, its Adult that we are able to push forward a exercising, but that's about it. Basic Education Department (ABED). little more each year. 01' After a11 we're not perfect. The private member is a nonprofit This is pretty normal human corporation called Friends of Literacy, Aboue the Ath©a behavior and it carries over into our Inc. (FOL), which was formed in 1991 Hilary Stern is the executive director professional lives. After operating an to supplement by way of money and co-founder of CASA Latina, a adult literacy program for many community-based organization in and volunteers the resources that Seattle, Washington. She has 14 years years, it is easy to avoid taking a ABED had for literacy programs. of experience working in adult long, hard look in the mirror. Through the balance of this article, education with Latino immigrants. Students come, money comes, "we" refers to this FOL/ABED She is bilingual and bicultural and programs expand, people say "well Partnership, to the program it has worked in community organizing done," everything seems pretty good: produces, and to its combined and education in Nicaragua, not perfect, but pretty good. leadership. Washington, D.C., and Seattle. Hilary This is the story of an adult Most knowledgeable observers has an MA in TESOL+ literacy program that decided that would have described this as a merely glancing in the mirror was no successful partnership with high- Web SO2e longer enough. It is a story of shock: caliber programs. Funding grew each of discovering a lack of clearly year, students provided ample Visit CASA Latina via their web defined standards and the tools to anecdotal evidence that we made a site at: www.casa-latina.org measure progress toward them. It is difference in their lives, and we had a story of hope, in finding a process achieved some national recognition.

INICSALL 0 76 September 1998 coFocus 0 on 05@:0000

We considered ourselves anything focused on the question of how we and value statements for both adult but static. We had changed our measure results. and family literacy program curriculum, improved our volunteer Two other critical pieces fell into components. These built on similar training, and added more paid place during the summer of 1997. work completed earlier by FOL and teachers. Our program had grown to First, to help us with the WWLP the Knox County Schools, but were approximately 400 students, 15 paid project, we hired a new staff member the work of these stakeholders, and staff, and 40 volunteers. We were who just happened to be a Certified were something they could commit doing something right. Quality Examiner for the State of to as their own. The FOL board also Tennessee (more about this below). brainstormed its role and the Forces for Change Second, FOL received a generous gift expectations of and for each board In 1996, FOL had its fifth to purchase new hardware and a member. Some consistent themes birthday. Its budget had grown from software system to manage data were emerging, one of which was $5,000 in 1991 to more than $150,000 about students, volunteers, and better communication among the in fiscal year '96-'97. It had evolved donors. With all this going on, we stakeholder groups: students, from an organization that provided had both the courage to look in the teachers, volunteers, and board money and people to an adult literacy mirror and some ideas about how to members. program operated by ABED to one take a systematic approach to dealing We wanted to use this that was also the primary with what we saw there. information to develop quality management and fiscal agent for its standards for our organization and own family literacy program. It was Mew approach program. We were fortunate: adult time to take a look at where FOL, the Our new staff member literacy educators in both Tennessee Adult Literacy Program, and the introduced us to the Malcolm and New York had already adopted partnership were going. As luck Baldridge Educational Criteria for "Indicators of Program Quality" that would have it, new members had just Performance Excellence (see Figure fit nicely into the Baldriclge Criteria been added to the FOL board of 1, next page). These criteria take the and our own vision, mission, and directors. These members had not total quality management principles values. For example, Quality grown up with the organization and, originally used in the private sector Indicators One and Two of the New consequently, viewed it from a and apply them to educational York program stress the involvement different perspective. One new institutions. They provide an orderly of all stakeholders in the member had expertise in strategic approach to continually improving development of program philosophy planning. A committee composed of the operations and results of an and direction. Quality Indicators FOL board members and program educational enterprise. This was the Three and Five underscore the staff reviewed and clarified the vision, systematic approach we would use. importance of measuring student mission, and values of FOL. The starting point was to identify improvements in reading, writing, In addition, the FOL/ABED the needs of the customers: in this speaking, and problem solving, and partnership had been selected to case, our students. FOL/ABED highlight the goal of enabling participate in a national project program leadership instituted students to be better workers, entitled "What Works Literacy monthly "Town Meetings" to ask parents, and citizens. These Partnership" (WWLP). WWLP sparked students what they wanted, needed, Indicators were consistent with our our thinking, in a more detailed way, and expected from our adult literacy approach in the EFF project. about how we could document the program. Approximately 75 students Indicators Seven and Eight set results we thought we were achieving attended each of the meetings. We benchmarks for the recruitment, in improving the basic academic skills got a wide range of responses, from orientation, placement, and retention of our students. We started to better parking to more computer time of students. We felt comfortable with concentrate on how could we prove and more volunteers for individual all 13 Quality Indicators and adopted that our program really did what we tutoring. Next, we asked teachers and them as standards by which to said it did. volunteers, who are key stakeholders measure our own work. Dovetailing with WWLP was in the program, what they expected Measuring progress towards another national initiative entitled and how we could all work together benchmarks and ultimate program "Equipped for the Future" (EFF).The to improve things. Better training and results are critical concepts in the FOL/ABED partnership was selected more support from the leadership Balclriclge Criteria. We realized that to be one of several pilot-test sites for were two answers. This group also we must start "managing by facts," EFF. Like WWLP, one aspect of EFF developed its own vision, mission, rather than by assumptions or

September 1998 CI7 7 NCSALL D EzEo(Don

student recruitment and retention, Figure 1: Baldrige Education Criteria for Performance Excellence Framework: A Systems Perspective volunteer management, financial management (raising and spending money), and bringing our new data system up to speed. The group Students and Stakeholders Focused examined how we operated in each Strategy and Action Plans of these areas, set sights on a higher standard for future performance, and 2 5 developed detailed action plans for improvement. For example, we knew Strateg ic Faculty and our data system was critical to Planning Staff Focus managing by fact. Without a better z system, we could not record and 7 1 analyze data on student test results. School Performance Neither could we keep track of who Leadership Results had given us money, when, how much, and for what purpose. We 3 6 solicited input from everyone who had to use the data system, asking, Student and Educational and "What are the problems with current Stakehold Support Process operations and how could they be Focus Management improved?" We selected a point person to deal with the software 4 company in redesigning some elements of the system, based upon Information and Analysis this input, and we established a guesswork. We set about the task of working. timetable for improvement. collecting and analyzing data in We needed better data on actual several ways. First, program student performance, so we changed Shock, Hope, management went back into the to a more accurate instrument that 'Improvement classroom to see what actually provides diagnostic information to the The Baldridge criteria require an happened there on a daily basis. They student and the teacher. We tested organization to slow down and resumed the role of teacher to see, adult learners using the Test of Adult rebuild with a focus towards firsthand, the problems of taking our Basic Education (TABE) when they customer and program results that -curriculum from training manual to first enrolled in our program, and matter. The criteria link and create an actual delivery. They also observed again after completing 100 hours of alignment between all internal other teachers to determine whether classroom instruction. We collected, operations, organization leadership, the material covered during in-service analyzed, and fed data back to both systems, and processes as well as training was actually being teachers and students. We use this sound literacy standards. When we incorporated. These were eye- information to develop specific, first began our critical look, many of opening experiences. What we individualized action plans for us confidently believed that, on a thought was happening in the improvement by each adult learner. At scale of one to ten, with ten being the classroom was not always occurring. last we had reliable, hard data to best, we would be about an eight. Some of the curriculum was unwieldy show us whether our students were Wrong. Systematic feedback, data or too complex. It was not always well making academic progress. collection, and analysis, as described integrated between teachers in As we were gathering data, a above, showed some real gaps in our different classrooms. In our family "think tank" of program managers, operations. For example, teachers literacy program, for example, the teachers, and FOL board members told us that the continuous curriculum used by those teaching the began to identify the "vital few" core enrollment of new students on parents was not well linked with that drivers of our partnership and literacy whatever day they happened to show used to teach the children. Teachers programs. Core drivers are what we up was a real barrier to success. It provided input to help redesign have to do well to meet the indicators required teachers to interrupt classes curriculum areas that were not of a quality program. They included to assess new students and try to

NCSALL September 1998 Focus0 on ICD1011C0

bring them up to speed. Students Several students volunteered to told us that it was intimidating to be serve on a Leadership Council that Uwe LeamAng SiOs assigned to a classroom without any tackled some successful projects. idea of what to expect upon arrival. Why the difference? The projects COQSZ The solution, devised with input were those that mattered to the from the stakeholders, was a new students. Their input drove the The Learning Skills class was class, called Learning Skills, in which leadership group's agenda. The developed in response to each new student is enrolled for a students on the Leadership Council problems identified by teachers month before assignment to a regular took data from the Town Meetings and students. Each new student is class. Our TABE test results indicate and also surveyed students about enrolled in the Learning Skills that students who attended the project priorities, using the class for a month. During this time, Learning Skills class are progressing information to chose items to tackle we test him or her to determine an more quickly than those who were first. The initial project created a appropriate grade assignment. We enrolled in our program prior to student eating area. Members of the prepare students for the reality of development of this class. In Council used a quality improvement coming back to school, and addition, since students graduate tool to plan and then establish this provide them with tools from Learning Skills at the end of the new space. They also described organization, listening, and note- month, teachers in regular classes their process and results at an FOL taking skills, for example to enroll new students only once a Board meeting. The next project, increase their chances for success. month and have benchmarks for still underway, is recycling We help each student understand them before they arrive. See the box aluminum cans to raise money to how she learns effectively for for a description of this class. open an on-site store where example, visually or auditorily Teacher training was another students can buy paper, pens, and and we introduce concepts such area that needed to be addressed. We other school supplies. The evidence as goal setting and critical found that teachers were not is anecdotal but, nevertheless, thinking. Each student researches incorporating in-service material in important: Students exhibited a a topic of her choice and presents their classrooms. We asked them for greater sense of community and that research to the class. Students help in revising classroom program ownership than in past learn to use some of the quality curriculum, and we changed our years. While 'student-centered' has improvement tools we are using training focus from 'putting on a always been important to our throughout the organization. We workshop' to meeting the needs of partnership, we found a new way to teach the Shewhart Continuous the staff. In addition, our EFF put it into practice. Improvement Cycle as a means of implementation allowed us to bring Our testing program produced setting and achieving a goal. In the together teachers who worked in data showing that our students are first step of this cycle, a student different parts of our program. Lack improving their reading, writing, plans what he needs to do to of funding for teacher planning time spelling, and math skills. accomplish a particular goal. Next, had been a significant barrier to this Preliminary results indicate that the student does those tasks. The in the past. Adult literacy teachers students gained an average of one swdent studies the completed linked up with family literacy grade level in each of these areas tasks, determines whether the goal teachers. Staff began exchanging after 100 hours of classroom has been met, and, if not, revises ideas and method; they brainstormed instruction. These data have helped the task list to get closer to the to solve problems. When asked to us to identify strong teaching objective. The fourth step is to evaluate this year upon its techniques and discard the less take action on the revised task list. completion in June,1998, teachers effective. The information has been After graduating from were significantly more positive heartening to students and teachers, Learning Skills, students enroll in about the program, and their role in who have objective evidence that regular classes. it, than they had been in the past. their work is paying off. It has also We also saw another significant been helpful in fundraising, since change during the year. We had tried we can show prospective donors several times in the past to develop a that investing in our programs will leadership group from within the get results. We have more credibility student body. Efforts had always with these data, and are more failed. This year, they blossomed. competitive. (Continued on page 18)

September 1998 79 INSCSALL 0 on D @i01E0

(Continued from page 17) simple procedure that everyone performance of an organization in an nefiadions involved has agreed upon. It replaces orderly, comprehensive, systematic There is an old saying: "It's more a hit-and-miss method that no one way is analogous to an individual important to be lucky than good." We understood. The people involved deciding to lose the ten pounds that a knew we had been lucky, and we had to learn process charting and stop in front of the mirror revealed. It thought we had been good. But we develop this particular chart in entails hard work, discipline, wanted to be better. We decided that addition to their other duties, not in incremental results, motivation through good intentions, luck, and ad hoc place of them. If the investment of small victories and, most importantly, a methods had taken us as far as we time produces a better process that, change in lifestyle. Just as a fad diet could go. We could no longer excuse in turn, produces better results in does not produce long-term success in our shortcomings by saying that ours this instance, fewer mistakes, less weight reduction, 'fad quality' is not was a 'fluid' or 'dynamic' confusion and duplication of effort, the answer for improving performance environment, or one that was more reliable financial data then it over time. An organization must live underfunded, implying that somehow will save future time and effort. We and breathe quality and incorporate it our expectations should be lower as a do not worry about getting so as a cultural value in everything that it result. It was time for accountability wrapped up in process charting that does. We have only begun that and documented results through we forget the ultimate goal is to process, but, as the saying goes, "a systematic program improvement. achieve results in student journey of a thousand miles begins This has been a re-education for performance, because student with a single step." ocP all of us. The vocabulary, which feedback and student testing helps keep us focused. About theuh©s comes from the business sector, is Kathleen B. Hayward currently serves as new to us. The process can also be Our world is more complex now because we understand how the President of Literacy, Inc. She is also a discouraging, especially at the licensed attorney with a background in various parts of our program are beginning when scrutiny revealed human resource management. some things we would rather not have interrelated. All our staff and seen. Indeed, when our Think Tank volunteers need to be open to changeJames D. Ford is an adult education sat down to identify the "vital few" and to soliciting and receiving teacher and a quality advisor with the areas to address first, we came up feedback. If we have used customer Knox County Schools Adult Literacy with a list of "vital many" and had input to design the process, and Program and Friends of Literacy, Inc. He has a background as an Air Force difficulty prioritizing where to start. measured and analyzed both customer satisfaction and results academic instructor and as a literacy volunteer. COUTDMIIMITIMing along the way, we should arrive at This process requires the belief our goal. If we do not, we have a Jane K. Cody is Executive Director of that it will work as well as the good idea of what went wrong so thatFriends of Literacy, Inc, and Literacy commitment of time to think, plan, we can improve the next time Coordination with Knox County Schools and involve students, staff, board around. We now understand that Adult Literacy Program. She has more members, and volunteers. All of these orderly is not synonymous with than 15 years experience as an adult groups have been involved and bureaucratic. education teacher and administraton+ supportive. The Baldridge Framework We have a long way to go. In the is a very logical approach, built on coming year, we will be working hard EdO.DoI1ci0 13ogr1 common sense. For those of us geared to bring the ABED and FOL toward instant results, it has leadership further on board. Although Ossue C: September CM sometimes been frustrating to slog both have been supportive, both through the tedious process of groups need a better understanding Miriam Burt, Center for Applied documenting, in detail, the way we do of the significant organizational Linguistics, Washington, D.C. Hal Hayden, Northeast and Islands things (our "as is" state) versus the implications of this continuous Regional Educational Laboratory way we should do things (our desired improvement process. We will be at Brown University, Providence, RI state). It is time consuming and implementing more fully our EFF Sharon Ultsch, Old Orchard Beach/Saco Adult Education, Old Orchard requires discipline. Just recently, three curriculum. We will continue work on Beach, ME staff and one board member spent an our action plans for the "vital few" Janet Isserlis, Literacy Resource Center at hour discussing and writing down the and document our progress toward Brown University, Providence, RI Janet Nevels, Urban Minority Alcoholism process we will use to handle receipts improvement. and Drug Abuse Outreach Program, and expenditure. Now we have a Deciding to improve the Cleveland, OH

MCSALL 80 September 1998 70Focus0 on D51CD: ZOCZ

participants through a process of Facilitati Inquiry-Based Sta reflection, taking action, and more reflection. The practitioners Deveiopme t investigated challenges they regularly face in their adult literacy practices. I was the coordinator and While helping teachers to change, staff developers must be co-facilitator of the project. open to changing, too. Five RePreu'll's The first retreat, "Becoming Researchers," included community- by Jereann King building activities to help participants learn more about each other, their work, and the got involved in inquiry-based contradictions I experienced communities they served. The main staff development and facilitating a practitioner-inquiry- focus was introducing the research practitioner research during as-staff-development project. process and how we expected the the early 90's as part of my work In 1995, with funding from the GALPIN project to unfold. with Literacy South. A non-profit UPS Foundation, Literacy South Participants spent time looking at the organization, Literacy South was initiated the Georgia Adult Literacy problems that confronted them in founded in 1987 to improve the Practitioner Inquiry Network their programs. Working in groups, quality of adult literacy services in (GALPIN). We mailed out a project they developed problem statements the Southeast through a brochure and application form to and questions to guide their combination of professional literacy providers in community- investigations. They left the retreat development in participatory based programs and community with an assignment to gather what literacy practices, collaborative colleges around the state. The we called a 'data slice' of their research and evaluation, and application form asked applicants to classroom or program life. The advocacy for participatory describe how they saw themselves purpose was to validate or add new programs. Inquiry-based staff moving toward more learner- information to the problems or development is a process in which centered practice, the major issues they wanted to investigate. practitioners come together with challenges they faced in their work, At the second retreat, colleagues over a period of time to and the experiences they had had in participants refined their problem systematically explore issues, program development projects. We statements and research questions. questions, or problems emerging in asked these questions because we They taught each other various data their worlz. The framework for wanted to put together a group that collection techniques, such as organizing inquiry-based staff shared our commitment to learner- journaling, observing, interviewing, development can differ from centered and participatory work. We triangulation, and surveying. context to context, but always learned from the applications that Returning to the third retreat, involves rejlvcting on practice, potential participants had a wide "Listening for the Story," with formulating problem statements, range of teaching experiences, very mounds of data, they began the taking new action or trying out new little program development process of making sense of it by approaches, and evaluating their experience, and varying definitions of coding and analyzing it. In the last effectiveness. In theory, inquiry- what it means to be learner centered. two retreats, "Sharing the Research based staff development, like From a small applicant pool, we Experience" and "Telling the Story," learner-centere4 participatory made our selections and put together participants presented what they had adult literacy, is about respecting a group of 18 participants (13 discovered during their research experience, culture, knowledge; it is women, five men, six African projects and worked on how to best about sharing power and taking Americans, 12 European Americans) capture in written form their research new actions. It is a way of learning from diverse literacy settings in experience. At the last meeting, that places practitioners and their mostly rural communities in Georgia. participants talked about the practice at the center of the We planned and implemented a importance of the GALPIN learning process. This article is series of retreats and meetings over a experience to them both personally about the tensions and year's time. The five retreats took and professionally.(Continued on page 20)

September 1998 NCSALL (Don D ig0[100

engagement in dialogue motivation. My ideas about self- "In theory, I wanted to and reflection. This esteem and motivation were different. approach was new for our Also, many of the communities follow participatory group, which seemed to be with whom GALPIN participants more comfortable with a work hold adult education in low principles. I wanted directive approach. Our regard and the GALPIN group realize way made for what some it. The communities are often poor, participants to freely group members referred to rural, and offer very few as `touchy-feely' situations. opportunities for residents with low des i their projects It reminded me of my work literacy skills to improve themselves in the adult literacy through better employment. Many of nd follow their own classroom, when students the employers and industry owners in resisted being placed in these communities have no hope of roles of generators of being able to offer higher wages for paths to discovery. In knowledge: not wanting to higher-skilled or better-educated examine their own workers. So, consequently, residents practice, however, I experiences for answers, who could benefit from adult but rather to have answers education programs have little had in mind definite from me, the teacher. With incentive to even participate or get the GALPIN group, I felt involved. Again, my ideas about what outcomes for how they pressured to be an expert. this meant for literacy work differed When I resisted that role, I from those of the group with whom I would chAnge and felt uneasy. was working. Most of the practitioners improve their work" in inquiry groups I had Theory vs. Prodice facilitated in the past In theory, I wanted to follow (Continued from page 19) brought a political participatory principles. I wanted While the project was successful perspective to their work. This group participants freely to design their overall, I experienced a dilemma felt different. Besides wanting more projects and follow their own paths to common to participatory work: How `expert-driven' learning structures, discovery. In practice, however, I had to honor and build on participants' they seemed to ignore or not bring in mind definite outcomes for how experiences, background, and culture forth the racial, economic, and social they would change and improve their while pushing my own agenda? factors of their students' lives into our work. I was often stymied by what I Several issues surfaced for me during discussions. For example, thought was narrow and non-critical the GALPIN project concerning my participants rarely made reference to analysis by the group, and was even personal values, requiring that I their students being mostly African more frustrated with my own lack of analyze critical issues in greater American women, poor, and from ability to structure activities creatively depth. other marginalized groups. For me, to unearth new analysis. I was bringing issues of gender, class race frustrated, too, because I wanted Difgererog Coilgures and power into the discussion was participants to view their practices Staff development projects are essential. This omission showed me through learner-centered and driven by the values and that the way I viewed adult literacy participatory lenses and use language philosophies of both participants and education was very different from common to my experience. Was I facilitators; a set of norms, explicit or how most of the project participants really meeting them where they were, not, is always operating. I think of viewed it. which is a tenet of learner-centered this as the `culture of staff Where some participants situated work? development.' In the early stages of their problems during many of the The struggle was exacerbated by the GALPIN project, most participants early discussions and in their initial the restrictions of time. The retreats would have liked us, the facilitators, problem statements also stood out for were only two full clays each and we to tell them what to think and what to me. They blamed many of the had to be pragmatic in deciding what do. We wanted the project activities challenges they experienced in their support and structure we could offer and the retreats to be participant work on their students and their participants so they could complete centered, and we encouraged active students' lack of self-esteem and their projects. Activities to examine

GMCSALL September 1998 1Focus 0 on D .0[100 philosophical and political issues reading and discussing journal closer attention to moving seemed to be ancillary to the process. articles, student writing, and various participants into generalizing I had to come to grips with my own other texts. These activities can then principles from all of their research expectations and make some serve as a springboard into deeper discoveries and thinking about how adjustments in our process. analysis of adult literacy challenges these principles translate or transfer In an attempt to broaden critical and dilemmas. In the future I will try into their adult literacy education analysis, during our second retreat this out. practices. I will also encourage we held after-dinner discussion As a facilitator, I have to consider practitioners to examine their groups. The first discussion was participants' previous experiences discoveries with an eye to the policy organized around an article on and the values and norms they bring implication for the larger adult literacy and community economic to practitioner research. What are education system, as I will continue development. The second discussion their expectations about group to examine mine. sp, was on stereotypes of adults with process, community building, literacy barriers. These discussions examining assumptions? These are all bout the Author provided a platform for a critical important to consider in planning jereann King is Director of Programs at examination of issues in adult any kind of staff development Literacy South, responsible for staff education and helped me to feel process, but especially in one that is development programs with more comfortable expressing some of practitioners in publicly funded adult participatory and inquiry based. I will literacy and ESOL programs. In my ideas. By our fourth retreat, when ask these questions more explicitly in addition, she works with staff in participants presented their projects, future projects. community organizations to assist them we were all more comfortable If I want practitioners to become with incorporating literacy sharing our opinions and drawing on more learner-centered and development into their community our experiences and appreciated participatory, then I think it is work. She also loves quilts and learning from each other. The important for them, regardless of quilting.. participants were certainly more their particular research question, to willing to engage in deeper understand what I think of as the discussions and take a more critical fundamentals of learner-centered, look at some of the issues than they participatory adult literacy education. had in the first meeting. Despite my I will devote more time to this. This How can you get it? discomfort, the process seemed to would give them a framework for have worked. thinking about and designing their Focus on Basics is distributed free projects. through most state ABE systems to He 2d. rime Planning and facilitating many ABE programs. It is also I learned some important lessons practitioner research is not easy. As available on the Internet: about how to encourage reflective hugsel.harvarcLedu/ -ncsall. But if facilitators, we, too, have to examine you would like to receive your own thinking and critical analysis from the our assumptions about group copy promptly, please subscribe. GALPIN project. Our views of adult process and what it means to push literacy education are often clouded for deeper reflection and critical You can subscribe at a rate of four by media stereotypes of learners and analysis among participants. issues/$8 by sending a check or their experiences. It is therefore money order for the appropriate Throughout the GALPIN project, I amount, payable to World Education. important in a staff development found myself reflecting on my We also accept purchase orders but setting to provide opportunities for experience in the ABE class, asking are not able to process credit card participants to examine critically questions like: "Is this process orders.We publish four issues, assumptions and values about learner centered? In what ways are approximately 24 pages an issue, education in general, and adult each year. Multiple year orders are we creating opportunities for encouraged. literacy education specifically. Adult participatory learning? Am I staying literacy practitioners often feel grounded in what I know?" And Please send your check, money order, isolated in their practices; when finally, "How do the answers to these or purchase order to: given an opportunity to spend time questions have an impact on whether Kimberly French with their peers, they simply want to Focus on Basics participants are successful as World Education talk. Those chat sessions can provide practitioner researchers?" 44 Farnsworth Street natural ways in which to move into Somewhere and somehow in the Boston, MA 02210-1211 more structured activities such as mix of all of this, I will pay much

September 1998 83 P1CSALL Focus0 on 03@i0E2,

thought I had utilized one in my own An Unexpected Outcome teaching practice. Through reading and discussion, we settled on Huerta- No lightning flashed. No light bulbs blinked on. Change Macias' (1993) definition of learner- centered as the one that reflected our was not my intent. It isdifficult to remember when I first views. She defines it as an approach realized that a change was taking place. I do know that my that "involves collaboration between teachers and learners; through beliefi about teaching ESOL were not the same as they were ongoing dialogue, they determine the eight months ago... content of the curriculum and the learning objectives. This approach focuses on learners' real-life needs..." by Edith Cowper I began to realize that I was not as learner-centered as I thought. I had used many participatory activities. lhis story begins when foundation of our framework. One, for example, was a lesson I Literacy South, an adult used for "ed" (walked, talked, for iteracy research and staff My ©culls example) pronunciation practice. I 7 When I applied to participate in gave students cards of regular past development organization, obtained a grant for the North this project I was an ESOL instructor, tense verbs and asked them, in pairs, Carolina adult English for but by the first meeting I was to decide the ending sounds (/t/, /d/, speakers of other languages working as an ESOL coordinator. My or /id/). Then, the students wrote (ESOL) Curriculum Framework new role as supervisor included their answers on the board and the Inquiry Project. They decided to hiring, training, and observing class decided if they were correct. I work with ESOL instructors from teachers. I was actually the thought I was learner-centered Wake Technical Community College supervisor of some of the teachers because I provided the students with in Raleigh, North Carolina, who were participating in the tasks in which they made decisions. because Wake Tech holds its ESOL project. I felt I must be a good role classes in sites accessible to model for the teachers with whom I Missing Componeng students, such as churches and worked. In addition, I wanted to An important component was high schools, in addition to on provide quality input to the group. missing, however: the students' input campus. The diversity of the ESOL We began our project by on what and how to learn. I did not student population was also reviewing our own language learning spend enough time learning about appealing to Literacy South. experiences and discussing some of their needs, interests, and styles of Of about 75 Wake Tech ESOL our teaching beliefs. We also had learning. I used materials that I instructors, 15, myself included, quiet time for reflective writing. In thought were interesting and applied to carry out the curriculum my journal I noted, "All this reflection relevant, but I was not giving my framework inquiry project with the does make me question some of my students a voice in selecting the goal of developing guiding principles own learning and teaching, which is topics they studied and the ways they for adult ESOL practitioners in North a good thing, but not always easy to learned best. Carolina. Following an initial swallow sometimes. I'm frustrated Then I began to understand that weekend retreat, the project group that I'm not doing all these things in the manner in which our meetings met monthly. In addition, we each the classroom, but want to learn how were conducted by Literacy South did an inquiry project related to our to be better. The big question for me staff demonstrated a learner-centered practice to explore the teaching is how can I best use this info for my philosophy. Throughout the project beliefs that guided each of us. current position: more as a teacher they asked us the participants Then, we presented our individual trainer. How can I train when I'm not how we felt about the process: if we project findings to each other. an 'expert' teacher myself and don't had too much information or not Out of our research, inquiry, and incorporate everything in my own enough. Adjustments were made reflection, we developed a shared teaching? It presents a new based on our comments. One such vision of how best to serve our challenge..." example is when our meeting time learners. From this we formulated We talked a lot about using a was near to ending and we were not our guiding principles: the learner-centered philosophy. I through our agenda. The group

NCSALL September 1998 84 TlFocus@igEo0 on

negotiated how to spend the to gather data, gathered remaining time rather than having it data, and analyzed the Wake Tech ESOL decided for us. We had a voice in results. Everyone in the Teachers' Questionnaire what we were doing and how we project did an inquiry project were doing it. In my journal I wrote, that related to our end goal 1. How long have you been "I also really like how the activities of identifying teaching teaching ESOL? we do in the project are done in a principles for adult ESOL. way to illustrate teaching I wanted to provide the 2. Why are you working as an ESOL philosophies, i.e., leading sessions in Wake Tech ESOL instructors instructor? a learner-centered way." not participating in the Here is another example. On the project with an opportunity 3. Describe your formal education last night of our second retreat, after to explore their teaching (in any field): a long day of working, we created beliefs. I also wanted to see 4. Describe your training in images, with paper, glue, and if their beliefs were like teaching ESOL: scissors, of the process we had been those of the project through over the past eight months. It members'. I surveyed 5. Complete this sentence: A was optional: only those who wanted approximately 68 Wake Tech successful lesson is one in to participated, and we were free to ESOL teachers to learn about which create. We explained our pictures to their teaching beliefs and to the group and put them together to find out if having a 6. Describe a successful/good form a paper quilt, each individual framework developed by lesson that you taught. having developed a piece of the their peers would be helpful. 7. How do you decide what you whole. I was not only learning about I had read, "Teachers' belief will teach? the philosophy, but experiencing it, systems are founded on the too, and finding I liked that type of goals, values, and beliefs 8. When choosing materials learning environment. teachers hold in relation to (a photocopy or book) what I also recognized the value of the content and process of criteria do you use? applying your philosophy in all teaching, and their aspects of your job. Instead of saying, understanding of the systems 9. Have you studied/learned another language? Yes or No "we believe in a learner-centered in which they work and their ESOL teaching philosophy," Literacy roles within it. These beliefs a. If yes, (circle all that apply) South staff demonstrated the and values serve as the When:High School philosophy, showing that it is not just background to much of the CollegeLiving abroad a belief, but a way of working. I teachers' decision making Other

wanted to apply these beliefs in all and action..." (Richards & aspects of my practice. I came to Lockhart, 1994, p. 30). Since b. What helped you learn understand that I do not have to be the choices teachers make another language? the 'expert teacher' but the effective illustrate their teaching c. What hindered your language administrator. I can find out the beliefs, I questioned them learning? needs of the teachers and provide about their criteria for them with learner-centered training, planning lessons and d. What effect did those which could motivate them to selecting materials, how they (9a, 9b, 9c) have on your incorporate these principles in their define a successful lesson, ESOL teaching? classrooms. and the effects of their own language learning lo. Describe your teaching Onquiry Proisa experiences, as well as their philosophy as an ESOL teacher. Each project participant did an ESOL teaChing philosophy. inquiry project. An inquiry project The survey data I 11. Would having guidelines for was defined as a "mode of research collected indicated that teachers of adult ESOL that driven by the learner's desire to look many teachers used were developed by your peers deeply into a question or an idea that important aspects of a be helpful? interests him or her." We each learner-centered practice. Why or why not? defined a question, developed a way They focused on meeting

September 1998 NCSALL Focus0 on D EalgO their students' needs and providing a method of presentation. They information I can use to help other comfortable, safe, classroom presented the detailed information in teachers' professional development. atmosphere. Many teachers also a simple and straight-forward As I have said, we came noted that, with curriculum that was manner. I probably would have together with the goal of developing relevant to students' lives and needs, provided too many details that they an ESOL framework for adult learners engaged more in the would not have remembered. educators on North Carolina. My learning process. I met with a focus After my efforts to provide a focus was not on changing my group of four teachers to discuss more learner-centered teacher beliefs, but on contributing to the these ideas further. I learned that the training, I was disappointed that the framework we were jointly creating. focus group participants shared this evaluations were not more glowing. Even though I was not trying to philosophy, but perhaps not as However, the goal of being learner- change, I think the reasons I did strongly as those who experienced it centered is finding out what the would work for those actively by participating in the project. I needs are and feeling comfortable seeking to. These elements are realized that the teachers who were expressing those needs honestly. I reflection and inquiry, experience, not participating in the project would learned that it is not necessarily and implementation. They must need to have a voice in the process negative to.hear what needs were occur in a comfortable, safe to accept our group's guiding not met. Now I have more environment. Change and its principles. To help others information to consider in preparing implementation are not easy, but are incorporate these changes into their for future trainings. I also see I must made easier with support and practices, they would need to be find out the needs of each new encouragement. Knowing this, I can provided with opportunities to group of teachers. Just as teachers in continue trying to employ these experience them in action. the classrooms need to make beliefs in helping other ESOL ongoing adjustments to meet their teachers in their own change and Ompliennenflzgion students needs, I must continually professional growth. 07.. Now, as ESOL Coordinator, I work on providing professional have the on-going challenge of development designed for the References implementing the beliefs I had varying needs of each group of new Huerta-Macias, A. (1993). Current gained. I have wondered how I can teachers. Terms in Adult ESL Literacy. Eric employ a more learner-centered Digest. Washington, D.C.: NCLE, Center for Applied Linguistics. format in our staff development. This [In Condusion Several factors helped motivate Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. (1994). task is exciting and scary at the same Reflective Teaching in the Second time. It is exciting to work with and me to change. One important Language C'lassroom. New York: develop staff in this way, but it is element was the project group. I Cambridge University Press. scary because it is very challenging. I respected them and valued their question how well I can do it within insights and opinions. In our ESOL About the Author the constraints of the system, which classrooms, we try to establish a Edith Cowper is currently an ESOL include a staff of part-time instructors community of learning in which Coordinator for Wake Technical who get no pay for professional students feel comfortable taking risks Community College Basic Skills development. I feel pressure to to learn. This was also the case in the Division and a work group member of model our guiding principles, project community, where I was able the Adult ESOL Curriculum understanding that if teachers are to to discuss, read, write, and Framework Inquiry Project. She has experience new ideas. I felt taught ESOL in the U.S. and abroad, in implement a learner-centered a variety of settings, including comfortable in reflecting on my philosophy, they need to experience intensive programs, workplace, and one, as I did. teaching practices and inquiring junior high school.+ In the teacher preservice about my teaching beliefs as well as training I did after completing the those of other Wake Tech ESOL CurriauDurt project, I tried to implement some teachers. Another important element beliefs I gained from my experience. that helped change to occur was FvolMeworks For example, in the first session, reflection: I reflected on and Turn to the Blackboard on page 28 instead of presenting the information questioned my past and present for information on how to get a experiences and their effectiveness. myself, I asked the new teachers to copy of the Curriculum Frameworks choose a component of the Also, the project was interesting. It developed by Edith Cowper and paperwork and present it to the was exciting to develop her colleagues.+ others. They chose the item and the professionally and to gain

NCSALL September 1998 - 8 6 DmFocus 0 on D5@i0E0

Ressamh agenclg RR MIA ESE

Much is known about best G91300,RR practices in adult English as a second language (ESL), but unanswered questions about the adult English language learner, program design, teacher Health a Relatively High offered a mean rating of 3.8 preparation, instruction, and Priority, Suggests Survey higher than mid-range to health as assessment still exist. The answers Findings from a recent NCSALL a content area in support of to these questions are critical, not survey of 52 state directors of Adult curriculum goals. They offered a only to improve the effectiveness Basic Education (ABE) suggest that similarly higher than mid-range of adult ESL programs but also to health as a content area and health as rating, 3.5, to the extent to which improve the lives of adult ESL a skill area are relatively high health of adult learning is a barrier to learners. priorities for them. However, state learning. In both questions, the mean In 1996, the National directors identify a number of rating was the same for each region Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy barriers, among them lack of good of the country. Overall, health as a Education (NCLE) at the Center for curricula and health-related teacher content area, a subject of study, a Applied Linguistics (CAL) in training, as constraints to skills area, and a barrier to learning, Washington, D.C., was asked by implementing health as a content was offered a higher than mid-range the National Center for the Study area in ABE. Each state and U.S. rating. of Adult Learning and Literacy protectorate has a director of Adult While supportive of health as a (NCSALL) to assist in the Basic Education, responsible for content area, the state directors development of a research and administering federal adult basic identified multiple barriers to development agenda focused education funds and policies. addressing health in ABE and English specifically on adult English The survey was developed by for speakers of other languages language learners and adult ESL NCSALL's Dr. Rima Rudd as part of (ESOL) classes. The barriers include program issues. Its objectives are her on-going examination of health those related to teaching and those to provide funders with clear and literacy. State directors were related to students. The most priorities for funding; to provide asked to rate the value of health as a frequently listed barrier was lack of researchers with support for content area, as a subject of study, as curriculum (resources) and/or proposing specific projects; and to a skill area, and as a barrier to teacher training on the topic. provide a focus for discussion learning. They were asked about "[Teachers need] training in about how to improve adult ESL barriers to incorporating health contextualized learning and targeted programs. lessons in adult learning centers. health education training [as well as] In collaboration with NCSALL, They were also asked to identify the resources dedicated to community and with additional sponsorship concerns or considerations that must partnerships, particularly between and support from Teachers of be addressed before teachers could ABE/ESL and health services," wrote English to Speakers of Other incorporate health as a content area. one state director. Existing demands Languages, Inc. (TESOL), NCLE The survey also invited commentary. on teachers' time was also cited, by has now completed the agenda, Of the 52 state directors, 46, or 15 state directors, as a barrier to incorporating feedback from 88 percent, completed and returned addressing health in ABE and ESOL learners, instructors, program the survey form. Each of the four classes. Barbara Garner administrators, policymakers, and regions of the countly Northeast, Fun Repori AvaikabOe researchers. It is available, free, South, Midwest, and West was The research report upon which this from NCLE, 4646 40th Street NW, represented. article is based is available for $5. For Washington, D.C. 20016; (202) The state directors were asked to a copy, contact Kimberly French, 362-0700 extension 200. It can rate four different aspects of health NCSALL Reports, World Education also be downloaded from NCLE's and literacy on a five point scale, /NCSALL, 44 Farnsworth Street, web site at www.cal.org/ncle. + with one indicating low priority and Boston, MA 02210-1211; e-mail: five indicating high priority. They KFrench@WorldEcLorg.+

September 1998 NCSALL 87 Focus0 on D@i0E0

the GED in the hiring decision. That [igCDT is, our data show that the nonwhite GED-holder is no more likely than the uncredentialed nonwhite dropout to be hired. In the last issue of Focus on the article is that we CANNOT There is one way that these two Basics, I presented and discussed the establish with our study the presence `thought-experiments' could be findings from a new study on the of employer discrimination. Let me construed as evidence of employer economic impact of the GED by begin an explanation of that discrimination. If discrimination leads Richard Murnane, John Willett, and statement with a review of our employers systematically to relegate myself. One of the interesting and findings. Our study shows that young young nonwhite dropouts to such troubling findings of that study was white dropouts who were 16-21 low-level jobs that the employer has that there was a substantial impact of when they attempted the GED in no need for the information of the GED on the earnings of young 1990, and who just barely passed the productive attributes conveyed by a white dropouts (age 21-26) who GED exams, received a substantial GED, then we would expect no `GED passed with scores just at the passing boost in earnings from acquisition of effect' on the earnings of nonwhite level, but not on the earnings of the GED. Furthermore, this boost in dropouts. Other work we have done, young nonwhite dropouts with earnings was solely due to the labor however, suggests that this is not the similar scores. I offered several market signaling value of the case. For example, we find that possible explanations for our results. credential: employers used the GED nonwhites dropouts with and without Several subsequent letters to the as a signal of attributes that they credentials in our data are employed editor of Focus on Basics suggested valued but could not directly observe in jobs where the returns to basic that my explanations were dancing (e.g., motivation, commitment to cognitive skills are just as high, and around a simple explanation for our work, maturity, etc.). However, we sometimes higher, than the returns to findings: employer discrimination in did not find that employers similarly skills enjoyed by white dropouts in the labor market toward nonwhite job valued the credential when it was our data. This suggests that nonwhite applicants. While I understand the possessed by the young nonwhite dropouts are employed in jobs where spirit of these responses to the article, dropouts in our study. On the face of skills do matter and are rewarded. I would like to clarify exactly what we it, this may seems like evidence of I am certainly not attempting to can and cannot say with our research. racial/ethnic discrimination in the argue the absence of labor market First, however, some individuals labor market. This interpretation discrimination. Subtle and overt acts were upset with our use of the term warrants a closer look. of discrimination are common in our 'nonwhite.' While another designation The relevant `thought- society. It would be naive to argue could have been employed, the term experiment' for our results concerns that the labor market is immune from simply derives from data limitations. two hiring situations. In the first, two discriminatory practices. The relevant That is, in our data we were only able observationally similar young white question, however, is what can we to identify white, non-Hispanic dropouts apply for a job, one with a say about market discrimination with individuals as one group, and GED and one without. Our results our research, and the answer is very everyone else as the other group. suggest that, in this case, the little. Thus, the 'nonwhite' group includes employer will use the GED as Our results are perplexing. Why African-Americans, Hispanics, Native relevant information in her hiring do employers seem to value the GED Americans, Asians, and anyone else decision, tending to prefer the white as a signal for white dropouts who who chose a race/ethnicity category GED-holder over the white are on the margin of passing the other than `white' on the GED test uncredentialed dropout. In the GED, but not for nonwhite dropouts form. second situation, two young who barely pass? The results from our The central assertion in some of nonwhite dropouts apply for a job, study do not contribute any the letters we received was concerned one possesses a GED and the other information to the question of the fact that our results seemed to does not. Our results suggest that in employer discrimination: that is a `prove' the existence of employer this situation, the employer does not thought experiment involving a white discrimination in the labor market. Yet use the GED as a signal of relevant and an nonwhite dropout showing up we did not discuss that as an information, or at least that the for the same job, a scenario not explanation for our findings. The employer considers other observable applicable to our study. reason that discussion was lacking in information as more important than John Tyler

1s3CSALL September 1998 83 3Focusgo[E00 on

processes and results. One challenge lies in determining, if impact arises, the extent to which it is a result of the staff development process rather than some other factor. Influential factors might include characteristics of the teacher, such as years of experience or previous training, or characteristics of the program or system, such as full-time Staff Development employment, paid time for staff development, etc. "By gathering "Anyone who makes decisions conduct research, exploring the quantitative demographic data from about staff development for teachers questions more fully or testing teachers and information about the in adult literacy should be interested solutions to problems. The mentor contexts in which they work, we in the outcomes of this study," says teacher group model most closely hope to be able to understand what Cristine Smith, principal investigator resembles a marriage of the study is important for impact to occur," on the NCSALL staff development circle and peer coaching. In a study Smith explains. study. "People who want to get the circle, a group reads about and most from staff development dollars, discusses a topic of interest; in peer Looking at adions such as state literacy resource center coaching, colleagues observe each They are looking at the actions staff, program and state ABE other's teaching and provide each the study participants 120 directors, are the primary audience. other with structured feedback. teachers take after participating in It will provide information about the "Each one of these three models, staff development, gathering data contexts necessary for change and while different, involves acquiring via questionnaires and interviews. growth, and about how different knowledge, being critically Learners and program staff who are models of staff development, if done reflective, and taking action," identified by participants as having well, work." explains Smith. "The idea is to see been affected by the actions the This four-year study examines how effective each model is, if done study participants took as a result of how teachers change in their roles as well, taking into account differences their staff development experience learners, teachers, and members of in teachers' backgrounds and the may also be interviewed. "We won't the field of adult basic education contexts in which they work." be able to say too much about how (ABE) as a result of participation in The models have been designed staff development affects student one of three different models of staff to be accessible to teachers and learning," says Smith. "We will be development. The three roles affordable to states. "We may find able to say something about what it represent widening spheres of that each model is appropriate for is going to take to get a staff influence. Good staff development adult basic education," she says. "We development system going that should influence growth in all three don't know that now. We might see enables staff to grow and change. areas. differences from state to state based We'll have models that are on the way the adult basic education affordable and work within the ABE 'Three Modeis system and related staff system." The three staff development development systems are For more information on this approaches being examined are administered. In Connecticut, for study, contact Dr. Cristine Smith at training/workshop, practitioner example, not many teachers were World Education in the Amherst research, and mentor teacher familiar with practitioner research, office: groups. Training workshops are the while in Massachusetts, it's widely NCSALL most commonly used staff known." The study is being World Education development method in ABE. (See conducted in Connecticut, Maine, 48 No. Pleasant Street, Suite 303 page 9 for more on this model.) and Massachusetts. Amherst, MA 01002 Practitioner research, a method The research design involves E-mail: [email protected] growing in popularity, is when running the three staff development Telephone: (413) 253-0603 teachers choose questions to models and collecting quantitative research in their classrooms. They and qualitative data about the by Barbara Garner

September 1998 NCSALL 89 Focus0 o n 63EgliCO BLACKBARD Sc.coff DeveDopmerat Resources Development, 12 (1) 22- 27. (1991). Chicago: University of Illinois at Chicago, Center for Literacy, 1994. M. Burt & F. Keenan, Trends in Staff Development for Adult ESL Instructors. D. Fleming, New Directions in Professional Development. ERIC Q&A. Washington, D.C.: NCLE, MIUJII I5OL CurricuOum www.carei.coled.umn.edu/ResearchPr Center for Applied Linguistics, 1998. Framework Resources actice/v4n1/NDiPD.html. The North Carolina Adult ESOL Cassie Drennon, Adult Literacy Curriculum Framework Inquiry C. Livingston, (ed.), Teachers as Practitioners as Researchers. ERIC Project, Building Together A Leaders: Evolving Roles. Washington, Digest. Washington, D.C.: NCLE, Framework: Inquiry Writings. D.C.: NEA School Restructuring Center for Applied Linguistics, 1994. Durham, NC: Literacy South, 1998. Series, National Education Association, 1992. Mark Kutner, Staff Development for The North Carolina Adult ESOL ABE and ESL Teachers and Curriculum Framework Inquiry L. Pellicer & L. Anderson, A Volunteers. ERIC Digest. Washington, Project, Building Together A D.C.: NCLE, Center for Applied Handbook for Teacher Leaders. Framework: The Curriculum Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Linguistics, 1992. Framework. Durham, NC: Literacy Press, Inc. 1995. South, 1998. ERIC/NCLE Digests are available free of charge from the National J. Peters, "Strategies for reflective The resources listed above are both practice" In Ralph Brockett (ed.) Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy soon to be available from Peppercorn Education (NCLE), 4646 40th Street Professional Development for Books & Press; telephone: (336) 574- Educators of Adults. San Francisco: NW, Washington, D.C. 20016; (202) 1634; fax: (336) 376-9099; or email: Jossey-Bass, 1991. 362-0700; e-mail: [email protected]. or [email protected]. downloaded from their web site: www.cal.org/ncle. T. Shanahan, M. Meehan, & S. Mogge, The Professionalization of the MUM°. Web Vie Visit our web site for all issues Teacher in Adult Literacy Education. R. Ackland, "A review of the peer NCAL Technical Report TR94-11. of Focus on Basics. coaching literature." Journal of Staff hugsetharvard.edu/-ncsall

0 g_0[1Q0 FIRST CLASS US POSTAGE World Education PAID 44 Farnsworth Street Boston, MA 02110-1211 BOSTON, MA PERMIT NO. 53495

Sandra Kerka ERIC Database Center on Education and Training for 1900 Kenny Rd Columbus OH43210-1016

9 0 o n

World Education/NCSALLConnecting Research and Practice Volume 2, Issue D December 1998

PROJECT-BASED _a - LEARNING

MCSAILL Research FindOngs Lessons From NCSALL's Outcomes and Impacts Study Hal Beder 9 Less Teaching and More Learning Susan Gaer 3 Knowledge in Action: The Promise of Project-Based Learning Heide Spruck Wrigley Lessons from NCSALL's 9 Turning Obstacles into Outcomes and Impacts Study Opportunities Deborah L. Johnson by Hal Beder 2 'II Voter Education, esearchers occasionally encounter contradictory findings, Registration, and findings that disagree with each other to the extent that it is hard Action (VERA) to imagine both could be true. Although this is frustrating, it is Andrea Nash exciting too, because in resolving contradictions, new insights often emerge. In NCSALL's Outcomes and Impacts Study, we were faced with 2 2 such a contradiction. After examining testing data from seven outcome and Focus ©U Research: impact studies, we concluded that the evidence was insufficient to MCIAILL's determine whether adult basic education panic:pants gain in basic skills. Transformational In contradiction, however, learners in ten studies were asked if they gained Learning in in reading, writing, and mathematics, and they overwhelndngly reported Adulthood large gains. What led to this contradiction, and what is the answer to the Kathryn Portnow, Nancy gain question? In this article we will examine possible reasons for the Popp, Maria Broderick, contradiction, but before we do, we will share something about our study. Eleanor Drago-Severson, & And as for the question of gain: that remains to be answered. Robert Kegan Continued on page 3 91 0 on D EOUCO

Focus on Basics is the quarterly publication of the National Welcometo Focus on Basics Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. It presents best practices, current research on adult learning and literacy, and how Dear Readers, research is used by adult basic education teachers, counselors, We're very excited to announce that we've launched a Focus on Basics program administrators, and policy- makers. Focus on Basics is dedicated electronic discussion list. The list will be a virtual study circle: a place where we to connecting research with practice, can debate, discuss, and critique the ideas found in Focus on Basics. Article to connecting teachers with research authors have agreed to sign on and respond to questions about their work, and and researchers with the reality of the classroom, and by doing so, making to engage in the general discussion. I will be moderating. The discussion list is adult basic education research more very much a work in progress: your input will help shape it. If you have access, relevant to the field. to e-mail, please sign on. For information on how to subscribe, turn to page 8, All subscriPtion and editorial or visit the NCSALL web site, http://hugsel.harvard.edu/-ncsall. correspondence should be sent to: * * Focus On Basics Many adult literacy programs seek to support students in the development World Education 44 Farnsworth Street of not just academic skills, but other skills as well. Project-based learning is one Boston, MA 02210-1211 instructional approach that seems to provide students with opportunities to e-mail address: [email protected] hone both academics and the wide variety of other skills they may need. What Focus on Basics is copyrighted, but we is project-based learning? What are the theoretical underpinnings of this urge readers to photocopy and circulate approach? What benefits does it offer and drawbacks does it present? Heide the publication widely. When reprinting Spruck Wrigley provides us with an overview, starting on page 13. To get a real articles, please credit Focus on Basics and the National Center for the sense of what it takes to facilitate project-based learning, turn to the candid Study of Adult Learning and articles by teachers Susan Gaer and Deborah L. Johnson, on pages 9 and 19. Literacy. Their experiences may provide you with the inspiration and strategies you need Editor: Barbara Garner to experiment with this approach. Associate Editor: Diem Nguyen Illustrator: Mary White Arrigo What do we know about the effectiveness the outcomes and impact Proofreader: Celia Hartmann of the adult literacy system in the United States today? NCSALL researcher Hal Beder examined most of the adult basic education outcome and impact studies Focus on Basics is published by the National Center for the Study of Adult done in the United States over the past 35 years, trying to answer this question. Learning and Literacy (NCSALL). Given the length of his research paper more than 130 pages and 11 sets of NCSALL is funded by the Educational conclusions and the brevity of this publication, we asked Hal to focus on one Research and Development Centers Program, Award Number R309B60002, aspect of his study and walk us through the process he used so we can as administered by the Office of understand how he came to his conclusions. He chose an issue of great interest Educational Research and to practitioners: the contradiction between test scores and learners' self-reports Improvement/National Institute of Postsecondary Education, Libraries, and of learning gain. On average, do learners gain in academic skills? The research Lifelong Learning, U.S. Department of evidence is inconclusive. Are outcome and impact studies being carried out in a Education. manner that leads to useful results? Not often. Beder provides us with evidence The contents of Focus on Basics do not of why this is so, and suggestions on how to improve research in the future. necessarily represent the positions or For help in making sense of the statistics Beder includes in his article, refer policies of NCSALL or the National to "Understanding Quantitative Research about Adult Literacy" by Thomas Institute on Postsecondary Education, Libraries, and Lifelong Learning; World Valentine, page 7 of the first volume of Focus on Basics. It's available on our Education; the Office of Educational web site, http://hugsel.harvard.edu/-ncsall; back issues can be purchased for Research and Improvement; or the U.S. $2 a copy by contacting Kim French, World Education, 44 Farnsworth Street, Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Boston, MA 02210-1211, e-mail: [email protected]. Federal Government. SMcerely,

National Cente for the Study of Adult L arning and Literacy

Barbara Gftter Editor WORLD EDUCATION

PSCSALL 9 December 1998 yo Focus 0 on D5@i0OCO

Lessons... continued from page 1 and to make recommendations for we will first look at studies that used research, policy, and practice. In tests and then at studies that 1k©D [Issue essence, the research was a study of measured learners' perception of gain We studied the outcomes and studies. To determine whether the through self-report. impacts of adult literacy education adult literacy program was effective, because the subject is critical for we prepared case studies on the 23 11973 Haftioned adult literacy educators today. Policy outcome studies that we judged to be lEvuhsaigon makers who control resources have the most credible from a research The 1973 evaluation of the increasingly demanded that perspective (see box on page 4 for federal adult literacy education accountability be based on program the criteria we used). Then, based on program was contracted to the performance as measured by impact the case studies, we conducted a System Development Corporation on learners. Indeed, under the newly qualitative meta-analysis in which we (Kent, 1973). It began in 1971 and enacted Workforce Investment Act treated each study's findings as ended two years later. At that time, (HR 1385), programs that fail to evidence that we weighed to make the Adult Education Act restricted achieve stipulated outcomes can be conclusions about program service to adults at the pre-secondary severely sanctioned. And, since effectiveness on commonly studied level, so the study was limited to outcome and impact studies can outcome and impact variables. learners with fewer than nine years of identify program strengths and weaknesses, their results provide vital information for program planning and policy formation at the national, state, and local levels. We characterized outcomes as 139130/2RR POGMEIG19@0 the changes that occur in learners as a result of their participation in adult literacy education. We saw impacts as the changes that occur in the family and society at large. Commonly Consensus among these studies has schooling. The study also excluded studied outcome variables include pointed towards positive impact and, English for speakers of other individual gains in employment, job in making conclusions, we gave the languages (ESOL) and learners older quality, and income; reduction of evidence from more credible studies than 44. For the sample, states were welfare; learning gains in reading, more weight. selected according to a stratified writing, and mathematics; GED There is no consensus on what random sampling design and acquisition; and changes in self- adult literacy is, but acquisition of programs and learners were selected confidence. Common impact skills in reading, writing, and using other methods of random variables include effects on children's mathematics is included in almost sampling. reading readiness, participation in everyone's definition of what adult After reviewing learning gain children's school activities, and literacy education should achieve. tests available in 1972, the System whether learners vote. Outcome and impact studies have Development Corporation selected The NCSALL Outcomes and measured reading, writing, and two tests from level M of the Test of Impacts Study examined outcome mathematics gains in two ways: via Adult Basic Education (TABE) to use and impact studies conducted since tests or by questionnaires or as their instrument. One measured the late 1960s, including national interviews. Yet as we noted at the reading comprehension, the other studies, state-level studies, and outset, the findings using these two measured arithmetic. The validity and studies of welfare, workplace, and methods conflict. While the results reliability of the TABE components family literacy programs. Its goals from tests are inconclusive on gain, used were not reported. After were to determine if the publicly when asked, learners generally report developing directions and field funded adult literacy education large gains. This calls into question testing, tests and instructions were program in the United States was whether tests are correct, whether sent to local program directors and effective; to identify common learners are correct, or whether teachers in the study sample, who conceptual, design, and another explanation exists. To were asked to do the testing. The methodological problems inherent in understand the lessons that can be learning gain test was first the studies; to raise issues for policy; learned from examining this issue, administered in May, 1972, and then

December 1998 INSCSALL 93 Fotus 0 on D Eugg again the following May. Of the 1,108 and second testing, another fifth had be logically attributed to the initial tests obtained, matching tests 80 or more hours of instruction. treatment. In short, an experimental from the first and second Average gains for reading were 0.5 design allows us to infer that adult administration were obtained for only grades after 98 hours and 0.4 grades literacy education caused an outcome 441 subjects. Strictly speaking, the after 66 hours. For mathematics, the to occur. This is critical because many tests administered were not pre- and comparable figures were 0.3 grades outcomes, increased pay and welfare post-tests, since at initial testing and 0.3 grades respectively. reduction for example, are learners had already received varying In the 1973 National Evaluation, susceptible to economic and social degrees of instruction. we see many problems. Because of forces that have nothing to do with When initially tested with high attrition, the test scores are not participation in adult literacy components of the TABE, on average, representative of adult literacy education. Thus, in the absence of an learners scored at grade level 5.4 on learners in general. Furthermore, experimental design, we cannot be reading achievement and 6.4 in what do the gains reported mean? sure that participation caused the mathematics. Raw scores were not Are they high, medium, or low? In gains measured. reported. After the second the absence of standards against Between seven and 14 months administration of the test which to assess learning gain, we do after a county implemented GAIN, approximately four months later, in not know. those welfare recipients who had which a different test form was used, scored below 215 on the 26 percent of the students had gained Co[15§ontria GAM Stivnly Comprehensive Adult Student one grade or more in reading, 41 GAIN (Greater Avenues for Assessment System test (CASAS) were percent had some gain, but less than Independence) was California's JOBS randomly assigned either to a one grade, and 33 percent had zero (Job Opportunities and Basic Skills) treatment group or to a control or negative gain. In mathematics, 19 program. The tested learning gain group. The treatment group was percent gained one or more grades, data come from the larger evaluation required to attend JOBS-sponsored 46 percent gained some, but less than of the entire GAIN program adult literacy education classes; the one grade, and 35 percent showed conducted by the Manpower control group was not required to zero or negative gain. Development Research Corporation attend then, but could attend non- The proportions of those who (Martinson & Friedlander, 1994). The JOBS sponsored classes if they gained and those who did not may GAIN evaluation included an wished. As its learning gain test, have been affected by the differing experimental design. The GAIN used the Test of Applied hours of instruction learners had experimental design of GAIN is very Literacy Skills (TALS) quantitative amassed between first and second important for the credibility of the literacy section, which is similar to test administration. While almost a research. In an experimental design, the quantitative literacy test used by fifth of the learners had 39 or fewer subjects are randomly assigned either the National Adult Literacy Survey hours of instruction between the first to a treatment group, which in this (NALS). The test was administered to case received 1,119 treatment and control group instruction, or to a members in their homes two to three Criteria For Selecting Studies control group, years after random assignment. which does not During that period learners had The study included an outcome/impact component. The report was adequately documented with respect receive the received an average of 251 scheduled to design and methods. treatment. Because hours of instruction. There were an adequate number of cases. random The researchers found that, on The sampling plan was adequate ( i.e., could and did assignment insures average, learners gained a statistically result in external validity). that the two nonsignificant 1.8 points on the TALS Data collection procedures were adequate (i.e., groups are same in test, a gain that was far too small to were not tainted by substantial attrition or biased by every aspect infer impact. However, despite the other factors). except the very small average learning gains, e Objective measures, rather than self-report, were treatment, when differences among the six counties used to measure outcomes. the performance of were substantial. In fact, in two O Measures, especially tests, were valid and reliable. the two groups is counties the control group actually e The research design included a control group. compared, any outperformed the treatment group, O Inferences logically followed from the design difference and in one county the treatment and data. between them can group outperformed the control

NCSALL December 1998 9 4 75)Focus0 on 011g0 group by a highly statistically small number of subjects and there significant 33.8 percent. was substantial attrition from both "The most serious groups. At the second post-test (18 Nutionap Evengurg' months), a statistically nonsignificant problemmay lie Evailasallorrti difference of 3.7 points on the CASAS Evenstart is the national, federally was found between the gains of the in the tests funded family literacy program. To be two groups, leading the evaluators to eligible for Evenstart funding, a conclude that Evenstart adult literacy themselves." program must have an adult literacy instruction had not produced education program, early childhood learning gain, at least in respect to education, parent education, and the in-depth study. The NEIS the administration of the two home-based services. The National component, which did not use an instruments. Indeed, by the second Evaluation was contracted to Abt experimental design, did show small data collection (Intake B) eight Associates (St. Pierre et.al., 1993, but statistically significant gains of 4.6 programs and more than 8,000 1995). As with the GAIN evaluation, points on the CASAS after 70 hours of learners had dropped from the study: the tested learning gain component of instruction. many learners who attended intake the Evenstart program was part of a sessions never attended a class; also, larger study that assessed all the The MIEAEP some records were not forwarded to components of Evenstart. The National Evaluation of Adult the researchers. After the second data Learning gain was measured in Education Programs (NEAEP), which collection, additional data were two components, 1) the National was conducted by Development collected at five to eight week Evaluation Information System (NEIS): Associates Inc., began in 1990, was intervals for 18 weeks. a data set of descriptive information concluded in 1994, and issued five The NEAEP lacked the resources collected from local programs, and 2) reports of findings: Development to send trained test administrators into an in-depth study of 10 local Associates (1992), Development the field to administer tests, so it had programs. For the NEIS, data were Associates (1993), Development to rely on program staff to give the collected from families at entry, at the Associates (1994), Young, Fitzgerald tests and had to use the tests that end of each year, and at exit. The and Morgan (1994a), and Young, programs normally used. Because the CASAS was used to test learning gain. Fitzgerald and Morgan (1994b). Comprehensive Adult Student For the in-depth study, data were Costing almost three million dollars, Assessment System test (CASAS) and collected from participants in 10 the NEAEP was the largest and most the Test of Adult Basic Education programs selected because of comprehensive of three national (TABE) were in sufficiently wide use, geographic location, level of program evaluations of the federal adult they were chosen as the tests for the implementation, and willingness to literacy education program. Data on project. The programs selected for the cooperate. The in-depth study learners were collected at several study were supposed to administer included an experimental design. points. Client Intake Record A was either of these tests near the inception CASAS tests were administered to 98 completed for each sampled student of instruction and again after 70 and control and 101 treatment group at the time of intake, and, with this 140 hours of instruction. Pretests were members who were adult literacy instrument, data for 22,548 learners obtained from 8,581 learners in 88 education participants from five of the were collected from a sample of 116 programs and post-tests were ten programs. Although control group local programs. The sample was received from 1,919 learners in 65 members were not participants in drawn using a statistical weighting programs. As one can see, the attrition adult literacy education at the time of system designed to enable the between pre- and post-tests was the pretest, they were not precluded researchers to generalize findings substantial due to learner drop out from future participation if they from the sample to the United States and the failure of programs to either wished. Study subjects were pre- as a whole. Client Intake Record B post-test or to submit the test data. tested in the fall of 1991 and then was completed for all learners who Moreover, when Development post-tested twice, nine months later supposedly completed Intake Record Associates checked the tests, much of and 18 months later. A and completed at least one class. the data was so suspect that it was For the in-depth study, valid pre- For this data collection, records were deleted from the study. The NEAEP and post-tests were received from 64 gathered for 13,845 learners in 108 was left with only 614 usable pre- and participants and 53 control group programs. Learner attrition from the post-test scores, less than 20 percent members. Note two problems: this is a study was clearly evident between of the intended number of valid cases.

December 1998 RICSALL 95 --63Focus0 on g011gEl

Based on these 614 cases, the certainly biased and, therefore, not similar pattern of confusion on tested NEAEP reported that ABE students representative of adult literacy learning gain. As measured by tests, received a mean of 84 hours of learners in general. Perhaps, for do learners gain basic skills as a instruction between pre- and post- example, the learners from whom consequence of their participation? tests and attended for an average of valid pre- and post-test scores were The jury is still out. 15 weeks. On average, their gain was obtained were more motivated and 15 points on the TABE. Adult able and the scores are inflated. Learners'ee©s secondary students received a mean Perhaps they were less able. We As noted at the outset of this of 63 hours of instruction and gained simply do not know. Again, lacking article, when learners are asked seven points on the TABE. All gains standards, we do not know whether whether they have gained skills in were statistically significant at the the gains reported should be reading, writing, and math as a result 0.001 level (Young et al, 1994a). considered high, medium, or low. of participation in ABE, they tend to The NEAEP found that learners respond in the affirmative. The do gain in basic skills, but how Me answer? National Evaluation of Adult credible are the findings? In a The two national evaluations Education Programs (NEAEP) reanalysis of the Development and the NEIS component of the conducted a telephone survey of Associates data, Cohen, Garet, and National Evenstart Evaluation do 5,401 former ABE learners. Conde Ili (1996, p.xi) concluded: show tested learning gain, but Respondents were asked if they had "The implementation of the test learner attrition from both national gained in basic skills. Although many plan was also poor, and this data of the former learners who were should not be used to assess the supposed to be interviewed could not capabilities of clients at intake. Some C.CA.smeasured by be found, and although many of the key evidence supporting this respondents had received very little conclusion includes: actual instruction, 50 percent of the Only half the clients were tests, do learners ABE learners and 45 percent of the pretested, and sites that pretested adult secondary education (ASE) differed from sites that did not. At gain basic skills learners said that participation had sites that pretested only some of their helped their reacting "a lot." For clients, pretested clients differed from as a consequence math, the figures were 51 percent for those who were not pretested. ABE and 49 percent for ASE. Programs reported perfect exam of their In another national evaluation of scores for a substantial proportion of the Federal Adult Education Program pretested clients. participation? conducted in 1980 (Young et al., Less than 20 percent of eligible 1980), data were collected from 110 clients received a matched pretest The jury is local programs stratified according to and posttest. type of funding agency and program Among clients eligible to be still out." size. Learners were interviewed over posttested, significant differences the phone. Although the response exist among those who were and rate to the interviews was low, 75 were not posttested. evaluations was so severe that we percent of those interviewed The available matched pre- and cannot generalize the results. In responded that they had improved in posttests were concentrated in a very addition, these studies did not use an reading, 66 percent said they few programs. experimental design. In contrast, the improved in writing, and 69 percent These facts render the test data two studies that did use an reported that they had improved in unusable. Therefore this reanalysis experimental design, the GAIN study math. invalidates all of the findings and the in-depth component of the In a study in New Jersey concerning test results from the Evenstart study, showed no (Darkenwalcl & Valentine, 1984), a original analysis." significant tested learning gain. Both random sample of 294 learners who Stated simply, because of the studies were limited in other ways had been enrolled for seven to eight problems noted by Cohen, Garet, and that space does not permit us to months was interviewed. Of the Conde lli, the test scores received by describe here. The studies included respondents, 89 percent said that the NEAEP, as with those of the 1973 in the Outcomes and Impact Study participation in ABE had helped them National Evaluation, are most that are not reported here show a become better readers, 63 percent

fisSCSALL 9 6 December 1998 ^5Focus Coon ,golico

reported that ABE classes had helped human tendency to answer with proportion of dropouts. their writing, and 85 percent said socially acceptable responses and a A second common limitation is participation had helped their math. reluctance to say unfavorable things post-testing before substantial A study in Maryland (Walker, Ewart, in a program evaluation. In most of learning gain can be reasonably & Whaples, 1981) interviewed 120 the studies, a large discrepancy expected. Although what constitutes ABE learners who enrolled in existed between the number of a reasonable time is open to debate, Maryland programs and volunteered learners the evaluation planned to surely 30 hours of instruction is for the study. Of the respondents, 81 interview and the number who suspect and even 60 hours is percent reported they could read actually completed interviews. It questionable. Giving inappropriate better because of participating and 90 could be that those who were biased levels of tests often creates ceiling or percent reported that their in favor of the evaluated programs floor effects. In any test, there is a computational skills had improved. were more likely to respond to chance factor. When a test is too A study in Ohio (Boggs, Buss, & interviews than those who were hard, learners score at the bottom, or Yarnell, 1979) followed up on unfavorably disposed: the "if you floor. Since the scores cannot go learners who had terminated the can't say anything good, don't say down any further "by chance," and program three years earlier. Data anything at all" syndrome. Indeed, can only go up, the chance factor were collected by telephone. Of the for the Maryland and Wisconsin artificially inflates the post-score. 351 valid respondents, 96 percent of studies, the respondents had When the test is too easy, the those who said improving their volunteered to be included and may oppositeor ceiling effectoccurs. reading was a goal reported they had have been favorably biased in Many of the tests Development reached the goal. For those who had comparison to those who did not Associates had to delete for the study improvement in math as a goal, the volunteer. in the NEAEP suffered from ceiling or figure was 97 percent. Finally, in a Then again, perhaps the self- floor effects. study in Wisconsin (Becker, report data are accurate and learners The most serious problem with Wesselius, & Fallon, 1976) that are recognizing important gains in testing may lie in the tests themselves. assessed the outcomes of the themselves that are too small to be To be valid, tests must reflect the Gateway Technical Institute, a measured by tests. Shirley Brice content of instruction, and the extent comprehensive adult literacy Heath (1983), for example, chronicles to which the TABE or CASAS reflects education program that operated how being able to write for the first the instruction of the programs they learning centers in a wide range of time a simple list or a note to one's are used to assess is an unanswered locations, data were collected from a children is perceived as a significant question. Similarly, it may be that the random sample of former learners benefit to those with limited literacy tests are not sensitive enough to who were classified into four skills. It is doubtful that any of the register learning gains that adult categories based on the amount of tests in common usage are sensitive learners consider to be important. instruction they had received. A total enough to register such gains. With some exceptions, such as of 593 learners were contacted and the California GAIN Study, most asked if they would participate; 270 LeSsalThs outcome evaluations have relied on usable interviews resulted. That the Although the studies reviewed local programs to collect their data, a program helped them with reading here are just a sample of those practice that is coinmon in was reported by 90 percent, 83 analyzed in the full report of the elementary and secondary education percent reported that the program Outcomes and Impacts Study, they research. However, adult literacy had helped with writing, and 82 provide many lessons. First, even the education is not like elementary and percent reported that they had been best outcome studies are limited in secondary education, where the helped with math. many ways, and these limitations learners arrive in September and the influence findings. The most same learners are still participating in The Answer? common limitation is a unacceptably June. Many adult literacy programs The limitations of self-report large attrition of subjects between have open enrollments, most have surface in these studies. Participation pre- and post-testing. The subjects for high attrition rates, and few have in adult literacy education is hard whom both pre-and post-test data are personnel on staff who are well- work and becoming literate is socially available almost always differ trained in testing or other data acceptable behavior. It could be that substantially from those who were collection. These factors confound self-reported perceptions of basic only pre-tested because those who accurate record keeping and skills gain are inflated by the normal are not post-tested include a high systematic post-testing at reasonable

December 1998 NCSALL 'c-3)Focus 0 on 0.5CDI 011g0 and predetermined intervals. Development Corporation. I©con Oasilas Moreover, many adults are reluctant Martinson. K., & Friedlander, D. (1994). GAIN: Basic Education in a Welfare to Medvank DOscuzeorn to take tests. Work Program. New York, NY: Perhaps the most important Manpower Development Research 1.60 lesson for policy and practice is that Corporation. St. Pierre, R., Swartz, J., Gamse, B., Murray, credible outcomes and impacts We are launching an electronic S., Deck, D., & Nickel, P. (1995). research is expensive and requires National Evaluation of the Even Start discussion list to provide an electronic researchers who are not only experts Family Literacy Program: Final Report. forum for discussion about the articles in design and methodology but who Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of published in Focus on Basics. It is intended as a place to converse with also understand the context of adult Education, Office of Policy and Planning. colleagues about the themes examined literacy education. If data are to be St. Pierre, R., Swartz, J., Murray, S., Deck, in the publication; to get questions collected from programs, staff must D., & Nickel, P. (1993). National answered and to pose them; to critique have the capacity to test and to keep Evaluation of the Even Start Family issues raised in the publication; to share accurate records. This will require Literacy Program: Report on relevant experiences and resources. Effectiveness. Washington, D.C.: U.S. more program resources and staff Focus on Basics authors have agreed to Department of Education, Office of subscribe to the list and respond to development. Good outcome studies Policy and Planning. communications about their work. It is help demonstrate accountability and Walker, S. M., Ewart, D. M., & Whaples, G. expected that subscribers including C. (1981). Perceptions of Program enable us to identify practices that NCSALL staff will use information on Impact: ABF,/GED in Maryland. Paper the list to broaden their knowledge of a work. Bad outcome studies simply presented at the Lifelong Learning topic, with the hope that the knowledge waste money. sp.. Research Conference, College Park, MD, February 6 and 7, 1981. will be put to good use in teaching, References Young, M. B., Fitzgerald, N., & Morgan, program design, policy, and research. Becker, W. J., Wesselius, F., & Fallon, R. M. A., (1994a). National Evaluation of (1976). Adult Basic Education Follow-Up Adult Education Programs Fourth To participate in the Focus on Basics Study 1973-75. Kenosa, WI: Gateway Interim Report: Learner Outcomes and discussion list (it's free!), go to the LINCS Technical Institute. Program Results. Arlington, VA: homepage at http://nifl.gov. Choose Boggs, D. L., Buss, T. F., & Yarnell, S. M. Development Associates. "Literacy Forums and Listservs" and (1979). "Adult Basic Education in Ohio: Young, M. B., Fitzgerald, N., & Morgan, M. A follow the instructions. Or, send an e- Program Impact Evaluation." Adult (1994b). National Evaluation of Adult mail message to Education. 29(2),123-140. Education: Executive Summary. [email protected] with Cohen, J, Garet, M., & Condelli, L. (1996). Arlington, VA: Development Associates. the following request in the body of the Reanalysis of Data from the National Young, M., Hipps, J., Hanberry, G., message: SUBSCRIBE NIEL- Evaluation Adult Education Programs: Hopstoch, P., & Golsmat, R. (1980). An FOBasics firstname lastname Methods and Results. Washington, D.C.: Assessment of the State-Administered Spell your first and last names exactly as Pelavin Research Institute. Program of the Adult Education Act: you would like them to appear. For Darkenwald, G. & Valentine, T. (1984). Final Report. Arlington, VA: example, Sue Smith would type: Outcomes and Impact of Adult Basic Development Associates. subscribe NIFL-FOBasics Sue Smith Education. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, Center for Adult &how the Author Development. There should be no other text in the Hal Beder is a professor of adult message. Give it a couple of minutes to Development Associates. (1992). National education at Rutgers University and Evaluation of Adult Education Programs respond. You should receive a return author of Adult Literacy: Issues for First Interim Report: Profiles of Service mail message welcoming you to NIFL- Providers. Arlington, VA: Development Policy and Practice. He is chair of the FOBasics. Associates. Rutgers' Department of Educational Development Associates. (1993). National Theory, Policy, and Administration, and Even if you do not subscribe, the Evaluation of Adult Education Programs chair-elect of the Commission of forum feature allows you to view and Second Interim Report: Profiles of Client Professors of Adult Education, a read all messages posted to the list Characteristics. Arlington, VA: national commission attached to the through the LINCS homepage at Development Associates. American Association of Adult and http://nifl.gov/forums.hunl. Development Associates. (1994). National Continuing Education (AAACE). Evaluation of Adult Education Programs The manager of this list is Barbara Third Interim Report: Patterns and Garner, editor of Focus on Basics. She Predictors of Client Attendance. Fun Repora AArack& Arlington, VA: Development Associates. The research report upon which this can be reached at Barbara_Garner© Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with Words: article is based is available from WorldEd.org. Please DO NOT send subscription requests to this address. Language, Life, and Work in NCSALL for $10. For a copy, contact Communities and Classrooms. New Kimberly French, World Education, 44 To read Focus on Basics on-line, go York: Cambridge University Press. Farnsworth Street, Boston, MA 02210- Kent, W. P. (1973). A Longitudinal to the NCSALL website at Evaluation of the Adult Basic Education 1211; e-mail [email protected]; http://hugsel.harvard.edu/-ncsall.+ Program. Falls Church, VA: System phone (617) 482-9485.,

INSCSALL December 1998 93 that I team up with a class at the Less Teaching and More middle school to develop a joint project. I contacfed the appropriate Learning teacher, who was enthusiastic. Together we defined the project: my students would tell folktales from Turning from traditional methods to project-based their countries to the middle school instruction, the author found that her students learned students. The middle school students would write them down and illustrate more them and we would try to get them published. My language objectives by Susan Gaer for the class were to have students tell a sequenced story using pictures as a storyboard that would be was a traditional teacher about this. We decided they could understandable to the eighth graders. using a grammar-based write down recipes they knew from My students would read what the jicurriculum along with Southeast Asia, recipes that were, middle school students had written dialogues and drills to teach until then, passed orally from cook to and critique it for accuracy. English for speakers of other cook. Students brought ingredients to When I first approached my languages (ESOL) to immigrant school, learned the terms for how to students with this project they were populations when I arrived at the measure them, then made the food. not sure it would be possible, Visalia Adult School in central We wrote down the recipes as the concerned that their language skills California in 1089. There I found a food was prepared and compiled were not good enough. If I thought it population of Southeast Asian Lao, them into a cookbook. This project would work, however, they wanted Hmorkg, Mien, and Lahu refugees helped my students develop a sense to do it. They wanted to get these who had been in beginning-level of community and an interest in folktales written in English for their ESOL classes since their arrival in attempting a more complicated children and grandchildren.They the United States in the early project. knew that their oral traditions were 1980s. Most of the instructors were dying and this would be a way to using the type of instruction I diet FoOkmillies preserve some of their culture. it was not working with the group Following the cookbook effort, I The district librarian came to at alL The students seemed wanted another project that would class and, telling tales such as The resistant and had little confidence put the students in the role of expert. Three Little Pigs and Cinderella, in their ability to learn English. Most of the students had minimal showed the students the various Reading all I could on different reading and writing skills but very ways that folktales could be told types of learning, I came across Elsa strong oral traditions. At the time, I using puppets, visuals, body Auerbach's work. In her bdok was working with a family literacy language, and role play. This was Making Meaning, Making Change, program as a volunteer. The program foreign to my students. Their she describes ways to help students focused a lot on storytelling. I storytelling customs included very develop language skills while realized that the students could be little use of body language and no conducting a meaningful project. I experts and pass on some of their visuals. To engage eighth graders, was intrigued about the possibilities culture by telling the Lao, Hmong however, I suspected they would of using a project-based curriculum Mien, and Lahu folktales that they need something in addition to their and decided to try it. had learned as children. oral skills. We decided on using I described some projects from The original idea was to have visuals to supplement the storytelling. Making Meaning, Making Change to the students practice the folktales After the librarian's visit, the my students, explaining that I would and then tell them to elementary or eighth grade class hosted a get- like them to do something similar. pre-school children. Looking for together so they could get to know They agreed to give it a try. In information on how American my students. The middle school searching for a topic, we talked about folktales are told, I went to the students were fascinated by my the concerns they had that their district librarian. She informed me students' childhoods. They were children were losing their cultures. that the eighth grade curriculum had particularly intrigued by the early age The students wanted to do something a unit on folk tales and suggested of marriage in the Hmong, Lahu, Lao,

December 1998 99 1sSCSALL 0 on 0 @:001gEl and Mien communities. While only a MeaningM Language me to let them continue. They really handful of my students had shown Once the two classes had met, wanted to do their best in front of up for this activity, all who attended the real work began. I divided my those eighth graders. In addition to seemed to have a wonderful time. students into language groups: Lahu, practicing, I had borrowed many When we next met in the Lao, Hmong, Mien. Each group chose American folktales from the district classroom, a discussion developed a folktale to tell. Then they had to library and read these on a regular among the students. I did not take find pictures to go with story. This basis with my class. At the same time, ,part. After it was over, those who required research in a local library the middle school students were were not at the party apologized for looking for appropriate pictures. My learning how to ask for clarification being absent, admitting that they did students prepared storyboards and what types of details make for a not come for fear of being ridiculed visuals depicting the story and good written story, and studying the by middle school students, who were practiced telling their stories. They cultures of the students. the same age as their children. They practiced in class and with other Finally, the day arrived. My had heard about how well the party classes. They practiced and practiced students told their folktales to the had gone and about how interested and practiced. This is when I first middle school students, who these children were in their lives and started seeing meaningful language recorded them on audio tape. cultures. They asked me to schedule development grow out of project- Although the tales were never another meeting, promising to attend. based instruction. Usually when I officially published, I label the project This is, indeed, what happened. Not asked my students to practice a a success. I believe that by practicing only did every one of my students language structure, they did so for to present a folk tale, my students come, they brought some of their only a few minutes. With this activity, improved their oral skills; their family members as well. I asked them to stop and they begged presentations in English were the proof. In earlier ESOL classes, my students were trying to learn A ifonong _FoOtage grammar and failed. This project allowed them to be in control, as they Once upon a time in Laos there lived two people who were very much in once were in their native countries. love. Their names were Tongni and Saemi. The young sixteen-year-old They had a successful interchange couple wanted desperately to get married. The only thing standing in the with native speakers of English. In way of the couple's happiness was Tongni's parents' strong disapproval of addition, during this project, my Saenti. Tongni's parents refused to let their beloved son marry her because students were content experts and she was from a Hmong clan different from their own. the middle school students were Tongni's love for Saemi was so great that he died of a broken heart. He learning from them. I believe this could not accept the fact that he would never be able to marry his true love, raised my students' self-esteem. My unless his parents changed their minds about her. Saemi sang mournful students also expressed satisfaction in songs expressing her feelings about how she had no place to go and how she seeing a previously unwritten tale didn't know what to do now that she must live without her only true love. documented. The eighth graders After Tongni was buried, Saemi went to see him. She couldn't see him while seemed to get a lot out of this he was being buried because in the Hmong custom, it is wrong for the women experience, as well. to see the burial. For seven days Saemi took rice, chicken, and pies to Tongni's house. At his house, Saemi cried and called frantically for him to A New SeMing wake up. She did this six times and still he did not wake up. But the seventh Six years and many projects later, time she called him, Tongni rose from the dead and Saemi was overwhelmed I joined the staff of Santa Ana with joy. College, School of Continuing The couple went to Tongni's house and begged his parents' approval of Education, Centennial Education their marriage. They reminded his parents that Saemi had proved faithful to Center in Santa Ana, California. Tongni by waking him up. His parents were pleased that their son was Located in an urban setting, it has finally getting married. At Tongni and Saema joyful wedding, they received about 36,000 ESOL students, most of beautiful new clothes and had a lot offun. The wedding was very festive with whom are Latino. Enamoured as I many joyful people. Tongni and Saerni rejoiced their life together and lived was with project-based education, I happily ever after. wanted to develop a project that would work here, with these told by Hmong students at the Visalia Adult School and written by students at Green Acres Middle School in Visalia, CA students. Because Santa Ana had very structured curricula with set

NC SALL December 1998 0 on D ICD100(0

standards that had to be met, I started interviewed her, taping the interview. provided a newspaper stand in which out by integrating small projects into Finally, they wrote the article. At each we could place copies of the the curriculum. Lower level students step of the way, I critiqued their newspaper. We have now published developed a photo essay about their work, helped them'develop the three issues of the newspaper and families; upper level students wrote articles, and worked on necessary hope that this school year brings at about their families and made class grammar points related to their least three more issues. books. articles. We also studied the I wanted to do something that Los Angeles Times and Crudd INernerds would have an impact on the student learned about photo Reflecting on my experiences body as a whole. In the spring of captions and using project-based 1996, I interviewed students involved headlines. instruction, I realize that a in student government about what The first Student Poetry number of elements are they felt was lacking in the school. issue, in fall, crucial to success. The consensus was that a student 1997, was The project must be newspaper was needed. So, I nine pages geared to the decided to propose a class that long. Praying population. The would develop one. It was approved Although by Morin Mendez folktale project by the curriculum committee and my class met would not have department by the end of summer, for only worked with my 1996. The class I created was called five I can't find ease Or culla for my soul young urban Computers and Writing. It began in hours a Where cun I find them? 011 Lord. Latino population. the fall of 1997. week, illy restless spirit doesn Vind pence. The newspaper I advertised the class; about 12 between .Surrounded by muteriulism, 111.51. senstudity, Egoism.. rialry und would have been students enrolled. Despite the late work them set me aside from you. a disaster with my afternoon schedule, the 12 were done at mostly non- there everyday. We formed an home Irihere? Inere can I find you? Oh Lod. literate Southeast editorial committee and wrote a and in So much how, so mach violence, so much Asians. survey that we distributed to all class, the noise, enough. to .silent your voice. The students students via their teachers. The students The toorld involves me,. his urms catch me. must see value in survey was in English, Spanish, and worked Oh, God, Meuse con.sole a project. The Vietnamese so that everyone could on the Mahe me free; break ull the ties folktale project was respond. Survey questions listed paper for That joins me to this with:14(111st owl developed to save topics that the newspaper could about 12 vuin world. oral stories from cover, such as art, sports, games, hours a extinction. The articles about the community, articles week. When cookbook project about school events, school calendar. we were close allarlit!(1 from I lie stiillent ticwdclicr. News, documented traditional Students checked the topics in which to finishing the VA. I. Is,. 3. .1, 1998 recipes. The newspaper they were interested. We received issue, we stayed was a need identified by the about 500 responses, tallied them, long hours into the students at the Centennial and used the information to decide night. I was surprised Education Center. If the project what features we would run in the that the editorial group was resonates with the students, then they first issue of our newspaper. We then willing to do this. We published the will work to complete it. issued a call for articles and got quite paper by Thanksgiving and, after a Flexible timelines are a few articles from students on all publishing party of sparkling apple necessary. I have had the most campuses of the college. cider and chips, we evaluated the success when projects can start and While the students were creating process. Students in the class wanted end within a four- to six-week time the issue, I spent a lot of time to do more writing. We had received frame. This allows students a sense of working with them on the skills so many articles from other classes completion and success. Although my needed to write articles, using the that few articles from the class were newspaper project is a semester-long writing process approach. For needed. We have gradually worked course, I try to get the students to example, in one issue students more class writing into the produce a newspaper every six interviewed our Dean. First, they newspaper. Our administration was weeks. wrote questions, next they so pleased with the product that they Athough, in theory, students

December 1998 cp 101 MCSALL Focus() on

projects with new students, they are References "...using a rather skeptical. But once they see the Warshauer, M. (1995), Virtual Connections. finished product, whether it is a Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Auerbach, E. (1992). Making Meaning, project-based cookbook, a newspaper, a Making Change. McHenry, IL: Delta performance, or something else, their Systems and Center for Applied approach to skepticism evaporates. At my school, Linguistics. word of mouth has brought me language learning classes ready to embark on a project. ©© the Author Susan Gaer has taught English for gives meaning to Condusron speakers of other languages for the past Using a project-based approach 20 years. She is currently an assistant has helped motivate students to learn professor at Santa Ana College, Santa the learning that language for a purpose. I have also Ana, California. In addition to project- found that this methodology promotes based education, she is also interested normally goes on community among class members. In in the integration of technology into the curriculum, and edits the CATESOL 99 both the folktale and the newspaper in a classroom. Newsletter Online Column. You can e- projects, a developing sense of mail her at [email protected]. community helped foster the motivation needed to see the project Finding Proiects ©m the Web should choose projects themselves, in to completion. I have developed a web page that lower-level ESOL classes, students I have since started integrating lists a variety of projects that students quite often do not have the language mini-projects into all my general ESOL can participate in or classes can or confidence to develop project classes at the Centennial Education replicate. The address is otan.dni.us/ themes. I listen to my students to Center at Santa Ana. Projects that webfarm/emailproject/email.html. If identify underlying issues that are students choose to do are based on you are interested in adding a project to meaningful to them. To get hints material in their textbook. For this page, contact me at: about what will engage them, I pay example, in my beginning class, we [email protected].+ attention to what they read, write, devote much time to learning how to and say about their lives, their talk about the family and daily life. families, and their jobs. I have found The class produces a small book 15)Fo.cus 0 on that, in the beginning, sometimes which includes stories about family, even with more advanced ESOL work, and weekend life. These types ZUgg students, I choose the project, but as of projects require the students to use Now eon you ge time goes on, the choice of project the material in a meaningful way. Focus on Basics is distributed free shifts to them. Projects need not be as extensive as through most state ABE systems to With beginning level students, I the newspaper or folktale efforts. many ABE programs. It is also available need to take a fairly active role, Using a project-based approach on the Internet: http:// hugsel.harvard.edu/ -ncsall. If you providing examples of completed to language learning gives meaning to would like to receive your own copy, projects to encourage the students to the learning that normally goes on in please subscribe. produce their own. With more a classroom. I used to run a traditional You can subscribe at a rate of four advanced classes, it is easier to get teacher-centered classroom, using a issues/$8 by sending a check or money the class to develop a project that textbook, and was always dismayed at order for the appropriate amount, meets a need they have identified. In how little language was learned. In payable to World Education. We also project-based learning, at least the accept purchase orders but are not able these situations, I take the role of a to process credit card orders.We facilitator. Classes can do multiple way I do it, instruction is less direct publish four issues, approximately 24 projects if the class has multiple than in a traditional class. Students pages an issue, each year. Multiple year

needs. In a multilevel class, learners develop language and literacy skills . orders are encouraged. can be grouped and a number of by working on a product that will Please send your check, money different projects can be run at the exist beyond the classroom walls. This order, or purchase order to: Kim creates excitement and motivation French, Focus on Basics at World same time. If a class identifies a Education, 44 Farnsworth Street, number of needs, they can also work that I have not seen in a traditional, Boston, MA 02210-1211. in groups clustered around different text-based-only class. In project-based To discuss discount rates for bulk needs. learning, I do a lot less teaching and orders, call Kim at (617) 482-9485.+ As I work through the first see a lot more learning.011'

December 1998 MCSALL 102 0on D@iongo

implementing the project, drafting Knowledge in Action: and developing a final product, dissemination, and evaluating what The Promise of Project-Base worked.1 Learning HOsgary Project-based learning has deep roots in education. It was first discussed as an educational approach by Heide Spruck Wrigley to K-12 education in an article entitled "The Project Method" by Kilpatrick (1918), who believed that using literacy in meaningful contexts magine a group of adult project work within a historical provided a means for building basic education students context that brings inquiry-learning, a background knowledge and for ,./Tsewing a quilt that displays Vygotskian perspective, and achieving personal growth. Unlike the story of their collective lives, or progressive education into play. those who later advocated models of a GED class doing a research study Although these movements occurred collaborative learning, Kilpatrick was that involves calling former in a K-12 context, the language, less interested in the group aspects of students to find out if participating literacy, and learning concepts learning than in the cognitive in the class has made a difference. pertain to adults new to reading and development that resulted from Consider a group of learners writing as well. I link project-based project work. He suggested starting their own cafe: negotiating learning to other approaches to that projects be space, setting budgets, getting teaching and learning, such as interdisciplinary math, supplies, and preparing fooeL community action research, science, social studies Envision learners investigating the participatory education, and to provide questions they have about U.S. functional contexts. Finally, I learners with a immigration law by conducting discuss the benefits to be rich array of interviews, writing about their derived for adult learners. .0,9 concepts personal experiences, talking with and ideas. He experts, using the libraty, and GeNing Sgurged intended that conducting research on the The ideas for projects come topics come Internet. These are examples of from many places. Sometimes an from teachers and students finding new event acts as a catalyst, as when a students' ways of working together through group of ESOL learners interests, a model of teaching called project- spontaneously decide to organize a based learning. fund raiser to help flood victims in maintaining that group projects, In its simplest form, project- Honduras and Nicaragua, or a group proposed, planned, executed, and based learning involves a group of of Latina women in a family literacy evaluated by students, would help learners taking on an issue close to program decide to start their own learners develop an understanding of their hearts, developing a response, Spanish-speaking parent teacher their lives while preparing to work and presenting the results to a wider association (PTA) so they can more within a democracy. Although audience. Projects might last from effectively give voice to the issues Kilpatrick imagined that projects only a few days to several months. In that concern them. At other times, a should be driven by learner some cases, projects turn into teacher gently introduces the idea for questions, in practice, many teachers businesses, such as the student-run a project, testing to see if a particular assign topics (Schubert, 1986), a cafe at ELISAIR, an English for idea resonates. No rules determine practice that runs counter to the spirit speakers of other languages (ESOL) how a project is realized, although all of student-generated projects that he program in New York City. projects seem to progress through had in mind. What do we know about project- some common phases: identification Project methods were used by based learning, and why should it be of a problem or issue, preliminary advocates of a larger progressive considered a viable approach to adult investigations, planning and movement in education that stressed literacy? In this article, I situate assigning tasks, researching the topic, the need for child-centered

December 1998 103 INICSALL 3Focus 0 on g C31:01100

language and thought should while researching a problem and translate into teaching, others have then moving to effect change in a suggested that joint problem solving, community (Curtis, 1990). with opportunities to shape and Throughout the world, many reshape knowledge through talk, examples exist of neighborhood promotes the cognitive development residents working as a group to that Vygotsky saw as crucial (Driscoll, discuss and examine the conditions 1994). of their lives and then speaking up to Project-based learning has a document neglect and demand great deal in common with changes. In some communities, adult participatory education and a learners have investigated toxic Freirean philosophy of teaching dumping at a landfill (Merrifield, adults. The key tenets of this 1997), or explored what it takes to set education. John Dewey (Dewey, approach hold that learning occurs up a local day care center or food co- 1899), who thought that schools when the content of the curriculum is op and have taken steps to establish should reflect society, was a leader of drawn from the social context of the such programs. this movement, which flourished learners, and literacy (the word) is from the late 19th to the mid 20th used to make sense of the VonieNes century. Progressivists believed that circumstances of one's life (the Although most project-based children learn best through world). Freirean educators stress the learning in adult basic education is experiences in which they have an need to empower disenfranchised smaller in scope and narrower in interest, and through activities that learners to fight the status quo and focus than community action allow for individual differences. help create a more fair and Teachers were advised to observe equitable society through a learners and their interests so they process of critical reflection f givenachance, could tie what students wanted to and collective action. know to what the classroom Freirean-inspired projects adults without much provided. Practical inquiry differ from other learner- everyday problem solving and centered approaches formal education will meaning seeking as part of social inasmuch as they stress the interaction played a role in child- socio-political aspects of the create responses to centered, progressive education, as issues being addressed rather well. than focusing on the personal community issues that Project-based learning also or cultural dimensions of reflects a Vygotskian perspective. literacy without reference to re creative,fe sible, Vygotsky, a Russian cognitive the broader social contexts in psychologist, theorizes that learning which literacy occurs and worthwhile." occurs through social interaction that (Auerbach, 1993; Wrigley, encourages individuals to deal with 1993). the kind cognitive challenges that are As implemented in adult just slightly above their current levels education, project-based learning research, the two models share the of ability (Wertsch, 1985). He posits also owes a debt to community conviction that, if given.a chance, that concepts develop and action research, conducted by adults adults without much formal understanding happens when in literacy programs in the United education will create responses to individuals enter into discussion and States and in developing countries. community issues that are creative, meaningful interaction with more While project-based learning is feasible, and worthwhile. At El Barrio capable peers or teachers. These sometimes called "knowledge in Popular Education Program, in East individuals can model problem action" (Barnes, 1988), action Harlem, New York, for example, the solving, assist in finding solutions, research has been defined as "ideas women in the program started monitor progress, and evaluate in action" (Merrifield, 1997). It cooking and sharing their own food success (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). constitutes a process through which for lunch in response to the high Although Vygotsky himself did not adult learners develop their language, prices being charged by local discuss in detail how his theories on literacy, and problem solving skills restaurants. After some discussion

NCSALL December 1998 104 3Focus0 on @IOE0

and research, this project grew into a select topics of interest and decide development component in their catering business for the wider the direction of their learning; they curriculum see project-based work as community as the women ended up rely on insights from their peers a creative way to link learner- providing Cuban and Dominican food while providing feedback to others; centered education with at social events. The project achieved they may use the teacher as a investigations into the world of work. such success that it was highlighted in resource, but, by and large, they Project work allows learners to work The New York Times. create their own knowledge. in groups, conduct research, and While a community orientation to Teachers and students present it to others, developing the literacy education meshes nicely with concerned about life skills and the confidence and knowledge necessary project-based learning, not all project- more functional components of in the job search process.3 based learning has a political focus. literacy may choose projects that For example, teachers working in the help learners meet critical economic 7eacher's Rolle humanistic tradition, which needs by assisting them in adapting Although the teacher's role in emphasizes individual growth and to new environments or function project-based learning is less that of self-actualization rather than more effectively in familiar ones. an instructor who transmits collective action, often encourage These projects often result in guides information and organizes activities projects that involve personal or for practice and more that of a guide 'cultural expressions of self and and a facilitator, it is a critical role, community, such as oral histories. nevertheless. Projects require that Others integrate projects into a teachers get to know their learners' theme-based curriculum, encouraging interests. Teachers must listen for projects that draw on learners' what has been called the teachable creative impulses: learners may moment: that point in a discussion develop memory books, design when learners become excited about original books for their children, write a topic and start asking questions short plays and skits, produce poetry such as "why is x happening and and songs, or put together a what can we do about it?" collection of sayings, rituals, and Facilitating project-based events from their own childhood that learning requires the kind of they want to preserve for their own leadership skills that allow teachers children. Projects that stress to help a group of learners to move expression of the human spirit in the direction that they want to go, through language and literature and strategies meant to make it easier pointing out potential pitfalls or reflect a personal relevance to navigate systems. Examples making suggestions without getting orientation to learning, popularized include a handbook written by defensive when students decide they by humanists such as Carl Rogers and students for new students, a list of like their own ideas better. It makes a Abraham Maslow.2 tips and hints on how to deal with difference if teachers possess a Projects do not have to be the admission requirements of a tolerance for ambiguity, some skill in designed for an audience beyond college or training institute, or a helping learners negotiate conflicts, one's fellow students. Quite often description of different ways to fight and enough self-confidence not to learners develop questions as a group a an eviction notice or challenge a give up when a project peters out or and divide the work among traffic ticket. As learners conduct refuses to come together. individuals or pairs who seek answers research into what it takes to Not all projects are successful. to selected questions using a variety negotiate bureaucracies, they acquire Some teachers are too inexperienced of sources, such as the Internet or the knowledge and skills associated to guide the process well. They may guest speakers (Rosen, 1998). with functional competence in expect too much ability on the part of Although the final product may be literacy, while developing strategies the learners to take control of the not much more than a series of for decision making. project without having laid the questions and answers compiled in a As the new federal requirements necessary groundwork or they may document to be shared with the for temporary assistance to needy fail to let students take the lead when group, such projects nevertheless families (TANF) take effect, replacing they can. Learners do not necessarily meet some of the criteria for project the JOBS program, teachers who take to project work wholeheartedly, work: learners work in a group to need to include a workforce either. Some may feel teachers are

December 1998 CO 105 NCSALL 0 on pg_0000, abdicating their roles if they do not teachers involved in successful come to fruition; the joy and provide answers, or they may not project-based learning, some themes frustration of working with others; want to learn with and from their surface: at the beginning and end of the pride in gaining important classmates. projects, learner enthusiasm seems to knowledge and insights; the Several strategies can facilitate be increased, revitalizing classes and enthusiasm generated by mastering the process. If some learners are teachers. Since students have signed new technologies; and, in the case of resistant, it helps if project on to an issue that interests them, presentations of a personal nature, participation is voluntary: after a motivation tends to be high. As the excitement of sharing a story topic has been identified and learners get involved in the inquiry worth telling. possibilities discussed, learners process, they become curious about should be able to elect to either join answers, often digging deeper into a Limited Research the project team or work on their topic and spending more time on While numerous research studies own during the time periods set aside task than they do when a teacher have demonstrated the positive for group work. One or two hours assigns group work. A shared work effects of similar forms of group per week seems optimal for project- ethic is created. Teachers report that learning on academic skills of school- based learning in non-intensive learners frequently encourage each age children and youth (Johnson & classes. In cases where both Johnson, 1989; Slavin, 1990), no learners and teachers are new large-scale studies have been to project-based learning, "...learners conducted with learners engaged infusing the curriculum with in project-based learning in adult multiple opportunities for literacy programs. However, mention0e confidence group discussion and sufficient anecdotal evidence decision-making can ease the that comes from being supports the contention that transition. If adult learners project-based learning fosters the decide to take on a project, skills named by the Secretary of able to map out a projectLabor's Commission on Necessary they need sufficient time to . plan, revise, implement and Skills (SCANS) as those deemed reflect on the project before it and see it come to necessary to succeed in high is presented to others. Anson performing workplaces. To assess Green (personal fully what learners take away from communication) has project work, in terms of both suggested that the tasks, time group and individual learning, we lines, and responsibilities that the other and lend moral support as they would need to develop performance- group has mapped out be posted face the frightening prospect of a based assessments that capture the prominently on the walls as public presentation. In the end, they knowledge, skills, and strategies that reminders of the status of a project. come through when a presentation is learners attain against some level of Frequent drafts of products help to scheduled, appearing well prepared standard, developed jointly by keep the group focused on the work and on time and communicating their teachers, learners, and members of to be done, while encouraging ideas confidently and effectively, the community. No studies have been individuals to shape or edit pieces despite any nervousness they may done comparing project-based that need improvement. It helps if feel (Mary Helen Martinez, personal learning in adult education with more funds are allocated so learners can communication). conventional models of teaching and budget for supplies, photocopying, Others who have also talked learning, so to what extent basic skills invitations or flyers, and presentation with learners report outcomes in as measured by standardized tests or materials. Even if materials are various domains, including attitudes, GED completion rates are affected by offered in-kind by the program, self-efficacy, and "can do" skills project-based learning remains an estimating costs and staying within a (Curtis, 1990; Schwartz, 1997). When open question. budget provides important asked what project work has meant When the discussion moves to experience for learners that translates to them, learners mention a greater literacy gains, teachers and learners to other contexts. awareness of their own abilities to are often concerned that limited time research and report findings; the that could be spent on the practice of BeneaRs and Sidi Gains confidence that comes from being basic skills is instead taken up with In interviews I have done with able to map out a project and see it discussions and explorations of

NCSALL 106 December 1998 1511,ocus 0 on @IZEZI

issues. Evidence suggests, however, (Krashen): the ability to understand 3. For an example of such a project, see that learners involved in project- that language varies across contexts Shor, I. (1987b). Monday Morning based learning often spend and to use language and literacy in Fever: Critical Literacy and the significant amounts of time writing socially appropriate ways. Generative 7beme of "Work" in Freire down ideas, reading and for the Classroom. 104-121. Portsmouth, commenting on what others have Conclusion NH: Heinemann Educational Books, written, and shaping the work the Despite its many benefits, Inc. group is producing. Teachers report project-based learning in adult References that motivation to edit is significantly literacy should not be an end in itself, Auerbach, E. (1993). "Putting the P Back higher when learners face a "real given the multiple goals and multiple in Participatory." TESOL Quarterly, audience" made up of folks outside learning needs of adults. It is perhaps 27(3), 543-545. of the adult education community best integrated into a comprehensive Barnes, D. (1988). From Communication whose standards are often more curriculum that allows for individual b Curriculum. London: Penguin rigorous than those of adult literacy skill development as part of these Group. teachers. It seems clear, however, that group initiatives. Croll, P. & Moses, D. (1988). "Teaching learners who participate in project In the end, those of us who Methods and Time on Task in Junior work do not obtain lower scores on subscribe to a constructivist Classrooms." Educational Research, 30(2), 90-97, tests than do their classmates who are perspective and believe that we part of a more conventional Curtis, L. (1990). Literacy for Social create our own knowledge through Change. Syracuse, NY: New Readers approach. interaction with others and with texts Press. As for math, when learners are may see the immediate benefits of Dewey, J. (1899). The School and Society. engaged in projects that require project-based learning. Those of us Chicago: University of Chicago Press. budgets, they frequently end up who believe in more structured and Driscoll, Marcy P. (1994). Psychology of spending a great deal of time on direct models of teaching will remain Learning for Instruction. Boston: Allyn calculations and time lines, gaining skeptical. We all await research that and Bacon. experience in the kind of practical can capture the many dimensions of Green, A. (1998). "Mothers United for math used in business and household Jobs Education and Results."1997-8 learning that project-based learning Project FORWARD Learning Project management. If time-on-task counts, addresses: gaining meaning from Summary. San Antonio, TX: and many basic skills proponents reading authentic materials; writing http://members.aol. believe it does (Croll & Moses, 1988), for an audience; communicating with com/ansongreen/welcome.html we can expect project work to lead to others outside of the classroom; Johnson, D.W., and R.T. Johnson (1989). a deeper understanding of what it working as part of a team; giving Cooperation and Competition: Theory takes to apply math to real life voice to one's opinions and ideas; and Research. Medina, MN: Interaction Book Company. problems. and using literacy to effect change. In Skill gains in second language Kilpatrick, W. (1918). "The Project the meantime, we may have to take Method." Teachers College Record, acquisition, particularly on the project-based learning on faith and 19,319-35. intermediate and advanced levels, are see it as a promising approach that Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: perhaps the easiest to see. Every reflects much of what we know Issues and Implications. New York: aspect of project-based learning about the way adults learn.cp Longman. feeds into what Krashen (1985) has Merrifield, J. (1997). "Knowing, Learning, called the language acquisition Endnotes Doing: Participatory Action Research." device: the ability of the brain to 1 For an example of what worked and Focus on Basics, 1 (A) 23-26. acquire a second language through what did not during different phases of Rosen, D. (1998). Inquiry Projects. a project, read the evaluation http://www2.wgbh.org/mbcweis/ meaningful input and expression. We component of the 1997-98 Learning ltc/alri/I.M.html. can expect proficiency to increase as Project Summary by Anson Green. It Schubert, W. (1986). Curriculum. New the target language is used to can be found on the Internet at York, NY: Macmillan Publishing investigate and discuss, to gain http://members.aol.com/CulebraMom Company. content knowledge by reading and /mujer.html. Schwartz, J. (1997). "Assessment in talking with others, and to share 2 For a discussion of the relationship Project-Based Learning: A Study of ideas through writing. Engagement between educational philosophies and Three GED Students." Literacy instructional practice in adult literacy and involvement of this sort with Harvest/Project- programs, see Wrigley, H.S. & Guth, G. 13ased Instruction. New York. 6(1), 27- another language is likely to result in (1992). One Size Does Not Fit All. San 28. greater "pragmatic competence" Diego: Dominic Press. Shor, I. (ecl) (1987a). Freire for the

December 1998 10 7 NCSALL ThFocus ()on

DDSCIZEO

Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc. Turning Obstacles into Shor, I. (1987b). Monday Morning Fever: Critical Literacy and the Generative Theme of "Work" in Freire for the Opportunities Classroom. 104-121. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc. Slavin, R.E. (1990). Cooperative Students can help alleviate problems in their communities, Learning: Theory, Research and Practice. but they must take care of themselves, too Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Tharpe, R.G. & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing Minds to Life. Cambridge, by Deborah L. Johnson MA: Cambridge University Press. Wertsch, J. (ed.) (1985). Culture, Communication and Cognition: y name is Deborah L. affected the students' communities. Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge, Johnson and I have lived At the beginning, the students felt UK: Cambridge University Press. that their neighborhoods differed, Wrigley, H. (1993). "One Size Does Not in the city of Hartfor4 Fit All: Educational Perspectives and Connecticut, all my life. I'm a single but as they talked they started to Program Practices in the U.S." TFSOL parent who has dealt with the realize that they all faced many of Quarterly, 27, 449-463. issues faced by many of the the same issues. I asked "How would students I teach and counseL It is you go about changing your Abou9 the Aith©r important for them to know that, community?" A lot of students felt Heide Spruck Wrigley is a senior like me, they can turn their that they couldn't, blaming other researcher with Aguirre International, obstacles into opportunities, and people, systems, and lack of power. specializing in language, literacy, and that they too can have an impact After more discussions, the students learning. She has worked with a decided they did want to try to make number of programs involved in on their communities. project-based learning, including I teach life skills classes for adult a difference in their communities. project IDEA, a Texas state-wide basic education, pre-GED, and GED We went around the room, taking professional development initiative. students. One Saturday, I attended a turns stating problems we thought She is the author of Bringing Literacy conference sponsored by the Voter were affecting the community, and to Life, a handbook on ESOL literacy. Education, Registration, and Action why we thought they were (VERA) project in Massachusetts. The happening. The list of issues Focus an asks topic of the conference was how to included teen pregnancy, drugs, Reprint pennissi get students involved in their gang violence, education, communities. Afterwards, I decided homelessness, respect, self-esteem, Feel free to reprint articles from our to do a project with my pre-GED racism, law, unity, child abuse, publication, but please credit Focus class. I thought it would be a great domestic violence, peer mediation, on Basics and NCSALL, and send a opportunity for them to really see kids killing kids, addiction, careers, copy of the reprint to NCSALL, World what is or is not happening in their family unity, and police brutality. Education, 44 Farnsworth Street, neighborhoods as they worked on The list of reasons was also long. Boston, MA 02110-1211. Thanks! their social and literacy skills. We needed to narrow down the My class of 19 was made up of a list to the most serious problems. Back Issues After more discussion, they came up Research lot of different personalities, cultures, Reading and beliefs. The students were with teen pregnancy, drugs and gang Multilevel Classroom immigrants and native-born violence, respect, and homelessness. Content-Based Instruction Americans from many backgrounds. The class decided to put together a Learner Motivation Their ages ranged from 16 to 78. survey to get input from the The GED Establishing common ground was a community on these topics. The Change project in itself. class broke into groups, one group To order back issues of Focus on per topic, according to interest. We Basics, $2.00 a copy, please contact Defining Community also appointed one facilitator per Kimberly French at World Education Our first step was to discuss and group. The groups came up with five via e-mail: [email protected] or write about what a community was. questions for each topic. Some of the telephone: (617) 482-9485. We talked about the issues that questions were: What is an ideal

IMCSALL December 1998 108 csFoesss0 on Dg-011(0

community? Why do you think opportunities in life. I felt that the Group dynamics were changing. The people are homeless? What ways is forum was an excellent idea, but, students were demanding that they respect demonstrated in the thinking of some of the heated respect each other's right to a community? What ways is it not? discussions we had had, I also felt the difference of opinion. They insisted How is your community affected by need to help my students develop a that nobody use inappropriate drugs? This group work helped the support system before taking the language. They asked each other to students develop not only literacy project any further. For the forum to be on time; those who were absent but also social skills. be successful, we had to take care of or late had to make sure to get the The students went into different ourselves first. information they needed so the neighborhoods to conduct the project would not be affected. As for survey, interviewing people at the survey information, we were schools, churches, different °ewe came to working on separating facts from businesses, talking to a total of about opinions, and developing 85 people. Once we had the the conclusion recommendations for solving the reponses, we read them and began problems of the community. to discuss some of the concerns and thatwe needed comments that were made by folks Motivation Lags in the community. The class to give the Spring was coming and the compared the answers from weather was beginning to break. The neighborhood to neighborhood. information students were starting to enjoy the spring weather more than the classes; Support System out to others even the most motivated students' This process made me think interest was starting to drop off. The about something that I really never group facilitators were becoming even took into consideration before: in the discouraged because the groups how the comments would affect the were not holding up and they felt as students. One morning, while going communi if they would not accomplish what over the comments in the surveys, a they had set out to do. I was really few of the students got into a very quite disappointed that the students heated conversation about being I decided to do an exercise were losing interest, but the homeless. I observed them without called memory lane with the important thing for me was that I interrupting and came to realize that students. I asked the students to keep those students who were still these issues were reality for some of visualize way back to being in the involved working on the forum. I the folks in the room. womb, and then think through their organized the students into those We had planned originally to do lives up to the present. I asked them who were not going to participate only class presentations and educate to think of the people in their lives, and those who were. Those who each other, but as we talked we both those who had been supportive were not going to participate became came to the conclusion that we and those who had not. The students the audience, so that those who were needed to give the information out to were really emotional. We identified going to present could get a feel for others in the community. We thought a common bond: we all have life what it would be like. about meeting with parents, but then struggles and our pain is not unique. One afternoon the students and I thought that the process of change There was a lot of pain in the room had a class discussion on the issues should start with kids. A lot of the that day and I even tapped into some we had chosen to work on. We were students in the class felt that made things that were not resolved for me. still deciding how we would present the most sense. Support groups, going to the healing them to the junior high school The students decided that they ministry, writing good-bye letters to students. One student, who was 16, would like to put together a forum our grief, group cries, prayer, praise, said she would like to develop a for the junior high school students. pampering our child within, and lots panel. Panel members would speak The students chose junior high of hugs and unconditional love on a personal note about the topics because they felt that this is when carried us through the healing teen pregnancy, drugs and gang peer pressure kicks in. They believed process. violence, respect, and homelessness. that the younger students need to After this, the project seemed to I thought this was an excellent idea, know that there were better be heading in the right direction. but I wasn't quite sure the students 109 December 1998 NCSALL FocusC on 7-0 2th. 01100

spoke with the students about themselves, and never to let anyone "...they felt like making wrong decisions in her life tell them that they cannot accomplish and the disadvantages of becoming their goals in life. He encouraged they can and pregnant at a young age. She spoke students to hold themselves in high about the difficulty she was having esteem, because they deserve it. He did make a carrying her baby. She talked about told them that no matter where they her misconceptions about how much came from or what they have been difference in fun it would be having a baby. The through, they can make it in this audience listened carefully as they world. The students had tons of the lives o saw a former student of Lewis Fox comments and questions. They share about this issue. Taliea then related to John's story and expressed the young began to tell the students about a lot of similarities. They commended sexually transmitted diseases, and the him on how he turned his life around. risks she took with her own life by John demonstrated that he was no people... having sex without using a condom. longer a victim, but a victor. The junior high school students Isylma, the oldest of the panel would want to get that personal. seemed to be really interested in members, is from Jamaica and enjoys The students who were selected what she had to say. In the discussion learning and supporting positive to sit on the panel were Taliea that followed, the students talked causes. I found it quite interesting Hatcher, teen pregnancy; John Doe, about peer pressure and about that she had chosen to speak to the homelessness; Tylon Jarrett, gangs moving too fast into commitments for students on respect. I admire her no- and violence; and Isylma Wharton, which they were not ready. They nonsense attitude. I also found it respect. Finally, the day arrived for expressed their gratitude to her. interesting that she felt the reason the forum. The students were both children didn't have respect for nervous and excited. The forum was John Doe themselves or for each other is held at Lewis Fox Middle School. We The next speaker did not want to because they did not receive respect received permission to conduct the use his name during the forum, so he at home. During preparation for the forum with the students in the inside called himself John Doe. He started forum, I must say I was kind of suspension room. This is where out discussing the community he skeptical about Isylma because she children are detained for violation of lives in and the advantages and has a very bold spirit. Unless you school rules or disrespectful disadvantages to growing up in the know her, she can be a handful. But behavior. We chose inside hood. He is a very intelligent young she was awesome. I saw how, in the suspension because these children man, both academically and street beginning, the students didn't want to were making poor choices for wise. I admired the way he hear anything she was trying to themselves. We wanted to help them conducted his conversation with the deliver. So she spoke to the students turn their obstacles into students. In the beginning, he spoke on a personal level and shared lots of opportunities. The principal helped in slang, and as he talked about how information about her culture and the provide us with a larger audience by he grew and changed, so did his way she was brought up. She talked a sending some of the hard to reach language. Students caught on to this lot about respecting yourself in all children, who had visited inside change without him pointing it out to that you do. suspension in the past, back to attend them. During the question and Tylon spoke with the students on the forum, too. answer period, quite a few students drugs and gang violence. He talked A total of 17 students attended brought the change in his speech to about wanting to be a part of a gang, the forum, mainly young men. I his attention. John discussed how he and the advantages and began by introducing the panel and had lived both sides of the world. He disadvantages of being in a gang. He sharing what it was like preparing for started out as a productive member shared some of the details of his the forum. I talked about some of the of society and then he became the personal life, including losing his issues that we had discussed, and stereotypical homeless bum and drug daughter and his girlfriend from gang briefed them on the background of addict. He lost everything and ended retaliation. These deaths caused great each panelist. First, Taliea discussed up bouncing from shelter to shelter, pain. He talked to the students with teen pregnancy and sexually living anywhere he could lay his sincere honesty. He expressed his transmitted diseases. Seven months head. He urged the students to stay in concerns about the youth today and pregnant with her first child, she school, to trust and believe in how important education is. Ty

liSCSALL 23 December 1998 11 ---,Z,-)Foeus 0 on @Lot:go

shared about how hard it was for him to get out of the gang, and about ©o NdunagOon, R'sg6acrag6gn, and how he had to relocate because of the name he had made for himself. AcOgn M .11\11 Today, he wants to work with youth to help keep them from going astray. For several years, we at the New England Literacy Resource Center Ty was brutally honest about gang (NELRC) have made civic literacy and community participationone of our life. He encouraged the young priorities. Through the Voter Education, Registration, and Action (VERA) people to stay in school. The project, we have worked to build the capacity of programs to integrate these students shared their feelings about areas into basic education and English for speakers of other languages peer pressure, and about being (ESOL) teaching. As part of the VERA project, in bullied for not being part of a gang. 1998, four regional teams of teachers investigated They really talked back and forth how and with what support they could use with Ty, as he told his story. community involvement projects for developing skills in literacy and participatory democracy. Renacgions Each regional team was facilitated by a The junior high students seemed practitioner convenor, who guided the group in a to enjoy the forum. They asked three-tiered inquiry process. First, teachers questions and the teachers asked if worked with their own classes to identify we would do it again. The students community connections, concerns, and questions, and then to considerways who participated in putting this the group could intervene to make a difference. Second, they developed together, as well as those who sat on their own inquiry questions about trying to facilitate such a community the panel, really developed some action project within their various teaching contexts and constraints. And great leadership skills. They were third, they documented their work so that the NELRC, with theteam able to develop unity. I believe convenors, could analyze the collective experience and learn how best to strongly that they felt like they can support such projects in the future. and did make a difference in the lives The teachers shared their data in team meetings; it was discussed and of the young people, as well as their compared in convenor meetings, and fully analyzed by VERA staff. In the own. future, we will build in time and resources to supportan inclusive process Working with the students on throughout. The collective data from the four teams ledus to the following this project was a rewarding conclusions about what people need to become active: experience. Although it was time A sense of connection to a community or an issue. These consuming, the more we developed connections were discovered as groups discussed questions such the forum, the more growth occurred as what community means, which communities people feel part in the students as well as in myself. of, and their vision of healthier communities. We have learned how to put forums To find role models in ourselves or others. As demonstrated together, and to gather data and use by Deborah Johnson's class, groups approached this by talking it to achieve our visions. Students about the ways local folks have taken control of theirown lives learned better writing, research, or made a difference in the community. In this way, people are public speaking, and advocacy skills; reminded of their own ability to contribute and that change is they learned brainstorming and possible. conflict resolution, planning, and Skills that prepare us to take informed action. These might patience. They bonded and became include research, interviewing, public speaking, advocacy, media leaders. Most important, they learned literacy, organizing, and the underlying basic communication the vital role they play in their skills. In the VERA projects, the practice and rehearsal of these communities. 0). skills was crucial for preparing people to act with knowledge and About the Ausilor confidence. Deborah L. Johnson has been at the To act on what we learned, we are putting together a Civic Literacy and Urban League of Greater Hartford in Community Involvement Sourcebook that builds on the ideas, models, and Harford, Connecticut, for three years as materials developed through VERA and other participatory democracy a life skills teacher and an AIDs projects. Look for announcements regarding its availability. counselor. Her mission is youth and young adults.+ Andrea Nash

December 1998 NCSALL ---Focus Qon

roles associated with being an adult. Furthermore, we believe that the pervasive shifts that occur in transformational learning help adult students to more fully and broadly integrate in their lives the basic facts and skills gathered via informational learning. In this way, what students learn may be more transferable, generalizable, and flexible within and Transformational Learning in across the roles of adulthood. Adulthood From our research on adult basic education learners' internal experience of change within their educational programs, we hope to By Kathryn Portnow, Nancy Popp, Maria learn more about and gain a better Broderick, Eleanor Drago-Severson, and Robert understanding of how the processes of transformation actually occur. Our Kegan hope is to deepen knowledge about rhe Transformational historical facts, events, characters, how best to promote and support the L earning Project (TLP) is and outcomes; but further learning process of learning, transformation, one of many research might also involve the development and role competency in adults by projects under the umbrella of of a capacity to think abstractly so bringing our theoretical perspective NCSALL Our particular focus is on that one can ask more general, to this research on adult basic the process of transformational thematic questions about the facts, or education. Our developmental learning in adulthood. In this consider the perspectives and biases framework is relatively new (Kegan, paper we describe our project and of those who wrote the historical 1982) and, as such, it has not been its goals, then provide a brief account creating the "facts." Both widely applied to different introduction to the theoretical kinds of learning are expansive and populations. Consequently, we are framework on which our work is valuable, one within a pre-existing hoping to learn how our theoretical based. frame of mind, and the other framework applies to and may be reconstructing the very frame. The informed by an adult literacy PrefleeFocus first we call informational learning; population, comprised of minority Thenymakes a distinction the second we call transformational. populations and non-native speakers between informational and In our view, transformational of English. At the broadest level, we transformational learning. In our learning relates to the expansion or seek to support all adults in view, informational learning is enhanced complexity in the very way enhancing their capacities for learning that primarily focuses on the people understand the world and managing the complexities of work acquisition of more skills and an their experiences. It focuses on and life. increased fund of knowledge. We changes in how people know. We Our project explores define transformational learning as link adult growth and competence in transformational learning in three learning that not only increases one's role as parent, worker, or adult roles worker, parent, and knowledge but, more importantly, learner to transformational change, formal learner in three distinct leads to deep and pervasive shifts in not informational change. settings: an adult diploma program at the learner's perspective and As a group of developmental Polaroid Corporation of Waltham, understanding. A quick example of psychologists interested in adult Massachusetts, run by the Continuing this distinction, drawn from the development, we hold the notion Education Institute (CEI) of cognitive realm, involves the that most adults in mainstream Watertown, Massachusetts; the difference between concrete and American culture are "in over their Cambridge Even Start Family Literacy abstract thinking. If one is bound by heads" (Kegan, 1994) when it comes Program in Cambridge, concrete thinking in the study of, let to meeting the demands of modern Massachusetts; and an English for us say, history, then further learning life, e.g., balancing and prioritizing speakers of other languages (ESOL) might involve the mastery of more the multiple tasks, expectations, and program at Bunker Hill Community

NCSALL December 1998 5FocusEaco 0 on

College (BHCC) in Charlestown, prior and current learning periodic focus groups and classroom Massachusetts. We selected these experiences; in another, we explore observations to learn more about the sites for our research because each how participants make sense of cohort's collective experience in the has a long-standing history of themselves and the world. In yet program. In addition, we are excellence and a very student- another interview, we ask interviewing the teachers to compare centered philosophy. We are participants to create maps or their expectations and practices with interviewing approximately 15 to 20 pictures of how they see themselves the learners' key experiences. We students in each site, for a total of 54 in the specific role of the setting. We take the position that the learners students. Data collection started in also present a problem-solving and teachers are experts on their April of 1998, and will continue dilemma relevant to their role. We own experience and have much to through July of 1999. conduct these interviews with each teach us about what works best. learner at the beginning and end of Each program is organized Process-Based Rudy the program, and a subset of these around a strong cohort model: the In each of the three research interviews in the middle of the same group of students go through settings, we are talking individually program. We are also holding the program together. Program with all learners to hear from them, in their own words, about what is most helpful and matters most to ys Underst Frt mg i them in their learning. We also hope Aduitho d to hear about any experiences that Instrumental Way of Understanding the learners have had that felt pivotal O Defined by one's self-interest, concrete needs, purposes, plans, and wants. to them in some way and led to a O Characterized by dualistic thinking, concerns with concrete consequences: change in perspective, perhaps an "Will I get caught/punished? How can I get the things I want? Will I lose "aha!" moment, if they can identify my job?" one. We wish to learn about the O Others are seen as either obstacles or pathways to getting one's own students' internal experiences of concrete needs met. change to understand how to O Reliance on rules. promote and support the process of O Not capable of abstract thought. oThe Golden Rule = "I'll do to you what you do to me." transformation. Our project is a process-based study: we are Socializing Way of Understanding interested in the processes of the O Self defined by opinions and expectations of others. students' learning more than in the oFeels empathy; feels responsible for others' feelings; holds others responsible content of what they learn. To this for own feelings. end, we are following the students O Concerned with abstract psychological consequences: "Am I still a good through the process of their person? Do you still like/love/value me? Do I still belong?" experience in these three programs O Intolerant of ambiguity. Reliance on external authority. over a nine- to 12-month period. We oCapable of abstract thinking, thinking about thinking. o will be tracking their motivations for Criticism experienced as destructive to the self. learning, their expectations for 0 The Golden Rule = "I should do for you what I hope and need and expect you should do for me." themselves and their teachers, their sense of themselves in their Self-Authoring Way of Understanding respective roles. Our purpose is to O Self defined by its own internal authority. understand better what the actual O Can hold contradictory feelings simultaneously. processes of transformation look oConcerned with consequences for personal integrity and meeting one'sown like, and what supports or enhances standards: "Am I competent? Am I living/working/lovingup to my full these kinds of transformations in potential? adult literacy learners. O Am I upholding my own values and standards?" To gather this information, we O Integrates others' perspectives, including criticism and other perspectives use a variety of interviews and data according to own internally generated standards and values. O Reliance on own authority. collection tools in one-on-one 0 The Golden Rule = "Doing for each other supports each of us in meetingour meetings with each participant. In own self-defined values, ideals, and goals and helps preserve the social order." one interview we ask our Popp & Portnow (1998) participants specifically about their

December 1998 113 NCSALL 6)Foctos Out, D51@l01100 directors have told us that the cohort I©k PrOnciipiles developmental view of adulthood. experience seems to encourage Our project on transformational The first principle is that student retention. For those students learning in adulthood is based on development is a lifelong process. who do drop out, we will conduct research conducted over the last 20 The same processes that underlie follow-up interviews with them to years that has taught us that clear children's development continue the extent possible. Students are links exist between children's and throughout adulthood. Adults' minds compensated for the time they spend adults' development (Basseches, continue to grow and become more being interviewed with us. We think 1984; Belenky et al., 1986; Commons complex. The research shows that that this is a respectful way to thank et al., 1984; Daloz, 1986; Kegan, development is gradual and that it the students for their time and help, 1982, 1994; Kohlberg, 1984; Piaget, varies within and across individuals. and that such recognition may 1952; Weathersby, 1976). Two basic We can all see in our observations of encourage students to remain in the principles from this research will children that development is a slow project. orient the reader to our and evolving process. The same is true of adult development. While some theorists (Erikson, 1963; Gould, Learners' Understanding of Education 1978; Levinson et al., 1978; Neugarten, 1968; Sheehey, 1976) Instrumental Way off Understanding define development in terms of age "What's in it for me?" and life phase, e.g. adolescence, Knowledge is a kind of "possession," an accumulation of skills, facts and actions adulthood, middle age, old age, the that yield solutions; a means to an end. You "get it" and then you "have it." processes of development we look at Knowledge is right or wrong. have been shown to be independent Knowledge comes from external authority that tells you the right skills, facts, of both age and phase (Beukema, and rules you need to produce the results to get what you want. 1990; Broderick, 1996; Goodman, Knowledge helps one meet one's own concrete needs and goals, and obtain 1983; Guido, 1994; Kegan, 1982, instrumental outcomes. Education is to get X. 1994; Popp, 1998; Portnow, 1996; Sonnenschein, 1990; Stein, 1991). Sodalizing Way off Understanding Developmental transformations can "What do you think I should know?" take years to occur, and every person Knowledge is general information one should know for the required moves at a different and unique pace. social roles and to meet expectations of teachers/authorities. The second principle is that Knowledge is equated with objective truth. development is more than the Knowledge comes from higher authorities and experts who hand down truth accumulation of new information and and understanding. Authorities and experts are the source of the legitimate skills; it is a qualitative change in the knowledge and informed opinions. Knowledge helps one to meet cultural and social expectations, gain very ways that adults know and make acceptance and entry into social roles, and feel a sense of belonging. sense of their world. It is, again, a Education is to be X. kind of learning that leads to deep and pervasive shifts in one's Self-authoring Way off Understanding perspective and understanding of "What do I want to know; what is important to ine to keep learning and oneself, one's relationships and one's growing?" goals. As stated earlier, we link adult Knowledge is understood as a construction, truth, a matter of context. Bodies of growth to transformational change, knowledge and theories are seen as models for interpreting and analyzing not informational change. experience. Knowledge comes from one's interpretation and evaluation of standards, values, perceptions, deductions, and predictions. Ways © Underseanding Knowledge comes from a self-generated curiosity and sense of responsibility In our research, we use as an for one's own learning. organizing framework the three Knowledge helps to enrich one's life, to achieve a greater competence developmental levels that are most according to one's own standards, to deepen one's understanding of self and common in adulthood. These levels world to participate in the improvement of society. represent three broadly different Education is to become X. ways of understanding and (Adapted from R. Weathersby, A Synthesis of Research and Theory on Adult Development: Its interpreting one's experience. These hnplications Jim Adult Learning and Postsecondaty Education, 1976. pp. 88-89) three developmental levels, like each

NCSALL 23 December 1998 114 focus 0 on D g011gO

of those in childhood, are sequential understanding shapes what one sees view of education. This table suggests and qualitatively distinct from each as one's responsibilities as a student how these ways of understanding other. Each has its own logic, while and how one thinks about what might affect a person's definition of building on and integrating each makes a good student. It frames knowledge, understanding of the previous level. We refer to these as one's conceptions of what source of knowledge, and sense of the Instrumental Way of knowledge is. One's way of the goals and purpose of education. Understanding, the Socializing Way understanding frames one's motives of Understanding, and the Self- and goals for learning, fashioning Linking Theory and Authoring Way of Understanding what one wants from one's Practice (Kegan, 1982, 1994, Kegan & Lahey, education, and what one expects We believe that the demands on in preparation). These levels are from oneself and one's teachers. adults often outpace their current described in the box on page 23. While there are many level of development. In modern A given way of understanding differences in the ways that American culture, as educators, as may influence one's experience of individuals using different ways of fellow adults, we all have oneself, others, and events. It may understanding construct their expectations about what adults frame how one defines and expectations, goals, and motives for should be able to do and how they understands one's many adult roles. learning, there is also a great deal of should be able to do it. Often these In our research, we are concerned regularity in the ways people using expectations go unexamined and are with how these ways of the same way of understanding beyond what an individual adult has understanding affect the ways in experience these things. On page 24 the capacity to do. The usefulness of which adults think about themselves is a description of how different our developmental framework lies in as workers, parents, and learners. developmental ways of the insight it provides into the kinds For example, one's way of understanding may impact one's of expectations held for adults and

[Equipped for the Future and the TransformationalLearning Project

For the last two years, the (EFF: A New Framework for Adult creation of the Developmental Skill Transformational Learning Project Learning, Field Development Institute Matrices. These matrices show the team has been working Manual, February, 1998, p.3). These different ways in which the same collaboratively with the National standards are based on adults' self- skills may be understood, performed, Institute for Literacy's Equipped for defined learning needs as parents, or enacted, very differently at each of the Future (EFF) initiative. The workers, and citizens. the developmental levels of purpose of our collaboration is to The ny and EFF share a adulthood. The matrices will provide integrate our developmental common interest in conceptualizing a map for literacy educators and perspective with EFF's new adult literacy as something bigger administrators that helps them customer-driven framework for adult than the acquisition of basic skills. understand the ways in which their literacy and lifelong learning. Both are working to reframe adult students make sense of things. Using Equipped for the Future is a literacy and lifelong learning to focus it, they can design programs and collaborative, standards-based on adult competence, broadly learning situations that engage system reform initiative. The goal of conceived. While the TLP's three students and help them achieve their EFF is to focus the literacy system on research settings are not EFF partner goals by taking into account the producing results that matter to our sites, our teams maintain an ongoing, students' struggles and more students, our communities, and our mutually informative collaboration in effectively building on students' real funders. To achieve this goal, EFF which we explore the theoretical, strengths. In addition, TLP and EFF has worked with partners in 17 conceptual, and research interests of hope to join forces to offer a Teacher states across the country to develop both projects. The TLP also Training Institute in the summer of a set of Adult Performance Standards participates in EFF's working sessions 2000 that integrates what has been that "define what adults need to and field institutes. learned from both projects. know and be able to do in order to A specific contribution of the ny For more info on EFF, contact: carry out their roles as parents and team to EFF's efforts in developing an Sondra Stein, EFF Project Director, family members, citizens and assessment framework for the new NIFL, 800 Connecticut Avenue NW, community members, and workers" Standards of Adult Performance is the Suite 200, Washington, DC, 20006.

I

December 1998 115 NCSALL ---3Focusaziico Ooo how the adult might be meeting or their skill level but are, in fact, bound Second, optimal learning not meeting those expectations. In by different ways of understanding as environments consider and take into collaboration with the National suggested by the above matrix. In account the match between the Institute for Literacy's Equipped for our view, one way to work with adult expectations of the program and the the Future initiative (see box on thi learners of varying levels is to think readiness of the learner. In our view, page), we have created the about how we, as educators, can learning is enhanced when there is a Developmental Skills Matrices, (p.26), create learning environments that good match between the learner's to give a clearer picture of how one appropriately support and challenge way of understanding and the might use our developmental adults who may have different ways implicit developmental demands of framework in a very practical way to of understanding. We know that the curriculum. Here we are help clarify our expectations and our optimal learning environments do speaking about paying attention to students' capacities. The following several critical things (Daloz, 1986; what way of understanding the excerpt from one of the skill matrices Drago-Severson, 1996; Kegan, 1982, curriculum requires of the learner. describes how specific skills in a 1994; Kegan & Lahey, in We know, for example, that if a particular context in this case, the preparation). First, optimal learning program's expectations aim too high, skills recommended for working environments offer a good mix of a learner may feel demoralized or together effectively might be support and challenge. Support is overwhelmed and retreat. understood and enacted by someone defined as joining, affirming or Conversely, if a program's in each of the three ways of acknowledging where a person is, expectations are aimed too low, then understanding described above. how s/he thinks or feels. We define a student may become bored and One question adult literacy challenge as gently questioning how disengaged. Thus, knowledge of practitioners have asked us is how to a person feels and thinks with the both a student's way of work with students who may be at hope of raising questions, pushing understanding and the implicit different levels of literacy skills. In the limits of one's current ways of developmental demands of the response, we first wonder whether thinking, and exposing the learner to program may help educators to these learners are not just different in new perspectives. support and challenge students even

Deveiopmental Perspectives on WorBdng Together (Popp, 1998) Instr u mental Socializing Self-Author ing Forming an identity as a group A complex network of people of differing Everybody doing their job and Perspective on with a common, mutual goal thatvalues, opinions, experience and perspective doing it the right way Working Together everyone is in agreement with joining together for a common purpose Decisions and issues have a rightDecision needs group consensusDecisions have many possible paths; or agreement, and it is necessarycoming to them is an exploration of many Decision-Making and wrong aspect with no in-between; there is right way to arrive at one agreed upon options; there is not necessarily one "best" Skills and a wrong way to do things group decision decision, but many possible decision, each with pros and cons Cooperates by arguing or Cooperates by ensuring that everyone's voice persuading others to agree to the Cooperates by trying to build is heard, regardless of opinion; celebrates Interpersonal right thing to do and the right agreement; minimize conflict, differences, makes room for all perspectives, Skills way to do it; "right" beind disagreement and differences works toward fair and workable dictated by the rules compromises Open to learning new ways of Open to learning new facts, Life-I.ong Learning thinking and acting if it fits Open to engaging with new perspectives, new concrete ways of doing challenging own assumptions, broadening Skills group ideology or already held things if it furthers concrete beliefs, or if it further sense of own vision with new ideas and input self-interests belonging to the group Communicates by stating rules, Communicates feelings, concern Communicates feelings, ideas, philosophies opinions, concrete goals, facts; notand sense of responsibility for in attempt to express own view within Communication concerned with theories, others' feelings and experience; larger group, to explain and understand Skills philosophies or others' feelings makes sure everyone understandsdifferences, similarities, and complexities of except as they have an impact on and agrees with each other everyone's perspective getting the job done

23 December 1998 NICSALL 116 3Focus 0 on D

more effectively (Da loz, 1986; Kegan, Transformational Power of Adult of Recovery. Unpublished doctoral 1982, 1994; Kegan & Lahey, in Learning Experiences. San Francisco: dissertation. Harvard Graduate School of Jossey-Bass. preparation). Education. Drago-Severson, E. (1996). Head-of-School as Weathersby, R. (1976). A Synthesis of Principal Adult Developer: An Account of Research and Theory on Adult Ongoing noughss One Leader's Effort to Support Development: Its Implications for Adult As we progress through this Transformational Learning Among the Learning and Postsecondary Education. Adults in her School. Unpublished doctoral Unpublished Qualifying Paper. Harvard research, we are already hearing dissertation. Harvard Graduate School of Graduate School of Education. from the students and their teachers Education. Erikson, E. (1963). Childhood and Society. that they have experienced New York: W. W. Norton. About the Authors meaningful changes in the ways that Goodman, R. (1983). A Developmental and Kathryn Portnow, Ed.D., is a they think and feel about themselves Systems Analysis of Marital and Family postdoctoral fellow and research Communication in Clinic and Non-Clinic associate on the Transformational as a result of being in their respective Families. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. programs. Students are telling us that Harvard Graduate School of Education. Learning Project of NCSALL at the they are already feeling more Gould, R. (1978). Transformations: Growth Harvard Graduate School of Education. and Change in Adult Life. New York, NY: confident about sharing their Simon and Schuster. Nancy Popp, Ed.D., is a postdoctoral opinions, and speaking up for Guido, J. (1994). Schooling the Soul: The fellow and research associate with the themselves. Some students have told Psychological Nature and Function of Odd Images Among Roman Catholic Transformational Learning Project of us that they feel that their classes are Seminarians. Unpublished doctoral NCSALL at the Harvard Graduate helping them to do their jobs better dissertation. Harvard Graduate School of School of Education. and to become better people. In the Education. Kegan, R. (1982). The Evolving Self Maria Broderick, Ed.D., is a lecturer on fall of 2000, at the end of our project, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. we hope to present a rich portrait of Kegan, R. (1994). In Over Our Heads: The education and research associate at the different kinds of changes the Mental Demands of Modern Life. Harvard Graduate School of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. students have experienced in their Kegan, R., & Lahey, I. (in preparation) Seven Ellie Dra,go-Severson, Ed.D., is a participation in these educational Discourses for Development. lecturer in education, research programs. From these portraits we Kohlberg, L. (1984). Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive Developmental Approach to associate, and postdoctoral fellow at hope will emerge a clearer map that Socialization: The Psychology of Moral Harvard's Graduate School of highlights and illuminates the Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Education. complexities of the processes of Levinson, D., Daron, C., Klein, E., Levinson, M., & McKee, B. (1978). The Seasons of a Robert Kegan, Ph.D., is Professor of transformation. With this knowledge, Man's Life. New York: Ballentine Books. we, as educators, might even more Neugarten, B. (1968). Middle Age and Education in the field of adult learning and professional development at the effectively support the growth of Aging. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Piaget, J. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Harvard Graduate School of adults as life-long learners through Children. New York: International Education., the 21st century. cp Universities Press. Popp, N. (1998). Developmental Perspectives on Working Together. The Developmental Ecnouici Mowd References Skills Matrix. National Institute for Basseches, M. (1984). Dialectical Thinking Literacy Equipped for the Future and and Adult Development. Norwood, NJ: Transformational Learning Project gssue 0: December 11998 Ablez. Collaboration. Belenky, M., Clinchy, B., Goldberger, N., & Popp, N. & Portnow, K. (1998). Miriam Burt, Center for Applied Tarule, J. (1986). Women's Ways of Transformational Learning in Adulthood, Linguistics, Washington, DC Knowing. New York: Basic Books. Working paper presented to the Equipped Beukema, S. (1990). Women's Best for the Future Field Development Institute. Hal Hayden, Northeast and Islands Friendships: Their Meaning and Louisville, KY. Regional Educational Laboratory at Brown University, Providence, RI Meaningfulness. Unpublished doctoral Portnow, K. (1996). Dialogues of Doubt: The dissertation. Harvard Graduate School of Psychology of Self-Doubt and Emotional Education. Ga.slighting in Adult Women and Men. Sharon Ultsch, Old Orchard Beach/Saco Broderick, M. (1996). A Certain Doubleness: Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Adult Education, Old Orchard Beach, ME Reflexive Thought and Mindful Harvard Graduate School of Education. Experience as Tools for Transformative Sheehy, G. (1976). Passages: Predictable Learning in the Stress Reduction Clinic. Crises of Adult Life. New York: Dutton. Angie Bents, Roseville Adult High School, Roseville, MN Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Sonnenschein, P. (1990). The Development of Harvard Graduate School of Education. Mutually Satisfying Relationships between Andrew filani, Literacy South and North Commons, M., Richards, F., & Armon, C. Adult Daughters and their Mothers. Carolina Occupation Safety and Health (1984). Beyond Formal Operations: Late Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Project (NCOSH), Durham, NC Adolescent and Adult Cognitive Harvard Graduate School of Education. Development. New York: Praeger. Stein, S. (1991) Stopping Compulsive Molly Thorpe, Rural Resources, Daloz, L. (1986). Effective Teaching and Gambling: Ego Development, Social Colville, WA Mentoring: Realizing the Support, and Self-Awareness as Predictors

2, December 1998 117 NCSALL 7,7-N Focus0 o a B17)EZOCZ BLACKBARD

Proiect-Based Learning J. Schwartz, "Assessment in Project- M. Commons, F. Richards & C. E. Auerbach, Making Meaning, Based Learning: A Study of Three Armon, Beyond Formal Making Change. McHenry, IL: Delta GED Students." Literacy Operations: Late Adolescent and Systems and Center for Applied Harvest/Project-Based Instruct on. Adult Cognitive Development. New Linguistics, 1991. 6(1), 27-28, 1997. York, NY: Praeger, 1984.

L. Curtis, Literacy for Social Web Sites Rellated to L. Daloz, Effective Teaching and C'hange. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Proiect-Based Learning Mentoring: Realizing the Press, 1990. S. Gaer, http://otan.dni.us/ Transformational Power of Adult webfarm/emailproject/email.html. Learning Experiences. San D. Fried-Booth, Project Work. Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986. Oxford: Oxford University Press, A. Green, "Mothers United for Jobs 1986. Education and Results."1997-8 Project R. Kegan, The Evolving Sell FORWARD Learning Project Cambridge, MA: Harvard University A. Lawrence, "Expanding Summary. http://members.aol.com/ Press, 1982. Capacity in ESOL Programs anson green/welcome.html (EXCAP): Using Projects to Enhance R. Kegan, In Over Our Heads: Instruction." Literacy D. Rosen, Inquiry Projects. The Mental Demands of Modern Harvest/Project-Based Instruction. http://www2.wgbh.org/mbcweis/ Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard 6 (1), 1-9, 1997. ltc/alri/I.M.html University Press, 1994. Aduit Development RICSALIL Web Site J. Merrifield, "Knowing, Learning, Visit our web site for all issues of Doing: Participatory Action M. Basseches, Dialectical Thinking Focus on Basics. Research." Focus on Basics, 1 (A) and Adult Development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1984. http://hugsel.harvard.edu/ 23-26, 1997. -ncsall

Focus0 on FIRST CLASS 753D Ci=2:10,0 US POSTAGE World Education PAID 44 Farnsworth Street BOSTON, MA Boston, MA 02110-1211 PERMIT NO. 53495

Sandra Kerka ERIC Database Center on Education and Training for Empl 1900 Kenny Rd Columbus; OH 43210-1016

118 U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) RIC National Library of Education (NLE) Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

NOTICE

REPRODUCTION BASIS

This document is covered by a signed "Reproduction Release ui (Blanket) form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing all or classes of documents from its source organization and, therefore, does not require a "Specific Document" Release form.

This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission to reproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, may be reproduced by ERIC without a signed Reproduction Release form (either "Specific Document" or "Blanket").

EFF-089 (9/97)