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Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 113 Chapter 5:

S

What conditions will be Maintaining Species TRIAL needed to maintain animal species associations in the South? in the South

Margaret Katherine Trani (Griep) Southern Region, USDA Forest Service

mammals of concern include the ■ Many reptiles and amphibians Key Findings Carolina and Virginia northern are long-lived and late maturing, flying squirrels, the river otter, and have restricted geographic ■ Geographic patterns of diversity and several rodents. ranges. Managing for these species in the South indicate that species ■ Twenty species of bats inhabit will require different strategies than richness is highest in Texas, Florida, the South. Four are listed as those in place for birds and mammals. North Carolina, and Georgia. Texas endangered: the gray bat, Indiana The paucity of monitoring data leads in the richness of mammals, bat, and Ozark and Virginia big- further inhibits their management. birds, and reptiles; North Carolina eared bats. Human disturbance leads in amphibian diversity. Texas to hibernation and maternity colonies dominates vertebrate richness by Introduction is a major factor in their decline. virtue of its large size and the variety of its ecosystems. ■ The South is the center of The biodiversity of the South is amphibian biodiversity in the ■ Loss of habitat is the primary impressive. Factors contributing to Nation. However, there are growing cause of endangerment of terrestrial that diversity include regional gradients concerns about amphibian declines. vertebrates. Forests, grasslands, in climate, geologic and edaphic site Potential causes include habitat shrublands, and wetlands have conditions, topographic variation, destruction, exotic species, water been converted to urban, industrial, natural disturbance processes, and pollution, ozone depletion leading and agricultural uses. Other factors the activities of Native Americans to excessive ultraviolet radiation, include environmental contaminants, and European settlers (Boyce and acid deposition, synthetic chemicals, commercial exploitation, coastal Martin 1993, Delcourt and others and prolonged drought conditions. development, fire suppression, 1993, Healy 1985). These factors river and stream modification, ■ Seven species of amphibians are have contributed to the diversity of and wetland degradation. listed as threatened or endangered several species groups: salamanders, by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife snakes, and turtles (White and others ■ Species that are federally listed as Service: the Houston toad, Flatwoods 1998). The evolution of plants and threatened or endangered consist of salamander, San Marcos salamander, animals, combined with the isolation 22 birds, 33 mammals, 7 amphibians, Barton Springs salamander, Red that characterizes some habitats, and 17 reptiles. Florida leads with Hills salamander, Shenandoah produced remarkable levels of the number of threatened (16) and Mountain salamander, and Texas endemism—species that are endangered (26) vertebrates; Texas blind salamander. These species restricted to special habitats. is second in endangered species (23); are imperiled due to physiological while Mississippi is second in the The terrestrial vertebrate fauna of constraints that limit them to moist number of threatened species (11). the South, including the entire States habitats, relatively small ranges, of Texas and Oklahoma, consists ■ Birds of high concern include and highly specific sites. of 1,208 species. This total includes the red-cockaded woodpecker, ■ Reptile species of concern include 170 amphibians, 197 reptiles, 595 bald eagle, piping plover, whooping the Louisiana pine snake, eastern birds, and 246 mammals (NatureServe crane, wood stork, black-capped indigo snake, crocodile, glass lizard, 2000). Species richness is highest in vireo, Florida scrub jay, and the bluetail mole skink, gopher tortoise, Texas, Florida, North Carolina, and roseate and least terns. and bog turtle. General problems Georgia (fig. 5.1). North Carolina ■ Habitat destruction and the paucity faced by reptiles include habitat leads in amphibian diversity, of large tracts of undisturbed land destruction, pet trade, negative public while Texas leads in the richness threaten far-ranging mammals such attitudes, degradation of aquatic of mammals, birds, and reptiles. as the Florida panther, red wolf, and habitats, and fire suppression or the The variation in species richness the Louisiana black bear. Other lack of sufficient prescribed burning. among States is influenced by TERRESTRIAL

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Amphibians Reptiles Mammals Birds South. Scientific names are provided in the chapter tables and the master Kentucky species list in the Assessment appendix; Tennessee therefore, only common names are Arkansas provided in the text. Louisiana Mississippi Methods and South Carolina Virginia Data Sources Alabama Oklahoma Data on the status of threatened or Georgia endangered vertebrate species of the North Carolina South were compiled from the U.S. Florida Department of the Interior (2000). That Texas agency provided information on the distribution of listed species by State. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Its recovery plans and other agency publications were used to compile Figure 5.1—Geographic patterns of diversity by State within information on life history, ecology, the South (NatureServe 2000). and management of individual species. differences in size, geographic location, growth of the human population has Regional species richness in each and environmental complexity (Stein resulted in land use conversion, urban vertebrate taxon was compiled and others 2000). Texas leads the sprawl, and habitat fragmentation from State Natural Heritage offices region with 911 vertebrate species; (White and others 1998). Landscape (NatureServe 2000). This database is diversity there is influenced by the modification has been accompanied an inventory of all known occurrences State’s large size and its diversity of by habitat isolation, water and air for species of conservation concern. habitats (NatureServe 2000). Florida, pollution, and altered disturbance Information was derived from the North Carolina, and Georgia each regimes (Lorimer 2001, Trani and database to determine geographic support over 600 vertebrate species. others 2001). In addition, southern patterns of diversity by State in the The smallest number of species (487) wildlife has been influenced by the South. The system was also used to occurs in Kentucky. Texas and Florida introduction of exotic species and verify the status and distribution of support species typical of Latin America the overexploitation of native species. species included in the fauna accounts. and the Caribbean that reach their Of particular concern is collection Information on bird habitat northern limits there (Stein and others of species for the pet trade and associations was obtained from Partners 2000). For example, the northern limit overharvest of commercial species in Flight (2000) conservation plans. for the American crocodile is in the (Flather and others 1998). These These plans highlight the factors that Florida Keys and south Florida. factors have influenced species and imperil bird species in physiographic This diverse array of vertebrate their habitats in different ways. areas and recommend management species is found in a variety of habitats. This chapter provides an overview actions. The conservation plans were A habitat is comprised of the physical of the habitat associations of birds, used to identify species of conservation and biological resources that allow a mammals, reptiles, and amphibians in concern (Pashley and others 2000). species to survive and reproduce. The the South. The focus is on vertebrates Habitat associations for herpe- habitat requirements for some species because information on the regional tofauna (reptiles and amphibians) may be quite narrow, while those for biogeography of many terrestrial were summarized from the com- another may be rather broad. invertebrate groups is lacking prehensive review conducted by A species may require a certain (Echternacht and Harris 1993). Wilson (1995). Additional literature habitat structure such as vegetation Additional information on plant reviews and reference materials height, percent canopy cover, floristics, and animal associations is provided supplied information on reptile seral stage, patch size, or diversity and in chapters 1, 2, and 23. and amphibian ecology. interspersion of plant communities. Taxa groups are described, and State agency bear biologists were Some species are constrained by general habitat associations for each surveyed for information about the abiotic factors such as the precise are summarized. The status, distri- current status, habitat needs, and cave temperatures required by bution, and habitat requirements management concerns about black many bat species. These features of are provided for selected species of bears. Nine States responded with habitat influence the distribution and concern. Finally, conservation and information: Alabama, Arkansas, abundance of species (Dickson 2001). management actions are suggested Florida, Kentucky, Mississippi, The habitat conditions for southern for enhancing habitat associations North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas, species have been modified by several and mitigating known threats. and Virginia. factors (Buckner 1989). Habitat loss The following sections discuss the Information on mammal habitat and degradation are serious threats to conditions needed to maintain and relationships was compiled from the region’s fauna (Noss and others enhance conditions for species that extensive literature searches, field 1995, Williams 1989). The rapid occupy the terrestrial habitats of the TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 115

Other birds guides, and texts on southern wildlife. 183 (31%) bald eagles, and peregrine falcons) has Research stations and universities improved due to habitat protection and throughout the South were contacted restrictions on the use of DDT to obtain additional information on (Fuller and others 1995). S selected species. There is a substantial body of infor- Raptors TRIAL 30 (5%) mation on bird-habitat relationships, Results and extensive long-term monitoring programs have been in place for several decades. The distribution Birds Waterfowl and composition of bird communities 45 (8%) is influenced by local habitat and The moderate climate and diverse Perching birds forests across the South support 266 (44%) Wading birds landscape conditions. Local habitat abundant and diverse communities 21 (4%) features include forest type, understory, of breeding, wintering, and migrating Shorebirds number of foliage layers, canopy birds. This vertebrate group comprises 50 (8%) structure, and successional stage. Landscape conditions influencing 17 major orders and 55 families Figure 5.2—Species richness by major (Echternacht and Harris 1993). The subgroups of avian taxa occurring within bird populations include patch order Passeriformes dominates the the South (NatureServe 2000). size, interspersion of vegetative region’s avifauna in the number of communities, forest fragmentation, different families (19) and species that overwinter in the region, and birds edge length, interpatch distance, (127). These include the flycatchers, that migrate to South America. Coastal interior forest, adjacent land use, crows, swallows, jays, titmice, wrens, habitats, maritime forests, and longleaf and spatial heterogeneity. vireos, grackles, orioles, finches, pine savanna are all important to The following section discusses sparrows, and warblers among others. migrating species. bird-habitat associations in the South. The South supports 595 avian species Twenty-one species of birds are listed Species of concern are identified, (NatureServe 2000). The number of as threatened or endangered (table 5.1). and recommendations for their bird species ranges from 505 in Texas Several of these species inhabit the management are provided. to 296 in Tennessee. Florida has 419; Coastal Plain. In addition, several birds Partners in Flight physiographic North Carolina, 390; Oklahoma, 359; are classified as imperiled or vulnerable areas—Partners in Flight (PIF) is and Alabama, 355. These totals include by the Natural Heritage agencies an organization formed to promote perching birds, shorebirds, wading (chapter 1). These species are in bird conservation. It is comprised birds, waterfowl, raptors, and other jeopardy due to habitat loss, habitat of Federal and State agencies, birds (fig. 5.2). fragmentation, or coastal development conservation groups, and forest Perching birds, which include the (Hall 1995). The dependence on industry. PIF uses physiographic passerines mentioned above, comprise breeding and staging areas has made areas as conservation planning units the majority of bird species. Examples shorebird populations vulnerable to for evaluating population trends, of shorebirds include plovers and disturbance. Colonial waterbirds have habitat conditions, land use practices, curlews, while wading birds include declined as a result of habitat and emerging conservation issues sandhill cranes and flamingos. Mottled degradation. (fig. 5.3). Boundaries defined by ducks, Canada geese, wood ducks, In contrast, the status of other species geomorphology, topography, and hooded merganser, and mallards has improved during the past decade. vegetative communities are based represent waterfowl. Eagles, hawks, The status of the brown pelican as well kites, vultures, and owls are some as several species of raptors (ospreys, of the species classified as raptors. 12 The Natural Heritage designation 21 10 of “other birds” includes gamebirds, 55 such as bobwhite quail, ruffed grouse, 14 33 American woodcock, wild turkey, and 19 23 several dove species. This group also 05 11 55 54 13 includes woodpeckers; open ocean 03 birds such as cormorants, petrels, and 04 pelicans; rails; and many other species. 08 42 The coastal wetlands support the 56 greatest number of species. In fact, 53 the South supports the largest number 06 of wading species in the United States 07 (White and others 1998). Thirty-one 02 species occur solely at high elevations in the Appalachian Mountains. 01 The South also provides habitat for summer breeding populations, birds Figure 5.3—The distribution of Partners in Flight physiographic regions within the South (Partners in Flight 2000). TERRESTRIAL

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Table 5.1—Bird species in the South that are listed as threatened or endangered

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Wading birds Grus americana Whooping crane (E) FL, OK, TX Grus canadensis pulla Mississippi sandhill crane (E) MS Raptors Falco femoralis Northern aplomado falcon (E) TX septentrionalis Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle (T) AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Polyborus plancus Audubon’s crested caracara (T) FL audubonii Rostrhamus sociabilis Everglade snail kite (E) FL plumbeus Shorebirds Charadrius melodus Piping plover (T) AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Mycteria americana Wood stork (E) AL, FL, GA, SC Numenus borealis Eskimo curlew (E) OK, TX Perching birds Ammodramus maritimus Cape sable seaside sparrow (E) FL mirabilis Ammodramus savannarum Florida grasshopper sparrow (E) FL floridanus Aphelocoma coerulescens Florida scrub-jay (E) FL Dendroica chrysoparia Golden-cheeked warbler (E) TX Empidonax traillii extimus Southern willow flycatcher (E) TX Vireo atricapillus Black-capped vireo (E) LA, MS, OK, TX Other birds Pelecanus occidentalis Brown pelican (E) LA, MS, TX Picoides borealis Red-cockaded woodpecker (E) AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Sterna antillarum Least tern (E) AR, LA, MS, OK, TN, TX Sterna dougallii dougallii Roseate tern (T, Ea) FL, GA, KY, NC, SC, VA Strix occidentalis Spotted owl (T) TX Tympanuchus cupido Attwater’s greater prairie chicken (E) TX attwateri

T = Threatened; E = endangered. a Threatened in the United States where not listed as endangered. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior (2000).

upon physiographic strata established All of the plans are available online at higher vulnerability. Species of concern by the North American Breeding Bird www.blm.gov/wildlife/pifplans.htm. are represented by scores of 22 and Survey (Peterjohn and others 1995). The conservation plans prioritize above; these species are the focus of the Physiographic areas are distinguished birds of concern and their habitat physiographic area conservation plans. by having distinct species assemblages, using several criteria for ranking Table 5.3 presents a summary of land uses, and conservation issues. a species’ vulnerability: relative the birds of concern for the southern Bird conservation plans prepared for abundance, size of breeding and physiographic areas. Species of concern each physiographic area identify species nonbreeding ranges, threats during that occur in several physiographic and habitats of conservation concern. breeding and nonbreeding seasons, areas include the swallow-tailed kite, Seventeen physiographic areas lie population trends, and relative density. red-cockaded woodpecker, Acadian predominately in the South (table 5.2). Numerical scores are given for each flycatcher, Bell’s vireo, brown-headed criterion, with higher scores reflecting nuthatch, wood thrush, prairie TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 117 warbler, cerulean warbler, prothon- populations of the black duck, black of open lands greater than 125 acres otary warbler, worm-eating warbler, rail, salt marsh sharp-tailed sparrow, with Henslow’s sparrow potential. Swainson’s warbler, Louisiana water- and seaside sparrow. The Acadian PIF physiographic areas: mid- thrush, Kentucky warbler, Bachman’s flycatcher, cerulean warbler, and Atlantic Piedmont—The mid-Atlantic S sparrow, and Henslow’s sparrow. These prothonotary warbler inhabit forested Piedmont is separated from the species and the physiographic areas wetlands. Mixed upland forest supports southern Piedmont at the North TRIAL they inhabit are described below. the wood thrush in well-developed Carolina-Virginia line. It extends north Management recommendations from midstories and the worm-eating through Virginia, Maryland, and the plans follow Pashley and others warbler and Kentucky warbler in Pennsylvania before terminating in (2000) unless otherwise cited. dense understories. Henslow’s sparrows northern New Jersey. The rolling PIF physiographic areas: mid- may also occur along the edges of salt topography formerly supported Atlantic Coastal Plain—This marsh habitat, in areas of regenerating extensive hardwood forests including physiographic area extends from the pines, and on former grasslands. oak-hickory, Appalachian oak, and Atlantic Ocean south of Long Island Conservation issues center on loblolly-shortleaf pine. Approximately to the Virginia-North Carolina border. managing human population growth 45 percent of the physiographic area The landscape is dominated by forested while maintaining functioning is presently forested, 45 percent is wetlands, salt marshes, and barrier ecosystems. The extensive forested in agricultural production, and the islands. Upland forests grade from pine- habitat is heavily fragmented; main- remainder is in urban areas. dominated areas on the outer Coastal taining blocks large enough to support The mid-Atlantic Piedmont supports Plain to hardwood forests on the inland a diversity of breeding birds is a 137 bird species; 11 (8 percent) are of areas. This landscape has been altered priority. Protection of critical sites for concern. Deciduous and mixed forest by human settlement for approximately wintering species must be integrated habitats support the wood thrush, four centuries. Human population with conservation plans for breeding cerulean warbler, Louisiana water- growth is expected to continue, placing habitats. Specific recommendations thrush (in riparian forest buffers), further demands on the region’s include restoration of pine savanna and Kentucky warbler (in dense natural resources. conditions through prescribed understory). The shrub-scrub areas The mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain burning; protection of barrier dunes to and barrens support the bobwhite supports 185 bird species; 20 (11 minimize losses in species productivity; quail (in decline). The American percent) are of concern. Among those protection of sites with greater than woodcock (also in decline) requires species, the prairie warbler occupies 125 acres of high marsh; identification an interspersion of forest clearings pine savanna habitat, while the of forest areas that support significant and second-growth hardwoods. Bachman’s sparrow occurs in grassy populations of prothonotary and Agricultural pastureland supports understories. Salt marshes support cerulean warblers; and the restoration a large population of grasshopper important breeding and wintering sparrows and other grassland species.

Table 5.2—Species richness by physiographic area for birds of the South (Partners in Flight 2000)

Physiographic area State(s) Total species Species of concern

No. % a 01 – Subtropical Florida FL 103 14 13.2 02 – Peninsular Florida FL 128 21 15.2 03 – South Atlantic Coastal Plain FL, GA, SC, NC 161 26 15.5 04 – East Gulf Coastal Plain FL, AL, MS, LA, TN 161 20 12.2 05 – Mississippi Alluvial Valley MS, LA, AR 143 17 11.9 06 – Coastal Prairies LA, TX 168 20 11.5 08 – Oaks and Prairies TX, OK 147 13 8.7 10 – Mid-Atlantic Piedmont VA 137 11 8.0 11 – Southern Piedmont AL, GA, SC, NC 125 14 11.2 12 – Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Valley VA 166 14 8.4 13 – Southern Ridge and Valley AL, GA, TN 131 21 16.0 14 – Interior Low Plateaus AL, TN, KY 159 15 9.4 19 – Ozark-Ouachita Plateau AR, OK 151 17 11.2 21 – Northern Cumberland Plateau AL, TN, KY, VA 144 18 12.5 23 – Southern Blue Ridge GA, SC, NC, VA 156 20 12.8 42 – West Gulf Coastal Plain LA, AR, TX, OK 130 18 13.8 44 – Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain VA 185 20 10.6

a Species of concern represented by scores of 22 and above. TERRESTRIAL

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Table 5.3—Bird species of concern in the South (Partners in Flight 2000)

Scientific name Common name Physiographic areasa

Egretta rufescens Reddish egret 02, 04, 08 Eudocimus albus White ibis 01, 02 Anas rubripes American black duck 44 Anas fulvigula Mottled duck 01, 02, 06 Elanoides forficatus Swallow-tailed kite 01, 02, 04, 05, 06, 08, 42 Rostrhamus sociabilis Snail kite 01, 02 Buteo brachyurus Short-tailed hawk 01, 02, 03 Tympanuchus cupido Greater prairie chicken 06, 08 Colinus virginianus Northern bobwhite 03, 04, 08, 11 Laterallus jamaicensis Black rail 02, 03, 08, 44 Rallus longirostris Clapper rail 02, 03, 06 Grus Canadensis Sandhill crane 02 Charadrius alexandrinus Snowy plover 02 Charadrius wilsonia Wilson’s plover 02, 03, 06 Charadrius melodus Piping plover 03, 44 Haematopus palliatus American oystercatcher 02, 03, 04, 08 Sterna forsteri Forster’s tern 06 Columba leucocephala White-crowned pigeon 01 Coccyzus americanus Yellow-billed cuckoo 04, 05, 08, 13, 14, 42 Coccyzus minor Mangrove cuckoo 02 Caprimulgus carolinensis Chuck-will’s-widow 04, 13, 42 Caprimulgus vociferus Whip poor will 10, 11, 12, 14 Chaetura pelagica Chimney swift 14 Amazilia yucatanensis Buff-bellied hummingbird 06 Picoides borealis Red-cockaded woodpecker 01, 02, 03, 04, 11, 13, 19, 21, 23, 42, 44 Campephilus principalis Ivory-billed woodpecker 03 Contopus virens Eastern wood-pewee 12, 44 Empidonax virescens Acadian flycatcher 10, 13, 19, 21, 23, 44 Tyrannus dominicensis Gray kingbird 01, 02 Tyrannus forficatus Scissor-tailed flycatcher 06, 08, 42 Lanius ludovicianus Loggerhead shrike 02 Vireo griseus White-eyed vireo 05, 42 Vireo bellii Bell’s vireo 04, 05, 06, 08, 14, 19, 42 Vireo flavifrons Yellow-throated vireo 12, 13, 21, 23, 44 Vireo altiloquus Black-whiskered vireo 01, 02 Aphelocoma coerulescens Florida scrub-jay 01, 02, 03 Tachycineta cyaneoviridis Bahama swallow 01 Petrochelidon fulva Cave swallow 01, 06, 08 Sitta pusilla Brown-headed nuthatch 02, 03, 04, 05, 10, 11, 13, 19, 23, 42, 44 Thryomanes bewickii Bewick’s wren 11, 12 Hylocichla mustelina Wood thrush 03, 05, 10, 12, 13, 19, 21, 23, 44 Toxostoma longirostre Long-billed thrasher 06 Vermivora bachmanii Bachman’s warbler 03, 04, 05 Vermivora pinus Blue-winged warbler 05, 13, 14, 44 Vermivora chrysoptera Golden-winged warbler 12, 13, 21, 23 Parula americana Northern parula 03, 05, 12 Dendroica pensylvanica Chestnut-sided warbler 23 Dendroica caerulescens Black-throated blue warbler 04, 05, 12, 13, 21, 23 Dendroica fusca Blackburnian warbler 23 Dendroica dominica Yellow-throated warbler 03, 13, 23 Dendroica discolor Prairie warbler 01, 03, 04, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 42, 44 continued TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 119

Table 5.3—Bird species of concern in the South (Partners in Flight 2000) (continued)

a

Scientific name Common name Physiographic areas S

Dendroica cerulea Cerulean warbler 03, 04, 05, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, TRIAL 42, 44 Mniotilta varia Black-and-white warbler 23 Protonotaria citrea Prothonotary warbler 03, 04, 05, 06, 11, 13, 19, 21, 42, 44 Helmitheros vermivorus Worm-eating warbler 03, 04, 05, 08, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 42, 44 Limnothlypis swainsonii Swainson’s warbler 03, 04, 05,06, 08, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 42, 44 Seiurus motacilla Louisiana waterthrush 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 42 Oporornis formosus Kentucky warbler 04, 05, 06, 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 42, 44 Wilsonia citrina Hooded warbler 03, 21, 23, 42 Wilsonia canadensis Canada warbler 23 Piranga rubra Summer tanager 21 Aimophila aestivalis Bachman’s sparrow 02, 03, 04, 06, 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 42, 44 Spizella pusilla Field sparrow 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 21 Ammodramus henslowii Henslow’s sparrow 03, 06, 10, 11, 12, 14, 19, 21, 44 Ammodramus caudacutus Saltmarsh sharp-tailed sparrow 03, 44 Ammodramus maritimus Seaside sparrow 01, 02, 03, 04, 06, 44 Passerina ciris Painted bunting 03, 05, 06, 08, 19 Spiza americana Dickcissel 06, 14, 19 Icterus spurius Orchard oriole 04, 05, 13, 42 Icterus graduacauda Audubon’s oriole 06

a Physiographic areas: 01 – Subtropical Florida, 02 – Peninsular Florida, 03 – South Atlantic Coastal Plain, 04 – East Gulf Coastal Plain, 05 – Mississippi Alluvial Valley, 06 – Coastal prairies, 08 – Oaks and prairies, 10 – Mid-Atlantic Piedmont, 11 – Southern Piedmont, 12 – Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Valley, 13 – Southern ridge and valley, 14 – Interior Low Plateaus, 19 – Ozark-Ouachita Plateau, 21 – Northern Cumberland Plateau, 23 – Southern Blue Ridge, 42 – west Gulf Coastal Plain, and 44 – Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain.

Conservation issues center on the public and private forests. Disease and requiring mature forest (Trani and management of human population insect pests are important disturbance others 2001). Specific actions needed growth and protection of conservation factors; the pesticides used for gypsy for this physiographic area include areas. Enhancement of grassland moth control impact other foliage management of high-elevation habitat also is a priority. Specific insects that are important bird food spruce-fir habitat, intensive surveys recommendations include management (Hunter and others 2001). for Appalachian Bewick’s wren, of areas that support significant The mid-Atlantic Ridge and identification of breeding sites for populations of cerulean and Kentucky Valley supports 166 bird species; golden-winged warbler, and the warblers, restoration of natural 14 (8 percent) are of concern. Early maintenance of composition and barrens that support shrub-nesting successional shrub habitat (including structural diversity. species, and monitoring priority barrens and disturbed sites) supports PIF physiographic areas: species in disturbed areas. the whippoorwill, golden-winged northern Cumberland Plateau— PIF physiographic areas: mid- warbler, and prairie warbler. The The Cumberland Plateau is a Atlantic Ridge and Valley—This wood thrush and worm-eating warbler predominantly forested, gently rolling physiographic area extends from occupy mature deciduous forest, while tableland bordered by the eastern rim western Maryland through the the Louisiana waterthrush is found in of the Interior Low Plateaus and the mountains of Virginia. Consisting late successional stands near streams. Cumberland Mountains (fig. 5.3). The of mountain ridges and intervening The black-throated blue warbler and area includes eastern Kentucky and valleys, the predominant forest type the blackburnian warbler use northern Tennessee, southwestern West Virginia, is oak-hickory. Relict patches of spruce- hardwood and spruce-fir forests. and a small area in western Virginia. fir occur on high mountain ridges. Conservation issues center on long- Forests dominated by oaks and Agricultural production and urban term planning on public land to meet hickories are common. Various pine development dominate in the lower the habitat needs of species requiring species are dominant on drier sites. valleys. Human populations are specific seral stages. On public land, The northern Cumberland Plateau relatively sparse and confined to the it is important to balance the needs of supports 144 bird species; 18 (12 valleys, while coal extraction occurs on early successional species with those percent) are of concern. Among species TERRESTRIAL

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of concern, the Acadian flycatcher, the amount of public land may not be Many species in this habitat are in wood thrush, worm-eating warbler, sufficient to support viable populations isolated endemic populations that may and Swainson’s warbler inhabit mixed of sensitive species (Hunter and others be genetically distinct from populations mesophytic forests. Coniferous forests 2001). Enhancement of habitat for elsewhere. Populations of priority birds, support the red-cockaded woodpecker these species will require the use of such as the Appalachian subspecies of (low-elevation yellow pine) and long-rotation harvests. Specific Bewick’s wren, have declined in recent Bachman’s sparrow. Bewick’s wren recommendations include expansion years. Maintenance of early successional and golden-winged warbler use early of longleaf habitat using prescribed fire habitat is a conservation need. Other successional habitat, while Henslow’s and the enhancement of scrub habitat. recommendations include management sparrow occurs in grassland areas. Both PIF physiographic areas: southern of riparian zones and the provision habitats exist only due to disturbance. Blue Ridge—The Southern Blue of old-growth forest. Conservation issues center on the Ridge runs along the border between PIF physiographic areas: southern maintenance of species composition Tennessee and North Carolina, extend- Piedmont—This physiographic and vegetation structure. Widespread ing into South Carolina, Georgia, and area extends through central North timber harvesting and fire suppression Virginia. The area is comprised of Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia have reduced both old-growth and rugged mountains, broad ridges, steep into eastern Alabama. Plains, hills, young forest habitats. The current slopes, and deep ravines. Spruce-fir tablelands, and numerous rivers structure of the mid-seral forest may forests at the highest elevation characterize the Piedmont. The area lies not be optimal for many midstory and transition into northern hardwoods, between the Appalachian Mountains understory breeding birds. As a result hemlock-white pine, and Appalachian and the Coastal Plain. The dominant of diminishing habitat quality, several oaks at lower elevations. Cove forests vegetation includes oak-hickory and high-priority birds have undergone occur on mesic sites, while fire- mixed hardwood forests. Shortleaf, significant population declines. associated yellow pines occur on loblolly, and scattered longleaf pines The northern Cumberland Plateau dry ridges. Disturbances from fire, are prevalent on disturbed sites. is one of the most heavily forested grazing, and storms are primary factors The southern Piedmont supports physiographic areas in the South. in determining forest composition 125 bird species; 14 (11 percent) are of Specific recommendations include and structure. concern. Among species of concern, the management of 12 to 15 percent of The southern Blue Ridge supports prairie warbler, Bachman’s sparrow, and forests for long-rotation sawtimber 156 bird species; 20 (13 percent) are Henslow’s sparrow are supported by or old growth, increased use of fire in of concern. Among species of concern, grassland and shrub habitat. Southern low-elevation yellow pine habitat, and the northern saw-whet owl, black- pine forests support the red-cockaded maintenance of shrub-scrub conditions. capped chickadee, red-breasted woodpecker and brown-headed PIF physiographic areas: southern nuthatch, golden-crowned kinglet, red nuthatch, while prothonotary and Ridge and Valley—This physiographic crossbill, and yellow-bellied sapsucker Swainson’s warblers use the bottomland area includes the southern end of the are distinct subspecies whose ranges hardwoods. Upland hardwood habitat Ridge and Valley and the tablelands are centered within the southern Blue supports the whippoorwill, wood of the southern Cumberland Plateau. Ridge. With the exception of the thrush, and cerulean warbler. It is in eastern Tennessee, northwest sapsucker, each species occupies high Conservation challenges focus on Georgia, and northeast Alabama. forested peaks. The yellow-bellied human population growth, urban The upland forest is predominantly sapsucker, as well as the golden-winged sprawl, and the intensification of in oak-hickory and pine (shortleaf warbler, inhabits disturbed forest areas. agriculture and timber harvesting. or loblolly) types. Among species of concern requiring Several bird populations have declined The southern Ridge and Valley mature forest in the southern Blue in patches of protected mature forests supports 131 bird species; 21 Ridge are Acadian flycatchers, yellow- embedded in suburban settings. In (16 percent) are of concern. Early throated vireos, wood thrushes, addition, changing land use has successional scrub-shrub habitat is blackburnian warblers, Swainson’s resulted in a loss of early successional occupied by the Bewick’s wren, blue- warblers, Kentucky warblers, and habitat. Public lands provide core areas winged warbler, and orchard oriole. Canada warblers. in the Piedmont on which to manage The hardwood forest component Conservation issues include habitat. The maintenance of bird supports the Acadian flycatcher, yellow- population declines of both migrant communities requires coordination throated warbler, prothonotary warbler, and resident birds. The rapid con- among public agencies, forest industry, worm-eating warbler, and Swainson’s struction of new homes and associated and private landowners. warbler among others. Red-cockaded developments along roads contribute to PIF physiographic areas: woodpeckers and brown-headed habitat loss and fragmentation. Another south Atlantic Coastal Plain—The nuthatches are found in southern pines. concern is the decline of high-elevation south Atlantic Coastal Plain covers Conservation issues focus on spruce-fir forests resulting from northeastern Florida, southern Georgia, the conversion of hardwood forest exotic pests and reduced air quality. the eastern Carolinas, and the Great to monocultures of loblolly pine. A Atmospheric pollution is reducing tree Dismal Swamp in Virginia. Coastal large percentage of natural vegetation growth, insectivore food availability, areas contain barrier islands, maritime has been cleared for agriculture and and supplies of important minerals forests, marshland, and estuaries. urban development. Birds dependent necessary for successful bird repro- Inland areas support bottomland on mature forest may be at risk because duction (Hunter and others 2001). hardwood forests, pocosins, and TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 121

Carolina bays. Fire-maintained forests American kestrel, red-cockaded the South Florida Ecosystem of longleaf, shortleaf, and loblolly woodpecker, and Bachman’s sparrow Restoration Task Force. pine once dominated upland areas. use pine forests. PIF physiographic areas: Interior The south Atlantic Coastal Plain Conservation actions are directed Low Plateaus—The Interior Low S supports 161 bird species; 26 (15 at fostering cooperative relations with Plateaus extend from Alabama percent) are of concern. Among private landowners, and encouraging northward across central Tennessee TRIAL species of concern, the American proper habitat management through and Kentucky into southern Illinois, kestrel, red-cockaded woodpecker, education, tax breaks, and conservation Indiana, and Ohio, encompassing the and brown-headed nuthatch require easements. Conservation goals central basin and Tennessee Valley. pine forest, and Henslow’s sparrow also include the public acquisition Oak-hickory and beech-maple forests requires pocosin grasslands. The of acreage in sandhills, oak scrub, were historically the most abundant swallow-tailed kite, northern parula, upland forest, and floodplain cover types. There were also tallgrass Swainson’s warbler, and hooded swamp communities. prairies and oak savannas in the warbler occupy bottomland and PIF physiographic areas: northern section. Barrens and glades are upland hardwood forests. The prairie subtropical Florida—This rare in the central regions, and forested warbler and painted bunting are physiographic area extends south from wetlands occur along major waterways. found in the scrub-shrub habitat. Lake Okeechobee in central Florida The Interior Low Plateaus support Conservation concerns include fire to the Florida Keys. The tropical 159 bird species; 15 (9 percent) are management, land conversion, and ecosystem contains the Everglades of concern. Priority species inhabiting short-rotation pine plantations. and the Big Cypress Reserve. Fire hardwood forest include the Restoration of fire-maintained is an important feature in the pine, whippoorwill, cerulean warbler, and pine savanna benefits pine-grassland marsh, and prairie communities. Louisiana waterthrush. The grassland, species, particularly the red-cockaded Hurricane disturbances create early savanna, and old-field habitats support woodpecker. Pine plantations are used successional habitat. Distinct dry the Bewick’s wren, blue-winged by other species, but the maintenance and wet seasons influence the nesting warbler, and dickcissel. of age class diversity is important. cycles of many birds. Conservation issues center on habitat Other recommendations include Subtropical Florida supports 103 bird loss from land conversion, habitat maintenance of large tracts of bottom- species; 14 (13 percent) are of concern. deterioration, and fragmentation. land forest in river systems to benefit Pine rocklands, flatwoods, and sand Pastureland has replaced grassland black-throated green warblers and scrub habitats are used by the Florida and savanna, while glades and barrens breeding swallow-tailed kites, and scrub jay, sedge wren, and palm have become urban areas. Fire suppres- retention of coastal maritime forest warbler. Grassland and dry prairie sion has allowed woody vegetation and scrub-shrub habitats for the communities support the sandhill to encroach into open areas. Flood- bunting and in-transit migrants. crane and grasshopper sparrow. The plain forests have been converted PIF physiographic areas: peninsular short-tailed hawk, white-crowned to reservoirs or row crops. Previous Florida—This physiographic area pigeon, and gray kingbird inhabit forest management and chipping of extends from the northern edge of Lake subtropical deciduous forests. The all woody vegetation have influenced Okeechobee in central Florida to the reddish egret, white ibis, wood stork, canopy characteristics, understory Suwanee River in northern Florida. seaside sparrow, and several species development, and age structure Habitat includes sandhill, scrub, of rails use the brackish saltwater of upland forests. and xeric hammock communities. and freshwater marsh habitats of the Specific recommendations include Longleaf pine, turkey oak, and Everglades. Mangrove swamps support the reestablishment of greater prairie wiregrass characterize the fire- the mangrove cuckoo, the black- chicken and swallow-tailed kite dependent sandhill communities. whiskered vireo, and the Cuban populations, maintenance of existing Dominant scrub vegetation includes subspecies of the yellow warbler. forested acreage, and the restoration sand pine and scrub oak. Xeric Conservation concerns are directed of forested wetlands, warm season hammocks support live oak, laurel towards the rapidly growing human grasses, and oak savannas. oak, and saw palmetto. Upland population in the region. Habitats have hardwoods, wetlands, and man- PIF physiographic areas: Ozarks been lost by converting land to urban and Ouachitas—The Ozark Mountains groves are also locally common to and agricultural uses, such as sugarcane abundant in the physiographic area. extend from southern Missouri into and citrus production. Other problems northern Arkansas and consist of Peninsular Florida supports 128 bird include pollution and alteration of the dissected plateaus covered by oak species; 21 (15 percent) are of concern. hydroperiod and natural water cycles. forest with glade and savanna Among species of concern, crested Recommendations include aggressive inclusions. The ridge and valley caracara (threatened), burrowing owl, acquisition programs and the main- system of the Ouachitas covers Florida scrub jays (endangered), and tenance of pine-dominated stands and central Arkansas, reaching into grasshopper sparrows inhabit the scrub prairies through prescribed burning. eastern Oklahoma. Vegetation includes and grassland habitat. Wetland and Programs for bird conservation shortleaf pine and deciduous forests. mangrove habitats support the swallow- were created by the Surface Water The vegetation changes to prairie in tailed kite, snail kite (endangered), and Improvement and Management Act, the northern reaches. short-tailed hawk. The painted bunting Florida’s Everglades Forever Act, and occurs in maritime scrub, while the TERRESTRIAL

122 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

The Ozarks and Ouachitas support include maintenance of large tracts of and grasslands in the southern- 151 bird species; 17 (11 percent) are of longleaf pine and upland hardwoods most areas. concern. Deciduous and mixed forest for red-cockaded woodpeckers, The West Gulf Coastal Plain supports habitat supports the whippoorwill, swallow-tailed kite, cerulean warbler, 130 bird species; 18 (14 percent) worm-eating warbler, and Kentucky Swainson’s warblers, and associated are of concern. Among such species, warbler. The red-cockaded woodpecker species. Other actions include the the American kestrel, chuck-will’s- and Bachman’s sparrow occur in pine control of exotic plants and the widow, scissor-tailed flycatcher, savanna; populations of both species restoration of maritime forest, emergent brown-headed nuthatch, Bewick’s have declined dramatically due to fire wetlands, and beach dunes that wren, prairie warbler, and Bachman’s exclusion and forestry practices. The are important to priority breeding sparrow are supported by pine Bewick’s wren and the field sparrow use and wintering birds. forests and associated grasslands. early successional habitat; both species PIF physiographic areas: The swallow-tailed kite, white-eyed are undergoing significant declines. Mississippi Alluvial Valley— vireo, worm-eating warbler, Swainson’s Conservation actions include the Encompassing the floodplain of the warbler, and hooded warbler occupy improvement of shortleaf pine, glade, Mississippi River, the valley includes hardwood forests and other supported and savanna communities through eastern Louisiana, eastern Arkansas, habitats. The bottomland forests and the use of thinning, overstory removal, northwestern Mississippi, and portions riparian habitats are important for and dormant season burns. Other of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri. stopover migrants. activities include the prevention of The South’s biggest concentration of Conservation issues include fire forest fragmentation stemming from bottomland hardwoods is in the suppression and regeneration practices urbanization and the management of Mississippi River Valley, where that have replaced native species with habitat required by early succes- agricultural conversion has resulted in loblolly or slash pine. Although sional species. forest fragmentation. The Mississippi many bird species occur in young PIF physiographic areas: East Gulf River and its flood regimes, which pine plantations, others such as the Coastal Plain—The East Gulf Coastal influence vegetation communities red-cockaded woodpecker require Plain extends from Louisiana and and bird habitat conditions, shape native pine savanna conditions or western Florida northwards through this physiographic area. mature longleaf pine stands. Specific Mississippi and Alabama into Tennessee The Mississippi Alluvial Valley recommendations include the and Kentucky. Numerous streams and supports 143 bird species; 17 (12 maintenance of mature longleaf rivers break the rolling topography. percent) are of concern. Among species pine stands with fire, prevention Uplands are dominated by shortleaf of concern, the swallow-tailed kite, of additional forest conversion to pine and mixed hardwoods. Loblolly northern parula, and painted bunting agricultural uses, and deterrence pine and bottomland hardwood forests are supported by bottomland hardwood of bottomland hardwood loss due occur in the lowland areas. forests. Marsh, wetland, and open land to inundation by reservoirs. The The East Gulf Coastal Plain supports support several species of shorebirds importance of these hardwoods for 161 bird species; 20 (12 percent) and waterfowl and provide important area-sensitive species and spring are of concern. Swallow-tailed kites, wintering areas for mallards, wood migrants extends beyond the West prothonotary warblers, and Kentucky ducks, and other birds. Gulf Coastal Plain. warblers occur in the forested wetlands Conservation recommendations PIF physiographic areas: oaks and other habitat. The northern target the restoration of bottomland and prairies—This physiographic bobwhite, Mississippi sandhill hardwood forest to support healthy area extends from the Red River of crane (endangered), red-cockaded populations of a suite of birds. Since Oklahoma southward into Texas. woodpecker, and sedge wren occupy settlement, over 80 percent of the forest Tallgrass prairie, post-oak savanna, the pine and savanna habitats. has been cleared for agriculture and bottomland hardwood forests, riparian Chuck-will’s-widow occurs in upland other uses. The hydrology has been forests, and upland hardwood forests hardwoods, while the LeConte’s dramatically altered, inhibiting associated with dense scrub layers sparrow and orchard oriole are present ecosystem functions. The resulting characterize the area. Wetlands and in the scrub habitat. Numerous spring forest fragmentation has reduced the freshwater marshes are associated migrants use the maritime forests. ability of the area to support many bird with streams, rivers, and reservoirs. Emergent wetlands support the reddish populations. The Lower Mississippi The oaks and prairies support egret, yellow and black rails, and Valley Joint Venture leads restoration 147 bird species; 13 (9 percent) are Nelson’s sharp-tailed sparrow. Snowy, efforts (Pashley and others 2000). of concern. Among such species, piping, and Wilson’s plovers inhabit PIF physiographic areas: West the greater prairie chicken, northern the beach dunes community. Gulf Coastal Plain—The West Gulf bobwhite, scissor-tailed flycatcher, Conservation issues include the Coastal Plain is located in northwestern Bell’s vireo, and painted bunting conversion of longleaf pine and upland Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, are supported by grassland and hardwoods to other species, hydro- eastern Texas, and southern Oklahoma. scrub habitats. logical alteration, land use changes The physiographic area is characterized Conservation issues focus on the including coastal development, and by loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, and loss of prairie habitat. Areas of tallgrass the changes in species composition longleaf pine forests on the uplands, prairie have been converted to crop and structure resulting from fire hardwood forests in the bottomlands, production; less than 10 percent of suppression. Specific recommendations TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 123 original prairie exists. The continued ments have degraded marsh habitat. animals are believed to have evolved loss of tallgrass habitat inhibits Grazing animals have degraded grass- in fast-flowing, oxygenated streams. restoration efforts by reducing genetic land and woodland areas. Specific The numbers of salamanders inhabiting diversity; preservation of remaining recommendations include cooperative North Carolina (50), Virginia S habitat is critical. Encroachment management with private landowners, (48), Tennessee (48), and Georgia by heavy woody growth and exotic incentive programs, and identification (44) reflect the importance of the TRIAL species also causes loss of grassland of potential habitat for priority birds. Appalachian Mountains. The number habitat. Prescribed fire and grazing Other actions include marsh of salamanders occurring in the management through incentive restoration, retention of forested Coastal Plain is lower because habitat programs are beneficial. wetlands, exotic species control and temperature are less suitable PIF physiographic areas: coastal (especially Chinese tallow), and and because densities of terrestrial prairies—This physiographic area is monitoring the influence of rice crop and aquatic predators are higher found along the Gulf Coast shoreline conversion on waterbird species. (Echternacht and Harris 1993). in Louisiana and Texas. The area Additional information on the habitat Numbers of frogs and toads are supports a complex of marshes, upland associations of bird species in the South highest in the southernmost Coastal grassland, and forested habitat. Marsh can be found in Hunter and others States. Numbers of species are 43 in communities include salt, brackish, (2001) and Hamel (1992). The Texas, 33 in Georgia, 32 in Florida, 31 and freshwater marsh. The majority of physiographic associations for nonbird in Louisiana, 31 in South Carolina, and grassland habitats have been converted taxa are not as well developed as those 30 in Alabama (NatureServe 2000). The to pasture and rice farms. Forested presented above for birds. Therefore, majority of southern species are in five areas occur along major rivers, beach- the habitat needs of mammals, reptiles, families: true frogs; tree, chorus, and front ridges, salt domes, and manmade and amphibians will be discussed by cricket frogs; true toads; narrowmouth levees. These woodlands are comprised broad taxonomic grouping. toads; and spadefoot toads. Eleven of hackberry and live oak, while the species are endemic to the South bottomland hardwood forests contain Amphibians (Echternacht and Harris 1993). the cypress-tupelo, hackberry-ash-elm, Two orders of amphibians are present Salamanders and oak-willow forest types. in the Southern United States: Caudata 107 (63%) The coastal prairies support 168 bird (salamanders) and Anurans (frogs and species; 20 (11 percent) are of concern. toads). The South supports the highest Priority grassland birds include the density of amphibian species in North greater prairie chicken, short-eared America (Echternacht and Harris owl, sedge wren, and Sprague’s pipit. 1993). The total includes 107 sala- The bottomland hardwood forest manders and 63 species of frogs and supports the swallow-tailed kite, toads (fig. 5.4). In individual States, American woodcock, prothonotary the number of amphibian species warbler, and Swainson’s warbler. Bell’s ranges from 80 in North Carolina vireo and painted bunting occupy to 49 in Arkansas (NatureServe 2000). scrub-shrub habitat. In addition, Numbers in other States are 77 in many passerine species use the coastal Georgia, 75 in Texas, 73 in Virginia, and 70 in Tennessee. habitat during spring migration. Frogs and toads Conservation concerns focus on The Southern Appalachians have an 63 (37%) the alteration of natural communities unusually large number of salamander Figure 5.4—Species richness by major in the coastal prairies. Oil and gas species, because many plethodontid subgroups of amphibian taxa occurring development, dredging, and impound- species evolved there. These lungless within the South (NatureServe 2000).

Table 5.4—Amphibian species in the South that are listed as threatened or endangered

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Frogs and toads Bufo houstonensis Houston toad (E) TX Salamanders Ambystoma cingulatum Flatwoods salamander (T) AL, FL, GA, SC Eurycea nana San Marcos salamander (T) TX Eurycea sosorum Barton Springs salamander (E) TX Phaeognathus hubrichti Red Hills salamander (T) AL Plethodon shenandoah Shenandoah Mountain salamander (E) VA Tyhplomolge rathbuni Texas blind salamander (E) TX

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior (2000). TERRESTRIAL

124 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Seven species of amphibians are puppies, and sirens. Salamanders totally aquatic, but even the terrestrial listed as threatened or endangered by are inconspicuous species that are species can only survive in moist the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (table important components of the forest microhabitats. Ambystoma and 5.4). In addition, several amphibians ecosystem. They are small, secretive, Hemidactylus salamanders require are classified as imperiled or vulnerable and primarily nocturnal. They range moist, friable soils for burrowing. by the Natural Heritage agencies from 5 cm to over 1 m in length. Several terrestrial species migrate to (chapter 1). Limited data suggest that generation aquatic habitats for egg deposition, Amphibians have complex life cycles times are relatively long. For example, while others require damp micro- and inhabit a variety of environments. the generation times for several species habitats. In addition, some aquatic Habitats include ephemeral pools, of salamanders range between 4.4 species use terrestrial habitat for caves, forests, wetlands, savannas, and and 9.5 years. dispersal and other seasonal activity. several aquatic habitats. The longleaf The rate of reproduction in Salamanders inhabit areas with a pine-wiregrass community, cypress- amphibians is highly variable, but variety of physiographic features, but gum swamps, isolated wetlands, and many species exhibit low frequencies rivers, streams, and stream margins mixed hardwood-pine habitats support of reproduction. Often salamanders figure prominently in their occurrence a diversity of species. The federally breed only in alternate years, when (table 5.5). Coastal bayous, ponds, listed flatwoods salamander is found in they lay a single clutch of eggs. and slow-moving rivers support sirens the longleaf pine-wiregrass ecosystem. Moisture is a limiting factor for all and amphiumas, while the hellbender Coastal Plain forests provide habitat salamander species. Some species are occurs in cooler, fast-flowing for ambystomatid species. In even upland rivers. greater abundance in the South are the many species of tree frogs, toads, Table 5.5—The relationships of amphibians to physiographic features and and other frogs. Pine barrens tree other habitat elementsa frogs occur in Coastal Plain forests from Alabama northwards (Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001). Forest cover types Salamanders Frogs and toads Amphibians are very different No. % No. % physiologically from reptiles, but the Physiographic feature two groups are classified together as Sandhills 3 3 8 20 herpetofauna. Amphibians are more Flatwoods 12 13 12 30 restricted by environmental moisture Narrow stream margins 29 32 3 8 than other terrestrial vertebrates. Broad stream margins 22 24 20 50 They depend on areas where there is sufficient moisture for reproduction Swamps 16 17 17 43 and survival. Since the glandular Cypress strands 10 11 5 13 thin skin of amphibians is permeable Cypress ponds 14 15 12 30 to water, evaporative water loss Cypress drains 13 14 9 23 is a serious problem. In addition, Willow heads 11 12 9 23 drought affects egg laying and larvae Bays and pocosins 15 16 14 35 survival. The demands of water balance Rivers and streams 34 37 9 23 and thermoregulation may restrict Permanent ponds 8 9 20 50 movement, which occurs in a narrow Vernal ponds 16 17 27 68 range of environmental conditions. Lakes 9 15 13 33 Many amphibian species have geographic ranges that are restricted Specific requirement to particular physiographic regions. Closed canopy 76 83 11 28 Some salamander species are consid- Open canopy 12 13 32 80 ered glacial relicts that were isolated Shrub thickets 0 0 8 20 on mountaintops that retained northern Moist soil 69 75 25 63 climates (Gibbons and Buhlmann Sandy or friable soils 5 5 18 45 2001). Similarly, frog species such as Leaf litter 75 82 22 55 the pine barrens tree frog, Houston Snags 0 0 2 5 toad, and Florida bog frog occur in Fallen logs 70 76 5 13 small, isolated populations throughout Rock outcrops 8 9 1 3 their ranges. The distances between such disjunct populations make Crevices and/or caves 11 12 0 0 recolonization difficult. Seepages 23 25 12 30 Potholes 12 13 22 55 Salamanders—The majority Aquatic rocks and/or logs 30 33 0 0 of southern salamanders are in six families: mole salamanders, Aquatic vegetation 10 11 26 65

amphiumas, hellbenders, lungless a salamanders, waterdogs or mud- Data are summarized from species accounts presented in Wilson (1995). TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 125 Leaf litter, fallen logs, moist soils, Table 5.6—The relationship between forest cover type and amphibian and other surface debris serve as occurrence in the Southa refuges from drying conditions. The ringed and streamside salamanders S use moist soil, while the flatwoods Forest cover types Salamanders Frogs and toads and Jefferson salamanders use leaf No. % No. % TRIAL litter. Fallen logs provide an important habitat component for the marbled Everglades 4 4 9 23 and mole salamanders. Several species, Tropical hardwoods 0 0 14 10 including the spotted and Mabee’s Longleaf-slash pine 6 7 14 35 salamanders, also prefer closed-canopy Pine-flatwoods 9 10 19 48 conditions adjacent to water sources. Virginia-pitch pine Table 5.6 shows the associations (xeric upland pines) 19 21 10 25 between 23 vegetative cover types Longleaf pine 7 8 22 55 (following Hamel 1992) and salaman- Loblolly-shortleaf pine 28 30 15 38 ders in the South. Mesic, mixed pine, White pine-hemlock 43 47 10 25 and hardwood forests support 72 Pond pine 5 5 14 35 percent of species, including ringed, marbled, and mole salamanders. Longleaf-scrub oak 2 2 8 20 Sixty-four percent of the salamanders Mixed, pine-hardwood (mesic) 66 72 33 83 occupy mesic, upland hardwoods. Mixed, pine-hardwood (xeric) 0 0 22 55 These species include streamside, Spruce fir 10 11 0 0 smallmouth, seepage, and dusky Upland hardwoods (mesic)- salamanders. White pine-hemlock white oak-red oak 59 64 19 48 and bottomland forests are used by Cypress tupelo 26 28 22 55 slightly less than half of the southern Bottomland hardwoods- salamanders. Jefferson, spotted, (sweetgum-willow oak) 43 47 31 78 and green salamanders occupy white Sweetgum–yellow-poplar 30 33 20 50 pine-hemlock forests, while several Bay-pocosin 20 22 22 55 amphiuma species are found in bottomland hardwood forests. Xeric Live oak (maritime) 6 7 12 30 oak-hickory forests also support a Maple-beech 24 26 9 23 variety of salamanders. Cove hardwoods 29 32 7 18 Spartina 0 0 4 10 Salamander diversity appears to be less on the Coastal Plain than in the Elm-ash 1 1 4 10 Appalachian Mountains. The former Oak-hickory (xeric hardwoods) 38 41 15 38 has much sandy, well-drained soil, Cave dwelling 6 7 0 0 high summer temperatures, and higher Aquatic dependent 19 21 0 0 densities of predators (Echternacht and Harris 1993). a Data summarized from species accounts presented in Wilson (1995). Connectivity between preferred forest habitats reduces population isolation Most salamander species find optimum Several species exhibit two distinct and promotes dispersal (Wilson 1995), habitat conditions in sawtimber stands. stages: an aquatic larval stage (tadpole) a management concern for many Frogs and toads—The South is and an adult stage. The eggs develop amphibian species. Many salamanders into tadpoles, which then undergo are adapted to travel only short inhabited by numerous species of frogs and toads, each with its own particular a complex metamorphosis into distances in response to habitat adults. The two stages have different alteration, while others with restricted requirements. The region supports such diversity due to its warm, humid habitat requirements that influence geographic ranges become imperiled if distributions and habitat associations. habitat modification is rapid enough to climate, diversity of vegetative com- preclude dispersal to similar habitats munities, and abundance of aquatic Tadpoles consume algae and bacteria, (Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001). environments, particularly wetlands. while adult frogs and toads rely upon Wilson (1995) places these species invertebrates. Some species, such as Table 5.7 illustrates relationships the pig frog, remain semiaquatic as between salamander occurrence and into: (1) terrestrial species that migrate to standing water for egg deposition, adults, while others become terrestrial. forest successional stage. The seral Frogs and toads are important prey stages follow those used by Hamel (2) semiaquatic species requiring terrestrial habitat for dispersal, and (3) for wading birds, raptors, foxes, (1992): grass-forb, seedling-sapling, raccoons, and snakes. poletimber, and sawtimber. Note that aquatic species that may use terrestrial not all cover types contain each seral habitat during rainy conditions. Each Moisture also is a limiting factor stage. The Everglades type, for example, species requires standing water for egg for most frog and toad species; even only exists in the grass-forb stages. deposition and larval development. terrestrial species require moist microhabitat (table 5.5). In addition TERRESTRIAL

126 Southern Forest Resource Assessment to broad stream margins, frequently Table 5.7—The relationship between forest successional stage and used habitats include both permanent a and seasonal swamps and ponds. amphibian occurrence in the South Many species, including the American toad and southern cricket frog, require Taxa subgroup/ Grass/ Seedling/ Pole- Saw- moist soils for burrowing. habitat conditions forb sapling timber timber Leaf litter, potholes, and aquatic ------Number of species ------vegetation often provide moisture Salamandersb (table 5.5). The oak toad and pine Optimalc 00 076 barrens tree frog use leaf litter, while d Suitable 10 15 25 5 the southern chorus frog and the bird- d voiced tree frog use aquatic vegetation. Marginal 650540 Potholes provide an important habitat Frogs and toadse component for Brimley’s chorus and Optimal 15 0 0 7 southern leopard frogs (Wilson 1995). Suitable 16 34 31 14 Species that prefer open-canopy Marginal 8 4 5 13 conditions include the Houston toad and the northern cricket frog. a Summarized from Wilson (1995). Although wetlands are important b Based on habitat relationships information from 92 species. c Habitats in which the species occurs with highest frequency. breeding habitats, many frog and d toad species spend part or all of their Habitats in which the species occurs with successively lower frequency. e Based on habitat relationships information from 40 species. nonbreeding season in trees and shrubs. Forest structure creates diverse habitats with many niches. Forests also contribute organic matter and moderate between terrestrial habitat and The change in successional stage from the temperature and evaporation rate aquatic habitat is important. sawtimber to grass-forb that results of adjacent aquatic habitats. The semiaquatic species require from timber harvest may enhance Southern frogs and toads inhabit a aquatic areas that have rocks, woody habitat suitability for one species, yet wide variety of forest cover types (table debris, or other similar shelter in the create marginal habitat for another. 5.6). Mesic, mixed pine and hardwood water. Emergent and floating vegetation Amphibian declines—Reported forests support 83 percent of species, is important for breeding of some declines of amphibian populations have including the American toad, Cope’s species. The adjacent terrestrial habitat drawn considerable attention over the gray tree frog, and northern cricket also is important because many species, past two decades. Many are associated frog. Seventy-eight percent of the such as the Eurycea and Desmognathus with high elevation, pristine areas species inhabit bottomland hardwood genera, spend significant portions of that are remote from surrounding forests, including Woodhouse’s toads, their lives foraging and occupying landscape modification. Amphibians pine woods tree frogs, squirrel tree terrestrial areas. Buffers adjacent to are particularly sensitive to their frogs, and gray tree frogs. Longleaf streams provide access to upland environment. Their permeable skin pine, cypress-tupelo, and bay-pocosin forested habitats. Aquatic habitats and the lack of protective eggshells habitats are used by over half of the frog should be protected against thermal make them vulnerable to toxicants species in the region. Oak and southern changes, water pollution, and excessive present in soil and water. toads and southern cricket frogs occupy siltation (Wilson 1995). Habitat Southern species showing evidence longleaf pine forests, while several tree alteration due to dredging, channel- of declines include the flatwoods frogs are characteristic of cypress-tupelo ization, and impoundment can salamander, Red Hills salamander, associations. It appears that a majority be detrimental to many species. Texas blind salamander, wood frog, of species finds optimum and suitable Forest management alters the southern dusky salamander, and habitat conditions in the grass, sapling, vegetative composition, seral stage, green salamander. Numerous others and poletimber stages (table 5.7). and structure of amphibian habitat. are categorized as imperiled and Habitat management for For example, prescribed burning vulnerable (chapter 1). Endemic amphibians—The complex life cycle temporarily removes leaf litter, herba- species are of particular concern of frogs and toads requires management ceous cover, and woody understory in the Edwards Plateau, Ozark of both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. vegetation. Vegetative structure, snags, Highlands, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Tiger salamanders and other ambys- loose bark, and surface debris are and Appalachian Mountains. tomas breed in the water but remain important factors in managing Amphibian declines have been terrestrial during nonbreeding season. amphibian habitat. Disking, wind- attributed to several factors. These Thus, providing only one habitat rowing, and furrowing during some include habitat loss, wetland alteration, component would fail to maintain forestry operations (Gibbons and climate changes leading to droughts, viable populations of these species. Buhlmann 2001) may negatively impact diseases, exotic species, and agricultural Some terrestrial species require ponds species dependent upon the understory. chemicals. Other factors include acid or other standing water during the Conversion from one forest type to precipitation and ultraviolet radiation. breeding season. Consequently, the another may be beneficial to some These are briefly reviewed later. removal of barriers such as roads species and detrimental to others. TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 127

Wetlands and vernal pools are gasoline (Reaser and Johnson 1997). Species accounts: Florida bog important for several amphibians. Of these, only the parasite, toxin, frog—This species is classified as There have been significant losses radiation, and predation hypotheses imperiled by Natural Heritage and is of wetlands in the last two centuries have supportive evidence. The a species of special concern in Florida S (chapter 1). Declines in wetland quality frequency of malformations is (NatureServe 2000). The frog is through eutrophication, pollution, and highest in frogs that have recently currently known to exist in 23 localities TRIAL fish stocking also impact amphibian metamorphosed from tadpoles. in the Panhandle (Moler 1992b). Many populations. The hellbender is affected Concern about the status of are found on the Eglin Air Force Base. by stream degradation, while the amphibian populations is clearly This frog species inhabits nonstagnant gopher frog is influenced by the warranted. Physiological constraints, acidic seeps and the shallow backwaters conversion of pine and hardwood limited mobility, and changes in site of larger streams. It is frequently found forests to tree plantations, agriculture, characteristics hinder recolonization in association with sphagnum moss and urban uses. In addition, habitat of sites of local extinction. The and early seral stages of Atlantic white- fragmentation by roads contributes to temporal and spatial population cedar. Shrubby streamside habitats that the mortality of breeding adults and dynamics of many amphibians are do not have developing hardwood dispersing juveniles (Wilson 1995). not well understood; it is unknown forests are preferred. The frog’s Ozone depletion in the upper whether observed declines exceed diet consists of insects and other atmosphere increases the amount natural population fluctuation. small arthropods. of ultraviolet radiation on the Earth’s There are other concerns facing Stream contamination and surface, particularly at high elevations. individual amphibian species. Many impoundment, and forest succession Ambient radiation damages cellular of these are discussed in the section on threaten the survival of this species DNA (Reaser and Johnson 1997); reptiles, as these concerns are shared by (Moler 1992b). Conservation actions amphibians with low levels of herpetofauna as a group. In addition, center on the protection of suitable photolyase enzyme have embryos some of these concerns are mentioned habitat. Management of streamside that are susceptible to ultraviolet in Species accounts presented next. vegetation to maintain the shrub-bog radiation, which causes mortality community is advised. and abnormal development, including Species accounts—The following skeletal, eye, and skin deformities. are accounts for selected amphibian Species accounts: gopher frog— species that are of concern in the South. This uncommon species is classified Their porous skin makes amphibians Several are federally listed as threatened as vulnerable by Natural Heritage susceptible to herbicides, pesticides, or endangered. Others are classified as (NatureServe 2000). Alabama, Florida, heavy metals, and petroleum products imperiled or vulnerable by Natural Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, in aquatic systems. Pollutants such as Heritage agencies. The species accounts and South Carolina list the frog as of gasoline, oil, and antifreeze sometimes and management recommendations special concern. The gopher frog occur in runoff into amphibian habitat. follow Wilson (1995) unless other- historically was distributed along the Relatively high nitrate levels cause wise noted. Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plain, with physical and behavioral abnormalities isolated populations in the Valley in a number of species; synthetic Species accounts: flatwoods salamander—The population of this and Ridge Province of Alabama. It chemicals interfere with hormonal was last documented from Louisiana processes, inhibiting amphibian threatened species has declined during the past 10 to 15 years (Wilson 1995). in the 1960s. The frog has declined development (Reaser 1996). The throughout its range with the loss application of fertilizers and pesticides, The cause of the decline is uncertain, and the salamander is uncommon of longleaf pine habitat (Martof and particularly by aerial spraying, often others 1980). impacts amphibians far from the point throughout its range from South of application in nontarget areas. Carolina, southern Georgia, and The gopher frog is associated with Florida westward to Mississippi. sandy pine flatwoods, turkey oak-pine The introduction of exotic species, The salamander inhabits pine flat- sandhills, and xeric hammocks. It such as fish, crayfish, and bullfrogs, breeds in shallow, temporary ponds into lakes and wetlands also influences woods dominated by longleaf and slash pines and wiregrass, which is important with open canopies and emergent amphibian populations. Fish intro- herbaceous vegetation. Ditches and duced into wetlands for mosquito for egg disposition. It is often found in association with cypress ponds, borrow pits are occasionally used. control prey upon amphibian eggs Adults seek refuge in the burrows of and larvae. Chytrid fungi, trematode swamps, and pitcher plant bogs that are used for reproduction. gopher tortoises, mice, and crayfish. parasites, and viruses carried by Stump holes, root mounds, dense exotic fish may also contribute to Management activities focus on grass clumps, and thick mats of leaf population declines. avoidance of intensive site preparation litter may also be used. before harvest, avoidance of prescribed Several of the factors discussed The frog is an opportunistic feeder above have been implicated as causes burning during peak surface activity and breeding periods (November with a diet of arthropods, small frogs, of amphibian abnormalities. These and toads. Predators include water include parasite infestation, toxin through April), and protection of breeding ponds. Fish stocking should snakes, turtles, bluegills, and contamination, radiation, radioactive mosquitofish. salts, ground-level ozone, excessive be avoided (Bury and others 1980). heating of eggs, and reformulated Management centers on protection of the sandhills and scrub-oak ecosystems TERRESTRIAL

128 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

and halting the losses of this habitat listed as rare in Georgia (NatureServe habitat modification, and competitive to circular irrigation farming and 2000). It occurs in restricted geographic interactions with the redback industrial development. Prescribed areas in northern Florida, Mobile salamander. Inhabiting the high- burning and other management Bay in Alabama, and the Ochlocknee elevation mountains of Virginia, the practices that retain the open scrub River drainage in Georgia. species requires talus slopes with deep nature of this habitat benefit this This semiaquatic salamander requires soil pockets in mixed coniferous and species (Wilson 1995), while practices mucky habitats in association with deciduous forests. Its diet consists of that drain or alter breeding ponds permanent streams (Means 1992). small arthropods and earthworms. are detrimental. Management actions center on Conservation efforts include Species accounts: green protection of muck areas, which restriction of construction activities that salamander—This species is classified are threatened by sand and silt could disturb the limited talus habitats as vulnerable by Natural Heritage and is sedimentation during construction of this salamander (Martof and others a species of special concern in Alabama, activities. Other actions include the 1980). Any construction of trails, roads, Georgia, Mississippi, and North regulation of amphiuma collection. or overlooks in the Shenandoah Carolina (NatureServe 2000). Species accounts: Red Hills National Park should be carefully Impoundment of several rivers in salamander—This species is listed as monitored so as not to impact this the Carolinas has extirpated several threatened at both the Federal and State salamander’s limited habitat. known populations. level. It is confined to a narrow belt Species accounts: Tennessee cave The unique habitat of this species within the Tallahatta and Hatchetigbee salamander—This species is classified is limited and localized. The green geological formations in the Red Hills as imperiled by Natural Heritage and salamander lives in damp crevices in of Alabama (Wilson 1995). is listed as endangered in the States of shaded rock outcrops and under the This nocturnal salamander lives in Alabama and Tennessee (NatureServe bark of cove hardwood trees. It also is burrows on high, steep, uncut slopes 2000). The salamander is found in found in upland areas of Virginia pine with high soil moisture content and permanent streams and pools in and white pine-hemlock with mountain full tree canopy (Dodd 1991). The limestone caves of central and south- laurel understories. The salamander’s burrows are often near the base of a west Tennessee, northern Alabama, diet consists of small insects, spiders, tree or under siltstone outcroppings. and extreme northwest Georgia. It and earthworms. The salamander feeds on spiders and is believed to occur in approximately Conservation efforts focus on insects (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1 percent of the caves in its range. protection of rock outcrops and the 1983, 1990b). The Tennessee cave salamander feeds establishment of buffer zones in areas The majority of land in its range on arthropods, other small aquatic of timber harvest. is privately owned. Habitat has been insects, and earthworms. Management Species accounts: Houston toad— reduced by timber harvest, conversion centers on restricting human access and This endangered species is restricted of forest to agriculture, and ridgetop protecting limestone cave habitat. The to southeastern Texas, where its clearing. Overcollecting may have species is very sensitive to pollutants population is very small and frag- caused a decline in some areas. Feral and disturbances within its habitat mented. Human alteration of natural hogs are a threat in localized areas (Wilson 1995). watersheds has eliminated many of (NatureServe 2001). Reptiles its natural breeding pools, resulting Conservation actions include in hybridization with the Gulf Coast cooperation with private and corporate The reptiles of the South belong to toad and the Woodhouse’s toad landholders to restrict clearcutting and three orders: Crocodilia (alligators and (Wilson 1995). heavy site disturbance. Under public crocodiles), Squamata (lizards, amphis- This toad inhabits areas with sandy, ownership, two areas have been set baenians, and snakes), and Testudinata friable soils and is found most often aside to support limited populations (turtles). The South supports a diversity in loblolly pine or mixed deciduous (NatureServe 2001). These include of reptiles (fig. 5.5), including 89 habitats interspersed with grassy areas Alabama Forestry Commission and snakes (11 endemic), 75 lizards (6 under a range of conditions. Breeding U.S. Army Corps of Engineers lands. endemic), 29 turtles (13 endemic), habitats include roadside ditches, In 1991, International Paper Company and 4 other reptiles (including 2 temporary ponds, and other seasonally initiated work on a Habitat Conser- crocodilians). The number of reptile flooded low spots. The toad’s diet vation Plan (HCP) for this species. species ranges from 155 in Texas to consists primarily of insects. Other companies subsequently 54 in Kentucky (NatureServe 2000). Species richness is impressive The recovery plan requires protec- developed HCPs (Bailey 1995). Research needs include determination in Florida (94), Alabama (87), tion of critical habitat for this species. Georgia (87), and Mississippi (86). Habitat is maintained in a pristine state, of the microhabitat effects of timber and several breeding projects have been management practices and the The South’s Coastal Plain possesses attempted. Development projects have collection of data on reproductive North America’s highest diversity of been regulated in areas designated as viability and recruitment within reptiles (Gibbons and others 1997, critical habitat (Brown 1975). existing populations. White and others 1998). Twenty-nine Species accounts: Shenandoah percent of southern reptiles are Species accounts: one-toed classified as endemic (Dodd 1995a). amphiuma—This species is classified salamander—This species is as vulnerable by Natural Heritage and endangered due to restricted range, TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 129

Snakes ringneck snakes, bog turtles, and coal The number of snakes tends to be 89 (45%) skinks. The longleaf pine-wiregrass highest in the southernmost Coastal community is vital habitat for the States. There are 73 in Texas, 46

gopher tortoise and important habitat in Florida, 42 in Alabama, 42 in S for mole skinks, glass lizards, scarlet Mississippi, 41 in Georgia, and 41 snakes, pine snakes, and coachwhip in South Carolina. Species richness in TRIAL snakes. Cypress-gum swamps are the mountain States is slightly lower. home to rainbow snakes, mud Virginia supports 30 snake species. snakes, western green watersnakes, Snakes reach their highest diversities and striped crawfish snakes (Gibbons in southern forests and their peripheral Other reptiles 4 (2%) and Buhlmann 2001). Some reptiles habitats, such as rivers, streams, and play important roles in southern isolated wetlands. communities in nutrient cycling. Seventeen species of reptiles are listed Lizards Turtles Their burrows provide refuges 29 (15%) as threatened or endangered by the 75 (38%) for other species during extreme U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (table climatic conditions. Figure 5.5—Species richness by major 5.8). In addition, numerous reptiles subgroups of reptilian taxa occurring The numbers of turtles in Mississippi are classified as imperiled or vulnerable within the South (NatureServe 2000). (31), Texas (30), Alabama (30), Georgia by the Natural Heritage agencies (27), Louisiana (26), and Florida (26) (chapter 1). Many of these species Reptiles occupy forest, freshwater, reflect the abundance of coastal and occur on the Coastal Plain; several marine, and urban habitats. Most use freshwater habitats. Numbers of lizard are narrowly restricted endemics. the same habitat for breeding and species in Texas (51) and Florida (38) Although the variation in life-history nonbreeding activities, but aquatic far surpass the richness in other and marine species require adjacent traits is quite marked, many species Southern States (NatureServe 2000). of reptiles have long lives, variable terrestrial habitats in order to Both States are relatively large and successfully reproduce. reproductive rates, and high mortality have a wide variety of habitats in them. among eggs and neonates. Such The forested mountain regions also The number of lizards residing in the combinations of life-history charac- support an abundance of reptiles, remaining States ranges from 17 species teristics are particularly common including worm snakes, copperheads, in Oklahoma to 8 species in Kentucky. among turtles, crocodilians, and snakes.

Table 5.8—Reptile species within the South that are listed as threatened or endangered

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Tu rtles Caretta caretta Loggerhead (T) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA Chelonia mydas Green turtle (E) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA Clemmys muhlenbergii Bog turtle (T) GA, NC, SC, VA Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback; tinglar (E) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill (E) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA Gopherus polyphemus Gopher tortoise (T) AL, LA, MS Graptemys flavimaculata Yellow-blotched map turtle (T) MS Lepidochelys kempii Kemp’s or Atlantic ridley (E) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC TX, VA Pseudemys alabamensis Alabama red-belly turtle (E) AL Sternothesis depressus Flattened musk turtle (T) AL Lizards Eumeces egregius lividus Bluetail mole skink (T) FL Snakes Drymarchon corais couperi Eastern indigo snake (T) AL, FL, GA, MS, SC Nerodia clarkii taeniata Atlantic salt marsh snake (T) AL Nerodia paucimaculata Concho water snake (T) TX Other reptiles Alligator mississippiensis American alligator (T) AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TX Crocodylus acutus American crocodile (E) FL

T = Threatened; E = endangered. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior (2000). TERRESTRIAL

130 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Due to their ectothermic physiology produce at least one clutch each year, The tortoise is threatened throughout and seasonal inactivity, reptiles have and multiple clutches per year are its range as a result of habitat relatively slow growth rates, advanced common. In contrast, biennial destruction associated with land ages at maturity, and advanced reproduction is typical in snakes. development (Echternacht and generation times. Lizards have the Turtles—Six turtle families are found Harris 1993). youngest ages at maturity (1.5 years), in the South. These include the sea Turtles are scavengers, herbivores, while turtles and crocodilians have the turtles, snapping turtles, water and and carnivores and often contribute oldest age at maturity (20 to 50 years). box turtles, mud and musk turtles, significant biomass to various Age at maturity is estimated at over 30 tortoises, and softshell turtles. The ecosystems. They provide dispersal years for some marine turtles. greatest diversity occurs in the Coastal mechanisms for plants, contribute Rates of reproduction are variable. Plain, which supports a variety of to environmental diversity, and foster Clutch frequency in sea turtles varies freshwater and coastal marsh species symbiotic associations with a diverse from one to four clutches every 3 and several species of sea turtles. array of organisms. to 4 years, whereas annual multiple The gopher tortoise is a keystone Many species have experienced clutches are common for some species in the communities where it significant declines in abundance and freshwater turtles. Reproduction occurs. Its burrows provide refuges for distribution during the last century. occurs in alternate years (or less often) a variety of species, including indigo Among such species are the bog turtle, for terrestrial tortoises. Most lizards snakes and diamondback rattlesnakes. spotted turtle, common box turtle,

Table 5.9—The relationships of reptiles to physiographic features and other habitat elementsa

Alligators/ Habitat element Turtles Lizards Snakes crocodiles No. % No. % No. % No. % Physiographic feature Sandhills 1 2 8 40 14 25 Flatwoods 1 2 4 20 12 21 Narrow stream margins 2 5 1 5 7 12 Broad stream margins 11 27 1 5 18 32 1 50 Swamps 14 34 0 0 13 23 1 50 Cypress strands 2 5 0 0 8 14 Cypress ponds 3 7 0 0 6 11 Cypress drains 1 2 0 0 4 7 Willow heads 1 2 0 0 3 5 Bays and pocosins 3 7 1 5 9 16 Rivers and streams 21 51 0 0 10 18 1 50 Permanent ponds 12 29 0 0 9 16 1 50 Vernal ponds 3 7 0 0 2 4 Lakes 15 37 0 0 8 14 2 100 Marshes 13 32 0 0 16 28 1 50 Specific requirement Closed canopy 0 0 0 0 5 9 Open canopy 29 71 14 70 43 75 2 100 Forest openings 3 7 10 50 8 14 Shrub thickets 1 2 2 10 4 7 Moist soil 5 12 3 15 11 19 Sandy or friable soils 36 88 12 60 18 32 Leaf litter 3 7 11 55 34 60 Snags 0 0 4 70 3 5 Fallen logs 0 0 11 55 35 61 Rock outcrops 0 0 4 70 4 7 Crevices and/or caves 0 0 1 5 5 9 Seepages 4 10 0 0 1 2 Potholes 1 2 0 0 3 5 Aquatic rocks and/or logs 23 56 0 0 12 21 1 50 Aquatic vegetation 17 42 0 0 13 23 2 100

a Data summarized from species accounts presented in Wilson (1995). TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 131 gopher tortoise, common slider, and shelter and as basking surfaces. The half of the species inhabit longleaf pine- alligator snapping turtle. Some species, ornate box turtle and gopher tortoise scrub oak, xeric mixed pine-hardwood, such as map turtles, have limited require sandy or friable soils in which and live oak stands. Longleaf pine and ranges, placing them at risk from to burrow or deposit eggs (Wilson scrub oak forests support the fence S habitat alteration or illegal collection 1995). A majority of species (71 lizard, island glass lizard, and mimic for the pet trade. Disease also appears percent) prefers open-canopy glass lizard. The sand skink, ground TRIAL to contribute to population declines conditions that aid in thermoregulation. skink, and six-lined racerunner occur in some turtles. The diamondback Such species include the painted turtle, in mixed pine and hardwoods. Live terrapin was exploited heavily for spotted turtle, Alabama map turtle, oak forests are used by 55 percent of food during the 19th century. Although and striped mud turtle. the southern lizards, including the the species recovered, the terrapin Tables 5.10 and 5.11 list the mole skink and broadhead skink. is again imperiled due to regional vegetative cover types and successional Mesic, mixed pine-hardwood stands harvesting, habitat destruction, stages that are associated with turtles also support a variety of lizards. vehicular mortality, and drowning in the South. Bottomland hardwood Approximately half of the species in crab traps (Lovich 1995). forests support 81 percent of species, find optimum conditions among Although the habitat requirements including the wood turtle, the common grasses and forbs (table 5.11). of marine turtles are beyond the scope map turtle, and the Pascagoula map Three families of snakes occur in of this terrestrial assessment, concerns turtle. Sixty-three percent of the turtles the South: nonvenomous snakes, over the future of these species warrants occupy cypress-tupelo forests. These coral snakes, and pit vipers. Species mention. Five species of marine turtles species include the Barbour’s, the that inhabit the water are especially frequent the beaches, bays, estuaries, Escambia, and the yellow-blotched prevalent. Three of the largest snakes and lagoons of the South: loggerhead, map turtle. Mesic, mixed pine- in North America occur in the region: green, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback, and hardwoods stands are used by slightly the indigo snake, eastern diamondback hawksbill turtles. These species have over half of the southern species, rattlesnake, and timber rattlesnake. had dramatic declines attributable to including the painted and spotted In the absence of a large assemblage commercial turtle fishing, exploitation turtles. Approximately one-third of of mammalian predators, snakes of the juvenile populations, beach the species find optimum or suitable assume special importance as top development, polluted water, habitat in grass-forb cover; most predators in some communities, and incidental take, and diseases such as of these species presumably are their low metabolic rates allow them fibropapillomas. Monitoring is difficult associated with aquatic conditions. to occur at impressive densities in due to their longevity. They continue to Lizards and snakes—Four families undisturbed habitat (Echternacht be threatened and their conservation of lizards inhabit the South. These and Harris 1993). involves international efforts. species include anole, fence, collared, Since the larger species of snakes Forest conditions influence both and horned lizards; whiptails; skinks; have fairly large home ranges—125 aquatic and terrestrial turtles. Map and glass lizards. All lizards are to 250 acres—fragmentation of existing turtles, cooter turtles, and musk turtles terrestrial; most species have small habitat poses a significant threat inhabit streams and rivers that are home ranges. (Wilson 1995). Several snakes, such influenced by adjacent riparian forests. Sandhills and flatwoods are important as the brown snake and the common Forest cover reduces sedimentation habitats for lizards (table 5.9). The garter snake, have significant rates, affects water temperature, and Florida scrub lizard, the island glass populations in suburban areas. influences availability of basking sites lizard, and the coal skink inhabit these (Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001). In The majority of snake and lizard areas. Leaf litter, fallen logs, and snags species have become imperiled due addition, many species such as mud provide shelter as well as places to hunt turtles use terrestrial habitat for nesting to insular populations, restricted for prey. The fence lizard and five-lined ranges, habitat degradation, or the and winter dormancy, spending the skink are associated with snags, while summer in wetland areas. Riparian loss of suitable habitat. Malicious the slender glass lizard and the broad- killing, biocides, exotic species, and forests are also quite important head skink use fallen logs. Friable soils for map turtles. illegal trade have also contributed are an important habitat component for to their decline. Tu rtles inhabit areas with a variety 60 percent of the species. Mimic and of physiographic features (table 5.9). eastern glass lizards deposit eggs and Many snakes require shelter in the Not surprisingly, rivers, streams, burrow in these soils. The majority of form of friable soil, fallen logs, leaf swamps, lakes, and marshes figure species (70 percent) require an open litter, rocks, or similar surface debris prominently in their occurrence. forest canopy, a forest opening, or (table 5.9). As with lizards, snakes Ninety percent of the species depend a rocky outcrop as basking sites for require open-canopy forest conditions on aquatic environments. Common thermoregulation. Such species include to aid thermoregulation. Habitat and alligator snapping turtles are found the slender and island glass lizards, management that leaves surface in swamps, deep rivers, and canals the collared lizard, and the Great debris and tree stumps can benefit while marshes support bog and painted Plains skink. their habitat. Leaf litter and fallen logs provide refuges for snakes as well as turtles. River and stream habitats Twenty-one forest cover types are support several species of map turtles. their prey, which include invertebrates, associated with lizards in the South small mammals, and amphibians. Racer Tu rtles are also associated with sandy (table 5.10). Although lizards in the and ringneck snakes are found in leaf soils, logs, and rocks that serve as region use a variety of forest cover, over TERRESTRIAL

132 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Table 5.10—The relationship between forest cover type and reptile occurrence in the Southa

Alligators/ Forest cover types Turtles Lizards Snakes crocodiles

No. % No. % No. % No. % Everglades 8 20 2 10 13 23 1 50 Tropical hardwoods 5 13 4 20 13 23 1 50 Mangroves 5 13 2 10 3 5 2 100 Longleaf-slash 2 5 4 20 11 19 Pine-flatwoods 3 7 8 40 23 40 Virginia-pitch pine (xeric upland pines) 1 2 5 25 14 25 Longleaf pine 4 10 15 19 21 37 Loblolly-shortleaf pine 5 12 7 35 20 35 White pine-hemlock 4 10 2 10 16 28 Pond pine 2 5 2 10 4 7 Longleaf-scrub oak 2 5 10 50 13 23 Mixed, pine-hardwood (mesic) 22 54 8 40 37 65 Mixed, pine-Hardwood (xeric) 3 7 11 55 15 26 Spruce fir 0 0 0 0 1 2 Upland hardwoods (mesic) - white oak-red oak 9 22 3 15 25 44 Cypress tupelo 26 63 3 15 12 21 1 50 Bottomland hardwoods- (sweetgum-willow oak) 33 81 5 25 29 51 1 50 Sweetgum-yellow-poplar 16 39 1 5 9 16 Bay-pocosin 9 22 3 15 10 18 Live Oak (maritime) 1 2 11 55 22 39 Maple-beech 4 10 1 5 16 28 Cove hardwoods 0 0 0 0 3 5 Spartina 7 17 0 0 3 5 2 100 Elm-ash 0 0 0 0 5 9 Oak-hickory (xeric hardwoods) 4 10 3 15 24 42 Aquatic dependent 37 90 0 0 15 26

a Data summarized from species accounts presented in Wilson (1995).

litter, while fallen logs are important including the western worm snake, and forest successional stage. Approx- habitat components for indigo and corn snake, and rat snake. Fifty-one imately half of the species find suitable corn snakes. Seventy-five percent percent of the snakes occupy habitat in seedling-sapling and of snake species are associated with bottomland hardwoods. These species poletimber conditions. Slightly more open canopy forest; these include include the mud, rainbow, and scarlet species find optimum and suitable scarlet and Kirtland’s snakes. king snake. Mesic upland hardwoods conditions in grass-forb stages than Forests provide essential habitat and xeric oak-hickory hardwoods are in sawtimber stands. components for terrestrial species used by over 40 percent of the southern Crocodilians—Two native species as well as those that live in aquatic species. The prairie king snake, milk of crocodilians, the America alligator habitats. Table 5.10 presents the snake, and the common water snake (family Alligatoridae) and the American 26 vegetative cover types that are occupy mesic hardwood types, while crocodile (family Crocodylidae), occur associated with snakes in the South. eastern and southern hognose snakes in the South. A large breeding Snakes use a diversity of forest cover; are characteristic of xeric hardwoods. population of the introduced spectacled there are, however, a group of specific The pine flatwoods forests also support caiman, native to the American tropics types that are used most often. Mesic, a variety of snakes. from southern Mexico to Argentina, mixed pine and hardwood forests Table 5.11 illustrates the relation- occurs in Dade County, FL (Echternacht support 65 percent of species, ships between snake occurrence TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 133

Not surprisingly, both species occur Table 5.11—The relationship between forest successional stage and reptile a in areas limited in the number of occurrence in the South physiographic features and vegetative

cover types (tables 5.9, 5.10, and S Successional stage 5.11). Lakes, marshes, rivers, streams, permanent ponds, and swamps figure TRIAL Taxa subgroup/ Pole- Saw- prominently in their occurrence. habitat condition Grass Sapling timber timber Aquatic vegetation is important to both species; rocks and logs in the Tu r tlesb water serve as useful basking areas. Optimalc 13 0 0 0 Alligators and crocodiles require Suitabled 3 8 8 4 open canopy forest conditions to d aid thermoregulation. This need Marginal 0 7 5 8 may explain their use of stands of Lizardse grasses and forbs. Optimal 10 1 0 1 Six vegetative cover types are Suitable 3 13 14 11 associated with these species in the Marginal 3 6 2 1 South. Mangrove and spartina habitat f supports both species. Tropical Snakes hardwoods, cypress tupelo, and Optimal 7 1 0 6 bottomland hardwood forests are Suitable 33 46 43 29 also occasionally used. Additional Marginal 11 8 6 8 details on each species are presented g in the Species accounts at the end Alligators and crocodiles of the reptile section. Optimal 2 0 0 0 Suitable 0 0 0 0 Habitat management for reptiles— The general problems faced by reptiles Marginal 0 2 1 0 in southern forests center on the a Summarized from Wilson (1995). environmental impacts resulting b Based on habitat relationships information from 41 species. from human activities. Difficulties c Habitats in which the species occurs with highest frequency. in assessing problems and monitoring d Habitats in which the species occurs with successively lower frequency. populations hinder management e Based on habitat relationships information from 20 species. of these vertebrates. f Based on habitat relationships information from 57 species. g Based on habitat relationships information from 2 species. The life history and ecology of reptiles differ markedly from those of other taxa. Many reptile species take longer and Harris 1993). This exotic species the status of the Florida alligator to mature and have long lifespans. is discussed further in chapter 3. population appears secure, continued For example, the forest-inhabiting box The alligator is a wide-ranging animal habitat loss and toxic contamination turtle and snapping turtle take over 10 that occurs from coastal North Carolina may compromise its conservation. years to reach sexual maturity (Gibbons south to Florida and westward to The crocodile remains endangered, and Buhlmann 2001). Managing for eastern Texas. It has recovered from while the alligator is federally listed sustainable populations of long-lived, previous declines and now has pest as threatened due to “similarity of late-maturing species requires different status in Louisiana and Florida. The appearance.” This designation reflects strategies than for short-lived, rapid alligator creates marsh pools that the special instance when a species so turnover species (Congdon and others provide habitat for many other species. closely resembles a listed species that 1994, Ernst and others 1994). Its larger and more secretive relative, it is difficult in the wild to differentiate The primary threats to reptiles in the American crocodile, is restricted in between the two. The effect of this the South stem from habitat destruction its North American range to extreme difficulty is an additional threat to and alteration, including changes in south Florida. the listed species. water quality. The drainage of wetlands During the last century, wetland The alligator is doing well in and temporary ponds has reduced drainage for agriculture and develop- suitable habitat, while the crocodile the population of striped newts ment activities permanently reduced is struggling to survive in its limited (Dodd 1995a) and extirpated the alligator populations in freshwater range in southern Florida (Wilson flatwoods salamander from a portion marshes. Recent environmental 1995). Management plans for both of its range (White and others 1998). contamination has been associated species protect aquatic and terrestrial Destruction of wetlands has reduced with declines in alligator populations habitat, particularly for nesting and spotted turtle populations, and other (Woodward 1995). Widespread basking. Management includes captive aquatic habitats do not meet the pollution of wetlands by toxic petro- programs to manage the species for turtle’s specialized needs. chemicals and metals may continue to meat and hide production, as well as Impoundments have affected several threaten population viability. Although effective protection from poaching. species of map turtles native to large TERRESTRIAL

134 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

southern rivers. The damming of The invasion of introduced exotics Primary habitat areas are the upper, streams to form reservoirs has can also be detrimental to native freshwater portions of Mobile Bay, contributed strongly to the eliminating reptiles. Fire ants, in particular, where there are abundant supplies several species (Mitchell 1994). In have been implicated in the reduction of submerged plants and algae, addition, the removal of dead trees and of terrestrial egg-laying reptiles which are preferred foods. the dredging of river bottoms, which (Mount 1986). Conservation actions emphasize harbor mollusks that the turtles eat, Management can enhance reptile protection of the primary nesting have negatively affected these species. habitat in many ways. One way is site on Gravine Island, restriction The gopher tortoise and other reptiles through the retention of microhabitat of herbicide use, and limitation have become threatened in part because features that provide refuges. For of dredging activity on the lower of the loss of longleaf pine habitat example, the disruption of under- Tensaw River. (Dodd 1995b, Guyer and Bailey 1993). ground root systems in managed pine Species accounts: alligator Many species of snakes and box turtles plantations may displace species such snapping turtle—This species is are also declining in numbers due to as the eastern diamondback rattlesnake. classified as vulnerable by Natural loss of suitable habitat. Accidental The importance of leaving terrestrial Heritage and is listed in the States death by vehicles and intentional killing buffer zones around forest wetlands is of Alabama, Georgia, and Texas are other factors contributing to snake well documented (Burke and Gibbons (NatureServe 2000). The turtle decline. Several of these reptiles, such 1995, Semlitsch and Bodie 1998). The has declined due to habitat loss as short-tailed snakes and flattened retention of habitat elements such as and commercial exploitation for musk turtles, have relatively small leaf litter, snags, coarse woody debris, food and the pet trade. geographic ranges. Others, such as and fallen logs benefits the habitat of the pinewoods snake, coal skink, and many reptiles (refer to the individual The species is typically found in Webster’s salamander, have disjunct subtaxa sections mentioned earlier deep rivers and canals, but may also populations that make them quite and Species accounts that follow). occur in lakes, swamps, and small streams. Although it nests on land, vulnerable to habitat loss. Effects of Delayed sexual maturity and habitat alteration can be far-reaching. the turtle is primarily aquatic and individual longevity contribute to the feeds on fish, mollusks, and crayfish. Management of sea turtles has vulnerability of reptiles and inhibit the emphasized the acquisition and recovery of several threatened species. Conservation measures include protection of nesting habitat. Other Several reptiles have existed virtually regulation of collection and the concerns include ocean pollution, unchanged for centuries. Unfortunately, protection of suitable habitat fishing and shrimping nets, beach some of the same traits that allowed with adequate prey populations development, and enforcement of them to survive the ages predispose (Wilson 1995). international regulations. The them to endangerment. Conservation Species accounts: American identification of migration routes and actions should be directed towards alligator—This species is federally other life history information also will areas of high species diversity, species listed as threatened due to similarity of benefit future management strategies. with limited distributions, and locations appearance to the American crocodile. Degradation of aquatic habitat is such as shallow wetlands and coastal The alligator ranges from coastal North the primary management concern zones where reptiles are at risk. Carolina to extreme southern Florida, for freshwater turtles. Conservation Insufficient knowledge of the distri- west to east Texas, and north to central actions are directed at monitoring the bution and ecology of native reptiles Arkansas. Current threats include the extent of thermal pollution, dredging, is a major shortcoming in any regional conversion of habitat for recreational channelization, and incidental takes effort to detect change and avoid loss use and urban development. by commercial fishing. Protection in these taxa. Alligators prefer large, shallow lakes, of nesting beaches and adjacent Species accounts—The following fresh or brackish marshes, and savannas nest areas, and the prevention of are the species accounts for selected that border aquatic habitat. Alligators deliberate killing are also important reptiles that are of concern in the are strictly carnivorous and will eat any management priorities. South. Several are federally listed as animal they can subdue and swallow. In addition to intentional killing, threatened or endangered. Others are Conservation actions for the American which affects snakes as well as turtles, classified as imperiled or vulnerable by alligator focus on habitat protection several reptiles suffer direct losses due Natural Heritage agencies. Management and control of human disturbance. to exploitation. Unregulated harvest recommendations follow Wilson (1995) unless otherwise cited. Species accounts: American affects a number of the listed turtle crocodile—The crocodile is federally and tortoise populations, as well as Species accounts: Alabama redbelly listed as endangered. The species the majority of sea turtles. Collection turtle—This endangered species is occurs in south Florida and the Florida for the pet trade is another serious restricted to Mobile Bay in southern Keys. It inhabits the Caribbean, Central management problem. Some species, Alabama. It has declined due to America, and South America. Habitat particularly the genera Clemmys and habitat modification and because loss is the primary reason for this Graptemys, require strict regulation due it was trapped and netted for food species’ imperilment in the South to rising demands in domestic and (Dobie and Bagley 1988). Habitat (Moler 1992a). foreign pet markets. Commercial disturbance has altered the turtles’ collectors also threaten the spotted nesting and feeding habitat. The crocodile is found in brackish turtle and box turtle. or salt water in coastal canals, TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 135 mangrove thickets, or tidal creeks. Species accounts: gopher tortoise— The species has apparently declined The crocodile is carnivorous. This threatened species occurs in in recent decades, and existing Conservation actions center on Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, populations are thought to be small protection of the remaining habitat Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana. and isolated (Reichling 1995, Rudolph S in southern Florida (Wilson 1995). Habitat loss and the pet trade are and Burgdorf 1997). Species accounts: Atlantic salt the primary factors contributing to Loss of habitat due to conversion TRIAL marsh snake—This threatened species the decline of the tortoise (U.S. Fish to intensive silviculture and changes is restricted to a small coastal strip in and Wildlife Service 1990c). in the fire regime are the primary causes Florida. It is imperiled by wetland Well-drained sandy soils supporting of population decline. Fire suppression habitat alteration stemming from pine and scrub oaks in the sandhills and inadequate prescribed fire have drainage and impoundment. are preferred habitat. The tortoise feeds resulted in widespread successional This snake preys on fish and on grasses, forbs, and other vegetation changes in pine forests throughout the is typically found in salt marshes, (Ernst and others 1994). range of Louisiana pine snakes, leading tidal creeks, and mangrove swamps. Habitat management for the gopher to loss of herbaceous vegetation and Conservation action for this species tortoise includes selective harvest pocket gophers. Habitat loss and is concerned with protection of and prescribed burning to maintain degradation has been more extensive the remaining unaltered habitat the open, grassy nature of sand ridges. on private than on public land. Roads (Conant and Collins 1991). Ground disturbance such as heavy and associated vehicle traffic are very site preparation and root raking can likely impacting populations in much Species accounts: bog turtle— of the remaining habitat. This threatened species occurs in be detrimental to young tortoises southwestern Virginia, eastern (Wilson 1995). Conservation action centers on Tennessee, northern Georgia, and Species accounts: indigo snake— the management of fire-maintained the Carolinas. The bog turtle is in The population of this threatened pine habitat on a scale sufficient to jeopardy due to collection for the pet species has declined rapidly in recent support viable populations of this trade and habitat loss. The drainage years. Primary threats appear to be species. Prescribed burning sufficient of grassy and marshy wetlands has habitat loss and exploitation for the to maintain abundant herbaceous resulted in the destruction of the pet trade (Speake and others 1982). vegetation and support of pocket required habitat for this species. The indigo snake is currently found gopher populations are required. The bog turtle feeds on a variety of in southeastern Georgia and Florida. Species accounts: mimic glass animals including tadpoles, frogs, The species coexists with gopher lizard—This species is classified various invertebrates, and baby rodents. tortoises throughout much of its range as vulnerable by Natural Heritage The species does not tolerate closed- and frequently uses tortoise burrows. (NatureServe 2000). The lizard canopy forests. Management actions Preferred habitat is pine-scrub oak occurs on the Atlantic Coastal Plain focus on the maintenance of early seral woodlands and palmetto-covered hills from North Carolina to Florida and (grassy) habitat and halting the illegal with well-drained sandy soils. Indigo westward as far as the Pearl River in pet trade (Ernst and others 1994). snakes may also be found in mesic Mississippi. The species is imperiled Drainage of wetlands is detrimental habitats bordering swamps, streams, due to excessive development and to this species (Wilson 1995). or canals. The snake feeds on frogs, habitat modification in its range. Species accounts: Florida scrub toads, birds, small mammals, and The lizard inhabits open-canopied lizard—This species is classified other reptiles. pine forests with thick forest litter. It as vulnerable by Natural Heritage Conservation actions necessary feeds on a variety of invertebrate prey (NatureServe 2000). Disjunct popula- to protect indigo snake populations as well as small lizards and snakes tions occur along the east coast of include the retention of existing (Palmer and Braswell 1995). Florida, in central Florida, and in habitat, maintenance of pine-scrub Conservation actions to benefit isolated areas on the west coast of oak woodlands in a subclimax this species include maintaining an Florida. The species is threatened by condition, and protection of gopher open canopy through burning and conversion of habitat to other uses. tortoise burrows (Moler 1992c). thinning (Wilson 1995). The lizard prefers open sandy edges Species accounts: Louisiana pine Species accounts: bluetail mole in xeric sand pine scrub and longleaf snake—This species is endemic to skink—This threatened subspecies pine habitat (Conant and Collins eastern Texas and western Louisiana, occurs in Florida. Residential 1991). It feeds on ants, beetles, spiders, primarily in areas currently or once development and agricultural and other small arthropods. dominated by longleaf pine. The conversion have altered its habitat. Conservation strategies focus on the species is associated with fire-main- The mole skink prefers open, sandy management of sand pine scrub and tained pine forests on well-drained edges in sand pine scrub and sandhill longleaf pine-turkey oak habitats to sandy soils with well-developed habitats. The species consumes a retain the open character that the lizard herbaceous vegetation (Rudolph and variety of invertebrate prey, including requires. The Ocala National Forest Burgdorf 1997). Pocket gophers are the ants, beetles, and spiders. manages large areas of this habitat primary prey of Louisiana pine snakes, Conservation actions for this species (Wilson 1995). Habitat maintenance and pocket gopher burrows are used for focus on protection of essential habitat often requires prescribed burning. escape from predators, avoidance of areas from conversion to other uses high temperatures, and hibernation. (Conant and Collins 1991). TERRESTRIAL

136 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Species accounts: rim rock primary threat, particularly in central different species. This order includes crowned snake—This species is Florida, where land is in demand chipmunks, squirrels, pocket gophers, classified as critically imperiled by for agricultural, residential, and other mice, rats, voles, muskrats, nutria, and Natural Heritage and occurs solely uses (Wilson 1995). beavers. Examples of carnivores include in Florida (NatureServe 2000). The primary habitats of this snake the Florida panther, red fox, bobcat, Development and the resultant are longleaf pine-turkey oak and sand river otter, and mink. The category of habitat loss threaten the snake. pine scrub communities with loose “other mammals” in figure 5.6 includes This snake is found in flatwoods, sandy soils. It feeds on small snakes the Florida manatee, white-tailed deer, tropical hardwood hammocks, and and lizards. eastern cottontail rabbit, opossum, pastures and on fossil coral reefs armadillo, shrews, moles, and several Management actions center on the other species. (Porras and Wilson 1979). This protection of remaining occupied snake consumes insects and other habitat from development and the Five mammal species are known or small arthropods. retention of prey populations presumed to be extinct or extirpated Because of the intense development (Campbell and Moler 1992). from the region. These are the jaguar, ocelot, gray wolf, elk, and bison occurring in the habitat of this Species accounts: southern hognose species, conservation action centers (Echternacht and Harris 1993). Beavers snake—This species is classified were once extirpated in the South on the protection of suitable habitat as imperiled by Natural Heritage (Wilson 1995). but were reestablished over the past (NatureServe 2000). The snake occurs two decades. Species accounts: ringed map primarily on the Coastal Plain from turtle—This threatened turtle inhabits North Carolina westward into southern Endemic species represent a relatively the Pearl River drainage of southern Mississippi. There is one disjunct small percentage of the mammals in Mississippi and southeastern Louisiana. population in central Alabama. the region. Eight rodent species are Primary threats are illegal collection for Development of preferred habitat endemic to the Coastal Plain: the the pet trade and habitat degradation is the primary cause for imperilment, southeastern pocket gopher, colonial (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1988). but fire ants may also be impacting pocket gopher, Sherman’s pocket populations (Wilson 1995). gopher, Cumberland Island pocket This turtle leaves the river to bask gopher, oldfield mouse, Florida mouse, and to lay eggs. Preferred habitat This snake is found in sandhills, Perdido Key beach mouse, and round- includes river stretches with moderate pine-scrub oak woodlands, pine and tailed muskrat (White and others current, sandbars, and debris for wiregrass flatwoods, and other open 1998). The region also has eight species basking sites. The diet is comprised xeric communities with loose, sandy of introduced mammals, including of insects and mollusks. Because this soils (Martof and others 1980). It feeds the coyote, wild boar, and nutria. turtle is restricted to the Pearl River, primarily on toads, frogs, and lizards. Thirty-three species of mammals modifications of natural conditions Conservation actions for this species there could prove detrimental. are listed as threatened or endangered include the protection and restoration (table 5.12). These include the Key Species accounts: sand skink— of remaining habitat, restriction of deer, red wolf, Louisiana black bear, This species is classified as imperiled additional development, and fire Indiana bat, gray myotis, Virginia by Natural Heritage (NatureServe ant control. northern flying squirrel, and 2000). It is restricted to well-drained southeastern beach mouse. Ten of sandy soils in the interior central Mammals the listed rodent species inhabit the Florida highlands. Much of this habitat Terrestrial, marine, and freshwater Coastal Plain of Florida or Alabama. has been converted to citrus groves habitats in the South are home to 246 and residential areas. In addition, 12 species are classified mammalian species (NatureServe as imperiled or vulnerable under the The sand skink lives in loose, 2000). The number of mammals ranges Natural Heritage system (chapter 1). dry sandy areas with sparse grass from 176 species in Texas to 62 species cover. It subsists on a diet of ants, in Mississippi. There are 102 species in Georgia, 101 in South Carolina, Bats spiders, termites, beetle larvae, and 37 (17%) Other mammals other invertebrates. 96 in Oklahoma, and 95 in Florida. 41 (17%) Protection of the remaining habitat The total includes rodents, carnivores, and acquisition of additional areas bats, whales, dolphins, and other mammals (fig. 5.6). are the primary conservation actions Carnivores Whales and dolphins required to preserve this species This vertebrate group comprises 52 (24%) 30 (12%) (Christman 1992). In addition, the 11 major orders and 26 families use of prescribed fire is important (Echternacht and Harris 1993). All but for maintaining the open nature of five families have one or more sensitive sand skink habitat. species (Laerm and others 2000). Species accounts: short-tailed These families include Didelphidae (opossum), Dasypodidae (armadillo), Rodents snake—This species is classified as 86 (35%) vulnerable by Natural Heritage and Castoridae (beaver), Myocastoridae is endemic to Florida (NatureServe (nutria), and Suidae (wild boar). The order Rodentia dominates the region’s Figure 5.6—Species richness by major 2000). Habitat destruction is the subgroups of mammalian taxa occurring mammalian fauna in the number of within the South (NatureServe 2000). TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 137

Table 5.12—Mammal species within the South that are listed as threatened or endangered

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence S

Bats TRIAL Corynorhirus townsendii ingens Ozark big-eared bat (E) AR, OK Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus Virginia big-eared bat (E) NC, VA Myotis grisescens Gray bat (E) AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, OK, TN, VA Myotis sodalis Indiana bat (E) AL, AR, GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA Rodents Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus Carolina northern flying squirrel (E) NC, TN Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus Virginia northern flying squirrel (E) KY, NC, VA Microtus pennsylvanicus dukecampbelli Florida salt marsh vole (E) FL Neotoma floridana smalli Key Largo woodrat (E) FL Oryzomys palustris natator Rice rat (E) FL Peromyscus gossypinus allapaticola Key Largo cotton mouse (E) FL Peromyscus polionotus allophrys Chocawhatcher beach mouse (E) FL Peromyscus polionotus ammobates Alabama beach mouse (E) AL Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris Southeastern beach mouse (T) FL Peromyscus polionotus peninsularis St. Andrew beach mouse (E) FL Peromyscus polionotus phasma Anastasia Island beach mouse (E) FL Peromyscus polionotus trissyllepsis Perdido key beach mouse (E) AL, FL Sciurus niger cinereus Delmarva Peninsula fox squirrel (E) VA Carnivores Canus rufus Red wolf (E) NC, TN, FL Herpailurus yogouaroundi cacomitli Gulf Coast jaguarundi (E) TX Leopardus pardalis Ocelet (E) TX Panthera onca Jaguar; Otorongo (E) TX Puma concolor Puma (T) FL Puma concolor coryi Florida panther (E) FL Puma concolor cougar Eastern puma (E) KY, NC, SC, TN, VA Ursus americanus luteolus Louisiana black bear (T) LA, MS, TX Whales and dolphins Balaenoptera physalus Fin whale (E) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA Eubalaena glacialis Black right whale (E) FL, GA, NC, SC, VA Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback whale (E) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA Physeter catodon Sperm whale (E) NC Other mammals Monachus tropicalis Caribbean monk seal (E) FL Odocoileus virginianus clavium Key deer (E) FL Trichecchus manatus Manatee (E) AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX Sylviagus palustris hefneri Lower Keys marsh rabbit (E) FL

T = threatened; E = endangered. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior (2000). TERRESTRIAL

138 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

These include the Rafinesque’s big- a variety of foods: frogs, turtles, snakes, eastern mole, and star-nosed mole; eared bat, gray-footed chipmunk, mice, berries, and other vegetation. woodchuck; eastern chipmunk; and round-tailed muskrat, Allegheny These mammals are rapidly becoming 5 species of pocket gophers. Soil type woodrat, and swift fox. These species urban wildlife in many communities is the primary factor determining are in jeopardy due to habitat loss, of the South. the ranges of pocket gophers. land use change, human disturbance, Rodents are a diverse group that The following sections discuss the and coastal development. persists in abundance in many areas. habitat needs for two of the highest The white-tailed deer is the most They tend to have high birth rates that profile groups of mammals: bats and widespread browsing species repre- permit the maintenance of stable carnivores. Additional species are sented in the region today. Elk have populations despite predation pressure also profiled in the Species account recently been reintroduced into and control measures. The rodent section that concludes the segment selected locations. The absence of species that are most at risk in the on mammals. large carnivores (wolves, jaguar) South have narrow distributions. In Bats—The 20 species of bats in the reflects history since European beach habitats, feral cats represent a South are key components of forested settlement (chapter 1). The black significant threat. Pesticide residues ecosystems. Four bats are listed as bear is the largest carnivore now in affect shrews and other insectivores. endangered: the gray bat, Indiana bat, the South. Four wild canids occur in The fox squirrel that inhabits longleaf and Ozark and Virginia big-eared bats the region. The coyote has expanded pine savannas is threatened by fire (table 5.13). The southeastern bat, the its range, while the red wolf is critically suppression and land use conversion eastern small-footed bat, Rafinesque’s imperiled due to habitat loss and (White and others 1998). big-eared bat, and Wagner’s mastiff hybridization with other canids. The absence of mountain barriers bat are of special concern. Red and gray foxes remain relatively and other opportunities for isolation common. The Florida panther is in Forest bats depend on forests for and speciation contribute to the lack shelter, roosting sites, and foraging jeopardy, while the bobcat remains of species richness among squirrels widespread throughout the region. areas. Bats are in two major classes: and burrowing mammals (Echternacht cave bats and tree bats. Cave bats The absence of large predators and Harris 1993). The eight species of inhabit caves during all or part of the has encouraged the proliferation of sciurid rodents in the region include year, while noncave species seldom raccoons, opossums, and skunks. These the 13-lined ground squirrel, gray enter caves. Some of their ranges are species demonstrate broad ecological squirrel, fox squirrel, and two flying limited to relatively small geographic tolerance, inhabiting virtually every squirrels. The region’s 10 burrowing areas. Insectivorous bats have tiny type of habitat available. They consume rodents include the hairy-tailed mole,

Table 5.13—Bat species occurring within the South

Scientific name Common name Status

Artibeus jamaicensis Jamaican fruit-eating bat Limited numbers Corynorhinus townsendii Townsend’s big-eared bat Endangereda Corynorhinus rafinesquii Rafinesque’s big-eared bat Special concern Eptesicus fuscus Big brown bat Common Eumops glaucinus Wagner’s mastiff bat Rare Lasionycteris noctivagans Silver-haired bat Relatively uncommon Lasiurus borealis Eastern red bat Common Lasiurus cinereus Hoary bat Relatively common Lasiurus intermedius Northern yellow bat Relatively common Lasiurus seminolus Seminole bat Common Molossus molossus Pallas mastiff bat Limited numbers Myotis austroriparius Southeastern bat Special concern Myotis grisescens Gray bat Endangered Myotis leibii Eastern small-footed bat Special concern Myotis lucifugus Little brown bat Scarce or locally common Myotis septentrionalis Northern long-eared bat Common Myotis sodalis Indiana bat Endangered Nycticeius humeralis Evening bat Common Pipistrelle subflavus Eastern pipistrelle Common Tadarida brasiliensis Brazilian free-tailed bat Locally common/abundantb

a Two subspecies: Ozark big-eared bat and the Virginia big-eared bat. b Two subspecies: LeConte’s free-tailed bat and the Mexican free-tailed bat. Source: Adapted from Harvey and Saugey (2001). TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 139 eyes and are capable of sight, but most opportunities by reducing branch Most are territorial. Population density species locate prey by echolocation. obstructions (Krusic and others 1996). is relatively low, reflecting their position Bats hibernate in a variety of locations Retention of cavity trees and snags, at the top of the food chain. Two including leaf litter, woody debris, creation of large snags, and designation carnivores (the bobcat and river otter) S caves, hollow trees, and rock crevices. of streamside zones also are beneficial are protected under the Convention for Many species hibernate under (Harvey and Saugey 2001, Kulhavy and the International Trade of Endangered TRIAL exfoliating bark and in tree cavities, Conner 1986). The creation of ponds Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) mines, and buildings. Roosting sites can also enhance habitat by providing and are monitored closely by States range from solitary sites to caves water, breeding sites, and a source of that allow harvest of these species containing thousands of individuals. insect prey (Wilhide and others 1998). (Leopold and Chamberlain 2001). Sites selected for roosting and Even-aged poletimber stands often The diet of carnivores is primarily hibernation meet precise environmental are unsuitable for bole and cavity users composed of other animals. Bobcats, conditions, such as stable temperatures and do not provide the cavities and river otters, weasels, and mink and high relative humidity. Disturbance bark characteristics preferred by characteristically have diets in which often results in the abandonment of bats (Pierson 1998). Clearcutting animal material exceeds 95 percent. the site. eliminates roosting opportunities The amounts of fruits, berries, and Bats have evolved to fill a variety until replacement trees of suitable seeds vary with seasonal availability. of food niches. These mammals begin size become available (Harvey and For example, gray and red fox foods foraging at dusk. The diet consists Saugey 2001). However, the resulting change from animal foods in the fall of insects and other arthropods and availability of herbaceous growth and winter to invertebrates and fruits varies by species. results in increased insect populations during spring and summer. (Barclay and Brigham 1998). Stand Each species is associated with Widespread pesticide use caused rotations long enough to allow for significant declines in bat populations specific habitats that provide required cavity development are important food, water, and cover. Often, areas that during the past several decades (Harvey for species that require cavities. and others 1999). This threat has are diverse in vegetative composition, diminished somewhat with pesticide Prescribed burning can enhance structure, and seral stage are inhabited use regulations. The current threat to invertebrate biomass by reducing by a diversity of these mammals. A bats stems from habitat destruction midstory trees and shrubs, allowing substantial number of carnivores and cave disturbance. Few caves meet the regeneration of herbaceous plants. depend on forested ecosystems to the narrow temperature and humidity The resulting canopy gaps provide provide one or more habitat require- requirements for hibernation. The large additional foraging opportunities. ments. Mosaics of cover types and the numbers of bats occupying specific However, fire may jeopardize bats ecotones between successional stages caves make these species vulnerable hibernating on the ground during enhance prey and other food diversity. to disturbance of an individual cave. winter when they are torpid and slow The structural components important to arouse (Harvey and Saugey 2001). to many mammals include mature Various locations are used as The impact of dormant-season burning trees, standing dead trees, woody maternity roost sites. Snags are used on species that roost in ground litter debris, and patchy understories. by Indiana, northern, and evening bats, is unclear. Snags used by bats may Structural diversity and decaying while hollow trees are important for be felled by fire if their bases burn trees provide suitable cover and Rafinesque’s and southeastern bats. A through, resulting in the loss of cavities foraging habitat. particular threat is human disturbance or roosting sites under exfoliating bark. to hibernation and maternity colonies. Habitat quality determines the Hibernating bats wake when disturbed Finally, recreational caving should be stability of these populations, while and expend critical winter stores of minimized to prevent disturbance to habitat loss is the primary threat to fat. Summer maternity colonies have maternity and hibernating colonies. these species. Habitat modification low tolerance of disturbance; disturbed Properly designed gates on cave influences species distribution and parents will often abandon their entrances afford the best protection. abundance. Forest clearing, grassland offspring. Bats produce an average Other protective measures include conversion, irrigation, and wetland of one offspring per year, but some limiting the use of pesticides and drainage have improved habitat for species give birth to three or four preventing destruction of habitat. some species and damaged habitat babies at a time. The low rate of Carnivores—Carnivores are a viable for others. The expanded range of reproduction results in populations component of the southern landscape, the coyote throughout the South that can be quickly destroyed with little whose management has changed sig- resulted from urbanization and the opportunity for recovery. Other adverse nificantly over the last several decades. removal of large predators such as impacts include habitat destruction; The perception that carnivores must red wolves and Florida panthers. direct killing; vandalism; and predation be eliminated is no longer widely Species with restrictive habitat by raptors, raccoons, skunks, and held. These mammals contribute to requirements are vulnerable to losses of snakes (Tuttle 1995). ecosystem stability by controlling habitat. The swift fox depends on native A number of forest management rodent populations. shortgrass prairie communities; its actions can enhance bat habitat. Seed- There are few reliable density range has become restricted due to the tree and shelterwood harvests open up estimates for furbearers because they conversion of prairies into cultivated forest canopies, creating foraging are secretive and difficult to census. fields. Mammals associated with wetland habitats are not very resilient TERRESTRIAL

140 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

to habitat modification. For example, riparian vegetation will benefit these levels and the planting of desired river channelization reduces habitat species and enhance their distribution. vegetation can enhance habitat. The suitability for river otters (Allen 1988). The elimination of woody debris maintenance of water availability Large mammals such as the red influences small mammal populations and prey species also improves habitat wolf, Florida panther, and black bear and makes them easier prey for potential. Debris and structural have extensive home ranges. The associated predators. Timber harvest diversity along shorelines enhance prey maintenance of a mosaic of vegetation and prescribed burning change availability for river otters. The removal types and multiple seral stages supports vegetation composition and enhances of aquatic shoreline vegetation reduces prey populations and the food- understory growth. However, timber availability of prey for mink. producing plants that comprise the removal may harm other mammals that Important habitat features for diet of these species. In contrast, the require mature forest. In some cases, carnivores as well as other mammals majority of carnivores depend on much the protection of critical habitat may occurring in the South are summarized smaller geographic areas. These species be the preferred management strategy. in table 5.14. Detailed information for rely on a diversity of cover types in Conservation of wetland carnivores selected species is presented in the relatively close proximity to provide centers on prevention of wetland following section. seasonal cover and food. Red foxes, degradation. Vegetative structure, Species accounts: beaver—This gray foxes, and weasels are associated surrounding land use, water quality, species was extirpated from most of with early to mid-successional and cover diversity influence habitat its southern range by the 1950s due vegetation and the ecotones between quality for these mammals. For to extensive trapping that began in these communities. Management that example, the manipulation of water the 18th century. Restocking programs maintains fencerows, shelterbelts, and

Table 5.14—Important habitat components and associated management guidelines for selected mammals in the South (continued)

Species Key components of habitat Management guidelines

Raccoon Wetlands, riparian habitats, suitable den sites Preserve wetlands and riparian areas; maintain and winter food. snags or diseased trees for den sites; encour- age mast species; maintain fencerows.

Red fox High degree of habitat edge; interspersion of Maintain woodlots in agricultural areas to mosaic of woodland, shrubland, cropland, enhance vegetation diversity; maintain and grassland habitat. fencerows for travel corridors; encourage softmast production. Red squirrel Dense or clumped stands of mature forest; Maintain large deciduous trees with cavities; multi-storied stands; suitable nest sites; preserve densely branched trees; provide sufficient shade for cone storage. clumped stands near mature conifers with interlocking crowns. Ringtail cat Rocky, brushy areas, talus slopes or wooded Maintain riparian vegetation in association habitats in close proximity to water. with draws and ridgelines as travel corridors. River otter Water quality; permanent surface water, Maintain vegetative cover adjacent to wet- vegetative cover adjacent to wetlands; lands; increase pool to riffle ratios; ensure structural cover to provide foraging and water permanence; encourage beaver estab- den sites. lishment. Spotted/striped Ecotones between forest/shrubland and Maintain woodlots in agricultural areas to skunks agricultural lands; riparian areas in arid enhance vegetation diversity; maintain regions. fencerows for travel corridors; encourage softmast production. Swift fox Mid to shortgrass prairie habitats suitable Establish vegetative communities to support to support an adequate prey base. prey base; maintain interspersion of grassland communities with agricultural lands.

Source: Adapted from Allen (1988). TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 141 in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, list and as endangered by the States the effect of poaching. Because bears Florida, Georgia, Oklahoma, Virginia, of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. have low reproductive rates, their Arkansas, and North and South The Florida subspecies is listed as populations recover slowly from losses. Carolina have led to viable populations threatened by the Florida Game and Habitat degradation continues to S across most of the South (Jones and Fresh Water Fish Commission. Until threaten black bears in the South. Leopold 2001). recently, this subspecies was considered Forest fragmentation and the conver- TRIAL Beavers use freshwater habitats such for protection under the Federal sion of forests to agriculture, urban as ponds, small lakes, and streams. Endangered Species Act. Both sub- development, and pine monocultures Slow-moving streams and creeks with species populations are restricted to restricts available habitat (Pelton 2001). proximity to trees and shrubs that islands of public land and inaccessible The fragmented nature of black bear provide a food source are important. areas of bottomland forest. populations in the Coastal Plain may Beaver damming can flood forests, Black bears inhabit diverse forest contribute to a loss of genetic diversity. causing substantial economic impact habitats and are often found in oak- As the human population in the South from prolonged flooding. However, hickory and mixed mesophytic forests. continues to expand into bear habitat, beavers create a complex successional Forested areas of 150 to 300 square increased incidents of road kills are mosaic of aquatic and terrestrial miles with limited human intrusion are being reported in North Carolina, habitats that enrich landscape diversity. needed to sustain viable populations. Tennessee, and Florida. As people The creation of wetlands positively In coastal areas, the species occupies settle into established bear ranges, influences ground water, water quality, pocosins, hardwood bottomlands, increased human-bear interactions structural diversity, and erosion Carolina bays, mixed hardwood are inevitable. Poaching and increased resistance. Beaver impoundments hammocks, cypress swamps, pine access capabilities can result create favorable conditions for fish, flatwoods, and sand pine scrub. in overexploitation. birds, and amphibians. Beaver ponds Black bears need dense understory Components of black bear manage- on intermittent streams provide aquatic cover, such as laurel thickets and ment include hunting access, habitat, habitat conducive to the river otter. greenbriar, to provide refuge cover protection, nuisance control, education, River channelization significantly in the Coastal Plain. and research (Pelton 2001). Access affects habitat quality by reducing Adequate denning cover is a necessary can be restricted through road gating, amounts of riparian vegetation, component of black bear habitat in designation of no-hunting zones, and macroinvertebrates, and fish biomass. the South. Such cover includes cavities provision of escape cover. Habitat The modification of river flow rates also in large trees, logs, stumps, rock management includes oak enhance- reduces the number of islands outcroppings, and impenetrable ment, protection of old growth (for occurring in the channel, impacting thickets. Females and cubs are very den trees), and management of forest potential den habitat. susceptible to disturbance. Black bears openings for soft mast production. The Species accounts: black bear— need secure corridors to make seasonal establishment of black bear sanctuaries Black bears historically ranged over movements for food, for dispersal of and viable corridors on public land has most of the South. Habitat loss, frag- younger animals, and for movement protected bears in the region (Vaughn mentation, and unrestricted harvest by males during the breeding season and Pelton 1995). Texas has proposed have significantly changed their (Pelton 2001). the establishment of bear “recovery distribution and abundance. The diet of black bears is primarily zones” through a partnership among Federal and State agencies, forest Their current distribution is restricted hard and soft mast, including berries, nuts, acorns, wild cherries, and grapes, industry, and other owners of large to relatively undisturbed forests in the parcels of timberland. Stringent law Appalachian Mountains and the Interior as well as invertebrates. In some areas, bears feed on agricultural crops such as enforcement also is required to reduce Highlands of Arkansas and in scattered illegal hunting. Finally, State biologists coastal areas from Virginia to Louisiana corn, wheat, or soybeans. Black bears will occasionally eat opossums, suggest that education of the general (Vaughn and Pelton 1995). Populations public is critical to increase awareness appear to be secure and increasing in armadillos, feral pigs, raccoons, and young white-tailed deer. and acceptance of regulations such as parts of Virginia, Tennessee, North those that discourage feeding of bears. Carolina, northern Georgia, and The seasonal variations in availability northern South Carolina, where they of soft and hard mast influence shifts Species accounts: bobcat— support regulated hunting seasons. in home range to locate these foods. Bobcats are found throughout the In Tennessee, the species is known State biologists indicate that during South with the exception of north- only from the mountains in the eastern periods of drought and food scarcity, central Kentucky, coastal Louisiana, part of the State (Chapman and Laerm, bears further disperse and become and eastern Virginia (Leopold and in press). In Kentucky, the black bear victims of vehicular accidents, Chamberlain 2001). Population is designated as a species of special nuisance control, and illegal hunting. density varies according to habitat type and prey density. concern. Texas biologists indicate Bear populations in the Southern there is no resident breeding popu- Appalachians have been monitored Bobcats use several habitats, lation there. since the 1960s. Although bear popu- preferring areas with dense under- Two subspecies are of special concern. lations have increased during this story vegetation that supports prey The Louisiana black bear is designated period, the illegal trade in bear gall populations. A mixture of mature as threatened on the Federal species bladders has raised concerns about and early successional forest habitats is best. Other habitats include agricultural TERRESTRIAL

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fields and pastures. Home ranges of food source), and heavy metals (lead, shooting, panthers were extirpated bobcats throughout the Southeastern copper, nickel, zinc, and manganese) throughout most of their range by United States range from less than in forest litter and soil (U.S. Fish and the early 1900s. Although periodic 740 acres to 17,830 acres. Home ranges Wildlife Service 1990a). sightings are reported in remote areas of may reflect road avoidance. Important Conservation strategies include selected States, it is unlikely that viable prey species include rabbits and various determination of species distributions, populations exist outside of Florida. rodents, opossum, game birds, and protection of occupied sites from Currently, the population is estimated snakes (Chapman and Laerm, in press). human-related disturbance, and at between 20 and 50 animals. There are no major threats to bob- implementation of habitat manage- Panthers prefer large remote tracts cats in the South due to their wide ment guidelines on national forests that are typically heavily vegetated distribution and ecological tolerance. and parks. and have minimal human disturbance. Potential risks include overharvest Species accounts: coyote—The These animals use highly diverse by trapping, forest fragmentation, distribution of coyotes has extended habitats including hardwood and road construction. into the South during the past few hammocks, saw-palmetto woodlands, Species accounts: Carolina decades in response to the elimination sawgrass prairies, cypress strands, northern flying squirrel and Virginia of gray and red wolves from their and oak-pine woodlands. Home northern flying squirrel—These former ranges. Prior to 1970, red ranges average 200 square miles for two endangered subspecies inhabit wolves were common throughout males and 75 square miles for females. high-elevation sites in the Southern the South, but trapping and poisoning Panthers subsist on a variety of Appalachians. The Carolina squirrel eliminated free-ranging populations. mammalian prey, particularly white- occurs in isolated locations in North Gray wolves also once inhabited tailed deer and feral hogs. In the Carolina and Tennessee, while the Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and northern portion of its range, feral Virginia subspecies is in Virginia and North Carolina. Removal of these hogs constitute the bulk of the diet, West Virginia. The disjunct distribution two species contributed to coyote whereas white-tailed deer are more of these subspecies in the Southern expansion. Leopold and Chamberlain important in the southern portion. Appalachians suggests they are relicts (2001) indicate that coyote popula- Panthers also readily take raccoons, that have become isolated in small tions have expanded throughout armadillos, rabbits, and other small patches of suitable habitat by changing the South, with the exception of animals (Clark 2001). climatic and vegetation conditions since southern peninsular Florida. The Loss of habitat is the greatest threat the last Ice Age (U.S. Fish and Wildlife current population density of to viable panther populations, but Service 1990a). coyotes is unknown. illegal shooting and highway collisions Flying squirrels are associated Coyotes occupy a broad range of also are major problems. Off-road with high-elevation boreal habitats, habitats and occur in grassland, forest, vehicle traffic has increased, making especially spruce-fir and northern agricultural fields, and urban areas. accessible large areas that formerly hardwood forests (Fridell and Litvaitis In the South, this species has been had been isolated wilderness. Intolerant 1991). They occur in conifer-hardwood observed in open fields, brushlands, of human disturbance, panthers are ecotones consisting of red spruce and thickets, young forest, and forest-edge sensitive to habitat fragmentation fir associated with mature beech, yellow habitats. Habitat use by coyotes in stemming from road construction, birch, maple, and several other species. the South is diverse and reflects agricultural development, and urban Widely spaced, mature trees and snags their opportunistic feeding habits. expansion. Other threats include provide cavities for nesting. Understory Their diet includes rabbits, small parasites, diseases such as feline components do not appear to be mammals, ground-nesting birds and distemper and upper respiratory important components of northern their eggs, amphibians, lizards, fish, infections, and inbreeding depression. flying squirrel habitat (U.S. Fish snails, crustaceans, insects, carrion, Panther populations are losing and Wildlife Service 1990a). fruits, and plant roots (Chapman genetic diversity by 3 to 7 percent Their diet consists of lichens, fungi, and Laerm, in press). per generation; at this rate, extinction seeds, fruit, staminate cones, and is probable in the next few decades There are no known threats to coyote (Clark 2001). Reduced prey base also insects. Periodic dependence on certain survival in the region. Animal damage species of fungi may be a factor in is a concern. Panthers consume up to control programs in the Western United one deer or hog weekly. Due to habitat restricting the species to high-elevation, States have been unsuccessful. mesic habitats (U.S. Fish and Wildlife alteration, these prey animals may not Service 1990a). Species accounts: Florida panther— be sufficiently abundant in Florida The Florida panther, one of 30 to meet this need. The limited range of this species subspecies presently recognized, is makes it vulnerable to natural and Since panther habitat includes public the only subspecies of mountain lion and private land, management efforts human-related impacts. Isolated remaining in the South. The species populations suffer from insufficient must be coordinated. The key to originally ranged from eastern Texas panther conservation is habitat gene pools. Other concerns include eastward through Arkansas, Louisiana, habitat destruction, insect pests such protection and acquisition of large, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, interconnected blocks of woodland. as the balsam woolly adelgid and the and portions of Tennessee and South gypsy moth, recreational use, acid rain The recovery plan recommends: Carolina. Due to large-scale habitat (1) enhancing existing populations (which contaminates their mycorrhizal destruction and indiscriminant TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 143 through genetic management including distribution in the South includes the 85 percent of the population is limited captive breeding programs and genetic cave regions of Alabama, Arkansas, to 7 caves (Harvey and Saugey 2001). restoration; (2) protecting and Kentucky, and Tennessee, but a few During the summer, maternity roosts managing existing habitat, including occur in Florida, Georgia, northeastern are established between exfoliating bark S prescribed burning and exotic plant Oklahoma, Mississippi, Virginia, and and the bole of snags, in hollow trees, control; (3) establishing public support North Carolina. Bat populations have or in live trees. Male bats often use TRIAL by educating private landowners; and become fragmented during the past pitch pine and shortleaf pines. These (4) reintroducing panthers into areas of few decades (Harvey and Saugey bats need winter caves or mines suitable habitat (U.S. Fish and Wildlife 2001). Ninety-five percent of gray retaining stable temperatures of 39 to Service 1995). Potential release sites bats hibernate in 10 caves. 46 oF and standing water that maintains include the lower Coastal Plain of Gray bats are year-round cave relative humidity. The bats forage above Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and residents but usually occupy different streams, water bodies, and open areas. Louisiana and the lower Apalachicola caves in summer and winter. During the Riparian, upland, and floodplain forests River in Florida. winter, they hibernate primarily in deep are also used. Species accounts: gray fox and vertical caves with large rooms acting as o During hibernation, the Indiana bat red fox—Foxes occur throughout cold-air traps (42 to 52 F). Maternity is extremely vulnerable to any type Virginia, North Carolina, South roosts are established in warm, humid of disturbance. Factors contributing Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, caves that provide domed ceilings to its decline include cave disturbance, Mississippi, Louisiana, and eastern capable of trapping body heat from bat improperly designed cave gates, and Texas. The gray fox does not occur clusters. Less than 5 percent of available intentional killing. Habitat loss in coastal Louisiana or the Florida caves in the South have the right stemming from deforestation and Keys, while the red fox does not inhabit properties of temperature, humidity, stream channelization is another the southern Florida peninsula. The and structure to make them suitable concern. Natural elements that imperil population density of red and gray for gray bat occupation (Harvey the species include flooding of foxes in the South is not known. and Saugey 2001). occupied caves, exposure to freezing Foxes occur in a variety of habitats. Like many bats, this species hunts temperatures, and cave ceiling collapse. The red fox prefers open habitats for insects above forested rivers Forest management centers on the including old fields, shrublands, and streams. Moths, beetles, flies, provision of summer roost sites and pastures, and mixed hardwood forests; mosquitoes, mayflies, and other foraging habitat. the gray fox is more of a woodland- insects are important in the diet. Species accounts: mink—Mink edge species. Both prefer areas The primary reasons for population occur throughout the South, with supporting an interspersion of different declines include disturbance, the exception of central Florida and vegetative communities. Hollow logs, vandalism, cave destruction, and western Texas. They are common in trees, brush piles, and rock outcrops pollution. Disturbance during the marshes along the Atlantic and Gulf are often used as dens. Patterns of hibernation depletes energy reserves Coasts and are widespread in Virginia, habitat use change seasonally with and increases mortality. Conservation North Carolina, and South Carolina food availability. actions focus on the protection of (Chapman and Laerm, in press). Foxes are opportunistic feeders. occupied caves and appropriate Population densities vary with the During the fall and winter, small management of the surrounding forest type and permanence of aquatic habitat animals comprise the bulk of their diet. and aquatic foraging sites. Cave gates and are influenced by climate, trapping, Common prey includes rabbits, voles, and fences must be properly designed and intraspecific interaction. mice, wood rats, and various birds to allow bat movement. This species Mink require wetland habitats, such (Fritzell 1987). Fruits, berries, is recovering due to the protection as marshes, swamps, riverbanks, and arthropods, and amphibians are added of four critical caves (Harvey and streams. Habitat use varies by to the diet during the summer and fall. Saugey 2001). geographic area and season. There The planting of blackberry, Species accounts: Indiana bat— are no published data on mink home honeysuckle, and other soft mast The Indiana bat is listed as endangered ranges or habitat use patterns in the enhances fox habitat. Prescribed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. South. Muskrats, mice, and lagomorphs burning maintains old fields and forests This species is known to occur are the preferred prey; mink diets also in desirable condition. Cultivation throughout much of the Midwestern include birds, amphibians, crawfish, of trees that produce hard mast also and Eastern United States; however, and fish. is important. it has been virtually eliminated from Habitat degradation as a result Trapping, hunting, road kills, and much of its former range. The bat of wetland alteration is a concern rabies are the major causes of fox occurs in the northern portions of the in the South. Mink are vulnerable mortality. The decline in red fox South, including Tennessee, Virginia, to environmental contaminants, populations in some areas of the South and Kentucky. Isolated sightings have particularly mercury and pesticide has been attributed to interspecific been made in the Carolinas, Alabama, residues, concentrated in prey foods. interaction with coyotes. and Mississippi. The current population The prevention of high levels of of the species nationwide is estimated environmental contaminants is Species accounts: gray bat—The at 400,000 individuals; approximately U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists this needed to ensure habitat quality species as endangered. The species for this species. TERRESTRIAL

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Species accounts: Ozark big-eared prairies, and marshes. Current ments, submerged trees, and logjams bat and Virginia big-eared bat—These information on wolf ecology is limited provide shelter and foraging areas two subspecies are endangered and are to studies in the coastal marshes of for otters. Otters feed primarily on federally protected throughout their Texas and Louisiana during the 1960s fish; other foods include aquatic respective ranges. Only a few caves and 1970s and to observations at insects, birds, small mammals, in eastern Oklahoma, Arkansas, and restoration sites (Crawford and others snakes, and amphibians. Missouri are known habitats for the 2001). Heavy vegetative cover along Threats to otter populations include Ozark subspecies. The Virginia bat bayous and fallow fields is ideal habitat. the clearing of bottomland forests, inhabits eastern Kentucky, Virginia, Home ranges vary from 17 to 38 square wetland modification, and pollution North Carolina, and West Virginia, miles, depending upon habitat and of aquatic environments. Otters are but fewer than five caves are known prey density. Red wolves require frequently caught in traps intended for to contain nursery colonies of this large tracts of land relatively free beaver; the low reproductive potential subspecies (Harvey and Saugey 2001). of human development, paved roads, of the otter, and the restricted nature of The bats inhabit caves in limestone and livestock. its habitat make the species susceptible and schist formations throughout the Red wolves are opportunistic to overharvest. As a result of trapping year. Adjacent land use does not appear predators, preying upon feral pigs, pressure, the otter was given protection to influence cave selection. Roosting white-tailed deer, nutria, eastern under the Convention on International sites are often near mature bottomland cottontails, swamp rabbits, marsh Trade in Wild Species of Endangered and upland hardwood forests adjacent rice rats, and fox squirrels. They will Flora and Fauna. to water. Important habitat features also eat birds, rodents, frogs, and Strict population monitoring is include hollow trees, loose bark, and turtles. A diversity of prey is necessary needed. Continued management rock shelters. The bats prefer relatively for sustaining population levels. includes the restoration of otter cold, well-ventilated locations and are The recovery plan objectives center populations in Kentucky, Oklahoma, often found near cave entrances when on the achievement of population Tennessee, and North Carolina. hibernating. Big-eared bats forage in levels large enough to ensure genetic Reintroduction in the Great Smoky forested areas among the canopies of integrity (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Mountains National Park began in large trees, consuming beetles, flies, 1989). Potential reintroduction sites the 1980s, where otter populations mosquitoes, gnats, moths, and many are examined for biological factors were once extirpated. other insects. (prey abundance, habitat types) and Species accounts: white-tailed The species is vulnerable to pesticides socioeconomic factors (agricultural deer—Deer are widespread and and human disturbance of their caves. practices, land ownership patterns, relatively abundant throughout the They are easily disturbed and quick to proximity of towns). Areas of at least Southern United States. Populations take flight. Conservation actions center 170,000 acres are required by this on some islands have declined. on the protection of roosting sites and species. The absence of coyotes is Deer populations have fluctuated the retention of hollow trees. preferable to avoid hybridization. dramatically since European settlement Species accounts: red wolf—The Site considerations include the potential of the South. Populations in the past red wolf is an endangered species. for wolf-livestock interaction and declined to critical levels because The original distribution of the wolf human disturbance. Public attitudes of intensive hunting, widespread included southern Illinois, Indiana, about wolves are significant factors agricultural clearing, and other habitat and Pennsylvania south to Florida and in their recovery. alteration. Populations have rebounded west to southern Texas. Indiscriminate Species accounts: river otter— during the last several decades due to trapping, hunting, and poisoning, loss The river otter is listed as a threatened farm abandonment, lower hunting of habitat, and expansion of urban and species in Tennessee and as a species pressure, and the extirpation of large agricultural areas contributed to the of concern in Oklahoma and Virginia. predators. In some locations, demise of this species. The last remnant Otters occur regionally in many habitats populations are increasing to levels populations in the wild were verified associated with waterways, and their that make the species a pest. in southern Louisiana and Texas in numbers are increasing in some parts The endangered Key deer is restricted the 1970s. of the region. The species is increasing to the lower Florida Keys. Four other In the late 1980s, efforts were made in abundance throughout Virginia, subspecies of concern occur on Sapelo to translocate wolves to five locations: where it is most common in the Coastal and Blackbeard Islands in Georgia and Alligator River National Wildlife Plain and Piedmont. It also is relatively on Hilton Head Island, Bull’s Island, Refuge, North Carolina; Bull’s Island, common in western Tennessee. Reliable and Hunting Island in South Carolina. South Carolina; St. Vincent Island, census procedures for the river otter have not been developed, and few White-tailed deer use a wide range of Florida; Horn Island, Mississippi; and habitat types and benefit from a mosaic the Great Smoky Mountains National researchers have attempted to estimate population levels. of wetlands, forests, farmland, and early Park. Recent threats center on genetic successional habitats. Preferred foods dilution due to hybridization with River otters use a variety of aquatic are acorns, blueberries, sumac, grapes, wild dogs and coyotes. habitats including coastal estuaries, hawthorns, common persimmons, Historically, the wolf was found marshes, and streams. Riparian and dwarf palmettos, and blackberries. shoreline vegetation bordering water- in old-growth forests, pine forests, There are no threats to the survival bottomland hardwood forests, coastal ways is an important component of river otter habitat. Beaver impound- of the white-tailed deer in the region. TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 145

However, coastal development has contributed to the decline of the island subspecies. Key deer are threatened 15 by habitat loss, poaching, vehicular 6 S accidents, and attacks by feral dogs

15 TRIAL (White and others 1998). 7 8 Discussion and 5 11 Conclusions 11 11 13

Based on listings from the U.S. 23 10 Department of Interior (2000), every Southern State contains species that are under Federal protection (figs. 5.7 26 and 5.8). The endangered category refers to species that are in danger of extinction in the foreseeable future throughout significant portions of their range. The threatened designation is assigned to species likely to become Figure 5.7—The distribution of terrestrial vertebrates endangered in the future. Status listed as endangered throughout the South (U. S. determinations are based on Department of the Interior 2000). modification or restriction of habitat, commercial overutilization, disease 5 or predation pressure, the inadequacy 2 of existing regulations, and other factors 7 affecting continued existence. 1 3 There are a number of different 9 explanations for the number of listed 2 species in a State. A State may support 9 many unique habitats with high species 11 10 richness. Texas is the largest State in the South in both area and species richness. 10 9 The wide range of environmental conditions and diverse habitats that occur in Texas also support the second 16 highest level of protected species. Larger areas on average support a greater diversity of habitats and a wider variety of species, listed or otherwise.

A species that has been extirpated Figure 5.8—The distribution of terrestrial vertebrates from adjacent States may persist in listed as threatened throughout the South (U. S. areas that support the last remnants Department of the Interior 2000). of suitable habitat. For example, the red wolf formerly ranged from Texas to the deteriorating environmental conditions Mountains support some highly Atlantic Coast. It presently occurs in and modification of natural ecosystems, vulnerable species, such as the northern North Carolina, Tennessee, and Florida, such as longleaf pine forests. Each of flying squirrel and the water shrew. where it has been reintroduced. The these factors contributes to the number Scattered populations in fragmented Florida panther, another far-ranging of federally protected species in a mammal, once occurred throughout the habitat can be at risk. They become State. Each reason has bearing on how demographically isolated because they region. This species presently is found habitat is managed and protected. solely in isolated areas in Florida. have little or no interaction with other Various natural and human-caused populations. These isolated populations A high number of listed species may factors contribute to a species are prone to inbreeding depression also reflect an inherently fragile fauna, imperilment. Some species occur in a and genetic drift, which inhibit viability. such as that in the high-elevation very localized geographic area or in a Localized populations are also habitats of the Southern Appalachians. few isolated areas of suitable habitat. vulnerable to catastrophic events It also may reflect a high level of These narrowly restricted species tend such as floods, droughts, and fires. endemic species, such as those to be vulnerable to local disturbances Many species have declined because associated with scrub habitats of central that would have little effect on species Florida. Finally, the number of listed of habitat alteration stemming from with wide ranges. The summits and the human activities. These species are species in a State may reflect bogs of the Southern Appalachian TERRESTRIAL

146 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

unable to adapt due to changes in of species may be a result of dramatic in the South is privately owned. The habitat features such as vegetative changes in habitat occurring elsewhere. protection and management of species composition and structure and Maintaining viable populations of habitats can no longer be relegated water quality. southern vertebrate species requires solely to public land. To be successful, Several factors repeatedly surface the protection of critical habitat as well comprehensive conservation strategies as threats to terrestrial vertebrates. as the proactive management of other require the cooperation of private The most prevalent factor is human habitat. Public lands have a key role landowners. Cooperative forestry development for urban, industrial, and in species conservation (chapter 1). programs and county extension agricultural land uses. Environmental In some instances, protecting sensitive services are two sources of expertise contamination is a second prominent habitats from further alteration is the that contribute to the management threat, especially in the Southern best management action. In other of private lands. Appalachians and along the gulf coast. instances, active enhancement may In the past few decades, residential Coastal development contributes to be the most appropriate action. For and industrial areas have grown endangerment on both the gulf and example, treatments may be needed rapidly to serve an expanding southern Atlantic Coasts. Exploitation occurs to increase understory growth, create population. Although the extent of primarily on shorelines and in coastal multiple seral stages, restore unique southern forests has remained relatively wetlands. Other factors contributing habitats, and control exotic species. stable in recent years, human and to species endangerment include fire Professional foresters, resource wildlife interactions have increased, suppression, introduction of exotic managers, and conservationists play and they will continue to do so. Public species, and the loss of aquatic and an important role in this regard. perceptions about particular species wetland habitats. There have been notable success can hinder or foster conservation Habitat loss affects all species, stories in managing southern efforts, highlighting the role of including migrating birds, wide-ranging vertebrates. Restrictions on pesticides environmental education. mammals, and species like the gopher have improved the status of bald One role for wildlife professionals tortoise, which cannot disperse over eagles. Red-cockaded woodpeckers in the South is to identity the species long distances. Imperiling factors have benefited from the management that face imperilment, determine the influence species unequally. Turtles of mature pine forests, provision of actions necessary to eliminate those are especially vulnerable to human artificial cavities, and translocation threats, and then take the necessary exploitation for food and pets. Bats efforts. River otters and beavers have actions. Another role is to provide and snakes are heavily impacted by been restored to areas they formerly and manage habitat for several game human disturbance. Beavers and river inhabited. Alligator populations have species. The many species inhabiting otters are imperiled by channel rebounded because of management the southern landscape have a wide modification and impoundments. of harvest levels and the protection variety of habitat requirements; an Environmental contaminants impact of wetlands. Many of these species understanding of these requirements the spruce-fir forests used by the have proven far more resilient and can lead to management plans that northern flying squirrel and the high- adaptable than once thought. promote viable populations and elevation mountain streams occupied However, additional efforts are habitat enhancement. by a diversity of salamanders. The necessary to restore and enhance use of agricultural pesticides affects ecosystem integrity and resiliency on Needs for Additional gamebirds, bats, and amphibians. the southern landscape. Management Wetland alteration affects the plans should consider the assemblage Research Mississippi sandhill crane, mink, of reptiles, amphibians, birds, and and several species of frogs and toads. mammals. Herpetofauna have Further research is needed on the Lastly, coastal development negatively traditionally received less management status, distribution, population trends, influences the habitat of the attention than other vertebrates. and habitat requirements of many southeastern beach mice, wood Wetland buffers, travel corridors, and southern species. Although there are storks, marine turtles, and Key deer. forest composition are important for standardized inventories for bird Often, it is difficult to identify a their viability. Many species are long- and game species across the region, specific factor responsible for the lived and late maturing, and have there is a lack of comparable changes observed in a species popu- restricted geographic ranges; their monitoring protocols for many lation. For example, many migratory management requires different other species. The importance of birds that breed in the South are also strategies than those used for birds regional monitoring and long-term dependent on wintering habitats and mammals. Management remains research cannot be overstated. outside of the country. Neotropical somewhat hindered, however, by Additional data are necessary to migrants are influenced by the loss the limited knowledge about the examine the attributes that make some of wintering habitat in the tropics, status of terrestrial vertebrates and species associations resistant or resilient while wintering mallard populations their habitat relationships. to disturbance. We need to understand are affected by breeding habitat in Land ownership patterns associated why some associations are more fragile the prairie pothole region. Therefore, with the occurrence of southern than others. We also need to know how it is vital to understand the temporal species have management implications. to mitigate negative disturbance factors. and spatial context in which a species Approximately 90 percent of the land Habitat relationships of listed and occurs. Local changes in the population imperiled species need further study. TERRE

Chapter 5: Maintaining Species in the South 147

Examination of the connections process. John Pye graciously handled have been possible without their help. between landscape patterns, land uses, the Internet conversion of These individuals include Pal Mattox, and the presence or absence of concern the document. Mike Donahue, Christine Gabbard, species also would prove beneficial. The Appreciation is extended to Tom Brenda Ayers, Sara Patterson, Kay S establishment of regional databases and Darden and his staff in the Southern Spangler, and Ron Underwood. standardized sampling protocols for Regional Office for their ongoing TRIAL monitoring trends of terrestrial species support and assistance. An earlier draft Literature Cited across all public lands also is needed. benefited from insightful comments by A profound need exists for the Dennis Krusac and George Bukenhofer, Allen, A.W. 1988. The relationship coordination of regional inventories USDA Forest Service; and four between habitat and furbearers. on public lands to monitor the status anonymous scientific reviewers. In: Novak, M.J.; Baker, A.; Obbard, and trends of reptile and amphibian Their comments strengthened and M.E.; Malloch, B., eds. Wild furbearer populations. Assemblages associated improved the final manuscript. management in North America. with specific habitats need to My appreciation also is extended to Toronto, ON: Ministry of Natural be identified. the regional coordinators of Partners in Resources: 164-179. Further research is necessary on the Flight for supplying conservation plans Bailey, M.A. 1995. The Red Hills distribution, ecology, and life history and other bird information: Robert salamander. Alabama’s Treasured of herpetofaunal species and commu- Ford, Dean Demarest, Jane Fitzgerald, Forests. 14(1): 28-29. nities. In particular, additional data are and Ken Rosenburg. Recognition also is needed on species such as the flatwoods offered to Chuck Hunter, U.S. Fish and Barclay, R.M.; Brigham, R.M. 1998. salamander, gopher frog, southern Wildlife Service, for supplying the bird Hide and seek: in search of forest hognose snake, and pine snake. physiographic region map and drafts bats. Bats. 16(1): 3-7. This basic information is essential of his upcoming publications. Boyce, S.G.; Martin, W.H. 1993. to developing land management Kenneth Graham and Joe Johnston, Introduction: the southeastern programs for these species. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, supplied setting. In: Martin, W.H.; Boyce, S.G.; Additional research is needed recovery plans and other information Echternacht, A.C., eds. Biodiversity to determine the impact of natural on listed species. Craig Rudolph, USDA of the Southeastern United States: and human-caused factors on the Forest Service, provided the Louisiana upland terrestrial communities. development and environment of pine snake account. John Jensen, New York: John Wiley: 1-46. amphibians. Additional information Georgia Department of Natural Brown, L.E. 1975. The status of the needs include the identification Resources, supplied publications near-extinct Houston toad (Bufo of critical habitats and migration on herpetofauna. Robert Curry, U.S. houstonensis) with recommendations routes. The concern over amphibian Fish and Wildlife Service, provided for its conservation. Herpetological declines highlights the lack of basic information on bats. Special thanks Review. 6: 37-40. information about these species. to James Dickson, Louisiana State Buckner, E. 1989. Evolution of forest The ecology of furbearers, such as University, for supplying chapters of types in the Southeast. In: Waldrop, mink and weasel, is poorly understood, his upcoming textbook on southern T.A., ed. Pine-hardwood mixture: as are the potential impacts on other wildlife prior to publication. a symposium on management carnivores resulting from coyote Paris Griep, USDA Forest Service, and ecology of the type. Gen. Tech. expansion throughout the South. surveyed State agency biologists for Rep. SE-58. Asheville, NC: U.S. Basic ecological data are needed information on the current status and Department of Agriculture, Forest on free-ranging red wolves to address habitat concerns for black bear. These Service, Southeastern Forest the challenges of restoration. The biologists included Joe Hemphill Experiment Station: 17-33. degradation of river otter habitat (Oklahoma), Jason Plaxico (Kentucky), Burke, V.J.; Gibbons, J.W. 1995. suggests the need for continued Denny Martin (Virginia), Gordon Terrestrial buffer zones and wetland monitoring to ensure population Warburton (North Carolina), Tom conservation: a case study of viability. Careful monitoring of black Eason (Texas), Keith Guyse (Alabama), freshwater turtles in a Carolina bay. bear populations also is essential Rick Eastridge (Arkansas), Cathy Conservation Biology. 9: 1365-1369. to ensure their continued existence Shropshire (Mississippi), and over the long term. Nathan Garner (Texas). Bury, R.B.; Dodd, C.K., Jr.; Fellers, G.M. 1980. Conservation of the amphibia Finally, there is a paucity of infor- I also thank the other question of the United States: a review. Resour. mation about specific habitat needs managers and participants (general Publ. 134. Washington, DC: U.S. for several bat species and the influence public, industry, agencies, and Department of the Interior, Fish of different silvicultural treatments on organizations) for sharing their and Wildlife Service. 34 p. their populations. ideas and concerns during Assess- ment meetings. Campbell, H.W.; Moler, P.E. 1992. Short-tailed snake. In: Moler, P.E., Acknowledgments Finally, my appreciation is offered to ed. Rare and endangered biota of several USDA Forest Service individuals Florida. Amphibians and reptiles. Special thanks to John Greis and who assisted with the Internet searches Gainesville, FL: University of David Wear for their encouragement and the production of tables and Florida Press: 150-153. Vol. 3. and support during the assessment figures. The manuscript would not TERRESTRIAL

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Chapman, B.; Laerm, J. [In press]. Dodd, C.K., Jr. 1995a. Marine turtles in Gibbons, J.W.; Buhlmann, K.A. 2001. Land manager’s guide to the mammals the Southeast. In: LaRoe, E.T.; Farris, Reptiles and amphibians. In: Dickson, of the South. Chapel Hill, NC: The G.S.; Puckett, C.E. [and others], J., ed. Wildlife of the southern forests: Nature Conservancy. 360 p. eds. Our living resources: a report habitat and management. Blaine, WA: Christman, S.P. 1992. Sand skink. In: to the Nation on the distribution, Hancock House Publishing: 372-390. Moler, P.E., ed. Rare and endangered abundance, and health of U.S. plants, Gibbons, J.W.; Burke, V.J.; Lovich, J.E. biota of Florida. Amphibians and animals, and ecosystems. Washington, [and others]. 1997. Perceptions of reptiles. Gainesville, FL: University DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, species abundance, distribution, and of Florida Press: 135-140. Vol. 3. 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Wild furbearer management Hunter, W.C.; Dickson, J.G.; Pashley, turtle (Pseudemys alabamensis). and conservation in North America. D.N.; Hamel, P.B. 2001. Bird Tech. Rev. Draft. Atlanta: U.S. Fish Toronto, ON: Ministry of Natural communities of southern forests. and Wildlife Service. 20 p. Resources: 409-420. In: Dickson, J., ed. Wildlife of the southern forests: habitat and Dodd, C.K., Jr. 1991. The status Fuller, M.R.; Henny, C.J.; Wood, P.B. of the Red Hills salamander, management. Blaine, WA: Hancock 1995. Raptors. In: LaRoe, E.T.; Farris, House Publishing: 322-349. Phaeognathus hubrichti, Alabama, G.S.; Puckett, C.E. [and others], U.S.A., 1976-1988. Biological eds. Our living resources: a report Jones, J.; Leopold, B.D. 2001. Conservation. 55: 57-75. to the Nation on the distribution, Herbivorous furbearers. In: Dickson, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, J., ed. Wildlife of the southern forests: animals, and ecosystems. Washington, habitat and management. 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Krusic, R.A.; Yamasaki, M.; Neefus, Moler, P.E. 1992a. American Peterjohn, B.J.; Sauer, J.R.; Orsillo, C.D.; Perkins, P.J. 1996. Bat habitat crocodile. In: Moler, P.E., ed. Rare S. 1995. Breeding bird survey: use in the White Mountain natural and endangered biota of Florida. population trends 1966-1992. In:

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Tuttle, M.D. 1995. Saving North Wilhide, J.D.; Harvey, M.J.; McDaniel, America’s beleaguered bats. National V.R.; Hoffman, V.E. 1998. Highland Geographic. 188(2): 37-57. pond utilization by bats in the U.S. Department of the Interior, Ozark National Forest. Journal of Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000. the Arkansas Academy of Science. Southeast Region 4. http:// 52: 110-112. endangered.fws.gov/wildlife.html. Williams, M. 1989. Americans and [Date accessed: October]. their forests: a historical geography. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. New York: Cambridge University Red Hills salamander recovery plan. Press. [Number of pages unknown]. Atlanta: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Wilson, L.A. 1995. Land manager’s Service. 23 p. guide to the amphibians and reptiles U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. A of the South. Chapel Hill, NC: recovery plan for the ringed sawback The Nature Conservancy. 360 p. turtle, Graptemys oculifera. Atlanta: Woodward, A.R. 1995. Alligators U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 28 p. in Florida. In: LaRoe, E.T.; Farris, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1989. G.S.; Puckett, C.E. [and others], Red wolf recovery plan. Atlanta: U.S. eds. Our living resources: a report Fish and Wildlife Service. 110 p. to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990a. animals, and ecosystems. Washington, Appalachian northern flying squirrels DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus and National Biological Service: 127-129. Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) recovery plan. Newton Corner, MA: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 53 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990b. Endangered and threatened species recovery program: report to Congress. [Washington, DC]: [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]. 406 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990c. Gopher tortoise recovery plan. Jackson, MS: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 28 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Florida panther recovery plan. 2nd revision. Atlanta: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 69 p. Vaughan, M.R.; Pelton, M.R. 1995. Black bear. In: LaRoe, E.T.; Farris, G.S.; Puckett, C.E. [and others], eds. Our living resources: a report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service: 100-103. White, P.S.; Wilds, S.P.; Thunhorst, G.A. 1998. Southeast. In: Mac, M.J.; Opler, P.A.; Puckett Haecker, C.E.; Doran, P.D., eds. Status and trends of the Nation’s biological resources. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey: 255-314. 2 vols. In: Wear, David N.; Greis, John G., eds. 2002. Southern forest resource assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-53. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 635 p.

The southern forest resource assessment provides a comprehensive analysis of the history, status, and likely future of forests in the Southern United States. Twenty-three chapters address questions regarding social/ economic systems, terrestrial ecosystems, water and aquatic ecosystems, forest health, and timber management; 2 additional chapters provide a background on history and fire. Each chapter surveys pertinent literature and data, assesses conditions, identifies research needs, and examines the implications for southern forests and the benefits that they provide.

Keywords: Conservation, forest sustainability, integrated assessment.

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