THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AS A CONTEXT OF MEANING ON DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT IN MULTICULTURAL ORGANISATIONS
by
CHARMAIN DOMBAI
DISSERTATION
submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MASTER OF ARTS
in
COMMUNICATION
in the
FACULTY OF ARTS
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR : PROF S. VER WEY
JANUARY 1999 INDEX
PAGE
LIST OF FIGURES (x) ABSTRACT (xi) OPSOMMING (xiii)
CHAPTER I : ORIENTATION 1
INTRODUCTION
NECESSITY OF THE STUDY 3
AIM OF THE STUDY 5
SCOPE OF THE STUDY 6
CHAPTER II : THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE 9 SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATION AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION 9
A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANISATIONS 10 2.1 Organisations as Social Systems 11
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATIONS 14 3.1 Legal-political Environment 15 3.1.1 The Reconstruction and Development Programme 15 3.1.2 Workplace Democracy 16 3.1.3 Participative Management and Decision Making 18 3.1.4 The Bill of Rights 21 11
3.2 Economic Environment 23 3.2.1 The Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) Strategy 23 3.2.2 Return to the Global Market 25 3.2.3 Privatisation 27 3.2.4 The Customer Service Challenge 28 3.3 Technological Environment 29 3.4 Socio-cultural Environment 34 3.4.1 Demographics of the South African Society 34 3.4.2 Africanisation 35 3.4.3 Covert Attitudes 37 3.4.4 Professional Life versus Personal Life 39 3.4.5 Ubuntu 41
SUMMARY 44
CHAPTER III: DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT AND THE ROLE IT PLAYS IN ORGANISATIONS 47
INTRODUCTION 47
DEFINING DIVERSITY AND DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT 49
WHY SHOULD DIVERSITY BE MANAGED? 50 3.1 Potential Benefits of Diversity 51 3.1.1 Recruiting of Human Resources 52 3.1.2 Enhanced Marketing 52 3.1.3 Creativity 53 3.1.4 Problem Solving 54 3.1.5 Organisational Flexibility 55 3.2 Potential Problems of Diversity 56 3.2.1 Diversity and Group Cohesiveness 57 3.2.2 Diversity and Communication 57 3.2.3 Diversity Stress 58 3.3 The Impact of Diversity on Organisational Effectiveness 60
iii
4. DIVERSITY AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION 62 4.1 Issues around Affirmative Action 63 4.2 What causes Affirmative Action to Fail? 66 4.2.1 People's Feelings about Affirmative Action 66 4.2.2 Organisational Barriers to Affirmative Action 67 4.3 Approaches to Affirmative Action 69 4.3.1 The Peacock 70 4.3.2 The Tortoise 70 4.3.3 The Rhinoceros 71 4.3.4 The Chameleon 72 4.4 From Affirmative Action to Diversity Management 75
5. A PERSPECTIVE ON DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT 79 5.1 The Organisation's Diversity Climate 79 5.1.1 Individual-level Factors 80 5.1.2 Group and Inter-group Factors 81 5.1.3 Organisational-level Factors 82 5.2 The Relationship between Organisational Climate and Culture 85 5.3 Diversity Management in South African Organisations Today 86 5.4 The Theory of Diversity Management 88
6. SUMMARY 92
CHAPTER IV ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AS CONTEXT OF MEANING 95
INTRODUCTION 95
WHAT IS CORPORATE CULTURE? 97 2.1 Classifying Corporate Cultures 99 2.1.1 The Harrison and Handy Model 100 2.1.2 The Hampden-Turner Model 102 2.1.3 Lessem's Classification of Corporate Cultures 102
INSTITUTIONALISING A CORPORATE CULTURE 106 iv
3.1 Where Culture Comes From 106 3.1.1 Organisational Structures and Systems 106 3.1.2 Organisational Communication Processes 113 3.2 Dealing with Diversity 116 3.2.1 Organisational Socialisation 119 3.2.2 Acculturation 121 3.3 The Multicultural Organisation 124 3.3.1 Monolithic Organisations 125 3.3.2 Plural Organisations 125 3.3.3 Multicultural Organisations 127
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND DISCOURSE SYSTEMS 128 4.1 Characteristics of a Discourse System 130 4.2 Classifying Discourse Systems 136 4.3 Discourse Systems and Organisational Power 138
SUMMARY 140
CHAPTER V : THE SHARING OF MEANING IN ORGANISATIONS 142
INTRODUCTION 142
UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE : PSYCHOLINGUISTICS 143 2.1 The Relationship Between Language and Thought 143 2.1.1 The Whorfian Hypothesis 146 2.1.2 Where and how does Language affect Thought? 147 2.2 Psychological Functions of Language 150
LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL CONTEXTS : SOCIOLINGUISTICS 152 3.1 The Concept of Schema 153 3.1.1 Types of Schemata 153 3.1.2 Schemata and Information Processing 154 3.1.3 Schemata Model for Intercultural Encounters 154 3.2 Interpersonal Communication Strategies 156 3.2.1 Judgements Based on Speech 156 V
3.2.2 Accommodation Theory - Convergence and Divergence 157 3.2.3 Beyond Initial Interaction 159
THE ROLE OF SYMBOLISM IN THE SHARING OF MEANING 161 4.1 Symbolism in Organisations 164 4.2 Language, Meaning and Organised Action 167
SUMMARY 171
CHAPTER VI • A SCHEMATA MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT 173
INTRODUCTION 173
THE CONCEPT OF SCHEMATA 175
THE SCHEMATA MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT 177 3.1 The External Environment 177 3.2 The Organisational Environment 177 3.3 The Process of Sharing Meaning 180
5. SUMMARY 184
CHAPTER VII • EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DESIGN 186
INTRODUCTION 186
RESEARCH AIM 186 2.1 Research Objectives 187
vi
RESEARCH DESIGN 187
3.1 Quantitative Methodology 187 . 3.3.1 The Values Questionnaire 188 3.3.2 The Semantic Differential Scale 190 3.2 Qualitative Methodology 191 3.3 The Value of Triangulation 193
THE ORGANISATION AND SAMPLE IN QUESTION 194
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 196 5.1 The External Organisational Environment 196 5.2 The Internal Organisational Environment 196 5.3 The Interpersonal Level 197 5.3.1 Observation 197 5.3.2 The Values Questionnaire 198 5.3.3 The Semantic Differential Scale 199 5.4 Data Processing 199
CONCLUSION 201
CHAPTER VIII AN APPLICATION OF THE SCHEMATA MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT : A THICK DESCRIPTION 202
INTRODUCTION 202
EXTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL ENVIRONMENT RESULTS 202 2.1 Technological Influences 203 2.2 Economical Influences 204 2.3 Legal-political Influences 206 2.4 Socio-cultural Influences 207
INTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL ENVIRONMENT RESULTS 209 vii
3.1 Organisational ideology 209 3.1.1 Reason for Existence 209 3.1.2 History 210 3.1.3 World view 210 3.1.4 Beliefs, values, religion 211 3.1.5 Place in Culture 211 3.2 Organisational Discourse 212 3.2.1 Grammar of Context 212 3.2.2 Face Strategies 212 3.2.3 Patterns of Cohesion 213 3.2.4 Functions of Language 213 3.2.5 Non-verbal Communication 214 3.3 Organisational Culture 214 3.4 Organisational Power 216
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL RESULTS 217 4.1 Values Questionnaire 217 4.1.1 Findings in terms of Race 217 4.1.2 Findings in terms of Organisational Level 218 4.1.3 Findings in terms of Age 219 4.1.4 Findings in terms of Gender 219 4.2 Semantic Differential Scale 222 4.2.1 Findings in terms of Race 222 4.2.2 Findings in terms of Age 223 4.2.3 Findings in terms of Gender 226 4.2.4 Findings in terms of Organisational Level 227 4.3 Observation Results 228
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY's FINDINGS 230
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE SCHEMATA MODEL 232
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 235
CONCLUSION 236 viii
BIBLIOGRAPHY 238
APPENDIX A Personal Values Questionnaire 243
APPENDIX B Semantic Differential Scale 246 ix
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
FIGURE 1 Social Systems Model of Organisational Functioning 13 FIGURE 2 Participative Management Structures 20 FIGURE 3 A Comparison of Management Practices 44 FIGURE 4 An Interactional Model of the Impact of Diversity on Individual Career Outcomes and Organisational Effectiveness 60 FIGURE 5 Comparing Affirmative Action, Valuing Differences and Managing Diversity 78 FIGURE 6 Critical Managing Diversity Issues 92 FIGURE 7 Harrison and Handy's Cultural Quadrant 101 FIGURE 8 Relationship of Schemata to Actual Cultures and Communication 155 FIGURE 9 : Continuum of Symbol Functions 166 FIGURE 10 : Mechanisms for Developing Cultural Agreement from three Cultural Perspectives 168 FIGURE 11 : A Schemata Model of Interpersonal Communication in the Organisational Context 178 FIGURE 12 : Summary of Findings of Personal Values Questionnaire 200 FIGURE 12 : Summary of Semantic Differential Scale Results 200 x
ABSTRACT
THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AS A CONTEXT OF MEANING ON DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT IN MULTI-CULTURAL ORGANISATIONS
by
C. DOMBAI
SUPERVISOR : PROF S. VERWEY DEPARTMENT : COMMUNICATION UNIVERSITY : RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
Changes in South Africa's political, socio-political and economical environments are putting pressure on local organisations to move towards a non-racial, democratic and fully representative internal organisation environment. In an attempt to accelerate the process, companies are embarking on programmes such as affirmative action and black empowerment for the employment and development of previously disadvantaged groups in order to assimilate them into the organisational culture. At present, however, the results of these efforts still leave a lot to be desired and the management of diversity in South Africa is viewed with interest as well as scepticism.
The link between the success of diversity management and a supportive organisational culture has been made in the literature on the subject, but not explored extensively in terms of the elements contributing to the culture, especially language and the processes involved in sharing meaning. It has been proven that a well-planned strategic approach to diversity management should have communication as its pivotal point, making language and meaning the next logical field of study. The literature overview thus systematically explored the ways in which the process of sharing meaning can perpetuate the status quo or act as a change agent in the process of transforming an organisational culture to be receptive and supportive of diversity. xi
Due to the importance of communication at the dyadic level in organisations, the focus was on the process through which individuals share meaning. The quality of this process at the dyadic level can be expected to impact significantly on how healthy the process is at more complex levels in the organisation, thus influencing the nature of the organisational culture. A model was developed to explain how different variables interact in the process of sharing meaning through the use of language. Applying it to an actual organisational context determined the model's validity as an explanatory and predictive tool.
The study's most significant finding is that different groups of organisational members did not display significant differences in personal values, yet they attached different meanings to organisational concepts and processes. It can thus be suggested that individuals' experiences in the organisation are a more important function of organisational diversity than race, gender or age. Organisational culture and not group differences should therefore be the focus of diversity management strategies in organisations. xii
OPSOMMING
DIE INVLOED VAN ORGANISASIE KULTUUR, AS KONTEKS WAAR BINNE BETKENIS GEDEEL WORD, OP DIE BESTUUR VAN DIVERSITEIT IN MULTI-KULTURELE ORGANISASIES
deur
C. DOMBAI
STUDIELEIER : PROF. S. VERWEY DEPARTEMENT : KOMMUNTKASIE UNIVERSITEIT : RANDSE AFRIKAANSE UNIVERSITEIT
As gevoig van die veranderinge in Suid-Afrika se politieke, sosio-politiese en ekonomiese omgewing, word plaaslike organisasies toenemend onder druk geplaas om die oorgang te maak na nie-rassige, demokratiese en ten voile verteenwoordigende interne organisasie omgewings. In 'n poging om hierdie proses te versnel, loods maatskappye programme soos regstellende aksie en swart bemagtiging met die doel om histories benadeelde groepe in diens te neem en te ontwikkel sodat lede van hierdie groepe in die organisasie kultuur ge-assimileer kan word. Die resultate van hierdie programme Iaat ongelukkig tans nog veel te wense oor en die bestuur van diversiteit in Suid-Afrika word dus met toenemende skeptisime en beiangsteiling dopgehou.
Alhoewel verskeie teoretici in die bestaande literatuur reeds suksesvolle diversiteitsbestuur en 'n ondersteunende organisasie kultuur met mekaar verbind het, ontbreek breedvoeriger studies in terme van die elemente van kultuur, en veral taal en betekenisdeling, nog steeds. Die gevolgtrekking is reeds gemaak dat kommunikasie die spilpunt behoort te wees van 'n weldeurdagte strategiese benadering tot diversiteitsbestuur. Om van kommunikasie na die spesifieke rol van taal en betekenis te beweeg, sal dus 'n logiese stap wees. Die huidige studie se literatuur-oorsig het gevoiglik stelseimatig te werk gegaan om die maniere te ondersoek waarop die proses van betekenisdeling die status quo kan help handhaaf, asook tot hoe 'n mate dit 'n dryfveer kan wees in die proses om 'n organisasie kultuur te transformeer om ontvanklik en ondersteunend vir diversiteit te kan wees.
Die belangrikheid van kommunikasie op die diadiese viak in organisasies het bepaal dat die studie se fokus sou val op die proses waardeur individue betekenis deel met mekaar. Die belangrikheid van diadiese kommunikasie in terme van die organisasie kultuur berus daarop dat die kwaliteit van die interaksie op diadiese viak 'n ingrypende impak sal he op die kwaliteit van betekenisdeling op meer komplekse vlakke in die organisasie. 'n Model is gevoiglik ontwikkel om te verduidelik hoe verskillende veranderlikes op mekaar inwerk deur middel van taal in die proses van betekenisdeling. Die model se geldigheid as verklarende en voorspellende instrument is getoets deur dit toe te pas op 'n werklike organisasie konteks.
Die studie se belangrikste bevinding was dat aihoewel groepe organisasielede nie beduidend verskil in terme van persoonlike waardes nie, hulle tog beduidend verskillende betekenisse heg aan konsepte en prosesse in hul organisasiekonteks. Op grond hiervan kan dus voorgestel word dat individue se ervarings in die organisasie 'n belangriker faktor van organisatoriese diversiteit is as byvoorbeeld ras, geslag en ouderdom. Om hierdie rede is dit dus noodsaaklik dat die transformering van die organisasie kultuur, en nie bloot die verduideliking van groepsverskille, die fokuspunt van diversiteitsbestuur strategies in organisasies behoort te wees. 1
CHAPTER I
ORIENTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
It is often said that the only certainty in these uncertain times, is that things are not going to stay the same for long. Hence the whole society is dynamic and in a perpetual state of flux, causing stability to be relative. It is in this environment that organisations around the world, including South African businesses, have to function and survive. Apart from the global economic pressures brought to bear on South African companies, however, local societal transformations have also changed the domestic playing field into a strange new world for many. For South African companies the societal transformation also introduced far- reaching organisational changes. All over the world, societies and institutions strive towards democratisation, equality and human rights and a lot of pressure has been put on South Africa to follow suit. With the unbanning of political organisations, the release of political prisoners and the democratic elections of 1994, South Africa finally heeded the call and greater societal freedom started to spill over into organisational life. Employees' demand for participation in decision-making is supported and protected by the country's Constitution and legislation such as the Bill of Rights and the new Labour Relations Act and Employment Equity Bill. The growing diversity in management circles, primarily due to affirmative action and accelerate development programmes, is frequently a source of discomfort for "traditional" organisation members who are used to a particular way of doing.
Diversity is, however, not only due to initiatives aimed at correcting past injustices. Charoux (1990:6) identifies five reasons why organisations cannot afford to ignore diversity :
1. South Africa's population composition is undergoing major structural changes. The white population is declining steadily, as well as getting older with more or less half above the age of 35. In contrast to this trend, the black population is increasing, as well as getting younger when it is considered that 80% of black people in South Africa is younger than 35 years of age. 2
In terms of education, it is estimated that six black scholars will matriculate for every white pupil by the year 2000. It is thus only logical that a significant portion of the workforce of the future will have to be recruited from the non-white sector of the population.
Charoux (1990:7) cites the ratio of managers to subordinates as the third reason. The ideal ratio for South African circumstances is 1:25; the ratio currently is more or less 1:50 whereas the projection for the year 2000 is closer to 1:75. It is clear that too few managers are being trained and, in the light of the country's changing demographics, the focus should be on black leadership development.
A fourth factor is urbanisation. By the year 2000 as much as 70% of the black population could be staying in urban areas which means that traditional ethnicity would increasingly be jeopardised. Black economic power will increase, as well as the ease with which mass action can be mobilised. The latter providing employees with a powerful weapon against organisations still practising racial discrimination.
The post-apartheid era has a new political order that is being characterised by black majority rule. Not only is the government more representative of the population, but people's fundamental human rights are protected by a bill of rights. Charoux (1990:8) foresees that this state of affairs will lead to an expansion of the diversity concept to include issues such as language, culture, creed, sex, disabilities, family status, the environment and employee rights.
In view of the factors discussed by Charoux, it is evident that diversity is neither a passing buzzword nor a "flavour of the month" fashionable management philosophy. Diversity is an undeniable and fixed reality of our society, hence organisations have to manage this diversity as best as they possibly can. Ensuring that the corporate culture is willing and able to support the needs of a truly diverse workforce is the key to successfully managing diversity to the ultimate advantage of all the organisation's stakeholders. As is the case with the company reflecting the broader society, the company's culture should also reflect the cultures of all its employees. Due to the compulsory segregation enforced by apartheid legislation, South Africans from different racial and cultural groups were for a long time deprived of the opportunity to get into contact with one another's cultures. The situation thus arose where the culture of the group with the power was adhered to. In organisations then, the white, Western culture dominated for decades. Organisational cultures in South 3
Africa therefor cannot claim to reflect the culture of the broader society and are also not usually very open to diversity and the necessary changes it entails.
In considering culture, be it external or internal to an organisation, it is unavoidable to also consider the issue of language. Language is one of the most basic functions of culture. Language is tangible and therefor often becomes the embodiment and symbol of a specific culture. Members of the particular culture use their language to realise their culture, hence it becomes central to their identity. They also tend to be fiercely proud and protective of their language, especially when their culture, which includes the language, is being threatened. The emotive value of languages often plays a bigger role than communicative value when a decision between two or more languages as medium of communication has to be made. The same principle applies when a choice has to be made between different possible words for the same object or concept in the same language. Such a choice is never objective and value-free: "When alternatives are available, the choice of the particular label selected becomes extremely important due to the fact that over time, different names tend to develop different connotations. For this reason, no two words remain completely synonymous (Lampe, 1982:86).
In the same way, although arguably to a lesser extent, different organisations' different cultures are also embodied in the language employed by the members. It can thus be inferred that by changing the way in which organisational members interact, some changes can be made to the organisational culture. The aim of this study is thus to examine the extent to which successful diversity management is dependent on a receptive corporate culture, and the extent to which such a receptive culture is influenced by the ways in which employees communicate and share meaning.
2. THE NECESSITY OF THIS STUDY
Diversity and the management thereof has in recent years become the subject of many heated and very emotive debates. It has also become a lucrative source of income for many management and organisational development consultants, due to the fact that numerous organisations experience great difficulty in coming to terms with diversity. Although the South African workforce has always been diverse, the largely homogeneous management and white collar structures have created the perception of a homogeneous workforce. This perception had certain implications for the way in which organisations 4
communicated with their employees. Communication was largely based on the perception of homogeneity and not much was done to ensure that illiterate, semiliterate and employees not versed in Afrikaans or English are fully informed. This led to a corporate culture in which diversity and differences were not reckoned with and all but completely disregarded.
With the advent of the post-apartheid era in South Africa, a great deal of emphasis has been placed on individuals' rights as entrenched in the new Constitution and the Bill of Rights. In organisations the focus has changed from perpetuating homogeneity to actively introducing diversity into the management structures. Years of separation under apartheid legislation has rendered members of the same nation virtual strangers to one another, leaving people from different cultures with little more than perceptions and stereotypes to base their actions upon. Corporate modes of communication, based on current corporate cultures, are also unable to help people build bridges to cross the great divide.
It is therefor considered absolutely necessary to examine the ways in which organisations can manage their diverse workforce in the best possible way - because, after all has been said and done, South Africa has to survive economically. A few studies, such as that of Van Sittert Triebel (1996), have already made inroads in this field of study. Van Sittert Triebel's study (1996:xi) found that the main shortcomings in organisations are the lack of coherent strategic visioning in the approach to diversity management, as well as the lack of planned, structured and well developed communication strategy on the subject.
Not much has been done to date, however, on the effect of interpersonal relations and communication in organisations on the management of diversity. When one considers the viewpoint that communication and organisation is the same event, because random behaviour become organised during communication, (Pepper, 1995:6) it becomes evident that communication at all levels in the organisation is important. Pepper (1995:13) further states that communication between two people, the so-called dyadic level, is of extraordinary importance in the organisation because in terms of "organising" the dyadic level is the most fundamental level.
Language is, furthermore, the most important medium of human communication. People most frequently attempt to share meaning through the use of words, whether in a spoken or written form. Language should then have a fundamental impact on, first, the level of interpersonal communication and from there on the way communication manifests in the whole organisation. Language is a key determinant of culture, hence the way in which 5
individuals share meaning will also have an impact on the larger organisational culture. The nature of the organisation's culture - how receptive or not it is to diversity - will severely impact the effectiveness of any attempt at managing diversity. In the final analysis, the extent to which the organisation successfully manages its new and different workforce with the aim of optimally developing each individual's skills and knowledge, will determine the economic success of the organisation and, in the end, that of our country.
3. AIM OF THE STUDY
The overarching aim of the study is to systematically examine how the success of diversity management is impacted upon by the way in which people share meaning in a multicultural organisational context. Since interpersonal communication at the dyadic level is the most basic level at which organising starts in an organisation, the success or failure of people to reach an understanding there, could and should severely impact the sharing of meaning at other organisational levels. In other words, the study aims to examine the extent to which successful diversity management is dependent on a receptive corporate culture, and the extent to which such a receptive culture is influenced by communication and the sharing of meaning.
In the interest of clarity, the specific aims of the study can be postulated as follows: To indicate the importance of interpersonal communication and the sharing of meaning in the context of diversity management in organisations. To develop a model that explains the process of sharing meaning between individuals in a multicultural organisational context, by: examining diversity management principles, the environmental factors necessitating it as well as programmes and interventions relating to diversity, such as affirmative action; examining the phenomenon of organisational culture and the factors influencing a corporate culture to either change or be perpetuated; examining the psychological, sociological and ideological functions of language as the prime medium for human communication; and clarifying the relationship between the variables impacting on the external organisational environment, internal organisational environment and dyadic communication as was identified in the literature overview. 6
To test the applicability of the proposed model by applying it to an actual organisation by means of an interpretative analysis of the external and internal organisational environments, as well as quantitative and qualitative research within a specific department of the organisation. To provide a point of departure for future research on the subject.
4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
In order to realise the aims of the study as was stated in the preceding discussion, a thorough and systematic overview of the literature on the subjects of diversity, organisational culture and language is the logical point of departure. The literature overview serves the important functions of defining and clarifying concepts, preventing duplication by providing access work that has already been done, and exposing those aspects of the field of inquiry that have not yet received sufficient attention.
The first chapter of literature overview is concerned with the interaction between South African organisations and their environment. The basis of this chapter is the systems approach which postulates that systems influence both their environment and internal sub- systems, and in turn are influenced by them. Organisations do not exist in a vacuum, therefor it is essential to take the external environment into consideration when attempting to understand the organisation's internal dynamics as well as the challenges facing it. After briefly discussing the systems approach to organisations in Chapter II, the environmental factors were divided into economical, socio-cultural, legal-political and technological components. In terms of the economical environment, the focus will fall on the implications of South Africa's return to the global markets and the challenges organisations face on the customer service and privatisation fronts. Socio-cultural factors are mainly concerned with the tension between Western and African ways of doing things. Specific attention is paid to the changing demographics of the South African society, Africanisation, Ubuntu, attitudes and the tension between people's professional and personal lives. Programmes and legislation specifically aimed at uplifting disadvantaged communities and ensuring the protection of individuals' rights are the focus of the legal-political factors. The Reconstruction and Development Programme, the Bill of Rights, workplace democracy, the GEAR Strategy and participative management are the salient issues discussed. 7
In terms of technology, the emphasis is placed on the gap between society's information- rich and information-poor and how the introduction of technology such as electronic mail and interactive multimedia could impact on their lives, as well as on organisations' communication protocols.
Chapter III introduces the concept of diversity and the role it plays in organisations. After diversity and diversity management are defined, the issue of why diversity has to be managed is addressed by examining the potential benefits and problems of diversity and how it impacts organisational effectiveness. Affirmative action as the single greatest facilitator of diversity in managerial ranks is introduced next and discussed in terms of the issues around affirmative action and the reasons why it fails more often than not in organisations. Four different approaches to affirmative action - the peacock, tortoise, rhinoceros and chameleon - leads the discussion into the differences between affirmative action and diversity management. The discussion on diversity management has as its point of departure the organisation's diversity climate and the factors impacting on it, and is concluded with a comparison between the theory of diversity management and the practice in South African organisations today.
Having established the link between the organisation's diversity climate and its culture, Chapter IV is devoted to the concept of organisational culture as the context of meaning. Culture is first of all defined, clarified and classified according to various authors' viewpoints, before the origins and factors capable of perpetuating or transforming organisational cultures are highlighted. Socialisation and acculturation as processes employed by organisations to deal with diversity lead the discussion to the point where the question is raised about what characterises an organisation which truly values diversity and harnesses its potential. In attempting to answer the question, attention is paid to monolithic, plural and multicultural organisations. The following section deals with organisational discourse systems and how these influence the sharing of meaning in organisations. An examination of the relationship between organisational discourse and power concludes the chapter.
Chapter V specifically focuses on the sharing of meaning in organisations by means of language and the use of symbols. The nature of language as key element of culture is examined by looking at language's psychological, sociological and ideological properties. The importance of symbolism in the context of this study is the role it plays in the constitution of meaning. The social nature of symbolic meaning is discussed in terms of its 8
implications for human interaction, after which symbolism's role in organisations are examined. Based on the conclusion that individuals attach meaning to events and language in an individual manner, the question of how organised action is possible in organisations is addressed in the chapter's final section.
In an attempt to explain the interaction of the variables introduced throughout the literature overview, and to explain the process with which individuals share meaning, Chapter VI introduces a model of interpersonal communication in the organisational context.
Chapter VII contains the empirical research component of the study aimed at applying the model to an actual organisational context in order to determine its application possibilities as a diagnostic and explanatory tool. The qualitative research consisted of interpretative analyses of the external and internal organisational environments, as well as two questionnaires administered in a specific department in the organisation. The departmental members, who served as the study's experimental group, was also observed for a few days to determine how their behaviour compare to what is suggested by the model.
The empirical research findings yielded in terms of the research design is discussed and interpreted in Chapter VIII, along with suggestions for future research. 9
CHAPTER II
THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATION AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
Organisations do not exist in isolation and can therefore not be studied in isolation. The mere fact that an organisation's employees are citizens of a country and members of particular communities and cultural and social groups, results in external factors coming into play within the organisation's boundaries. Organisations, in turn, also have an impact on the communities and even countries in which they function. This impact can be on an environmental level, for example pollution; on an educational level, for example equipping its employees with skills they can take back into their community; on an economical level, for example bringing growth and prosperity to former undeveloped areas; and even on a socio-political level, for example where especially government controlled organisations are regarded as important change agents in bringing about a different socio-political order.
This brief discussion has crudely summarised the main principle of systems theory, namely that an organisation impacts on its environment as does the environment on the organisation. The high level of interaction between the organisation and its environment which is suggested by systems theory, poses the idea of a process which is in continuous fluctuation. Changes in the environment will therefor result in changes within the organisation and, although not necessarily on the same scale, changes within the organisation could prompt changes to take place within the society. Based on the discussion up to now, it would seem as if the interaction between environment and organisation requires two initiatives from the organisation. In the first instance, the organisation has to find a way to become compatible with its environment and in the second instance has to manage the changes required from it on the way towards compatibility.
Important mechanisms through which the organisation adapts to the demands of the environment in order to maintain a balance, is organisational acculturation and socialisation, 1 0
both of which are instrumental in establishing an organisational culture. An organisation's culture determines the extent to which it is ready, willing and able to understand the changes in its environment and adapt its strategies accordingly. Culture also determines the speed with which the organisation can adapt and change course if necessary - a characteristic that is of critical importance in the highly competitive modern business world.
The management of change has long since ceased to be the management of an event, although too many organisations still treat it that way. The rapid pace at which the world and the South African society are changing, is forcing organisations to continuously examine and evaluate both the external, or macro, and the internal, or micro, environment as well as how well the organisation is coping with factors in these environments, or not. The organisation needs to stay abreast of developments in the macro environment in order to prepare itself for the impact it may have on the micro environment. Analysis in terms of the micro environment is necessary to determine whether the organisation has the appropriate resources to capitalise on macro environmental opportunities while simultaneously averting threats.
To elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction, the remainder of this chapter will further illustrate the interdependency of the organisation and its environment by means of a discussion of the systems approach as it applies to organisations, followed by an analysis of factors in the South African macro environment currently impacting on the internal functioning of local organisations.
2. A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANISATIONS
A system is a number of interdependent components that form a whole and work together with a view to attaining a common goal (Gerber, Nel & Van Dyk, 1998:34). A distinction can be made between closed and open systems with organisations belonging to the latter category. A system is closed when it is self-sustaining and independent of external stimuli or input, for example a test-tube baby from conception until it is implanted in the womb. An open system requires certain input or stimuli from elsewhere (1998:34). A system is open if: It is dependent on the environment in which it operates; The environment depends on it; There is interaction between the system and the environment (Gerber, et al, 1998:35). 11
According to Gerber et at (1998:36), being an open system have the following implications for an organisation: As an open system the organisation continuously interact with its environments. During this process it takes in resources, information and energy which it transforms into products and services made available to the environment in the form of outputs. An organisation is a system with multiple goals and functions, which implies that there are multiple interactions between an organisation and its environment. An organisation consists of a number of subsystems in a state of dynamic interaction. Change in one subsystem is followed by changes in other subsystems, as all the subsystems are interdependent. An organisations functions in a dynamic environment which consists of other subsystems differing in scope. The environment makes certain demands on the organisation, which inhibit it in certain respects. Therefor thorough investigation of the environmental problems and restrictions is essential to understand the overall functioning of an organisation. The multiple connections between an organisation and its environments make it difficult to determine the organisation's boundaries. Due to the close relationship between an organisation and its environment, it can be said that there has to be an optimal fit between the external environment and the internal components of the organisation as a system for it to function at its best.
2.1 Organisations as Social Systems
Verwey (1990:145) states that not only is an organisation an open system, it is also a social system with the following characteristics: Organisational boundaries are difficult to specify, as the psychological links between social structures make its barely possible to distinguish where the organisation begins or ends. The organisation has a dynamic structure, as it is a structuring of events, rather than physical parts. Because of this, the organisation has no structure apart from its functioning and would therefor perish as soon it stops functioning. The above statement implies that the organisation is an open system, necessarily moving towards increased complexity. As the degree of openness varies from organisation to organisation, differences will be displayed between organisations' ability to self-regulate and their ability to adapt to environmental changes. 12
An organisation is a social entity, created by people and bound by psychological ties, and it therefor has a unique need for mechanisms to control human inconsistencies. These mechanisms, such as performance contracts, values and policies, control instabilities and inconsistencies in order to maintain uniform and reliable behavioural patterns. An organisation as a social system has different levels. For the purpose of this discussion, the following three levels are of importance: the individual (or sub-system), the group (or system) and the wider organisation or context within which the interaction takes place (or supra-system). The lower system levels limit the behaviour taking place at the higher levels, which means that the individual can limit the behaviour of groups as well as the organisation as a whole. For this reason, organisations rely on being formally prescriptive in terms of acceptable behaviour. By lying down patterns of behaviour for individuals, the formal structure of the organisation is created. Rules, norms and values provide three interrelated foundations for integration within the organisation. People are bound together through the functional interdependence of their roles, the normative requirements of these roles, and the values that exist around the organisation's goals and objectives.
The view of an organisation as a social system emphasizes the organisation's so-called "non-tangible" outputs. According to Gerber et al, an organisation's objectives can be divided into main categories, i.e. tangible and non-tangible outputs (1998:36). Tangible outputs refer to what organisations primarily pursue, namely profits, return on investment and increased market share. Non-tangible outputs refer to the quality of work-life of the employees. This includes aspects such as morale and job satisfaction.
The fact that organisations consist out of various subsystems was referred to earlier. The individual employee may be regarded as the smallest subsystem in the organisation. Individuals as subsystems have certain inputs with which they join an organisation and which they release as long as they are part of the organisation. These inputs are released mainly through the throughput process where they are utilised be general and human resources management processes. The quality of application of these processes determines the employee's outputs (Gerber et al, 1998:40). According to Gerber et al, the throughput processes of an individual employee consist of elements in the job content environment and the job context environment. Two key elements identified in the job
13
context environment are of particular relevance to this study: organisational culture and interpersonal and group relationships (1998:43). Diversity management has as its aim the improvement of interpersonal and group relationships between different individuals and groups, and this process takes place within the organisational culture as context of interaction and communication.
Verwey (1990) developed a Social Systems Model of Organisational Functioning that illustrates the principles of the organisation as a social system in great detail. This model will be used to clarify the interaction between, and interdependency of an organisation and its environment. Although the model depicts the total process of organisational functioning with communication at its center, the internal processes fall outside the scope or this chapter and therefor the focus will fall on the organisation's interaction with its wider environment.
FIGURE 1: Social Systems Model of Organisational Functioning
SIMPLE ENVIRONMENT COMPLEX
SOCIO-CULTURAL FEEDBACK LEGAL-POLITICAL
PEOPLE TASK ENVIRONMENT TASK REGULATIONS
INPUTS TURNOVER OUTPUTS co Material System T Resources functioning MATERIALS MEN ENERGY MANAGEMENT PRCOUCTION Group 8 inter- group RON Human Resources behaviour feelings ENVI INFORMATION A ATION Individual Organisational behaviour & Culture feelings SUPPORT MAJNTENANG:E/
MARKET ENVIRONMENT ECONOMIC FEEDBACK TECHNOLOGICAL
Source: Verwey, 1990:147
According to Verwey's model, the organisational environment consists of two interrelated parts which can only be distinguished on a theoretical level as they function as a close knit unit in practice (1990:148). The task environment has a direct impact on the functioning of 14
the organisation and is therefor of direct importance to the organisation. The wider environment, on the other hand, indirectly impacts on the organisation as it provides the context within which the task environment manifests itself (1990:148).
As the scope of this chapter covers external factors impacting on South African organisations, a brief discussion of the components of the task environment will be followed by an analysis of the South African situation. Verwey (1990:148) identifies four task environmental components: The economic environment refers to the general economical framework, economical planning, the banking system and fiscal policies, as well as investment and consumer patterns. The socio-cultural environment entails the nature of the social structure, the cultural norms and values and the educational and demographic characteristics of the society out of which the organisation draws its employees and consumers. The legal-political environment refers to the nature of the political and legal system governing the organisation's activities. The technological environment refers to the level of technological and scientific advancement of the community.
In the following discussion of environmental factors impacting on South African organisations, the factors will be categorised according to Verwey's analysis of task environmental components.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATIONS
South African organisations today may, on the surface, look quite different from organisations 5 or 10 years ago. In terms of progressing towards being real multi-cultural organisations, however, the picture may not have changed significantly. The lack of examples of multi-cultural organisations in literature on the subject can substantiate this statement. Changes that have taken place in our society at large, however, have irrevocably transformed the environment in which South African organisations function and do business. And this environment makes it compulsory for organisations to make the most of their human resources which are, and always will be, diverse and heterogeneous. 15
The factors that have such a decisive impact on our society and business world can be discussed in terms of socio-political, economical, technological and cultural influences in accordance with Verwey's task environmental components (1990:148).
3.1 Legal-political Environment
3.1.1 The Reconstruction and Development Programme:
The Government of National Unity's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) is one of the strongest socio-political influences on organisations in South Africa today. According to the ANC's "A basic guide to the RDP" (1994:1), the RDP "is a programme to mobilise all our people and all our resources to finally get rid of apartheid and build a democratic, non racial and non sexist future". This statement makes it clear that the RDP is not only about housing and sanitation, but that its aim is to drastically transform the whole South African society. The RDP sets out five key programmes to rebuild and develop the country:
Meeting basic needs Developing human resources Democratising state & society Building the economy Implementing the RDP
The above mentioned key programmes of the RDP make it clear that no facet of the society can remain unchanged in terms of the RDP. This is especially true for businesses and organisations functioning in an environment which will change and cause its inhabitants to change as well. Those inhabitants, or members of the society, are also members of the organisation and they bring the changes in their private lives with them to their professional environment.
The RDP has far-reaching financial implications for business in South Africa. This is especially true in the case of public enterprises, as these organisations have to set an example to the rest of the business community. In terms of the RDP, the country's focus should be on the upliftment of the previously disadvantaged communities. This upliftment is taking the form of meeting basic needs in terms of, for example, electrification, the provision of housing, basic services, health care and 16
education. The financial implication of realising the RDP is a daunting one. Electrification, for example, cost Eskom more or less R 3 000 per connection - an investment that often does not pay off in the form of electricity sales for years to come. The organisation, therefore, has to cut costs in other areas to make provision for its RDP commitments.
A further economic implication of the RDP for organisations is the pressure on them to focus more strongly on Black Economic Empowerment in order to broaden the national economic foundation and in support of job creation objectives. According to the Consultative Business Movement's publication "Building a Winning Nation: Companies and the RDP" (1994), companies have a valuable role to play in SME (small and medium enterprises) development. "This can be effected via outsourcing, building relationships of trust and providing support to SME's on order procedures, standards and regular payments, and by providing access to finance, credit and training. A change of culture is also needed to accommodate SME needs by sensitising procurement, tendering and ordering policies" (Symes & Fourie, 1994:88). Living up to these expectations is proving to be difficult, and the challenge is exaggerated by political pressure from government's side in the form of procurement legislature. The green paper on procurement was published during 1997 and stakeholders were granted the opportunity to submit their responses. Organisations have procurement policies in terms of which preference has to be given to SME's when certain categories of orders are placed. The policies, however, cannot provide guidelines on how to go about finding an SME capable of meeting the needs of a large organisation in terms of quality, costs, sustainability and after care. Companies need to accommodate diverse interests in this process, balancing the RDP imperatives with the non-negotiable need to remain profitable.
3.1.2 Workplace Democracy:
The emphasis on people's involvement in the RDP forms a logical link with the issues of human rights and workplace democratisation. The political democratisation of South Africa has led to expectations of the broader democratisation of all levels of government and society, including the workplace. According to Symes and Fourie (1994:90), "worker participation and inclusive 17
decision-making are two key demands in this regard. There is a new expectation to be consulted on all matters that influence daily conditions of work. These range from major issues such as corporate planning.... and other strategic issues, to more general issues such as working conditions, work hours, productivity matters and administrative issues".
According to an Institute for Personnel Management (IPM) Member Brief on workplace democracy (1995), defining the concept requires a definition of both democracy and the workplace. In defining democracy, the IPM Brief turns to the RDP which states that "democracy for ordinary citizens must not end with formal rights and periodic one-person, one-vote elections, but should extend to every aspect of our society" (1995:1). The definition of the workplace focuses on its purpose :"...the primary purpose of the workplace can be interpreted as the integration of the means of production in ways which add value to products and services, while always focusing on the core principle of creating and keeping more customers" (1995:1).
Defining workplace democracy, however, does not answer the question of what benefits it would bring to employer and employee. The IPM Member Brief submits that the gains will be great for both parties and will include, amongst others, "improved communication flow, improved quality of decisions, a greater sense of belonging and identification with the organisation, increased productivity, capacity building and increased skills in decision making, a flatter corporate structure and a less adversarial IR environment" (1995:2).
It is important to note that workplace democracy cannot be achieved overnight and involves an often painful process of changing deeply ingrained attitudes, beliefs and mindsets. It can thus be expected that organisations and all their members will have to go through a long and difficult process before the long-term benefits can be reaped. Part of this process will entail coming to grips with democracy's rights and responsibilities and the balance between them. South Africa used to be a nation without many rights and therefore without many responsibilities as well. The political changes in our country made democracy a reality and we now need to learn how to balance these newly acquired rights with their corresponding responsibilities, both in the macro environment of our society and the micro environment of the workplace. 18
The danger of exercising rights without paying attention to the responsibilities is a society devolving into a state of anarchy. "One of the phases of developing a democratic workplace is, therefore, to develop an understanding of rights and responsibilities and how they relate to each other. Once people understand this relationship, they need to be given the opportunity to exercise their rights and responsibilities (IPM Member Brief, 1995:5). In this aspect lies perhaps the biggest challenge for traditional managers and employees both of whom who were used to managers making decisions and carrying responsibilities and employees mostly doing what they were told to do. Involving employees and giving them the opportunity and responsibility of making job related decisions is one step towards achieving workplace democracy.
Based on the above discussion, it can be stated that democracy in the workplace depends on worker participation in decisions. "In a truly democratic sense, to be able to vote on an issue, one needs to know and understand that issue and the consequences the choice poses. What better way is there of achieving true democracy than through participation which will lead to a greater understanding of an issue" (IPM Member Brief, 1995:2).
3.1.3 Participative management and decision-making:
Participative management is essentially about upward communication. In the traditional nature and functioning of organisations, very little opportunity existed for the workforce to voice their opinions on the governance of their organisation. Both management and employees got used to this situation, which is why organisations now find themselves in a position where special programmes and structures have to be implemented to make two way communication a reality. "Participative management is the process of involving subordinates in the decision making process. It stresses active involvement of the people. It uses their expertise and creativity in solving important managerial problems. It rests on the concept of shared authority with their subordinates" (Anthony, 1978:3).
According to Sashkin (1982:16), four types of participation by employees can be identified: participation in goal setting, decision making, problem solving and the implementation of change. Anthony (1978:27) is of the opinion that when effectively implemented, participative management could have the following advantages: 19
Acceptance of change Improved management-employee, as well as management-trade union, relationships Improved worker commitment to the organisation Improved trust in management Managers would find it easier to "manage" their subordinates due to the fact that they understand what is happening and are taking part in shaping their destinies Quality of management decisions will be improved Improved upward communication Participation organises employees into effective, well coordinated teams which improves teamwork and cooperation
Harrison (1985:94) elaborates on the advantages of participative management by pointing out that it satisfies certain needs for both managers and employees. In terms of subordinates, needs such as performance, power, self-realisation and a sense of being involved in the functioning of the organisation are being fulfilled. For management, participative management may lead to desired changes in the behaviour and attitudes of subordinates, as well as heightened commitment to organisational policy and procedures.
Worker participation in decision making and management in organisations is entrenched in the new Labour Relations Act that was promulgated during the last quarter of 1996. To look at how participative management influences the functioning of an organisation, a brief look can be taken at a South African utility company. In 1994 the company signed an agreement with its recognised trade unions - called the Unfolding Vision Agreement - aimed at instituting participative management. Figure 2 graphically depicts the various forums created to attain this goal. The philosophy underpinning the participative structures is that problem solving should take place at the lowest possible levels. To this end regular workteam sessions are called for in the agreement. Employee related issues that could not be solved in the workteam sessions, as well as other business unit specific issues, are referred to the business unit level and dealt with at the so-called BU Forums. Unresolved BU Forum matters are escalated to national organisational level at the Central National Forum (CNF). At both BU Forum and CNF level a steering committee screens the issues put forward for discussion and has the power to refer such issues to other structures, such as specially constituted project teams, 20
instead of to the two said forums. High level strategic issues, such as the organisation's strategic planning, are subject to discussions at the Strategic Forum.
FIGURE 2: Participative Management Structures
STRATEGIC FORUM S C T 0 E M E M R CENTRAL NATIONAL FORUM T N T G E Organisation Recognised E Management Trade Unions' Representatives Representatives
STAKEHOLDERS
S C BUSINESS UNIT FORUM T 0 E M 1 E M SUB BU FORUMS R (where applicable) T N T G E E
WORK TEAM SESSIONS
STRATEGIC FORUM High-level strategic issues, e.g strategic planning and financial results CENTRAL NATIONAL FORUM National organisational issues, e.g. restructuring STAKEHOLDERS Stakeholder specific issues, e.g. restructuring BUSINESS UNIT FORUM BU specific issues, e.g. redeployment WORK TEAM SESSIONS Team related issues, e.g. schedules 21
Participative management and the concept of meaningful influence that accompanies it have fundamentally changed the way in which decisions are taken in the company. Due to a massive training task that had to be embarked upon for both sides and which is not completed yet, the process is currently being experienced as very frustrating. Management feels disempowered, as if they are not able to make the simplest decision without involving the trade unions first. The time consuming nature of the process further contributes to the frustrations. The trade unions on the other hand feel quite often that management is merely going through the motions as far as meaningful influence is concerned and seldom negotiates in good faith. Trade unionists are furthermore realising that they wield quite a lot of power and do not hesitate to keep management and the organisation at ransom when their demands are not met.
In order for the participative management process to succeed in South African companies, the complete workforce - management included - have to reach a level of maturity unheard of before. Managers have to realise and make peace with the idea that participative management is not a bad dream from which they will awaken soon. Workplace democracy will not go away, and therefore it has to be accepted and embraced. Acceptance and tolerance are not enough, however. For the process to work, the parties need to trust each other and strive towards realising the benefits of participative management as stated before. In terms of trade union representatives, they need to realise that the process is aimed at the long-term well-being of the organisation and its members and that participation does not mean disagreeing with everything management suggests and does merely for the sake of disagreeing.
3.1.9 The Bill of Rijihts:
Democracy brought the issue of human rights into South African lawbooks - and organisations. The Bill of Rights places the rights of South African citizens in the spotlight and demand of organisations to change their policies and practices to accommodate their employees' variety of rights. These rights include, for example, the right to communicate and be communicated with in the language of your choice. "Everyone has the right to use the language of their choice and to participate in the cultural life of their choice. People belonging to a cultural, religious or linguistic community may not be denied the right to enjoy their culture, practice their religion, 22
use their language and form associations" (from a summary of the Bill of Rights published by Fox Publishing, 1996:4). The implications of this right are far reaching, as it may, in theory, force organisations to correspond and communicate with their employees and other stakeholders in 11 languages. At present, organisations are dealing with this problem by elevating English to the position of "official" business language, while declaring that translations in any one of the other 11 official national languages are available on request.
The Bill of Rights and the Constitution have also entrenched the position and role of organised labour in the business world. "Everyone has the right to fair labour practices. This means every worker can form and join a trade union or participate in trade union activities and programmes. Every worker also has the right to strike. Equally, every employer has the right to join or form an employers' association and to participate in its activities and programmes" (Fox Publishing, 1996:4). Workers' right to strike potentially put a lot of pressure on employers and make participative decision making not negotiable. Although employers' right to lock striking workers out was written into the new Labour Relations Act, after a long debate, the power that organised labour wield over the South African business community cannot be denied.
The new Labour Relations Act (LRA), 1996, makes provision for so-called agency shop agreements between management and the organisation's recognised trade union(s). The idea behind the agency shop is the issue of "free riders" - non- unionised employees who benefit from trade unions' negotiations with management without paying union dues. Implementing agency shop agreements, however, may prove to be a headache. According to the LRA, such agreements are only valid if it does not compel non-unionised employees to join a trade union. This is in line with the freedom of association clause in the Bill of Rights. The problem is, however, that the agency shop is not beneficial to the non unionised employee at all, in the sense that no traditional "union services" or support will be rendered to such employees. A monthly fee will be deducted from their salaries and wages and paid into a fund jointly administered by the trade unions for the socio-economic upliftment of workers. They will receive nothing in return. Due to this state of affairs, employees may feel compelled to rather join a trade union instead of falling under 23
the agency shop agreement, and as soon as people feel under pressure to join a trade union, the agency shop agreement is not being adhered to.
The Bill of Rights is thus not a far removed part of the new Constitution, it is already, and will continue to do so in future, exerting considerable influence on the way organisations function in South Africa. In this whole process, communication across cultural barriers will be of the utmost importance. People will have to learn to not only tolerate and accept each other's views on business, but also understand and respect each other's cultures. Democratising the workplace is therefore much more than just creating the opportunity for workers to influence decisions.
3.2 Economical Environment
3.2.1 The Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) Strategy:
Until 1996 the South African economic growth rate was about 3% per annum. Although this was better than the average growth rate over the preceding 10 years, the growth was not fast enough to reverse the unemployment crisis. Government accepted that there was no reason why the situation should change, unless an integrated and coherent macro-economic plan was put into place. In response to this need, the Department of Finance set out to develop such a macro-economic plan. The key challenge to economic policy was seen as being the attainment of higher economic growth and significant job creation, without undermining macro- economic stability. The result of their research and analysis was GEAR (Biggs, 1997:48). According to Smith (1997:17) GEAR "provides a disciplined macro- economic framework within which programmes of reconstruction and development can be formulated and investor confidence encouraged."
The main elements of the GEAR strategy are (Biggs, 1997:49): A faster fiscal deficit reduction programme A renewed focus on budget reform A reduction on tariffs A commitment to moderate wage demands An exchange rate policy aimed at keeping the real exchange rate stable 24
A consistent monetary policy aimed at preventing a resurgence of inflation The gradual relaxing of exchange controls The speeding up of the restructuring of state assets Tax incentives to stimulate investment An expansionary fiscal programme to address service deficiencies and backlogs A strengthened levy system to fund training According to Biggs (1997:49) GEAR was expected to improve economic growth by cutting the government's budget deficit in the following ways: reduced consumption spending, increased labour market flexibility, increased government investment, and the privatisation of state assets to reduce the government debt.
These aspects of GEAR, however, were met with severe resistance by organised labour. COSATU reiterated its opposition to the basic thrust of GEAR at the NEDLAC summit held in 1997. COSATU "rejected the GEAR approach to fiscal and monetary policies which continue to see major cuts in government spending on social security and basic infrastructure as well as continued rising interest rates. The effect of these policies is to choke the much needed economic growth and employment creation. After almost a year of the unveiling of GEAR, the promised jobs have not materialised. If we really want to succeed as a nation, we have to respond to the verdict of the electorate. Unlike business who was cynical of the RDP, the masses voted for a better life as contained in the RDP and not GEAR" (Smith, 1997:18).
Although the business sector was continuously more positive towards GEAR, delivery problems are starting to result in criticism from that source as well. In January 1998, the South African Chamber of Commerce called the strategy naïve and inspired by panic (Schoombee, 1998:9). It stated that given the realities of government's capabilities GEAR is fundamentally flawed.
The government has not abandoned the GEAR strategy and although the Minister of Finance revised the targets in November 1998, GEAR remains the macro-economic framework within which South African organisations have to function. 25
3.2.2 Return to the global market:
The most obvious and arguably most important economic influence on South African organisations today is the fact that the country has been readmitted into the international market place. During the apartheid era with is subsequent sanctions, the South African government created an "artificial" marketplace in many respects, to compensate for the isolation the rest of the world forced it into due to its politics. Examples would be the weapons industry as well as an enterprise such as Mossgas which has cost the taxpayer millions of rands and is currently more and more exposed as a largely nonviable operation.
With large corporations giving way under the pressure of sanctions and blacklisting and consequently withdrawing from South Africa, job losses were at the order of the day and the economy undoubtedly suffered. Examples of such a political withdrawal of operations from the country would be Kodak, Bata shoes and General Motors. Sanctions even involved the entertainment business with the British Equity Union prohibiting its members from performing in South Africa, as well as the distribution of British television material in this country. Sport followed suit with South African being excluded from the Olympic Games and not allowed to compete officially against a number of countries' national teams. Sport and entertainment sanctions indirectly influenced the economic situation as well in terms of, for example, loss of revenue in sponsorships and broadcasting rights. A characteristic of the isolation years that perpetuated the economic situation, is the fact that South Africans could not travel freely throughout the world and thus be exposed to other products and services. South African passports were not at all welcome and most first world countries required visas from South African travelers. The consumers - which were mostly recognised as the white population - regarded South Africa as all the world had to offer. South African consumers were further limited to their own country's options by extremely high duties on imported goods in order to encourage people to buy local goods. The result of all this was a population uneducated about the international market place and the possibilities and opportunities linked to import and export. This is not to say that South Africa was not trading internationally at all, but the international marketplace was largely closed for business people unable to play in the arena of the powerful multi-national corporations. 26
With the unbanning of the ANC and the release of Nelson Mandela from prison, South Africa changed beyond recognition as far as the economy is concerned. Growth and prosperity did not descend overnight, but doors certainly opened at an unprecedented rate. The Minister of Finance's Macro Economic Framework made public in Parliament on Friday, 14 June 1996, "announced a further liberalisation of foreign exchange controls. In order to attract foreign investment Mr. Manuel announced a range of new tax allowances." (Sunday Times, 16 June 1996). These measures might well succeed in bringing more fierce competition to within our national borders.
With the abolishment of a lot of the measures that used to protect South African manufacturers, they now need to relook their processes and practices to ensure competitiveness and survival. Competitiveness and survival depend largely on productivity. In our protected economy it was not necessary to compete before, but now local business is facing the world on its doorstep, and it does not compare favourably.
The World Competitiveness Report reflects the result of studies conducted worldwide to determine the overall performance of 37 countries. In order to determine competitiveness, they study eight factors: domestic economic strength, infrastructure, internationalisation, management, government, science and technology, finance and people (Theron, 1996:20). According to the World Competitiveness Report of 1993, the South African position on the above indices is amongst the 15 developing countries. On performance, for instance, South Africa ranks 11th before Hungary, India, Brazil and Pakistan (1996:20).
As this study is concerned with organisational culture and people management as a critical vehicle to attain organisational effectiveness, our main concern is with South Africa's people ranking. In terms of people as indicator of competitiveness, South Africa ranks 14th - only Pakistan is worse off (Theron, 1996:20). Under people the worst heading is "attitude of the work force" (overall 15th) with subheadings: worker motivation (14th) willingness to retrain (12th) alcohol and drug abuse (15th) attitude of the young people (15th) 27
• competitive values (14th)
Because the above factors fall into the realm of organisational culture, the management of culture in organisations appears to be of prime importance to improve our competitiveness. Making the productivity concept acceptable to employees, for example, will take a lot of education and communication due to past misunderstandings that led to misperceptions about the implications of productivity. In an interview with Annica Foxcroft, Marketing Director of Interman, a professional language training company, she stated that productivity is linked to job losses in the minds of a large part of our workforce. This is the result of productivity messages being put out in a company, and the next thing the employees see, is a number of colleagues losing their jobs. Communicating the benefits of productivity does not measure up to the behaviour management display under the banner of productivity.
To make sometimes drastic changes a reality in a company, it is necessary for all its employees to understand what it is about. People need to be educated in business principles before they can understand that productivity and efficiency are of the utmost importance if the company is to survive and the national economy is to grow. In all of this, the role of communication and diversity management cannot be over estimated in the process of establishing an organisational culture conducive to enhancing competitiveness.
3.2.3 Privatisation:
One of the most heated debates surrounding the government's Macro Economic Framework, is the nationalisation versus privatisation issue. A number of state and parastatal enterprises are involved in this debate as the gains and losses of privatisation are being weighed up. The need to make state enterprises efficient and cost effective is a pressing one, coupled with the government's shortage of funds to deliver on its RDP commitments. In many circles it is believed that the selling of state assets, or privatisation, is the only way to secure the funds necessary to uplift the underprivileged communities. The other side of the argument is mainly founded on the fears of organised labour that their members would lose their jobs and that private companies will not have the 28
social conscience of state enterprises to invest in the communities and assist with upliftment. The result of the parties' inability to see eye to eye causes severe tension and frequent work stoppages and strikes. The fear of privatisation and competition, even within the national borders, is having a paralysing effect on organisations' ability to improve themselves and adapt to the changing environment's demands.
The South African economical and political route to success lies in the ability to create sufficient jobs, thereby creating and distributing enough wealth for all the people in the country. An indication of the seriousness of the situation was given by ABSA Bank when it stated that the economically active population grew by 2,8% per year between 1980 and 1990 and that the expected growth between 1990 and 2005 is 2,7%. These growth figures apply to a period that was characterised by near zero growth in the economy which means that there is a backlog of formidable proportions to be redressed (Theron, 1996:19).
3.2.4 The customer service challenge:
Economic success is not only limited to providing high quality goods at the best price. Customer service at point of sale as well as excellent after sale service is at least as important. According to Manning (1991) today's customers accept quality and the right price as a given when deciding between products. "Once, low price was a sure way to win customers. Companies scrambled to be the low-cost supplier in their industry. But now everyone's aiming at that goal so it's no longer a defensible position." (1991:36). Customer service is more and more becoming the deciding factor. This is especially true for foreign investors and consumers, which poses a formidable challenge to local business people. "The starting point to success is to look outside your organisation at the customer who finally buys, uses or consumes your product or service. Then, do everything necessary to meet or exceed that person's expectations" (Manning, 1991:4).
The quest to please the customer also encompasses the language issue. For many years in South Africa, the customer was defined as white people speaking either English or Afrikaans. In order to meet that customer's needs, front-line personnel were also white and Afrikaans or English speaking and products complementing the Westernised style of living were developed. The changes in our society during the 29
past few years, however, opened the business community's eyes to the fact that the largest part of out society's needs have not been catered for. Initiatives such as Affirmative Action and the requirements of the RDP are also putting the buying power in the hands of the previously "ignored" customers. One way in which companies are responding to this change is by appointing front line staff who speak the language of the customer.
3.3 Technological Environment
The fastest growing element in our society is information-related technology. Buying a personal computer, for instance, is like continuously fighting a losing battle - it is virtually impossible to buy state-of-the-art as it literally improves from day to day. For the communications industry, technological advances are opening up new opportunities every day. Inventions such as the telephone, fax machine and the cellular telephone facilitates communication in that it makes people accessible. The reproduction and distribution of information have also changed unrecognisably with the advent of desktop publishing. Not only can material be produced much quicker than before, but also more cost effectively. The advent of electronic mail changed the face of corporate communications forever in that the necessity for messages distributed on paper diminished greatly. Electronic mail also greatly improved the speed with which information can be made available and distributed and eliminated the need for a message to be disseminated through various organisational levels. The elusive goal of beating the grapevine in the race towards an informed workforce suddenly becomes more attainable.
A further example of the way in which technology is changing employee communication, is the introduction of real-time media such as television. Organisations such the Africa Growth Network (AGN) is now making it possible for South African companies to reach their employees by means of live broadcasts on television - the so called business broadcasts. This medium has three main advantages in terms of the nature of communication:
The message reaches all the employees in the same way on the same time, thereby eliminating the problem of filtering of information on its way down the hierarchical structure. The obstacle in the way of communication posed by illiteracy is overcome through this medium, as the receivers do not have to read. The message reaches them through sight and sound. 30
The possibility of two-way interaction exists in that the viewers can phone in to ask questions to the studio guests. Uncertainties and the need for clarification can thus be addressed immediately.
No system is perfect, however, and this fact is clearly illustrated in the case of business broadcasts. Too often management, and communication practitioners, believes that a system or technology on its own can solve their communication problems. The following are examples of problems that can be encountered in the use of a real-time medium such as the AGN:
Establishing the infrastructure can be very expensive, resulting in limited viewing sites being set up which limits the accessibility of the medium to all employees. Unless time is officially allocated for employees to watch the broadcast, someone will also have to stay behind in the office / workshop / store to render a service to customers. The implication of this is that some people will still receive their information second hand. For people not used to watching television, the medium might be too strange to be perceived as credible and relevant. In a large organisation, the goal of two-way communication is very difficult to realise. Too many people cannot phone in during the same broadcast, as there is simply not enough time to deal with everybody's concerns and issues. In some instances, people are so used to just accept what happens to them, that they find it difficult to actually respond to an invitation to question, challenge and respond.
Employees' responses to technologies as these discussed above, as well as their abilities or not to use it, are symptomatic of our society's division along the lines of technology. South African businesses are faced with a unique situation in terms of the severe divisions in the society between the information rich and the information poor. On the one side of the spectrum people are surfing the Internet and doing their shopping from home in virtual reality malls. On the other extreme are people who have never even used a telephone.
One result of this situation is the phenomenon of "technological push". This refers to what happens when people pass over or leapfrog steps on the way to the latest technology due to the fact that there are no time for them to master all the intermediate steps. In terms of this phenomenon, people will not learn to type on a typewriter, but will directly learn to use word processing software on a computer. Given the South African situation of communities left behind and denied development, technological push is a definite reality. 31
An important advantage of the use of technology is that it can facilitate the process of advancing neglected communities. "Experience in developing nations of the world, such as India, has proved that hi-tech is often the key to meeting developmental challenges. The agreed-upon application of cellular telephone technology in disadvantaged South African communities is a case in point" (Symes & Fourie, 1994:60). A further example is touch screen computers making it possible for semi-literate employees to access information by following graphic directions - in the form of icons - or even vocal instructions. The fact remains, however, that a certain level of literacy remains necessary for people to be able to take part in the technological opportunities. Which is why the basics still have to be taken care of first. Technology should not be seen as the answer, but merely as a very useful tool to be used to realised the ultimate goal. This thought is emphasised by Edelstein (1995:46) in an article in "Intelligence" magazine discussing the possibilities of introducing technology on a large scale in schools to help eradicate the educational backlog in South Africa. "The problem: in Gauteng alone, two million pus school children are serviced by only 2 164 schools, of which only 15% to 20% have at least one computer" (1995:46). Before interactive multimedia and long-distance learning via satellite can become a reality in our schools, "government's main priority is to build the infrastructure and get children back to school. Next is to ensure that there are appropriate tools like stationery and text books" (1995:47). Only then, and provided that sufficient funds are available, will technology be introduced to deliver content.
Currently, companies in the private sector, such as Apple, IBM and Microsoft, are playing a role to introduce technology and computers into schools. Microsoft SA's policy, for example, is not to merely "dump" computers in a school and leave. They always make sure that the infrastructure will be used and that people are trained to make the most of the technology. Apple's philosophy regarding the role of teachers, as expressed by its education manager is also echoed by Microsoft:"...the perception is that teachers are intimidated by technology and will be likely to slow the movement towards technology integration. Our approach therefore is to win over teachers first. Once we have achieved that, we can start focusing more on the children" (Edelstein, 1995:47).
Symes and Fourie (1994:60) provide an interesting exploration of what is expected of technology and companies in terms of realising the goals of the RDP. "Information technology (IT) and sophisticated communication systems will be crucial catalysts for economic growth and development. IT will have important implications for revitalising the production process. Its applications in such areas as education will be essential in the 32
effective implementation of the RDP. A sophisticated IT capability, affording access to global networks, will further provide incentive to international companies wishing to invest in this country". Based on this analysis, it is clear that technological advancement cannot be left behind in favour of "basic" development programmes. The two should go hand in hand as technology can facilitate and accelerate the development process.
Technology is not only changing the technical ways in which employee communications will happen in organisations, according to Symes and Fourie (1994:61), but also leads to complex and often contradictory consequences for the employees. Issues to be taken into account here include:
The creation of new skilled positions The upgrading of existing skills Higher wages linked to higher productivity Labour shedding Resistance to change
In an RDP context, it will be essential for South Africa to develop a social plan to manage the impact of such developments, and the relationships between different interest groups. The best short-term prospects for technological advancement lie in a focus on incremental innovation, rather than solely on radical innovation. For this to be effective, mechanisms for involving workers in the process and formally developing their capabilities will have to be found. These must include advances in human resource development and training and could extend to such steps as the creation of new bargaining forums and styles, wage policies related to technological skills levels, revision of retirement institutions and funds for retrenched workers (Symes & Fourie, 1994:63).
Technology significantly reshapes the organisation of work in companies. An example is the role information technology has played in the creation of flat-level organisations and in empowering individuals to become self-managing. It will be critical for South African companies to develop new methods of work organisation, appropriate to South Africa's social systems and the values of its workers. Sensitivity towards the impact of technological innovation on the work and social environments of employees and communities directly affected will smooth the interface between the human and technological dimensions of development, as well as reducing the negative impact of resistance to change (Symes & Fourie, 1994:63). 33
Based on what was said in the above discussion, organisations have to determine the human impact of technological advancement. Managers and strategists will have to bear in mind that in our labour intensive industries, technological advancement is more often than not directly linked with job losses and increased unemployment. South Africa cannot, however, afford to fall behind in the race for technology as it will make it almost impossible for the country to stay a part of the global village without the technology to overcome distance. "As South Africa cannot keep up with technology development on all fronts, companies will have to achieve a balance between investing in their technology, where it can be globally competitive and where other technology is not available; and importing state-of-the-art technology where they cannot sustain competitive development." (Symes & Fourie, 1994:60).
When examining the technological influences impacting on South African organisations, one has to look at how "the way we do things around here" have changed and are changing. One influence that has impacted on national and organisational culture, is the global village phenomenon. First referred to by McLuhan, the global village explains the effect of technology on our world. Telephones, for instance, make it more or less equally easy to phone your neighbour or a business partner halfway round the globe. E-mail and the Internet are making the global village even more of a reality. It is now possible to source information from all over the world, without even knowing where the answers will come from. This may sound like a repeat of the previous discussion on technological influences on South African organisations, but it merely serves as an introduction to a look at how technology is changing culture.
Frequent exposure to how things are done in other parts of the world, can hardly leave anybody untouched. People adapt from other cultures what they feel comfortable with and what they find exciting and beneficial. The effect of this is a globalisation of cultures going hand in hand with the global village. This phenomenon has been known to fill national governments with dread and concern for the continued existence of their own unique cultures. This fear has been acted on to the extent that certain governments had already attempted to protect their citizens from these influences by, for instance, banning surfing of the Internet, as the Chinese government attempted to do. Enforcing such a ban is, however, impossible, especially as far as media such as the Internet and satellites are concerned. Current legislation simply do not make provision for technology that ignores national borders and geographical boundaries. There is, therefore, no way to effectively 34
protect the citizens of a specific country against the multi-cultural onslaught from the rest of the world.
3.4 Socio-cultural Environment
The impact of culture on South African organisations stems mainly from the way in which the Western culture and the African culture are influencing each other. It may seem odd to dwell on this interaction in the South African context since these cultures have co-existed in the one country for centuries already. It is however true that very little interaction used to take place between people from different colours and cultures, thereby strengthening the idea that colour equals culture. With the political changes in our country came a breaking down of barriers. In the organisational context, Affirmative Action and initiatives such as participative management, are forcing people now to take note of each other, their diverse cultures and how these cultures need to interact to the benefit of the organisation as a whole.
3.4.1 Demographics of the South African society:
Madi (1993:xix - )o() describes the demographics of the South African society as follows: At present, blacks constitute 67% of the total work force and the percentage is expected to have increased to 84% by the year 2020. The white population, on the other hand, will by then have shrunk to 8% of the total. Almost half of South Africa's black population is under 15 years of age, while only 25% of whites are under 15 years of age. The reality of our demographics are also reflected in the market place: in 1960 blacks had only 30% of South Africa's buying power; in 1992 it stood at around 50% and it is expected to rise to about 80% by the year 2000. The reality that South Africa's population and marketplace is getting blacker and younger, as illustrated by Madi's analysis, is a reality that will affect every South African organisation. In 1985 the Institute for Futures Research at Stellenbosch reported that the ratio of managers to non-managers on average in South Africa was 1:42, compared to about 1:12 in most industrialised nations. By the year 2000 a shortfall of 200 000 senior managers is estimated if the present trend of appointing mainly white people in managerial positions continues. 35
These realities have already contributed to the mushrooming of affirmative action and black advancement programmes, and makes the successful management of diversity an imperative.
3.4.2 Africanisation:
One of the passionate cultural debates raging these days, is the one about Africa taking its rightful place in the world in terms of ideas, philosophies and practices. Africans should not be expected to function on Western terms, but should be able to do things the way tradition prescribes. In The Sunday Independent newspaper of July 12 1996, Craig Clarke has the following to say on the subject: "Today we have a farcical movement towards the study of 'African literature'. Clearly there is no African literature. There is only literature written by Africans who have been brutalised into thinking they must express themselves in the Eurocentric forms of verse, drama and prose... The same goes for those African intellectuals active in any other discipline. There is no such thing as an African sociology or historiography, because the concepts of sociology and historiography are European concepts... The same applies in the hard sciences. Africans who study mathematics or biology or physics are betraying their African heritage, in which these disciplines do not exist... I therefore propose that those who support democratisation and Africanisation of South African education examine the disempowering effects of the educational system's emphasis on literacy and numeracy. The widespread belief that it is important for people to be able to read, write and do arithmetic derives exclusively from colonialism. By unquestioningly assuming that these skills are important in South African society, we perpetuate the racist idea that the literate and numerate cultures of Europe are superior to the preliterate and prenumerate cultures of Africa. The time has therefore come for the elimination of literacy and numeracy in South Africa" (p. 24).
This rather lengthy quotation is an apt summary of the call for Africans to break free from the bonds within which Europeanism forces them to function. The validity of the call lies in the fact that Africa and its habitants have for very long been exploited by colonialism and its side affects. One such effect is evident in the dominant language still spoken in former colonies, such as Portuguese in Mozambique. With the modern emphasis on human rights and the Western fascination with African 36
influences, it is quite understandable why Africans feel deprived of the opportunity to express themselves in their own terms and are now demanding that right.
The call for Africanisation is not only heard on a macro level. Within South African organisations, Africanisation has also become a buzzword. It is expected of the organisation to come to terms with, and accommodate, for instance, "African time", the wearing of traditional clothing and the way in which respect is shown in the different cultures. One example of this move towards tradition, is black people abandoning their "Christian" names in favour of the traditional names: George now prefers to be called Thabo and Ezra Khele. The right to be called by one's real name is such a basic, undeniable right, that it is difficult to believe that Europeans required, until recently still, that people have so called "Christian" names which were easier to pronounce.
There is, however, another side to the coin of Africanisation. Clarke's viewpoint, as quoted above, includes some very dangerous demands. Clarke calls for the "elimination of literacy and numeracy in South Africa", but does not give any indication of what would take the place thereof. If South Africa, and Africa, suddenly decide that the continent's preliterate and prenumerate cultures should be honoured at the expense of practices in the rest of the world, there would be no way for the continent to communicate and do business with the rest of the world. And since African countries is not the most sought after trading partners in the world, it would be economic suicide to expect the rest of the world to suddenly communicate and trade on our non-literate and non-numerate terms. The same argument applies for Clarke's criticism of African writers, sociologists and scientists. For the academic community to communicate with each other, common reference terms are necessary. African natural and social scientist cannot change these terms of reference unanimously and still expect to be able to be understood by the rest of their fraternity. It can be contended that the existing terms of reference are not prefect, but then it is up to the African scientists to change it through an evolutionary process whereby the imperfect system is substituted with a system that would elevate the study of the world around us and the people living in it. We cannot, once again, expect the rest of the world to discard what they have and replace it with something Africa feels comfortable with. 37
The important factor to be kept in mind, therefore, is that South African organisations cannot afford to Africanise to the point where it is impossible to function in the global market. It is not only necessary to fit in Africa, but also on a global scale. One example of how South African companies will have to toe this line, is the language issue. With 11 official languages, it is possible for an organisation's members to demand to be communicated with in their mother tongue. The assumption that culture is embodied in language makes this an even more emotional issue. In terms of international communication, however, English is almost our only option. Should international trade with and investment in South Africa grow to the extend everybody is hoping for, it would be increasingly necessary for our workforce to be familiar with the English language. This may be resisted as merely a different form of colonialism, or accepted as an inescapable economic reality.
3.4.3 Covert attitudes:
In the process of socialisation, it is possible for people to adopt the appropriate and desired behaviour, without changing their attitudes. The process is then an artificial one. A similar phenomenon is evident to an extent in South African organisations today, although not necessarily amongst new employees still being socialised. The phenomenon referred is "covert racism". The term is put in inverted commas as it is used for lack of a better term and is not a recognised reference to the specific situation.
"Covert racism" refers to a situation where employees use the politically correct words and go through the politically correct motions without really believing in what they say and do. Speaking from a white person's perspective, it is shocking at times to experience this racism amongst an exclusive group. People would behave in the correct way towards colleagues from other racial groups and then turn around and refer to those same persons in the crudest, most racist language possible. A personal observation is that this attitude is on the increase - something that may be ascribed to the Affirmative Action process and the perceived unfairness thereof in the eyes of white people. White employees feel very frustrated when people who, they believe, are incompetent are promoted into positions they cannot fill effectively. 38
When these appointees fail due to whatever reason, the failure is most often given a racial connotation.
A possible explanation for this, apart form the obvious one rooted in our past, is the current scarcity of employment in South Africa. White people who have been preparing themselves for promotion for years (and even those who have not) feel cheated when a black person "from nowhere" walks in and claims the coveted position. Affirmative Action is, however, not only seen as taking away the immediate opportunities, but also as snatching away a future in the corporate world. All of this results in a very destructive form of racism, and also a very difficult form to do something about. The reason for this is that people behave the way the company expects of them to behave and only show the racist attitudes when among friends. In a diversity management workshop or course, they will most probably say the right words and do the right things, without really changing their values and attitudes.
One way in which these attitudes surface and are detrimental to the organisation, is when the existing (mostly white) members of the organisation refuse to coach the new members in the skills, competencies and informal knowledge vital for their survival in the organisation. In these instances, a person's personal values and attitudes negatively influence his / her professional life, workplace and colleagues.
Dovidio (1993) describes a phenomenon related to undercover racism - something he calls aversive racism. "Aversive racism is a subtle form of bias characteristic of many white Americans who possess strong egalitarian values and who believe that they are not prejudiced. But many also possess negative racial feelings and beliefs that they are unaware of, or that they try to dissociate from their image of themselves as non-prejudiced" (1993:52). Based on research Dovidio conducted with Professor Sam Gaertner from the University of Delaware, the following responses to racial issues and interracial situations characterise aversive racists (1993:53): In contrast to old-fashioned racists, aversive racists endorse fair and just treatment of all groups, at least in principle. Despite their conscious good intentions, aversive racists unconsciously harbour negative feelings toward other races, and thus try to avoid interracial interaction. 39
When interracial interaction is unavoidable, aversive racists experience anxiety and discomfort and try to disengage from the interaction as quickly as possible. These negative feelings involve discomfort, rather than hostility or hatred. Because part of aversive racists' anxiety derives from a concern about appearing prejudiced, when they cannot avoid interracial interaction, they will adhere strictly to established rules and codes of behaviour in these situations. Aversive racists express negative feelings, but in subtle ways they can rationalise.
An example of aversive racism that illustrates the concept very well can be found in one of the studies conducted as part of Dovidio and Gaertner's research. In this study it was found that aversive racists do not regard black people as inferior to white people, but they do regard white people as superior to black people. They apparently resist believing that blacks are bad or even worse than whites, remarks easily interpreted as racial bias. They do, however, display subtle bias in their willingness to believe that whites are better than blacks.
Should aversive racism be prevalent as Dovidio (1993) suggests, the road ahead for black people in traditionally white owned South African organisations will be a long and difficult one. Considering the difficulties of diversity management with people who overtly express their attitudes or are at least aware of them, making an impact on people who are not aware of their racist feelings seems to be an almost insurmountable task.
This assessment's focus on white people's racist attitudes should not be seen as ascribing this characteristic exclusively to white people. Since the author is a white person, it would be very difficult to do the same analysis for black attitudes, but it is quite possible that a similar phenomenon would be found in black circles. The challenge for South African organisations is thus to find a way to manage these latent attitudes, at least to prevent them from making it impossible for the members of an organisation to work together.
3.4.4 Professional life versus personal life:
A critical factor implicating on the professional lives of employees, is the health of their personal and family lives. In most instances it is virtually impossible for a 40
person to not be influenced at work by her domestic situation and visa versa. In terms of the changing South African workforce, this reality has taken on a new dimension.
The search for skilled and competent black people to facilitate the changes to our workforce leadership has accelerated the pace of development for these candidates. The downside to accelerated development is too often not work related but has to do with the members of the family not exposed to the new ways of thinking and doing. When only one partner in a marriage is exposed to higher education, the corporate world and the importance of status, the other person could experience a great deal of difficulty adapting to the demands of a new lifestyle. It could be increasingly difficult for the people involved to understand each other's positions, needs and frustrations that could lead to resentment and dysfunctional behaviour. To illustrate this phenomenon, a real life example from a large South African company can be used in point.
Mr. Mokoena, a competent black man, was appointed in a key middle management position. As he was earmarked to succeed the Business Unit Manager eventually, he was required to undergo a strenuous training programme and had to attend a lot of meetings in the interest of exposure and meeting the right people. The demands made on Mr. Mokoena often resulted in his staying over away from home and working long hours overtime. Mr. Mokoena's wife, a decidedly traditional housewife, found it difficult to understand her husband's new behaviour and before long she was accusing him of being involved with other women. She was also not at all comfortable with staying home alone. The couple's inability to understand each other's needs and anxieties and to support each other eventually led to dysfunctional behaviour. Mr. Mokoena developed a drinking problem and his wife tried to prevent him from going away from home. An example of such an incident occurred when Mr. Mokoena had to attend a prestigious five day development programme for which the candidates are hand-picked. A few hours before he had to leave, his wife took the car and disappeared, leaving him with two small children - one of whom a baby of a few weeks old. Mrs. Mokoena stayed away long enough to ensure that her husband will not be able to be on time and therefore had to withdraw from the programme, which caused him to lose a lot of face. 41
The example of the Mokoena household is, unfortunately, not an isolated one limited to black people only. During the first part of 1996, newspaper reports of female Members of Parliament arriving for work on Mondays all bruised and battered, send a number of shock waves through our society. It has to be extremely difficult for a successful, professional man or woman to be forced back into their traditional roles at home by a spouse who has no understanding for the world in which their partner exists for at least eight hours per day. As companies employ more and more people who may find themselves in similar situations, support mechanisms need to be put in place to help their employees cope with all the demands being placed on them. These mechanisms could take the form of training programmes for spouses or life skills training for the employees to enable them to cope with their domestic situation.
3.4.5 Ubuntu:
The foremost South African author on the subject of Ubuntu is Mbigi and it is therefor fitting to allow him the first word on the subject: "Literally translated, ubuntu means 'I am because we are' - a person is only a person through other human beings. Ubuntu is an expression of our collective personhood, and invokes images of group support, acceptance, co-operation, care, sharing and solidarity" (1995:57). It is, however, a mistake to believe that ubuntu is an exclusively African phenomenon. "This practice of collective unity is not new and not peculiar to Africa. All dispossessed groups wherever they are in the world, Harlem in New York, Brixton in the UK, subscribe in practice to this concept of Ubuntu. It is a concept of brotherhood and collective unity for survival among the poor in every society" (Mbigi, 1995:1). Mbigi states that the ubuntu concept is of relevance in determining approaches to urban renewal in the ghetto or city centers of the West, as well as community development in rural communities in developing countries (1995:2).
Ubuntu aptly describes the difference between the Western cultures' emphasis on individualism and the African cultures' collectivism. After a few decades of intensely individualistic organisations and societies, there seems to be a shift towards collectivism, illustrated for example by the emphasis being placed on teamwork. This apparent shift, coupled with the fact that South African organisations' work forces are becoming increasingly diverse, would seem to suggest that applying ubuntu as a management principle might be the best thing to do right now. 42
According to Lovemore Mbigi, the application of ubuntu's principles in business can be called the developmental model and is based on four principles (1995:24):
The principle of morality refers to the belief that no institution can attain its highest potential without touching its moral base. The purity of both motives and behaviour is critical to effective strategic implementation. This is best expressed through a living code of trust. The principle of interdependence is the belief the task of wealth creation requires the collective corporation of all the stakeholders in the enterprising community. The principle of the spirit of man recognises that man is the creator and benefactor of all wealth creation. He is entitled to unconditional respect and dignity. Man is the purpose of all organisations and they must work in harmony with him in the spirit of service and harmony. The principle of totality refers to the belief that the task of wealth creation is highly complex and involves the attention and continuous improvement of everything in the organisation, by every member of the organisation. The building of a great organisation must start with little improvements, in the manner in which we do our jobs, in terms of the improvements in five universal standards of relationships, quality, quantity, cost and timing. This is the essence of ubuntu - collective participation of every member through freedom of enterprise is a precondition to the creation of enterprising communities in Africa.
In two separate articles by Lovemore Mbigi, he provides thought provoking and practical ways of applying the principles of ubuntu in the workplace. In Productivity SA of July/August 1995, Mbigi specifically addresses the issue of establishing effective shopfloor teams as a way in which managers can encourage the solidarity principle in a company (p. 11). These teams have to meet during working hours for a minimum of 30 minutes and a maximum of one hour. The agenda should be set in terms of quality, flexibility, quantity, cost, timing and performance relationships. Establishing these teams, however, also necessitates the creation of an inclusive consultative workplace forum which is a meeting of representatives of the shop stewards committee and management to look at burning issues and key strategic issues (p. 12). In terms of this application of ubuntu, participative management as prescribed in the new Labour Relations Act is actually a way of bringing ubuntu into the functioning of organisations. 43
Mbigi's article in Enterprise of November 1995, examines the application of ceremonies and rituals to organisational life. One such example is initiation ceremonies. People who were born in the same year are initiated together and become a team for life. They support each other throughout their life on earth, are encouraged to consult each other on key personal issues and are not expected to breach their confidences. This aspect of African rituals could be adapted to modern organisational practices through inducting programmes. Organisations should strive to "weave people who join the same year into a special mutual support team through special events and ceremonies" (p. 57).
The spirit of ubuntu is also relevant in terms of customer service. In traditional African societies, ubuntu expresses itself in hospitality and service. Visitors and strangers are always welcome and this should be expressed through elaborate greetings and smiles as well as generous offerings of food and water. In South Africa we have a poor reputation when it comes to customer service. If we are to take advantage of opportunities offered by eco-tourism, we need to be good at serving in a spirit of service and harmony (Mbigi, 1995:58).
The way in which ubuntu is expressed in marriage, can be used as the basis for organisation's recruitment processes. In African tradition, you don't just marry your partner - marriage is a collective union of two extended families. In most African tribes, a man cannot go and marry alone. He has to be accompanied by other members of the family, and make use of an outside facilitator to help negotiate and resolve conflict. In terms of organisations, it is important to let teams participate in recruiting and training their members. A new member should be allowed to nominate a facilitator or mentor within one month of joining. This person should help the new worker to settle into the organisation and form a strong bond with the company (Mbigi, 1995:58).
The examples discussed above seems to be relatively simple, but realising ubuntu in modern organisations requires a major paradigm shift, as is illustrated by the following table which compares current management principles with the ubuntu model: 44
FIGURE 3: A Comparison of Management Practices
MANAGEMENT CURRENT UBUNTU PRINCIPLE Organisational Culture Western / individualistic African / group focus Management Style Competitive / survival of the No permanent winners and fittest losers / collective Industrial Relations Conflict pattern / "us" versus Inclusive structures / "them" dialogue / cooperation Decision Making Hierarchical / central Participative / teamwork / more information known Assets Management Institutions / buildings / People / consumers finance Re-engineering Work processes / workflow Transformation / strategic realignment / paradigm shifts Quality circles Japanese example Afro-centric / spiritual medium Job grading system Peromnes / Hay/ Patterson African based / flatter levels / fewer gradings / development / higher wages Human Resources Western models Empowerment / African Management culture Affirmative Action White control Empowerment / African culture / transparency Leadership American-centric Black heroes as examples Organisational Structure Centralised "African village experience" Balance and Income Generally accepted Not only GAAP / longer accounting principles horison for financial planning (GAAP) / black access to capital / more spent on housing and development Memo's / Paperwork Comprehensive / meetings / "Bosberade" / bonding rituals typists Salaries & Wages Secrecy Complete disclosure, especially from top management
Source: (Mittner, 1995:74)
4. SUMMARY
The aim of this chapter was to set the stage for the remainder of the study by making out a case for the necessity for, and indeed inevitability of, change in South African organisations. The discussion on the systems approach and theory emphasised the fact that no system, be it human being or organisation, can exist as an island. It is necessarily being influenced by its macro environment and is thus forced to make changes to its micro or internal environment in order to survive. The process of exerting influence does not happen in one 45
way only, however. The system, or organisation, also has an influence on its environment and causes changes to take place as well.
The importance of change management processes and initiatives to from part of today's organisations' functioning was highlighted in the discussion of some of the current change drivers in the South African society. The fundamental changes which transformed our society demand of organisations to do more than just superficially altering the appearance of their workforce and client base. Adding to the pressure, is the fact that the rest of the world cannot and will not wait for South African organisations to come to grips with local societal pressures before allowing them the opportunity to become fully active traders in the global marketplace. If local business want to prevent the marginalisation that characterises the rest of the African continent, they will have to prove their worth to the buyers and investors of the world very quickly. This will be easier said than done, due to the South African history of low productivity and extremely high labour costs. The power of organised labour and the process of democratising the workplace are currently not facilitating economical growth as management is not allowed to make quick and impactful decisions without lengthy consultation. The other side of the coin reveals the reality of the previously disadvantaged sector of the workforce demanding to reap the benefits of initiatives such as workplace democracy, participative management and affirmative action. Pressure is also being applied from the unemployed masses whose expectations are proving impossible to realise given the current economic and social situation.
In taking the first steps towards securing a future for themselves in these somewhat chaotic circumstances, South African organisations will have to realise that the old way of doing things has become totally obsolete. It cannot be revamped or re-engineered - it has to be buried to make way for something new and different. This process would entail a complete and drastic culture change to enable the organisation to adapt to, and make the most of, its new and ever-changing environment. Such a culture change would touch on a number of issues, such as performance management, establishing a learning organisation, customer focus and a culture of continuous improvement. One of the most important changes, however, would be in the field of attitudes towards other cultures and diversity.
For South African organisations to survive their new circumstances, they will have to come to grips with their new workforce and customer base. Although organisations always had 46
racially diverse workforces, the management levels were up to now largely homogeneous and dominated by white men that created the impression of a homogeneous workforce. Participative management never existed before and organised labour had a limited voice contributing to the fact that the voice of diversity was seldom if ever heard.
To examine the challenge of diversity and the management thereof, the following chapter will examine diversity in terms of what it is and why it should be managed taking into consideration its impact on organisational performance. Affirmative action as mechanism to ensure diversity in managerial levels will then be discussed, followed by a look at how diversity is currently being managed in South Africa as opposed to what theory prescribes and recommends. 47
CHAPTER HI
DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT AND THE ROLE IT PLAYS IN ORGANISATIONS
1. INTRODUCTION
In Chapter II several factors influencing South African organisations were discussed in order to form a picture of the challenges facing local companies. The discussion on systems theory illustrated the importance for organisations to take note of their external environment and take steps to ensure that they are ready to face the challenges posed by the changes in that environment if they hope to survive in the ruthless business world. In this chapter, one of those challenges, namely the management of diversity and a number of its facets will be examined more closely. A suggestion of why so much emphasis is currently being placed on diversity management, may be found in Herriot & Pemberton's book "Competitive Advantage through Diversity". The two authors offer ten propositions explaining how people will best innovate and learn in tomorrow's business environment. Two of these are especially relevant to this discussion (1995:8): Everyone, at all levels in an organisation, are capable both of knowing how and of knowing beyond The diversity of individuals' frameworks of understanding is the key potential source of innovation.
If organisations need to become "learning organisations", as is suggested by the first proposition, and have to distinguish themselves from their competitors by means of product and service innovations in order to survive, diversity management shows itself not as a human resources "soft issue", but as a strategic necessity. This is especially true in the hostile economic environment modern organisations have to face. Herriot & Pemberton (1995:8) explain this further when they point out that the recession has given organisations an excuse for their continued refusal to respond to differences between people. "For the recession has stressed the need for efficiency and productivity. The outcomes have been achieved by control: control of money and control of people. People of the same sort are 48
much easier to control; they start out with similar assumptions, values, and work patterns" (1995:8).
The problem with the above-mentioned way of thinking, however, is that control and homogeneity stifle creativity and innovation. One of the reasons why many organisations are unable to adapt to the rapid pace of change, is that they have either assimilated diversity or rejected people who dared to be different. "The diversity which is the potential source of new ideas is at the same time the stumbling block which prevents the benefits of those ideas being realized" (Herriot & Pemberton, 1995:8).
Presenting diversity management as a strategic business priority may present the issue in a deceptively simple light. The reason for this statement is that diversity management cannot and is not approached in the clinical way budgets and audit requirements are. In most instances, diversity issues call emotions, associations and feelings to the fore, which serve only to cloud sound judgment and common sense. Affirmative action as a means to ensure diversity in organisations, for instance, leaves hardly anybody untouched. White employees may feel cheated out of a future and resent the process and all so-called "Affirmative Action candidates". Black employees, on the other hand, may feel that they are not reaping the benefits of the process either in the sense that qualified and experienced people are recruited externally while the internal people are overlooked and not developed.
The emotions associated with diversity should not, however, mislead companies to regard it as a "soft issue" far removed from the harsh realities of getting the job done. Diversity management has to be approached as a strategic business issue, but with strong human resources, and especially communication, influences to deal with the emotions and put them into perspective. Communication is of special importance in the process of diversity management as a lot of the emotions surrounding diversity have their foundations in misperceptions and a lack of communication between the different groups.
In this chapter, the elements of diversity that cause emotional reactions in people, such as stereotyping, prejudice and ethnocentrism will be discussed in the context of how they impact the organisation's "diversity climate", as Taylor Cox refers to it. The link between the diversity climate and the organisation's culture will then be explored as an introduction to the following chapter. 49
Before the elements of diversity can be discussed, however, it is necessary to focus on what diversity is and why it should be managed in view of organisational performance. Affirmative action as a vehicle for diversity and the crucial importance for organisations to move beyond affirmative action to diversity management will also be touched on before the elements of diversity will be discussed.
2. DEFINING DIVERSITY AND DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT
In South Africa, diversity has traditionally been defined in terms of race and ethnicity. However, a workforce with different skin colours does not constitute the only prerequisite for diversity and the effective management thereof. The role of women in the workplace is more and more being recognised as a diversity, and even affirmative action, issue. People of different ages with different backgrounds and interests, even different sexual preferences, also constitute a diverse workforce.
In attempting to define diversity, the definition offered by Thomas proves to be very helpful (1991:xv): "Employees differ not just on the basis of race, gender and ethnicity, but also on a variety of other dimensions such as age, functional and educational backgrounds, tenure with the organisation, lifestyles and geographic origins - just to name a few. I believe that these dimensions and others have to be included when considering work force diversity".
While a definition by Roosevelt implies other dimensions than the ones listed, Dobbs' definition actually names them: "Diversity is multicultural and includes race, gender, age, personal background, personality, education, sexual preference, working parents, geographic origin, functions and other differences within the organisation" (1994:39).
It was thought to be important to include these two very broad definitions of diversity as South Africans often look at diversity in terms of black and white and organisations may tend to base their diversity management processes on racial issues while ignoring other factors that may divide or unite different groups. The bottom line of these definitions is basically that diversity management cannot be group driven, as people belong to different groups at different times, depending on the circumstances and their needs. Diversity is therefor not an absolute in the sense that people who differ from a standard are regarded as diverse. Even the embodiment of "non-diversity" in our society today - the middle aged 50
white male - represents diversity as they differ from other groups as well as displaying differences within the group itself. Due to the emphasis currently being placed on race in South Africa, the majority of examples will refer to race and colour, although all the other diversity factors will be implicated in the discussion on diversity management,
Having determined, at least broadly, what is implicated in the term "diversity", the next logical step is to examine the concept of managing this diversity. According to Thomas, as quoted in Dobbs, "Managing diversity is defined as a comprehensive managerial process for developing an environment that works for all employees" (1994:39). Oakley-Smith and Braxton (1993:22) attempt to elaborate on this definition by stating that managing a diverse workforce hinges on two interdependent principles: valuing the differences between people and managing people in such a way that differences are taken into account. Kemp (1994:26) adds to the idea of developing an environment that works for everyone by stating that managing diversity refers to "...managing people, each being unique and different with a view to ensuring the best performance of everyone in the achievement of organisational goals. Broken down it means managing different individuals and treating each individual in a unique manner".
The golden thread that seems to be woven into all these definitions is the idea that diversity management is not about managing groups of people, but about managing individuals who all behave, think and feel differently. The challenge for the organisation is therefore to create some form of unity out of the apparent chaos created by diversity.
3. WHY SHOULD DIVERSITY BE MANAGED?
Before one can examine the appropriate ways to manage diversity, it has to be established why it is necessary to manage diversity, and for organisations to be serious about diversity management, the reasons should build a sound business case. IBM's CEO, Louis V. Gerstner Jr., views the necessity of diversity management as follows: "Our marketplace is made up of all races, religions and sexual orientations, and therefor it is vital to our success that our workforce also be diverse (quoted by Rice, 1994:45). Ted Childs, director of work force diversity at IBM (quoted by Rice, 1994:45) adds to this by saying: "We think it is important for our customers to look inside and see people like them. If they can't, it seems to me that the prospect of them becoming or staying our customers declines". 51
To determine why organisations need to manage diversity effectively, the influence of diversity on organisational performance has to be clarified. As an introduction, the thoughts of Fuhr on the levels of employee performance in the typical South African organisation warrant some attention. According to Fuhr, five levels of worker performance exist (1992: 14): Commitment - the desire to work to one's fullest potential and perform beyond expectations in an attempt to satisfy one's own needs and aspirations within the framework of organisational goals; Active compliance - a willingness to do that which is expected of one - no more and no less; Reluctant compliance - where one does the bare minimum or just enough to stay out of trouble; Apathy - where the individual doesn't really care either way and views his / her job merely as a means to stay alive. The emphasis here is to get away with as much as possible; Terminal apathy - this occurs when the employee becomes involved in destructive behaviour such as theft, intimidation, trouble stirring and sabotage.
It can be inferred that reluctant apathy is the best organisations can hope for without diversity management, but more often apathy and terminal apathy are the results of friction between employees. Commitment, however, can be an off-spin of an effective diversity strategy, one that goes further than merely setting targets for affirmative action. In terms of worker performance levels, the need for diversity to be managed cannot be over emphasized. To better quantify the reasons for diversity management, the following sections will look at the potential benefits and problems associated with diversity.
3.1 Potential Benefits of Diversity
Numerous authors maintain that, when properly managed, cultural diversity is an asset to organisations that can be used to enhance organisational performance, i.e. the so-called Value-in-Diversity (VID) perspective. According to Cox (1993:27), the major arguments supporting the VID perspective, revolve around five factors: 52
3.1.1 Recruiting of Human Resources:
Attracting and retaining the best available human resources contribute fundamentally to an organisation's competitive edge (Cox, 1993:27). In view of affirmative action targets and pressures from government and international business partners, companies in South Africa are particularly concerned with hiring and retaining people with specific competencies or potential from cultural groups other than white South Africans.
Companies are also realising that the most talented people do not only belong to one cultural group - recruiting from other groups is therefore also a quality and performance issue. Companies with a reputation for managing diversity successfully are more successful in recruiting and retaining employees from different cultural backgrounds.
3.1.2 Enhanced Marketing:
Just as the work forces of organisations are becoming more diverse so are their markets and research is showing that socio-cultural identities do have an impact on consumer behaviour. In terms of this premise, diversity management could benefit an organisation in at least two ways (Cox, 1993:28):
In the first instance, the public relations value of being known as a multi-cultural employer should never be underestimated, especially in a society such as the South African one where the eyes of the majority of the population are on companies to see how they perform in terms of giving opportunities to members of formerly disadvantaged communities. A favourable public image will, therefore, contribute to an organisation's well being.
In the second instance companies may gain a competitive advantage from using the insights of employees from various cultural backgrounds to assist them in understanding the cultural effects on buying decisions and to devise strategies to respond to them. However, employees are not only valuable in helping to map strategies - sales representatives from the same cultural background as the customer base can produce favourable results. There are thus circumstances under 53
which the ability to match the identities of salespersons and customers may facilitate sales.
In South Africa, this principle has become increasingly evident in the world of advertising over the past few years. Previously, advertisements in languages other than Afrikaans or English were restricted to black radio stations and magazines and were very often mere translations of the original copy in Afrikaans or English. Advertisements also used to feature black people in specific roles, for example as domestic servants or gardeners and their relationships with whites were depicted in terms of superior and subordinate. However, the advent of the "new South Africa" changed the face of advertising in this country forever. It is evident that companies are lobbying for the favour of new markets can clearly be seen in their advertising. Black and white families are, for example, shown to be living next door to each other, sharing a friendly cup of tea. Indeed, in some advertisements, the black persons get the better of the whites - what better example then the "Yebo, Gogo" Vodacom advertisement! The implicit message carried by these advertisements is that the company values diversity and regards people from different cultures as important enough to want their business and compete for it on the market's terms. The Economist of 17 June 1995 quotes an example to substantiate this point: "When a district sales manager for Avon Products in Atlanta noticed an influx of Vietnamese and Korean families in 1993, she sniffed an opportunity. She quickly recruited Vietnamese and Korean staff to sell Avon cosmetics door-to-door, hoping that they would have the language skills and cultural know-how to sell to this mostly first- and second-generation population. The hunch proved right: the Asian-American Avon ladies cleaned up" (1995:73).
3.1.3 Creativity:
Anderson (1993:59) envisions that diversity can be a stimulus for intellectual, emotional, economic and social growth, as it allows for the presence of disparate perspectives - comfortable and uncomfortable ones.
Cox (1993:32) cites various research projects that have indicated that heterogeneity in workteams can promote creativity and innovation. Kanter's study of innovation in organisation (1983) revealed that the most innovative companies deliberately 54
establish heterogeneous teams in order to create "a marketplace of ideas, recognising that a multiplicity of points of view needs to be brought to bear on the problem" (Cox, 1993:32). Research conducted by Charlene Nemeth in 1986 shows that minority views can stimulate the consideration of non-obvious alternatives in task groups (Cox, 1993:32). Although it is not a rule cast in concrete, it can be inferred that increased cultural diversity in organisations can often lead to higher levels of creativity and innovation.
3.1.9 Problem Solving:
The rationale for cultural diversity's positive impact on problem solving is much the same as was the case with creativity. A greater variety of perspectives are brought into the problem solving process which makes critical analysis and the generation of more alternatives possible. The phenomenon of "groupthink" can also be effectively counteracted by means of diversity in a workgroup. Groupthink occurs in highly homogenous and cohesive groups which restricts the impact of differences in experience that could have brought fresh perspectives to finding solutions to a problem. Anderson (1993:59) also maintains that diversity permits employers and employees to take risks without the fears that are associated with breaking traditions. Problems can thus be solved in new and innovative ways.
It is, however, important to notice that introducing diversity into a group does not provide an instant solution to complex problems. The other side of the argument is that teams of people from different backgrounds have to spend too much time and effort learning to get along with each other to be effective in business. To determine which of these viewpoints is the closest to the truth, a trio of business school academics, led by Warren Watson from the University of North Texas, recently performed an experiment to test both contentions (The Economist, August 1993:36). They studied the behaviour of 173 students enrolled in a business-management course at a large university. The students were organised into 36 carefully chosen teams of four or five. Seventeen teams were deemed "culturally homogenous" and contained only white Americans. Nineteen were chosen to be "culturally diverse". As part of their course work, each team met four times over 17 weeks to analyze four different business case studies and to offer solutions to the dilemmas they posed. Each student's grade for the course was directly influenced by the 55
performance of the team. The results therefore mattered to them, emulating the imperative of working together in a real life business situation. After each team meeting, the analyses and solutions were independently checked by three professors who had no knowledge of which team produced which analyses and who did not even know the goals of the study. The students were also asked to complete a 23-item questionnaire on how well they were getting along with fellow team members.
The culturally homogenous teams outperformed the diverse teams in the first two meetings. In the last two, both groups of teams were judged virtually equal. Judging from the questionnaires, the culturally diverse teams found it harder to work together until the final meeting, when their ability to work together seemed almost as good as that of their homogenous rivals. The diverse groups reported more difficulty in deciding what was important about each case, and they more frequently had members who tried to dominate the session, hindering contributions from other people in the team. Most discouraging of all, the results contradicted earlier experiments that found that diverse teams were better at solving complex problems than uniform ones.
Watson, however, points out that all is not doom and gloom. He points out that, though both sets of teams improved both their performance and ability to work together, the diverse teams improved more quickly from a lower base. Moreover, by the end of the experiment the diverse teams were clearly more creative than the homogenous ones. The conclusion that can be drawn from these results is that groups of employees need time to surmount their differences and to learn to co- operate. With patience comes creativity. Diversity can, therefore, be costly in the short run, but it offers the potential of developing into an advantage if a team stays together for a considerable length of time.
3.1.5 Organisational Flexibility:
The advantage that cultural diversity brings into organisations in terms of flexibility, exists on two levels. On the personal level, evidence suggests that members of minority groups tend to have more flexible cognitive structures. Research has shown, for example, that women tend to have a higher tolerance for ambiguity than men. In addition, a series of studies on bilingual and monolingual sub-populations 56
from several different nations of the world, have shown that bilinguals have higher levels of divergent thinking and cognitive flexibility than monolinguals (Cox, 1993:35).
The second level of advantage is in terms of the organisation as a whole. The process of managing diversity itself may enhance organisational flexibility. Cox (1993:36) explains this as follows:"... as policies and procedures governing how business is done, are broadened and operating methods are made less standardised, the system should become more accommodating of uncertainty and more adaptable. Also, the tolerance for alternative points of view that is fostered by managing diversity should lead to more openness to new ideas in general".
However, from interviews with employees in a large South African company it has emerged that companies find themselves in a position where they feel that the company has to lay down clear rules and procedures so as to ensure its functioning, especially in situations where new appointees are not competent for the task at hand. This may be viewed as a result of the way in which South Africa is tackling affirmative action at present, i.e. chasing targets at the expense of all else.
Finally, Anderson (1993:59) sees the benefits of diversity in terms of organisational flexibility in two other areas as well. Diversity can help organisations clarify, defend, explore and transform their current values and practices. And diversity can change the intellectual character of an organisation, especially its perceptions of its place in the global marketplace and in relation to the human community.
3.2 Potential Problems of Diversity
Diversity and the management thereof offer a host of opportunities to multi-cultural organisations. However, there would not have been a body of burgeoning research on the subject of cultural diversity were it all plain sailing. Cox (1993:37) refers to the issues of group cohesion and communication in his discussion of the potential problems caused by diversity in the workplace as will be discussed in the following section. 57
3.2.1 Diversity and Group Cohesiveness:
The idea that group cohesiveness is reduced by cultural diversity is largely based on the idea that people are more attracted to and feel more comfortable and satisfied with group members who are like them. A logical extension of this is that it is easier to foster team spirit with homogenous groups. Cox (1993:37) states that the importance of the relationship between diversity and cohesiveness rests on whether or not cohesiveness affects the performance of groups. In this regard, work on group dynamics indicates that highly cohesive groups tend to have higher morale and better communication than less cohesive groups. Putting this together with the previous discussion on diversity and cohesiveness, we may conclude that diversity in the workplace has the potential power to lower member morale and make communication more difficult.
It should, however, be noted that research has not shown that cohesiveness automatically improves the productivity of groups. It is also useful to keep the results of Warren Watson's study, as discussed in terms of creativity as potential benefit of diversity, in mind. In the short term, diverse workgroups may have greater difficulty to work together than what more cohesive groups may experience. In the long run, however, research seems to suggest that the benefits of diversity will become a reality.
3.2.2 Diversity and Communication:
In South Africa there used to be two official languages in the past, with vast numbers of the population unable to express themselves in either one. However, under the new constitution, 11 languages hold the status of being official and still people do not "speak the same language".
Since the political changes in South Africa, the corporate world has begun to place a great deal of emphasis on language training, especially in terms of White employees learning to help themselves in one or another black language. According to Annica Foxcroft, Marketing Director of Interman, a company specialising in professional language training, learning to speak the language is but a small step in the right direction. What is very important, is that students should also develop an understanding of the dynamics of the culture within which the specific language is 58
spoken. Communication problems are not purely caused by linguistic differences, however, but are also related to different meanings and significance attached to words, concepts, symbols and non-verbal communication elements by different cultural groups. Cox (1993:39) aptly summarises the situation: "There can be little question that communication differences related to culture may become the source of misunderstandings and ultimately lower workgroup effectiveness. Once the existence of these differences are acknowledged, an obvious action step is to educate members on cross-cultural differences so as to minimise their detrimental effects".
3.2.3 Diversity Stress:
Andre (1995) discusses the phenomenon of diversity stress: "Today, in addition, people find themselves placed increasingly under a previously unidentified form of stress: the discomfort they feel when they face a situation in which, because of the presence of multi-cultural factors, their usual modes of coping are insufficient" (1995:489). Seen against the background of the dysfunctional effect stress has on managers and employees alike these days, diversity stress may be regarded as a potential organisational problem caused by diversity.
According to Andre (1995:490), the source of diversity stress is a question of morality. "Morality stress occurs when managerial decisions are shrouded in ambiguity and competing moral principles, and people are uncertain how to behave... Diversity stress frequently results from managerial decision-making under multi-cultural conditions involving ambiguity and competing moral principles". An example of such situations, or moral dilemmas, is the need to show special consideration for special circumstances, while at the same time treating people fairly and impartially. An example in the South African context could be the way in which managers and subordinates alike frequently feel they have to treat so called "affirmative action appointees" - giving them a break because they are new in the situation. This often leads to resentment because employees feel they are being treated unfairly and the manager experiences stress because it may not be clear whether her own moral standard or that of the company should take precedence. 59
Andre identifies six instances in which diversity can act as a stressor (1995:492): Exclusion from the normal social and task-oriented functioning of the work group has long been a concern for minorities and makes it virtually impossible for them to integrate. Harassing actions and statements against an individual because of their differences. Often diversity stress involves role conflict: the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role expectations such that complying with one would make compliance with the other more difficult. A person might find herself faced with the question of whether to act as a friend or a supervisor in a certain situation. A related problem is that an individual has trouble deciding how to respond to another person who seems to be acting out of role. At times too a manager will experience the stress of role ambiguity, which is the uncertainty about what the occupant of a particular office is supposed to do. Sometimes stressful situations occur simply because of role misinterpretation on the side of the occupant or his fellow employees.
The real danger of diversity stress, however, lies in the counterproductive ways individuals choose to deal with it: A manager's first instinct is to try and control the situation, even though they do not really understand it. Knowing that employees are experiencing diversity stress, managers send them for increasingly popular diversity training, yet they seldom talk about diversity back in the workplace and they do not set up processes for discussing real issues. A second counterproductive approach is to adhere to narrow directives and rules, while ignoring human pain, moral issues, emotions and other ambiguities that managers face in interpersonal relations. A third reaction is that individuals complain about others to distract potential critics from their own problems. One racial or gender group may complain about another, or the victim of cultural mismanagement may be blamed. Finally, managers may attempt to redefine moral issues into amoral matters of technique or ordinary practice. Instead of assisting the black person to integrate with the white team members, his inability to do so is put down as "he does not have what it takes to be the aggressive teamplayer we need here". 60
3.3 The Impact of Diversity on Organisational Effectiveness
Although the benefits and pitfalls of having a diverse workforce are frequently theorised about, The Economist of 17 June 1995 poses the following question:"A tougher question is whether any of this makes a difference to corporate performance" (p. 73). The reason for asking this question is that a business case for diversity management can only be built based on the effect diversity has on organisational performance. Another factor according to The Economist, which is interwoven with business performance, is of course environmental influences: "Yet the broader point is that, given America's fast-changing demographics, big firms cannot avoid having a diverse workforce even if they want to. And, since social tensions do not disappear when staff clock in for work, it makes sense to foster harmony in the workplace" (1995:74).
The crucial need for diversity management thus rests on two pillars: the changing demographics of the society out of which organisations recruit their workforce, and the impact of diversity on organisational performance.
FIGURE 4: An Interactional Model of the Impact of Diversity on Individual Career Outcomes and Organisational Effectiveness
Diversity Individual Organisational Climate Career Outcomes Effectiveness
Individual-level Factors Affective Outcomes First Level Identity Structures Job/Career Satisfaction Attendance Prejudice Organisational Identification Turnover Stereotyping Job Involvement Productivity Personality Work Quality Recruiting Success Group/Intergroup Factors Achievement Outcomes Creativity/Innovation Cultural Differences * Job Performance Ratings Problem Solving Ethnocentrism Compensation Workgroup Cohesiveness Intergroup Conflict Promotion / Horizontal and Communication Mobility Rates
Organisational-level Factors Second Level Culture and Acculturation Market Share Process Profitability Structural Integration Achievement of Formal Informal Integration Organisational Goals Institutional Bias in Human Resource Systems
Source : Cox (1993:7) 61
The best way to illustrate the impact of diversity on organisational performance is by using a model developed by Cox (1993:7). This model (Fig. 4) would appear to succeed in making diversity and its effects on the organisation comprehensible by applying the concept to three levels within the organisation, viz. the individual level, the group level and the organisational level. It then proceeds to outline the effect of the organisation's diversity climate on individual career outcomes and the effect of the latter on organisational effectiveness. The value of Cox's model is its proposal that the impact of diversity on organisational outcomes is a complex interaction of individuals and their environment. The environment includes both intergroup and organisational forces.
The logic of the model claims that individual, intergroup and organisational context factors collectively define the diversity climate of the organisation. The diversity climate may influence individual career experiences and outcomes in two ways. Affective outcomes refer to how people feel about their work and their employer, while actual career achievement is measured by things such as job performance ratings which can be linked to group identities in some organisations. These individual outcomes, in turn, are expected to impact on a series of first order organisational effectiveness measures such as productivity, absenteeism and turnover. For profit-making organisations these first order measures ultimately translate into second-order results such as profitability and market share. In addition to the indirect effects of group identity, certain aspects of the diversity climate are thought to impact directly on organisational performance. The degree of diversity in both formal and informal structures of organisations is thus believed to impact factors such as creativity, problem solving and organisational communication (1993:10).
Some aspects of the model will be elaborated on later as part of the discussion on certain issues which need to be addressed by diversity management, namely stereotyping, prejudice, identity structures and ethnocentrism. For now, however, suffice it to observe that Cox's model clearly illustrates the process through which diversity can impact on organisational performance. In view of the model's explanation, it is clear that some of the benefits and potential pitfalls of diversity fall into the individual level factors category, such as diversity stress, some in the group level factors category, such as group cohesion and some in the organisational level factors category, such as the recruitment of human resources. This would suggest that a correlation exist between how well the potential benefits and problems are managed and the organisation's effectiveness and performance. 62
Having looked at why organisations need to manage diversity, it is necessary to turn to the most obvious and contentious method organisations employ in order to ensure diversity in especially managerial ranks: affirmative action. The discussion on affirmative action will serve as the basis of the argument why organisations have to move beyond affirmative action to diversity management.
4. DIVERSITY AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
Affirmative action is not a new concept in the language of business. In the United States of America, the concept and practice of affirmative action goes back as far as 30 years, and in South Africa - strange as it may sound - as far back as 1922. In the context of black advancement, however, affirmative action can be traced back to the mid- to late seventies. The 1976 riots led to companies, particularly the multinationals, being put under pressure from their respective countries of origin either to disinvest from South Africa or embark on intensive black advancement programmes (Madi, 1993:4). Over the years, a number of events, such as the Sullivan Code (1977), the legalization of black trade unions after the Wiehahn Commission's recommendations (1979), the establishment of the tricameral Parliament and the formation of the UDF in the 1980's, and the passage of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 in the USA have led to emphasis being placed on the need for affirmative action.
Affirmative action as practiced by organisations during these times (and in some instances today still) constituted a vicious and almost inescapable cycle (Madi, 1993:1). The first stage is spurred by an artificial crisis, usually created by external pressure from either head office or a parent company where the parent company itself is under great pressure to disinvest or embark on affirmative action, as happened in the wake of the 1976 Soweto uprising. The result of the pressure is the aggressive recruitment of black graduates. As the numbers improve, the pressure eases and the Human Resources Department - the custodians and drivers of the process - let the figures slide back into the status quo ante. The black recruits leave as quickly as they arrived, as the company's culture does not make provision for their advancement. The vicious cycle starts all over again as soon as the next externally administered crisis develops.
The new era in South Africa's history, announced on 2 February 1990 with the unbanning of political organisations and the release of political prisoners, proved to be the impetus 63
companies needed to put them on the path of sustained affirmative action. In South Africa, affirmative action has only in recent years - the past two to three - become a real priority with targets and deadlines to meet, mainly fueled by the fear of a new government imposing affirmative action targets by means of strict legislation. Although this did not happen soon after the Government of National Unity came into power in 1994, the possibility is about to turn into a reality with the passing of the Employment Equity Bill.
The real reasons for affirmative action should, however, not be founded on political pressures or other so called "right" reasons. The business of business is, first and foremost, to make profit and if business is required to be serious about affirmative action, it should be clear to their leadership how affirmative action will impact positively on the bottomline. Ample statistics are available to demonstrate how the composition of the workforce is changing and that white people alone will not be able to meet the demand for managers within the next decade or two. Madi (1993:74) argues that black advancement will be a result of black economic empowerment, "for we in South Africa have learned through the Afrikaner experience that political power does not guarantee corporate power. The black economic empowerment will be facilitated by, amongst others, the rise in black buying power and improved black education. Then an organisation will have no option but to advance its black executives in order to capture the black market. Furthermore, demographics are showing that South Africa's population is getting younger and blacker, meaning that any company which concentrates on developing and recruiting whites only is committing business suicide because it is relying on an aging and shrinking labour market (1993:74).
4.1 Issues around Affirmative Action
Charlton and Van Niekerk (1994) raise a number of issues around affirmative action are discussed. The value of this discussion is that the issues discussed are not reasons for the success or failure of affirmative action programmes, but are rather indicators of the fact that affirmative action has more to it than the mere advancement of black people and, sometimes, women.
1. The question surrounding affirmative action legislation is not only an economical and political debate, but an emotional one as well. Keeping in mind that affirmative action in favour of white Afrikaans speaking people was practiced, and legislated, since the National Party came into power in 1948, South Africa does not have a good track record 64
in constructive affirmative action legislation. In this regard it is essential that the purpose and scope of legislation, in whatever form, need to be clearly defined. For example: is the legislation aimed at removing present obstacles to advancement or redressing past inequalities and paying reparations, or both? Who will enforce the legislation and what impact will this have on the economy and company operations? Answers to these questions are vital, as is ensuring that the possibility of tokenism and quotas is ruled out (1994:51).
Implementing a quota system in terms of affirmative action is based on the premise "what gets measured gets done". According to this, the National African Federated Chamber of Commerce (NAFCOC) has devised a ten year plan to integrate blacks into the formal sector, including specific targets such as that 60% of the management of companies registered on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange should be black by the end of the decade. The quota system means that all staff appointments must reflect the racial and gender composition of those in the job market. The moral argument in favour of a quota system is that unless organisations are forced to change, they will not necessarily do so voluntarily. The other side of the argument is whether we can afford to affirm on non-economic grounds. Many businesses fear that staff competence and standards will drop as a result of token appointments to fill quotas, putting local organisations at a disadvantage in the global market (1994:54).
The quality versus quantity debate revolves around the best method of implementing advancement in organisations - by increasing numbers of black and female managers fairly quickly in order to address equalities or, at the other extreme, promoting only on merit. People who hold the latter position often argue that they fear that standards will drop, certainly in the short term. The counter-argument raises the question of whose standards are being applied and whether they are relevant in an emerging South Africa. A valid guideline seems to be that assumptions that determined the way we did things need to be tested for relevance in an emerging South Africa. If they are still valid, they should be retained, protected and have an influence on the implementation of affirmative action. If these assumptions have lost their validity, they need to be abolished. It is stupid and irresponsible for any organisation not to keep pace with people's ever-shifting needs (1994:57).
The question of competence is one not easily resolved. Ideally, when an organisation employs someone it wants to know specifically what the individual can do to add value to 65
the organisation's product or service. Unfortunately, due to irrelevant academic content and limited practical experience, many graduates of the South African education system have a lot of knowledge but little specific competence that can be of immediate value to the organisation. Part of the problem lies with organisations that have not overtly specified what it is they require their people to do at every level of the organisation. There is more often than not no clear link between the jobs people are doing and the purpose and mission of their organisation. Without a clear idea of specific skills and attitudes that distinguishes superior from average performance it is impossible to evaluate people effectively (1994:58). If the organisation does not have clarity about the competence it expects from employees, other characteristics are used as indicators of employability - a practice that can severely harm an affirmative action programme.
The effort to reach affirmative action targets focuses attention on the relevance of traditional approaches to selection and the assessment of potential in a changing South Africa. A strong case can be made for the fact that traditional selection tests do more to exclude undesirable people than they do to discover potential strengths, since they are based on and interpreted in terms of uncovering weaknesses. The traditional tests, such as the IQ test, are based on Western (white) norms and culture, use examples from this frame of reference and have been standardised using an already privileged sample. The nett result, very often, is that like looks for like, and like-minded people who will fit into the organisation are preferred (1994:61)
A growing number of people are of the opinion that the battles for racial equality often obscures another, equally important, battle for gender equality. A recent UCT study points out that corporate South Africa, in the absence of a broader vision of employment, has become preoccupied with the development of black managers. Gender equality has slipped from a low priority to practically a "non-issue". These statistics abound despite the fact that women are entering the economy more rapidly than men (1994:62).
No discussion on affirmative action is complete without serious consideration of the often hidden costs involved. An article in The Executive quoted by Charlton and Van Niekerk (1994:64), pointed out that the replacement of merit with quotas has cost the USA a staggering US $225 billion. The figure was arrived at through a compilation of direct (regulation) costs, indirect compliance costs, lost opportunity costs such as inappropriate hiring and effect on morale. An example is given of New York University where it takes fifty extra hours to make every faculty appointment because of the need to comply with 66
affirmative action rules. The costs on organisational morale are calculated through poor hiring and consequently impoverished decision making. Eventually, the article contends, the less competent employees reach a critical mass and their lower standards become the standards of the organisation. Charlton and Van Niekerk rightly state that the way in which quotas and targets are implemented will determine whether the costs to South African organisations will prove to be an investment or not. One cannot, however, disregard the warning cited in The Executive article, especially in the current South African context. A great number of organisations, especially those with close links to the government, have set very strict affirmative action targets for themselves and appear to be prepared to sacrifice all else to reach those targets. This is not to say that affirmative action programmes should be abolished, but is an expression of concern regarding the shortsightedness of the target chasing method of implementation.
4.2 What causes Affirmative Action to Fail?
Organisations tend to react in no uncertain ways to the affirmative action challenge facing business today. For some it hails the Promised Land for which they have been waiting, and for others it could well be the end of the world. But why do organisations resist affirmative action to such a degree that legislation forcing its implementation is no longer just whispered about? Silas Thlophane, Affirmative Action Manager: Mossgas (Pty) Limited, offers reasons for this phenomenon by distinguishing between people's feelings about the process and organisational barriers (1994:2):
4.2.1 People's Feelinjis about Affirmative Action:
Perceived restriction on individual freedom - managers are sometimes of the opinion that affirmative action targets restrict their freedom and limit their control in making decisions about whom to hire or promote. Managers often fear that such targets may force them to hire or promote candidates not of their first choice.
Perceived dichotomy between diversity and quality - companies seem to assume that quality and diversity are on opposite ends of a continuum; that one must be sacrificed for the other. Hence the complaint that affirmative action leads to the lowering of standards and a loss of quality staff resulting in a loss of quality output. 67
The choice is perceived to be between the best qualified candidate and the disadvantaged one. Thlophane suggests that a different viewpoint is necessary: the organisation's goal is to find, hire and promote individuals with the necessary competencies, as well as diverse backgrounds that would enhance the organisation.
Past experience - some employees and managers react negatively to affirmative action due to previous negative experiences with so-called affirmative action candidates. This leads to a residue of mistrust and skepticism about future placements. Negative past experiences could also be the result of unrealistic or inappropriate expectations, both on the side of the new recruit and the organisation.
Supply shortage - in many organisations the resistance is linked to the difficulty in finding qualified candidates from under-represented groups. This could lead to positions remaining vacant for long periods of time, increasing the rest of the team's workload, or people having to act in positions they know will never be theirs to fill.
Perception that the current generation has to pay for past sins - some people may resist affirmative action because they feel that they are being inconvenienced by requirements and limited by guidelines that are designed to rectify a history of discrimination that they did not create.
The perception that affirmative action solely benefits blacks - due to this perception, employees not targeted by the programme may perceive themselves to be reversely discriminated against. An interesting observation to make at this point is that even white employees whose careers were not upwardly mobile before the advent of affirmative action, currently feel cheated by it and even blame affirmative action for the stagnation of their careers.
4.2.2 Organisational Barriers to Affirmative Action:
i) Cost of implementation - the biggest cost associated with affirmative action is training. Not only for the new appointees, but also managerial training to enable managers to handle the dynamics of diversity. Employees need awareness training to sensitise people from different backgrounds to one another. Training is not the only cost, however. With the pressure for affirmative action implementation 68
mounting, it is a seller's market for black professionals with the desired qualifications, resulting in organisations offering unusually large remuneration packages to attract and retain these people.
Fear of hiring under-skilled, uneducated employees - the fear of affirmative action is the presumption that hiring women, people of colour and other segments of the population, will mean sacrificing competence and quality. Business leaders are concerned about the investment they will have to make to bring potential employees to required standards. Naturally, the question of how long they will stay, always remains.
Strong belief in a system that favours merit - for a very long time in South Africa, the best person for the job was considered to be a white male and the perception still exists that any affirmative action candidate is someone chosen to help the statistics add up, rather than she being the best candidate for the job. The bias is so subtle and socialisation so strong, that a woman or a person of colour is rarely actually considered to be the best candidate.
Reverse discrimination - as long as one person's gain is perceived to be someone else's loss, fears of reverse discrimination will provide a very strong resistance to affirmative action. Cox (1993:249) adds to this by saying that, to a significant extent, the potential for affirmative action becoming a major source of intergroup conflict in organisations, hinges on how reverse discrimination is defined and on beliefs about the status of equal opportunity in organisations. The implication of this for organisations is that white men especially should not suddenly be faced with a dead end as far as their careers are concerned in the face of affirmative action. Of course people should realise that the automatic upward mobility is not going to continue, but organisations should assist their employees by, for example, allowing them to attend training programmes that will prepare them for a life as an entrepreneur.
The perception that there has been a lot of progress - in the eyes of some, any progress is proof that the system is opening up. The attitude that people should be satisfied with the crumbs being thrown to them is cheating organisations of talent and creates a disenfranchisement from the South African system that will only be 69
harmful in future. South African companies need to find the median point between the slow evolution advocated by some and the revolution others desire.
Affirmative action is not seen as a top priority issue - in a long list of organisational priorities, affirmative action may not feature as crucial and thus will not receive the attention it should in order to succeed.
The need to dismantle the existing system to accommodate affirmative action - the sheer weight of re-thinking or changing existing systems is daunting to many people - especially in the face of what they believe they stand to lose. If you are charged with the task of modifying the existing system, it means a tremendous amount of work to develop a plan and get "buy-in". If you are charged with implementing the new system, it means learning and teaching new methods of operation to others and setting up a feedback system. If you are an employee impacted by these changes, which may not be accompanied by certain outcomes, it may be the scariest position of all.
The sheer size of the organisation - the bulk of a large corporation will inevitably weigh down both individuals and systems. Cascading an innovation or new way of doing things right down the organisation requires a lot of time, dedication and effort. At the end of the process, people may still decide to pay only lipservice to the concept, which will slow the turning around of the organisation down even further.
Looking at why organisations fail to reap the benefits of affirmative action programmes logically leads to a questioning of the ways in which they approach and implement these programmes. The above mentioned reasons for affirmative action failure offered by Thlophane can be classified as symptoms of underlying problems. Investigating how organisations actually approach affirmative action may provide a better understanding of the reasons for failure.
4.3 Approaches to Affirmative Action
Madi (1993) argues that by looking at how organisations have handled affirmative action, one can classify them in any one of four categories. He uses animal analogies to explain these approaches to affirmative action and stresses that we should keep in mind that 70
particularly due to political developments, certain approaches tended to predominate at certain times in history (1993:11).
4.3.1 The Peacock:
Usually because of external pressure, peacock organisations embark on affirmative action to "get our colours looking better", while not even the CEO is convinced about the economic need for a diversified workforce. The understanding among managers using this approach is that the company is to remain fundamentally unchanged - a message that is also relayed to the rest of the white employees by means of informal networks. In peacock organisations, window-dressing and tokenism are not the result - they are the objective. Blacks are neither expected nor supposed to perform (1993:14).
The black managers are usually appointed in the "soft skills" departments, especially those with high visibility, such as public relations and customer relations. This keeps them on the periphery of the organisation where they cannot interfere or inflict any operational damage on the company, but on the other hand, they can be easily shown of to the rest of the world (1993:16).
The reality that most South African organisations face today is that there is neither the time nor the financial resources to support this option any longer. In the mid- seventies and early eighties blacks were also not constitutionally acknowledged citizens of the country, which rendered the political scenario conducive to the peacock approach (1993:17). Organisations that still pursue the peacock approach today are indeed shortsighted. Not only do the country's changing demographics render this approach suicidal, but it is also wasteful economically. The peacock approach furthermore assaults the self-esteem of recruits and reinforces stereotypes of inherent black incompetence. It is a lose-lose scenario with no winners in the end (1993:18).
4.3.2 The Tortoise:
The tortoise organisation is prepared to diversify its work force, but to a limited extent by means of setting a specific hierarchical level as a boundary. In order to create an illusion of change, such an organisation would ensure that progress is 71
extremely slow, lest the incumbent reaches the cut-off point too quickly (Madi, 1993:19). The tortoise company is very sensitive to detect any form of white backlash, be it from employees or customers. The CEO, therefore, takes a conveniently "invisible stance" on affirmative action to avoid embarrassment should there be resistance. These organisations tend to be very conservative, hierarchical and secretive, and values loyalty more than anything else (1993:20).
Recruits in tortoise organisations are expected to perform, but to a limited extent. The person is given responsibility, but no authority in the form of a budget and hiring and promoting powers. A fairly common phenomenon in these organisations is the creation of "black homelands" : all-black departments run by a black manager who presides supremely there like a homeland chief minister (1993:21). Glass ceilings are a reality in the lives of black managers in tortoise organisations. While the manager might have performed very well in his position, the company's reward and recognition structures fail to make provision for addressing his yearning for advancement. The person may eventually decide to resign that being the only way out since he has reached the company's limit for him and it becomes clear to him that he is now asking to graze in forbidden pastures (1993:21).
4.3.3 The Rhinoceros:
Affirmative action in a rhinoceros organisation is all about political correctness, has nothing to do with business objectives and is in vogue today. An organisation adopting this approach has enthusiastically accepted the need for diversity in its managerial ranks and has, with the assistance of external consultants, put elaborate, number-crunching plans together on how to achieve this goal. The plan and its implications for each department is handed down to line managers and all rumblings of discontent are regarded as treason (Madi, 1993:26).
The rhinoceros approach does immeasurable damage to an organisation, most of which only becomes evident after a few years:
• racial polarisation tends to increase because whites (and some so-called coloureds and Asians) feel that there is "left-wing" apartheid in motion; the 72
"entitlement" culture among black members of staff is encouraged as they expect preferential treatment and the dishing out of favours; in order to get numbers right, and yet avoid being displaced by talented black recruits, white managers embark on large-scale tokenism and window-dressing; racial stereotypes are reinforced as the programme results in a racist view that blacks, whoever they are, by definition need assistance; blacks who are genuinely talented and who are advancing as a result of pulling themselves up by their own bootstraps have their achievements undermined by the prevalent perception that they are "AA babies"; factionalism is encouraged amongst blacks generally because when there are limited resources, the "victims" must attack other competing "victim" groups with the "more victimised" claiming better rewards; performance standards will inevitably have to be lowered for incompetent blacks in order to get the numbers right.
Some organisations are presently busy creating an apartheid monster which may one day backfire quite seriously on them (1993:29).
4.3.4 The Chameleon:
The chameleon approach is based on the fundamental premise that applies everywhere, namely that a businessman will do whatever is necessary to make a profit, and will devise whatever schemes are necessary to protect his profit margins (Madi, 1993:73). A businessman's loyalty to any cause is dependent on the profit potential of that cause - the higher the profit potential, the higher the commitment. We therefore have to ensure that affirmative action is seen as being of commercial benefit to South African organisations in order for it to be supported. The chameleon approach is unflinchingly loyal to the market place and is business- driven, not a "white-guilt" movement. It puts the business objectives first, and then mobilises resources, both human and capital, around those business objectives. It demands high standards from everybody because everyone is there to contribute to the bottom line (1993:75). The chameleon approach's greatest attribute is its flexibility. In a world which is changing rapidly and where nimble-footed organisations survive and triumph, the chameleon approach is the most economically effective (1993:81). 73
In terms of implementing the chameleon approach, Madi (1993) suggests five steps:
Normal business strategic planning - if affirmative action is to be implemented in the correct way, it should be a servant of the business plan, not the other way around. Strategic planning should come first, then develop the financial, marketing, production and research and development plans - and manpower development plan - in accordance with your business objectives. Your manpower development plan may demand that you embark on affirmative action in order to meet your business requirements. The pace at which you develop those individuals, as well as the number of individuals to be developed will depend on the business imperatives. The demographics of our country as well as the business implications thereof make black advancement inevitable (1993:84).
Skill everybody for change - people should not be encouraged to dwell on the past, but they should also be discouraged to pretend that there was no past - we all carry baggage from the old South Africa into the new South Africa. People's assumptions need to be openly and constructively discussed in professionally facilitated forums so that a common value system can be developed from such debates (Madi, 1993:88).
It is necessary that each and every South African organisation embark on interventions that are designed to transform corporate cultures to be receptive to diversity. White employees and middle managers should be taught how to accept change and cope with the demands of a post-apartheid society. Blacks, on the other hand, need to be skilled for change to appreciate that every right carries an at least equivalent responsibility (1993:87).
Create the support mechanisms - initiatives of this nature do not sustain themselves, not in environments as adverse to change as ours. They need to be given all the support, both infrastructurally and morally, that an organisation can muster. Visible top management commitment is the cornerstone on which support mechanisms should be built (Madi, 1993:93). Whatever support mechanisms an organisation have in place, care should be taken not to design support programmes with the objective of converting blacks into white clones. The programmes must bring out the best in an individual without corroding that individual's self-identity (1993:95). To further elaborate on this subject, it has to 74
be added that organisations need to understand that they need to learn to manage cultural diversity, rather than suppress it. There are some behaviours which, while they may indicate assertiveness in one culture, in another would be absolutely offensive (1993:94). In a mentoring relationship, for instance, both parties should be sensitive to this matter.
Monitor and evaluate progress - if affirmative action has to be part of an organisation's business plan, it is logical to assume that it should be monitored and evaluated along with the other priorities. Too often, however, organisations dehumanise their affirmative action programmes by merely reporting on the numbers. They will not look at whether their support mechanisms are sufficient or not, whether the corporate environment has been conditioned for black advancement or not, whether the CEO is doing his bit, whether their company policies are commensurate with a non-racial outlook (Madi, 1993:96). When affirmative action is being reported on, the reasons for achieving targets or not should be looked at very carefully as well.
Entrench the chameleon culture - Madi (1993:99) identifies two ways in which the chameleon culture should be entrenched in the organisation. First of all, the new culture should be continuously reinforced by means of communication. The values of non-racialism and non-sexism must be repeated at every platform and every ceremony as the culture of the organisation. The communication media must celebrate the achievements of minorities. The CEO must "walk the talk", repeating the message until it sinks into each and every employee in the organisation.
The second way of entrenching the culture is to reward the change agents. Generously reward all the managers who have been able to unleash potential in their staff members generally, in minorities in particular, and utilised it for the benefit of the organisation. Let such rewards be celebrated openly and publicly, and it will motivate even the doubting Thomases into action (1993:100).
Madi's chameleon approach to affirmative action provides a very natural link between affirmative action and diversity management as it advocates diversity management principles, as well as the concept of diversity management as such. Hence the chameleon approach may be viewed as a hybrid - part affirmative action and part diversity management. The reason for this statement can be found in the writings of Thomas, Jr. :"In 75
creating changes, affirmative action had an essential role to play and played it very well. But affirmative action is an artificial, transitional intervention intended to give managers a chance to correct an imbalance, an injustice, a mistake. Once the numbers mistake has been corrected, I don't think affirmative action alone can cope with the remaining long-term task of creating a work setting geared to the upward mobility of all kinds of people, including white males. It is difficult for affirmative action to influence upward mobility even in the short run, primarily because it is perceived to be in conflict with the meritocracy we favor" (1992:108). For this reason then, Roosevelt (in Thomas, 1992:109) maintains, "Affirmative action gets blamed for failing to do things it never could do". The link between affirmative action and diversity management is that "Affirmative action gets the new fuel into the tank, the new people through the front door. Something else will have to get them into the driver's seat. That something else consists of enabling people, in this case minorities and women, to perform to their potential. This is what we now call managing diversity" (Roosevelt in Thomas, 1992:109).
Given Roosevelt's point of view, it is clear that diversity management is more than affirmative action, but also crucially important for affirmative action to succeed in its goals. As long as the new diverse workforce - the result of affirmative action - is not managed, affirmative action will never end because of people leaving a corporate environment in which they are unable to grow and contribute to meaningfully. "Affirmative action pictures the work force as a pipeline and reasons as follows: if we can fill the pipeline with qualified minorities and women, we can solve our upward mobility problem. Once recruited, they will perform in accordance with our promotional criteria and move naturally up our regular developmental ladder" (Roosevelt, in Thomas, 1992:110). The problem with this viewpoint, however, is that it places the burden of cultural change squarely on the shoulders of the newcomers. Diversity management is about sharing this responsibility and creating a new environment in which everybody can prosper.
4.4 From Affirmative Action to Diversity Management
In searching for an appropriate definition for affirmative action, a distinction between affirmative action and affirming action was discovered in the literature consulted. According to Charlton and Van Niekerk (1994:xviii), the term affirmative action refers to the overcoming of barriers and access to opportunity in general, and equal employment opportunity in particular - primarily with respect to the integration of minorities into managerial positions. In this respect, affirmative action is a conscious process of 76
eliminating discrimination. Typically, activities such as selection and recruitment, development and training, and promotion practices are viewed as temporary interventions which will cease as soon as equal employment opportunity has been achieved. The authors proceed to state that affirmative action as a temporary measure aims to maintain standards and achieve its goal without unfairly hindering the career aspirations or expectations of current organisation members who are competent in their jobs. Competency is defined as people who are producing specific outputs that are directly related to improved performance and who have attitudes conducive to facilitating improved productivity of all people in the organisation (1994:xix).
The concept of affirming action is very closely linked to the description of "competence" in the above explanation of affirmative action, especially in terms of people's attitudes. Affirming action refers to the continual improvement of all human resources and is therefore not a once-off task, but a time-consuming process. "It involves a change of heart in those people who are creating opportunities - and in the people who will be given the opportunities. The end result of the process is affirming for all concerned: people are treated with dignity and respect; they are trained in critical success competencies; they develop the self-confidence to effect permanent change; they are rewarded equitably for going the extra mile or held accountable for not performing" (1994: xxi). Charlton and Van Niekerk are suggesting that affirmative action as such is a short term (and short sighted) solution to the inequalities in the South African society. Companies need to go a step further in terms of managing and developing the workforce as a team. The two authors refer to this process as affirming action, while for the purposes of this study, it will be called diversity management.
Affirmative action is being perceived as the cause of diversity in South African organisations, which may sound strange since the South African workforce has always consisted of black and white people. The reason for this perception may be that companies' management structures used to be homogeneous until recent times leading to a situation where the voice of diversity was never heard. The "diverse" part of the workforce was largely faceless and voiceless and organisations were lulled into believing the false perception that diversity was not an issue.
The advent of workplace democracy and affirmative action pushed diversity into the center stage position and suddenly workshops and valuing diversity programmes became the order of the day. In most quarters, however, affirmative action is still being equaled to 77
diversity management and nothing specific is being done to move beyond fixing the figures and statistics of the workforce demographics. One example of this is that Eskom, South Africa's electricity utility and widely regarded a leader in the field of workplace democracy and affirmative action, does not regard diversity management as such as important enough to be singled out as a priority in its Human Resources business planning for the foreseeable future.
Why then is it important to distinguish between affirmative action and diversity management? According to Anderson (1993) managers will have to learn to manage diversity until such time that there is more diversity in the management ranks, and managing diversity will only be possible once organisations understand the differences between diversity, affirmative action and equity (1993:32). Gardenswartz and Rowe (in Anderson, 1993:32) take this line of thought a step further by stating that in creating a diverse organisation, three stages of evolution play a part: affirmative action, valuing differences and managing diversity.
Figure 5 explains the differences between affirmative action, valuing differences and managing diversity and the differences in behaviour, and motives for these behaviours, that peope display in each of the three stages. Understanding people's behaviour in each of the stages enables the organisation's leadership to adapt their leadership style to the specific requirements of each stage.
The model illustrates the large gap between affirmative action and the actual management of diversity. Whereas affirmative action is largely legally (although not yet in South Africa) and politically driven, diversity management has the wellbeing, survival and competitiveness of the business at heart. This explanation makes it evident why it is imperative for organisations to view affirmative action as the first step in a long and important process aimed at business efficiency. To view affirmative action as a necessary irritation we have to cope with for the next five years after which we will be able to carry on with our lives, is to commit economical suicide. Affirmative action brings diversity into the workplace, but that diversity has to be managed and harnessed to contribute to the organisation's goals before the benefits of diversity can be reaped.
In a particularly insightful article published in the Harvard Business Review (1990:112), Thomas, Jr. makes a very important point regarding the "melting pot of cultures" idea a lot of organisations still subscribe to. 78
FIGURE 5 : Comparing Affirmative Action, Valuing Differences and Managing Diversity
Affirmative Action Valuing Differences Managing Diversity Quantitative : Qualitative : Behavioral : Emphasis is on achieving Emphasis is on the Emphasis is on building equality of opportunity in the appreciation of differences specific skills and creating work environment through the and the creation of an policies to get the best from changing of organisational environment in which every employee. Efforts are demographics. Progress is everyone feels valued and monitored by progress towards monitored by statistical accepted. Progress is achieving goals & objectives. reports and analyses. monitored by organisational surveys focused on attitudes and perceptions.
Legally driven : Ethically driven : Strategically driven : Written plans and statistical Moral and ethical imperatives Behaviors and policies are goals for specific groups are drive this culture change. seen as contributing to utilised. Reports are organisational goals and mandated by EEO laws objectives such as profit and and consent decrees. productivity, and are tied to rewards and results.
Remedial : Idealistic : Pragmatic : Specific target groups Everyone benefits. Everyone The organisation benefits : benefit as past wrongs feels valued and accepted in morale, profits and are remedied. Previously an inclusive environment. productivity increase. excluded groups have an advantage.
Assimilation model : Diversity model : Synergy model : Model assumes that groups Model assumes that groups Model assumes that diverse brought into the system will will retain their own groups will create new ways adapt to existing characteristics and shape of working together organisational norms. the organisation as well as effectively in a pluralistic be shaped by it, creating a environment. common set of values.
Opens doors : Opens attitudes, minds and Opens the system : the culture : Efforts affect hiring and Efforts affect attitudes of Efforts affect managerial promotion decisions in employees. practices and policies. the organisation.
Resistance : Resistance : Resistance : Resistance is due to Resistance is due to a fear Resistance is due to denial perceived limits to of change, discomfort of demographic realities, of autonomy in decision with differences and a the need for alternative making and perceived desire to return to the approaches and of the fears of reversed "good old days". benefits of change. It also discrimination. arises from the difficulty of learning new skills, altering existing systems, and finding the time to work towards synergistic solutions.
Source : Anderson, 1993:32. 79
In terms of the melting pot, corporate success demands a great deal of conformity, and employees have to voluntarily abandon most of their ethnic distinctions at the company door. In acculturation terms this would be described as assimilation where the burden of change falls squarely on the shoulders of the new corner. The melting pot days have been counted, however, and for three reasons: First, it might have been possible in the past to assimilate different Western European cultures, but the differences between, for instance, black people and Asians do not melt down so easily. Second, most people are no longer willing to be melted down - and they don't have to as it is a seller's market for skills. Third, the thrust of today's non-hierarchical, flexible, participative management requires a ten- or twenty-fold increase in our tolerance for individuality (1990:112). Companies are therefore faced with the problem of surviving in a fiercely competitive world with a workforce that consists and will continue to consist of unassimilated diversity - diversity that has to be harnessed and managed.
5. A PERSPECTIVE ON DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT
Up to this point, the "why" of diversity management as well as affirmative action's role in and link to diversity management have been discussed. It was asserted that diversity as such has tremendous potential benefits for the organisation, and is an inescapable fact of life for South African organisations due to a population that is becoming "younger and blacker" (Madi, 1993:xx). Diversity management is therefore not a choice anymore, but a strategic business priority. Looking at the potential disadvantages of diversity gave us an idea of what the organisation may be up against should it choose to ignore the dynamics of a diverse workforce.
In the remainder of the chapter, the focus will fall more specifically on the impact of diversity on the organisation's climate and culture, and therefore how it should be managed. A closer look will also be taken at how South African organisations are currently managing diversity as compared to the theory of diversity management.
5.1 The Organisation's Diversity Climate
Earlier on in this chapter, Cox's Interactional Model of the Impact of Diversity on Individual Career Outcomes and Organisational Effectiveness, was used to illustrate the impact of 80
diversity on organisational effectiveness. According to this model, the interaction between individual, group and organisational level factors determines an organisation's diversity climate. The diversity climate in turn has a great influence on individuals' career outcomes, which in turn determines organisational effectiveness.
In the following section, a more detailed discussion will be provided on each of the elements influencing the organisation's diversity climate, followed by a discussion on the relationship between the organisation's climate and its culture.
5.1.1 Individual-level Factors:
Individual-level factors determine how willing and able the individual members of the organisation are to accommodate diversity. This ability is influenced by the following factors:
Identity Structures refers to a person's affiliation with other people with whom one has things in common. These similarities can give rise to phenotype identity groups, which are based on physical, visually observable differences, or culture identity groups, which are based on shared norms, values and common sociocultural heritage (Cox, 1993:45). The importance of group identities in understanding diversity's impact on behaviour is threefold: First, social identity theory confirms that individual identity is partly defined by various group affiliations - various group identities therefore play a part in how we define ourselves as well as how others view us. Second, the recognition and preservation of group identities is a matter of personal pride and self-esteem for some people. A South African example can be the insistence of some Zulu men to carry their traditional weapons despite regulations prohibiting weapons in public places. Third, even if group identities are relatively unimportant in our self-definition, they will still often be influential in how others interact with us (Cox, 1993:44).
Prejudice refers to attitudinal bias, and means to prejudge someone or something on the basis of some characteristic. In the abstract, prejudice may be manifested as either a positive or negative predisposition toward a person; most experts, however, define it in terms of negative attitudes toward certain groups and their members (Cox, 1993:64). In the organisational context, it is important to take note of the effect of prejudice on career outcomes in organisations. According to 81
Cox (1993:85), the adverse effects of prejudice are especially prevalent in terms of trust, employee motivation and the self-fulfilling prophecy phenomenon (SFP). Research on SFP has shown that the performance of individuals is directly influenced by the expectations of those in positions of influence or authority. Research has also shown that managers unwittingly implement different leadership behaviours toward subordinates in accordance with their expectations. When we consider the SFP phenomenon in the context of workforce diversity and prejudice, the potential for a substantially negative impact on the performance of minority group members of organisations become quite apparent.
iii) Stereotyping is a perceptual and cognitive process in which specific behavioural traits are ascribed to individuals on the basis of their apparent membership in a group. Other than in the case of prejudice, the use of stereotypes is normally expected to decline the longer and closer members from different groups are in contact with one another. Stereotyping is a widely practiced means of simplifying the world and making perceptual and cognitive processes more efficient. As a simplifying ethos, however, stereotyping has two possible pitfalls. First, it is vitally important that your assumptions about the characteristics of the group are accurate and secondly you should not assume that any particular member of the group will be characteristic of the group. In terms of organisational behaviour and diversity, stereotyping can result in, amongst others, role conflict, job segregation and differences in career mobility.
5.1.2 Group and Inter-group Factors:
i) Cultural Differences is an obvious factor influencing the climate and effectiveness of workgroups in multicultural organisations. It is, however, very interesting to note that cultural diversity does not exclusively refer to people of different nationalities. In his discussion on cultural differences, Cox (1993:128) refers to the importance of gender and racio-ethnic identities which are often disregarded in favour of nationality. The differences between gender, nationality and racio-ethnic groups are apparent in six areas of behaviour with relevance to organisations: time and space orientation, leadership style orientations, individualism versus collectivism, competitive versus cooperative behaviour, locus of control and communication styles. As an in-depth discussion of these factors is not within the scope of this study, suffice it to say here that leaders and others in organisations 82
must understand these cultural differences so that interpersonal relations between coworkers can be based on mutual understanding and respect and therefore be more effective.
Ethnocentrism describes a proclivity for viewing members of one's own group (in- group) as the center of the universe, for interpreting other social groups (out-groups) from the perspective of one's own group and for evaluating beliefs, behaviours and values of one's own group somewhat more positively than those of out-groups. In many ways, ethnocentrism is a group-level version of individual prejudice. One way in which ethnocentrism may affect career experiences of organisation members is that persons in authority positions may rate the performance and contributions of in-group members more favourably than those of out-group members. Ethnocentrism may also manifest itself in how members of organisations relate to customers of a different culture group.
Inter-group Conflict is one of the difficulties diversity presents to organisations. The core of conflict is opposing interests of the involved parties, but inter-group conflict in the context of cultural diversity has two distinguishing features: (1) group boundaries and group differences are involved, and (2) the conflict is directly or indirectly related to culture group identities. In multicultural organisations, five sources of conflict are of particular importance, according to Cox (1993:157), namely competing goals, competition for resources, cultural differences, power discrepancies and assimilation versus preservation of micro-cultural identity. The potential for inter-group conflict as possible downside of diversity should not be ignored by organisations but should rather be recognised as an important element of managing diversity.
5.1.3 Organisational-level Factors:
i) Culture and the Process of Acculturation. Organisational cultures are part of a network of embedded cultures. On one level of analysis, organisational culture is a macro-culture within which identity group cultures exist. On another level, organisational culture is a micro-culture within a larger societal culture. Organisational cultures are thus embedded in larger national cultures and are also 83
influenced by the regional, social class, racio-ethnic and gender culture of their members (1993:175). Organisational socialisation is the process of conveying the organisation's goals, norms and preferred ways of doing things to members. Acculturation, on the other hand, refers to the process for resolving cultural differences and of cultural change and adaptation between groups, especially when one group is being merged into a larger, more dominant group. When cultural distances are greater due to backgrounds that diverge from the organisational norm, a differential burden of conformity is created for entering members. While cultural profiles vary within as well as between identity groups, being a member of a minority group does increase the probability of cultural distance. How cultural distances are closed in organisations depends a great deal on the operative mode of acculturation. In assimilationist organisations, the burden of change falls completely on the entering member, whereas in more pluralistic climates, more of a two-way influence process may be expected (1993:175).
Structural Integration refers to levels of heterogeneity in the formal structure of an organisation. Levels of structural integration are typically measured along two principal dimensions : overall employment profile and participation in the power structure of the organisation. The overall employment profile refers to proportionate representation of various culture groups in the total workforce of an organisation. Traditionally, in the practice of equal opportunity efforts, organisations have been analysed in terms of percentage women, black people, and so on. Structural integration may also be evaluated on the basis of other group identities, such as persons with disabilities. Participation in the power structure of organisations has a formal and informal dimension. The primary formal source of power is authority, or the right to make decisions and to direct others. Informal sources of power include personal knowledge and personality. Proportionate representation of various groups in an organisation, and how power is distributed among identity groups, has significant implications for the experiences of organisation members (Cox, 1993:190).
Informal Integration takes place once the formal induction programme-type socialisation has been completed. It is an ongoing small-scale socialisation process where the individual is familiarised with the unspoken, unwritten rules and intimate 84
information about getting along in the organisation. Previous theory and research has indicated that participation in informal groups in organisations play an important part in the career success of individuals. Research has also shown that persons who have low access to informal networks are less likely than those who have high access to provide ideas on how to improve work quality or to believe that they can make a difference in how the organisation is run. Theory and research from social psychology suggest that participation in informal groups is influenced by such factors as common language, perceived social similarity and ethnocentrism. For people from different cultural backgrounds, the organisation's unspoken norms and rules may be difficult to learn, especially when they are not part of informal social networks. The principal aspects of participation in informal groups are access to social networks (informal communication networks and making friends) and the mentoring activity (Cox, 1993:195).
iv) Institutional Bias in the HR Systems refers to the fact that preference patterns inherent in how we manage organisations often inadvertently create barriers to full participation by organisation members from cultural backgrounds that differ from the traditional majority group. One example is the emphasis many organisations place on skill in oral presentations. Lasting impressions about the presenter's competence are often formed in these high-visibility activities. Due to the fact that such impressions are heavily influenced by the style (as opposed to content) of the presentation, persons who are less verbal due to cultural traditions or second-language factors may be unfairly judged as incompetent. It should also be recognised that the use of one language itself creates an inevitable bias favoring native speakers of that language (Cox, 1993:215). Institutional bias can thwart efforts to value diversity in an organisation in that it actually prevents people from practicing the values they have been learning about. An example would be a different performance management system for general workers. Although such a distinction is made on the grounds of job grading, the general workers group usually comprises exclusively out of black people in the South African context. The diversity management programmes therefore urges people to treat one another as equals, but the organisational systems force them to make distinctions.
In combination the factors on these three levels establish an organisation's diversity climate, in other words how prepared and willing the organisation is to accommodate a diverse 85
workforce and allow every employee to develop to his or her fullest potential. Prejudiced individuals who insist on subscribing to stereotypes form groups of people who are ethnocentric and unable to manage inter-group conflict across cultural borders. If these people are in decision-making positions, the organisation's acculturation and integration processes will remain diversity unfriendly, as will the Human Resources systems. An extremely unhealthy diversity climate will most probably result from a situation like this.
5.2 The Relationship between Organisational Climate and Culture
A very useful discussion on the relationship between an organisation's climate and culture can be found in Verwey's thesis where the different theoreticians' views on how to understand the relation between organisational climate and culture are synthesized (1990:268).
There seems to be general consensus that culture includes climate, although both of these constructs represent a broad spectrum of organisational and psychological variables that reflect the individual's interactions in the organisational context (Glick, as quoted in Verwey, 1990:270). According to Falcione and Caplan (as quoted in Verwey, 1990:274), organisational culture may be viewed as the organisation's system of values, norms, beliefs and structures which is perpetuated over time, whereas climate is how these elements are evaluated at a given period in time. This would mean that, conceptually speaking, climate and culture would mean the same thing at the time an organisation is established. As the organisation evolves and develops over time to become an entity apart from its human members, climate will become an indicator of the extent to which an organisation's culture fits its people.
Given Falcione and Caplan's explanation of the relationship between organisational climate and culture, it becomes clear why diversity climate is an important concept when examining diversity management. Climate gives and indication of how well the organisation's members or employees fit into the organisation's culture. If the diversity climate is unfavourable, it should serve as an indication that the organisation's culture is not conducive to a culturally diverse workforce either. If affirmative action and harnessing the talents of a diverse workforce are regarded as business priorities, and the diversity climate proves to be unfavourable, the organisation has no choice but to change its culture in order to manage diversity successfully. 86
Given this assumption, the way in which South African organisations are currently managing diversity will now be examined and compared with the way in which the literature on the subject suggests it should be done. The aim of this section will be to determine whether an organisational culture change is actually necessary for a successful diversity management process.
5.3 Diversity Management in South African Organisations Today
In a study undertaken by Van Sittert Triebel (1996), the way in which South African organisations manage diversity was compared to the way in which American organisations face up to the same challenge. The aim of this study was, first, to critically analyse the strategies employed by the organisations and the role of strategic planning in their diversity management efforts. Van Sittert Triebel aimed, in the second place, to determine the role of communication in diversity management strategies. Seven more specific objectives were identified for the study (1996:247):
To determine the broad approach of South African organisations to the management of diversity To determine which interventions are being used for diversity management in South African organisations To determine the role of affirmative action in diversity management To determine the extent to which diversity management is applied strategically To determine the role of communication in diversity management To determine the perceived outcomes of diversity policies and programmes, both positively and negatively To determine the extent to which diversity management in South Africa concurs or differs to the practices in American organisations.
Van Sittert Triebel found that American organisations have made more progress with diversity management than their South African counterparts and that the latter are basing their strategies and interventions on the American examples (1996:270). Despite the fact that they have been focusing on diversity management for longer than the South Africans, the American organisations were still found to be implementing strategies and interventions in a rather haphazard way, as their South African counterparts do. In both countries, however, an understanding is displayed of the necessity to develop a strategic diversity 87
management process (1996:270). The researcher could thus prove her first hypothesis to be true, namely that a lack in terms of the formulation and development of a strategic planning process for diversity management exists, both in South African organisations and internationally (1996:249). A few of the South African organisations surveyed did have a strategic planning process, but it was either not being implemented, or the organisation was only starting to implement - finding itself still at the affirmative action and valuing diversity stages. In terms of Van Sittert Triebel's second hypothesis, it was found that both South African and American organisations displayed an alarming lack of emphasis on the development of communication and its importance in facilitating the diversity management process (1996:271). Although the organisations expressed an understanding for the importance of communication, not much more was being done.
In drawing conclusions from the research, Van Sittert Triebel states that South African organisations display a very narrow view regarding diversity management, seeing it primarily as affirmative action and valuing diversity (1996:274). The biggest problem, however, seem to be the lack of integration in the strategies that do exist. A number of the organisations surveyed claimed to have strategies in place, but on closer investigation the strategies proved to be nothing more than a few interventions centered around affirmative action. Diversity is being managed in isolation and is in most instances not aligned with the overall business strategy. In some instances, organisations focus on affirmative action and the sensitising of employees, but other core processes, such as career development, training and development and the transformation of the corporate culture, are left out of the equation (1996:275).
On the positive side, however, it has to be mentioned that all the organisations surveyed displayed a greater awareness of the limitations of affirmative action and the necessity to actively and purposefully manage diversity (1996:275). What remains to be done now, is to put the understanding, awareness and good intentions into practice.
The study examined in the preceding discussion was limited in its scope - only seven South African organisations were surveyed - and the results can therefore not be accepted and generalised unconditionally. The study was, however, the first of its kind to be done in the South African context and provides a benchmark on which to build. What proves to be significant, though, are the relatively small differences Van Sittert Triebel found when comparing South African organisations to their American counterparts regarding diversity 88
management. Although the latter has been talking and writing about diversity management for at least 20 years, their progress does not reflect it. This may be sending a clear signal to South African organisations, researchers and theorists that we may be better off developing an indigenous approach, rather than trying to implement strategies and interventions not always successful in the American context. A further motivation for this statement is the fact that American organisations have to integrate minorities into the organisations; in South Africa, the current organisational minorities are the population and societal majorities. The dynamics of the process will therefore have to be radically different.
Having said that South Africans have to look more towards themselves for the answers on the diversity management questions, it is still necessary to realise that all the work that has been done on diversity is not worthless. A lot of the theoretical principals are sound - the crux of the matter lies in the implementation. Following is thus a brief overview of the literature on the theory of diversity management, as well as a short comparison between the theory and the practice as illustrated by Van Sittert Triebel's research.
5.4 The Theory of Diversity Management
The attitude of many South African organisations towards diversity management, as was illustrated by the above mentioned study, is aptly summarised by Ferris: "Many argue that due to shifting demographics white males will have no choice but to accept and value diversity" (1994-95:28). The idea of a critical mass causing the organisation to make the changes necessary to do more than window dressing and tolerating differences, enjoys a wide following. In one of South Africa's biggest parastatals, managers can often be heard telling employees that as soon as the 50% affirmative action target has been reached, things will be back to normal and "we can all go on with our lives". This being an organisation frequently regarded as one of the most progressive in terms of affirmative action and diversity. In the words of Strenski : "Just as the greatest single barrier to communication is the delusion that it has already occurred, so the greatest barrier to understanding cultural differences is the delusion that we already do. Value in diversity...is about moving away from tolerance. Minorities do not want to be tolerated. Neither do other employees. They want to be valued. If they are valued, they can be effective" (1994:35). The latter part of this quotation is a reminder of the levels of employee performance mentioned by Fuhr earlier in this chapter. 89
When examining the theory of diversity management, the key issues regarding the subject, as discussed by Thomas (1995:65-66), will be used as basis:
Creating awareness among top and senior management of the need for a managing diversity process and getting their commitment to running the process in the company. This involves them understanding all the issues relating to a diversity initiative within the company and weighing up whether the company is ready to embark on a long-term process. Such a process would involve a corporate culture assessment and, in all likelihood, modifications to corporate culture to create an environment which allows all employees to give their best (Thomas, 1995:65). Part of getting the organisation ready for the process, is to promote positive attitudes towards differences among ethnic groups and to challenge all stereotypes and assumptions about minority groups (Hill & Scott, 1992:6).
The creation of a business case for diversity management. In order to ensure the sustainability of the process, it is important that the company has a firm business reason for embarking upon a process of managing diversity. The business case should transcend moral or public relations motives, and if such a viable business reason, which makes sense to all stakeholders, cannot be arrived at, it is likely that all future efforts in this area is doomed to failure. Creating the business case is usually facilitated by analysing the external and internal environments within which the company operates, and identifying significant industry and company issues which clearly demonstrate why a company should effectively manage its diverse employees (Thomas, 1995:65). Diversity should be a business objective, with targets related to it (Rice, 1994:46). In terms of targets, care should be taken that the effort does not become target-driven at the cost of the people involved.
Ensuring that staff at all levels are involved in this process and that it is seen to be democratic, that is, having the commitment of all staff. The CEO should at all times drive the initiative as this sends a strong signal to staff that the company is serious about this endeavor (Thomas, 1995:65). One way of doing this is to ensure that minority groups are included in all after-work engagements and company-sponsored events. Managers must make a sincere effort to encourage these groups to become involved in social activities that will enhance career development and that can help to build positive race relations (Hill & Scott, 1992:6). Another initiative that is proving to be quite successful, is that of self-directed workteams. "When team members are forced to 90
work closely together toward common goals, the most unlikely alliances can, and do, emerge" (Hayes, 1995:229). Rice (1994:47) mentions an important point in terms of staff involvement by stating that a plan should be adopted to address the concerns of white males.
Identifying the "diversity health" of the company and isolating those issues which need to be dealt with, as well as those which pose barriers to the creation of an organisational environment within which all can fully contribute without invisible barriers being put in the way. An internal cultural audit and an external customer survey usually provide management with data on problem areas (Thomas, 1995:65).
Broad-based education ensures that staff at all levels are exposed to an understanding of how to work effectively with others who have different cultures and backgrounds. Issues of prejudice and stereotyping, group identity, racism and cross- cultural factors are explored (Thomas, 1995:65). Hill & Scott (1992:6) add to this by stating that company budgets should be sufficient to conduct training on a regular basis. The programmes should also have a high profile to ensure that employees understand the company's sincerity in building a positive working environment. One training method mentioned by Rice (1994:47) is to give top executives experience of what it is like to be a minority in order to let them break out of their comfort zones. However, a warning is sounded in terms of diversity training: "It's a booming industry, and critics say it is rife with charlatanism, overcharging and divisive training methods ... so choose trainers and consultants carefully". The results of careless training can, for instance, be the reinforcement of old stereotypes. Illuminating differences between people may result in further generalisations about members of the opposite sex or other ethnic groups. "Again, how the discussion of these differences is facilitated, and the degree of cultural awareness which participants already possess, go a long way in determining the level of insight each one reaches" (Ellis & Sonnenfeld, 1994:87).
Creating an enthusiastic organisational vision that will sustain the process of managing diversity. Senior leadership commitment to the initiative must be clearly communicated throughout the company. The motivation for undertaking this initiative, the vision for the company and its values must be communicated clearly, as well as the role of the diverse workforce in striving towards the vision (Thomas, 1995:65). Fuhr (1992:31) is of the opinion that companies should not be consumed by the search for shared values and a common vision, but should rather establish a "multivision" approach 91
which recognises the diverse needs and aspirations of the people in the organisation and caters for the variety of conflicting priorities and goals.
Company systems must be reviewed to ensure that they support the vision. There is no use in having a vision that involves all staff members in active participation when, for instance, reward systems favour one group over another (Thomas, 1995:65). One such organisational system is pre-employment tests that may reflect language and cultural bias (Solomon, 1996:131). Solomon quotes a company vice president who stated that "Some employment tests lead to significantly different passing rates for minorities when compared to majorities" (1996:133). Furthermore, general tests that were developed for clinical or educational settings, tend to be less accurate predictors of employees' on the job performance than those tests specifically developed for occupational settings (1996:133). Companies seeking a culturally diverse workforce thus have to take care to select tests that do not discriminate unfairly.
Measure the process of diversity management to see if it is working. Based in the measurement, necessary changes must be made and actions set for continuous improvement. Surveying the company can give an indication of career satisfaction and organisational commitment. In the long run, the ideal is to try and isolate how effectively diversity management is contributing to market share and profitability (Thomas, 1995:66). An important point to realise is that no "one size fits all" solution exists (Hill & Scott, 1992:6). One way of going about monitoring the process, is to establish a steering committee, giving someone with power the responsibility for driving the change (Daniel, 1994:9).
In concluding this section, Rosmarin's model (1992:35) regarding critical managing diversity issues is presented as a summary of all the issues raised up till now. In explaining the model, Rosmarin (1992:35) states that at the personal level, a more active examination of how differences impact on behaviour needs to be initiated. It means examining aspects of your own beliefs, values and life experiences that are normally hidden. Probing at the interpersonal level involves a thorough and more minute examination of what goes on between people, especially where there are racial, gender and cultural differences. It involves more awareness and understanding of the traits of people that are regarded as positive or negative, and perceiving which of those traits are based on value judgments (1992:35). 92
At an organisational level, there is a need to identify the policies, systems and practices that act as barriers to company and behavioural changes (1992:35).
FIGURE 6: Critical Managing Diversity Issues
Individual interpersonal Organisational
Self- awareness * Stereotyping Implication of changes in demographics and the Broadening the diversity focus Cultural assumptions sociopolitical environment
Shared and unshared values Subtle and overt career Diversity of the organisation sabotage and the marketplace Racism, sexism, prejudice and guilt Communicating the unwritten Beyond "one size rules fits all" culture Paradigm shift of viewing diversity as an asset Dynamics of communicating Individualising - not standard across diversity policies, systems and Responsibility towards practices self-development and Managing resistance, conflict empowerment and expectations Role of leadership and change agents Skills development Development of trust and respect Organisational development Accountability and and learning organisations individual ownership Support systems, e.g. mentors "Membership of the club" Career progression Innovation through diversity interaction Glass ceiling Accepting, respecting and valuing diversity Facilitating communication across levels Language and communication training
Source: Rosmarin (1992:35)
6. SUMMARY
The focus of this chapter was on diversity in all its facets. It was first of all necessary to determine what is meant by the concept of diversity in an organisational context and it was found that diversity encompasses much more than just racial or ethnic differences. The diverse needs of female employees, handicapped people and even people with different educational backgrounds all contribute to the diverse work force. The management of diversity is therefore not only important in the context of affirmative action and black advancement, but in the context of workplace democratisation and human rights. 93
Diversity should however not be regarded as a sword hanging over management's heads, as was illustrated by the potential benefits of diversity for the organisation. Although the benefits and potential problems are not proven beyond any shadow of a doubt, they provide valuable guidelines on why it is important to manage diversity and not just assume that people will work together for the benefit of the organisation as a whole.
The discussion on affirmative action was included, as affirmative action is the one way in which organisations are attempting to change the demographics of their work force. What became evident in this discussion, is that organisations cannot afford anymore to view affirmative action as a social responsibility issue. The changing demographics of the South African society are warning organisations that if they continue to concentrate their recruitment efforts on white people only, there will not be enough managers and skilled employees for everybody within the next few years. The population is becoming younger and blacker, which means the same goes for the recruitment pool as well as organisations' customer base. Based on this evidence, Phinda Madi proposes the chameleon approach to affirmative action - an approach that states that the customer and the organisation's business objectives should drive its affirmative action programme. Organisations have to do what they can to stay in business, including changing their work force to suit the customers' needs.
Using Cox's interactional model (1993:45) to explain the impact of diversity on organisational effectiveness, introduced the subject of the organisation's diversity climate. The diversity climate is determined by the interaction between individual, group and organisational level factors, and influences individuals' career outcomes and, in the final analysis, the organisation's effectiveness as well. The importance of the diversity climate was illustrated by the relationship that exists between organisational climate and culture, in that climate acts as an indicator of how well suited the organisation's employees are to the organisational culture. The elements comprising the diversity culture should therefore be carefully managed and monitored as part of affirmative action monitoring and evaluation, as well as the first steps towards successful diversity management.
Based on the assumption that an unfavourable diversity climate could indicate the necessity of a total culture change in the interest of diversity management, research evidence was quoted to determine how South African and American organisations manage diversity compared to how the theory prescribes the process. 94
The results of this investigation showed that South African organisations are going about diversity management in a decidedly non-strategic manner and that culture changes are not even being considered. In contrast to this situation, theory and literature on the subject strongly recommend that the organisation's culture has to change before diversity management can be implemented and driven successfully.
If it is then agreed that organisational culture has to undergo a transformation in itself in the interest of diversity management. It is necessary to examine the construct of organisational culture in great detail in order to determine what constitutes an organisational culture and if it is at all possible to willfully and consciously change it.
The concept of organisational culture will therefore be discussed in the following chapter. 95
CHAPTER IV
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AS CONTEXT OF MEANING
1. INTRODUCTION
The discussion in Chapter III on the dynamics of diversity management culminated in the conclusion that diversity management can only achieve the goals envisaged for it if the organisation's culture undergoes a transformation. Using this statement as a point of departure, the current chapter will closely examine the concept of organisational culture to determine exactly why it is vitally important for the success of diversity management that a culture change should take place. The role of culture as the context within employees communicate and establish meaning will receive specific attention.
Culture means different things for different people, and has, especially in the context of race and ethnicity, strong emotional connotations. The way in which people raise their children, cook, talk and even dress can be regarded as expressions of culture. Highly homogeneous groups tend to be especially proud and fiercely protective of their cultures, whereas a new and different culture may emerge in heterogeneous societies where various cultures coexist in close proximity.
Culture is used by social scientists to describe a whole way of life, ways of acting, feeling and thinking, which are learned by groups of people rather than being biologically determined. The way in which a particular culture views the world provides the members of that culture with the terms of reference according to which they make sense of their surroundings, interactions and experiences. Great variations occur in the behaviour of human groups with similar genetic endowments. Sir Edward Bernard Taylor (in Hampden-Turner, 1990:11) attributed these to culture, "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art, belief, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." 96
It is important to distinguish between the culture inside an organisation and the broader culture of the nation, economic group or geographical region. Hampden-Turner (1990:12) refers to the first as "corporate cultures" and to the second as "macro-cultures". The investigation of corporate cultures involves looking at how people in an organisation behave; what assumptions govern their behaviour and what glue holds the organisation together. The macro-culture, however, cannot be ignored as corporate cultures act out themes and patterns of the wider culture. Corporate cultures are specific episodes of more general national and regional patterns (1990:12). Hampden-Turner's explanation of the links between corporate and macro-cultures, affirms what has been said about organisations in terms of the systems approach in an earlier chapter.
Through affirmative action companies are aiming to correct racial, and in some instances gender, imbalances of the past. This accelerated process is having a major impact on organisational cultures due to the fact that the people who largely determine the culture, namely managers or leaders, are being replaced by people who look different, think different and act differently from the traditional white males. The changes demanded and brought about by the new leaders can easily lead to resentment lower down in the organisation. The reason being that affirmative action is currently focused on the management levels and not so much on the middle order of organisations. These levels remain fairly unchanged for the moment and may experience some difficulty in making their peace with the new ways of doing things around here. Which is why diversity management is of the utmost importance. Different cultures first have to be able to understand and respect each other before common ground can be found on which to lay the foundations of a healthy organisational culture.
In the present chapter, the focus will fall in the first instance on what organisational culture is and the theories surrounding the classification of organisational cultures. The process through which new employees are socialised will be examined, as well as the importance of certain factors in perpetuating organisational culture. To clarify the concept of organisational culture as context of meaning, the chapter will conclude with a discussion on corporate discourse systems. 97
2. WHAT IS CORPORATE CULTURE?
In its simplest form, organisational culture can be defined as "the way we do things around here". Alas, it would be an injustice to the complexity of the concept to leave it at that. According to Dennison (1990:2), organisational culture can be defined as "the underlying values, beliefs and principles that serve as a foundation for the organisation's management system, as well as the set of management practices and behaviours that both exemplify and reinforce those principles."
An important element of Dennison's definition is the idea that organisational culture refers to the "underlying values, beliefs and principles" which forms the foundation for "management practices and behaviour". Culture is not what is being officially said, or what is found in value statements on walls. Culture is how the members of the organisation behave towards one another and their customers based on the organisation's underlying values, beliefs and principles. "This is not a rejection of the importance of behaviour in understanding culture. It is simply the realisation that our perceptions, values, attitudes, assumptions and beliefs are what shape our transactions with others and with the environment (Pepper, 1995:37).
Another definition which touches on the notion of assumptions, is that of Laurent (in Evans, 1995:21): "An organisation's culture reflects assumptions about clients, employees, mission, products, activities and assumptions that have worked well in the past and which get translated into norms of behaviour, expectations about what is legitimate, desirable ways of thinking and acting. These are the locus of its capacity for evolution and change". Regarding the organisation's culture as the determinator of its capacity to change clearly illustrates why it can be asserted that culture changes are necessary before diversity management efforts can make a difference in an organisation.
Schein (in Hampden-Turner, 1990:22) also sees cultures as operating on three levels of more or less visibility, starting with basic assumptions which are preconscious, invisible and often taken for granted. These can be considered the essence of culture. The next level is values which represent a greater level of awareness and is concerned with what ought to be. The third and most visible level is that of artifacts, behaviour and creations; most often the level on which the visible corporate identity elements, such as a company logo, operate. 98
Pepper (1995:6) holds the opinion that "to communicate is to organise". According to Pepper, random behaviour becomes organised during communication - communication and organisation are the same event. Therefore, communication is not merely the tool used by employees to do their work, but communication is the organisation - to communicate is to organise (1995:3). From a communication theory point of view, the communication behaviours of organisation members are what constitute the actual organisation. In explaining this point, Pepper discusses communication as a transaction and as structure.
The early interactional models of organisational communication were rejected in favour of transactional models in the effort of researchers to understand organisations. Transaction differs from interaction in that with interaction, one still has the notion that meanings are sent from a message source and received by a message receiver, with the receiver then offering feedback. In the interaction, however, meaning emerges from the combination of communicative participants within a specific context. Rather than being the context of words, meaning is the result of a complex communicative process that includes words, intentions, contexts, histories and attitudes (Pepper, 1995:9). The coordination that occurs in the communication process makes the identification of structures possible. Structure is one of the first characteristics people would associate with an organisation: buildings, furniture, equipment, organograms depicting positions and levels and authority. These structural assumptions help to visualise organisations as stable, uniform and lasting. Understanding structure as a communication event, however, offers a different viewpoint. The structure is usually discussed as something distinct from the work or communication of the organisation. Structure is rather seen as a container for communication; it is created to fit a conception of "organised" and to facilitate the work within its boundaries (Pepper, 1995:10). But what is usually overlooked is the negotiated aspect of structure - the notion that organisational structure is that which is experienced by organisational members much more than anything built of bricks and mortar. As a negotiated dimension of the organisation, structure includes working relationships, experiences and interpretations and power relationships. "In short, structure is a form of document, forged, communicated and responded to over time" (Pepper, 1995:10). Structure is therefore not something independent of the organising activities of the organisation members, but is created during communication, or organising, processes. 99
Pepper further distinguishes between "organisational culture" and "organisation culture" (1995:37). He maintains that the term "organisational culture" may lead the reader to make two errors. "First, the term implies that organisations have one culture or, at least, one primary or dominant culture. The primary weakness of this impression is that that it implies that culture is something an organisation 'has', rather than something an organisation 'is'.... The second error that may result from the perspective of a single organisational culture is overlooking the fact that organisations are actually composed of many, often competing, subcultures.... Any large group of people who regularly interact within the workplace can expect subgroups to form on the basis of shared understandings and interpretations of events among members" (1995:37 - 38). Culture is thus not a mere characteristic of an organisation, but it makes the organisation what it is. To understand the organisation culture is therefore to understand the organisation.
2.1 Classifying Corporate Cultures
In organisations there are deep set beliefs about the way work should be organised, the way authority should be exercised, people rewarded and people controlled. Degrees of formalisation differ, as do ideas about how far ahead planning should be done and the combination of initiative and obedience employees should display. The culture often takes visible form in its buildings, offices and shops, as well as in the kinds of people it employs, their career aspirations, status in the community, level of education and degree of mobility.
Emerging from the literature consulted on the subject of organisation or corporate culture are different ways of classifying cultures. According to Klein, Bigley & Roberts (1995:773) organisational researchers have taken four perspectives on culture. Some focus on its manifestations through myths, stories and language, while others observe rites and ceremonials. Some researchers examine symbolic interactions and others look at shared norms and beliefs about behaviour. For the purposes of this discussion, though, the classifications as found in Hampden-Turner and Lessem will be used. 100
2.1.1 The Harrison and Handy Model:
Both Harrison and Handy developed criteria for complex cultural issues. The ideas are sufficiently similar, however, to be considered together as was done by Hampden- Turner (1990:23-24).
Harrison and Hardy developed four categories in which an organisational culture can fall depending on the organisation's degree of formalisation and centralisation. The role culture (Apollo culture): What Harrison calls a role culture and Hardy calls an Apollo culture, is a highly formalised and centrally directed culture which is bureaucratically or scientifically managed (1990:15). The role organisation's strength is in its functions or specialties. They are coordinated at the top by a narrow band of senior management. In this culture the role, or the job description is often more important than the individual who fills it. Position power is the major power source in this culture; personal power is frowned upon and expert power tolerated in its proper place. Role cultures offer predictability and security to the individual and the chance to acquire specialist expertise without risk. The role organisation will be found where the economies of scale are more important than flexibility and where technical expertise and depth of specialisation are more important than product innovation or product cost. The power culture (Zeus culture): The power culture is seen as a spider in the center of a web, and depends on a central power source with rays of power and influence spreading out from that central figure, for example entrepreneurial companies organised around a brilliant founder (1990:16). The culture is verbal and intuitive, as it depends on trust for its effectiveness and on personal conversation for communication. These cultures are strong and proud and have the ability to move quickly and react well to threat and danger. Whether they move in the right direction will depend on the abilities and instincts of the people in the center. The task culture (Athena culture): Harrison identifies this culture with the matrix as its symbol because it consists of interdisciplinary project groups organised around a task (1990:16). This culture is job or project orientated and recognises only expertise as the basis of power and influence. The task culture is a team culture that utilises the unifying power of the group to improve efficiency and to identify the 101
individual with the objective of the organisation. This culture is extremely adaptable as groups or project teams are formed for a specific purpose and can be reformed, abandoned or continued. These cultures exist, therefore, where the product life is short, where speed is important and where flexibility is at a premium. Hampden- Turner cites the example of a copywriter, media buyer, production person and account executive who may work together on one advertising campaign which needs them to combine their skills. It is a decentralised way of working but still formalised by the disciplines that must be joined. • The atomistic culture (Dionysian culture): This decentralised, informal and person-based culture would be typical of independent experts joined together for mutual convenience or stimulation, for example a consultancy (1990:16). In this culture the individual is the central point. Its structure is as minimal as possible, a cluster seems to be the best word for it.
The four culture categories are illustrated in Figure 8:
FIGURE 8 : Harrison & Handy's Culture Quadrant
High formalisation
ROLE TASK
High Low centralisation centralisation POWER ATOMISTIC
Low formalisation
Source : (Hampden-Turner, 1990:15) 102
2.1.2 The Hampden-Turner Model:
According to Hampden-Turner, the main function of corporate culture is to mediate dilemmas (1990:24). A dilemma is a pair of apparently contradicting statements. The everyday issues arising within a corporation take the form dilemmas: should new products be developed more quickly to beat competitors in terms of time, or more slowly to ensure quality. Ideally, the culture should reconcile the dilemma. If big risks are taken, for example, there should be ways of getting feedback faster. Weak cultures, however, may only mediate a dilemma in a lopsided way: it may repeatedly overemphasize profitability at the expense of product quality, or it may allow too much informal networking without directing the results into product development. Such cultures, according to Hampden -Turner, will not last long (1990:26).
2.1.3 Lessem's Classification of Corporate Cultures:
The conceptual framework used for this classification is the global business sphere model developed by Lessem, as discussed by Christie (1996:13). According to Lessem, the globe can be divided into four descriptive categories or domains of management - Western, Eastern, Southern and Northern. Each domain of management is represented in all four corners of the earth, in each and every organisation and in each and every manager, but the emphasis given to each differs from context to context and from one individual to another (1996:17). To help explain this concept, Christie uses the geological analogy of topsoil, subsoil, bedrock and mother earth. Mother earth management practices would be those most strongly rooted in the context and culture in which they occur, and would therefore have a great capacity for sustainability. Topsoil practices, in contrast, would represent those practices imported from entirely different contexts and cultures and would therefore have every chance of falling on infertile ground. Sustaining them is very difficult indeed (1996:18).
i) Primal management is, according to Lessem (in Christie, 1996:18), the domain 103
of the West, particularly as practiced in the USA. Although South Africa has more than a handful of these managers, the primal approach to management is to the American manager his or her mother earth. Money and getting results are the major management motives. Here the business of business is business, and it's all in the bottom line. Primal managers are pragmatists, utilitarian in outlook and transactional in nature. Primal companies foster deal-making cultures, whereby the ability to cut a deal provides the source of their competitive advantage (1996:18). Christie compares this approach to the physical body of the organisation.
Rational management is the domain of the North, particularly French-Germanic Europe. "I think therefore I am" could be the motto of the stereotypical rational manager and being rational is the European manager's mother earth. Here management is focused on rationally based principles of management which can be applied irrespective of the context, hence the science of management. Work is planned in a systematic way, work processes are organised in a logical sequence and work outputs are carefully controlled. The rational manager is not a great oral communicator and prefers the route of e-mail to almost any other form of communication (1996:19). It can thus be inferred that rational companies will have an impersonal, rules-based culture, relying heavily on policies and procedures. Christie compares the rational domain of management to the organisation's conceptual mind.
Developmental management is at home in the East and is mother earth to Japan, India and countries of the Pacific Rim. This approach to management relies on the two fundamental beliefs of holism and interdependence. Holism basically asserts that phenomena can only be understood in their totality. To break a rose, for example, into its various components of stem, petals and thorns and then attempt to understand it, is nonsensical. The interdependence of the rose's parts together provides its symbolic value as a symbol of love. In the business context the principle can be explained as trying to understand marketing in isolation of production for example. The holism apparent in Japanese companies is expressed in their orientation to self-development at the 104
individual level, team development at the group level, organisation development at the corporate level and the notion of Japan Inc. at the national level (1996:19). The developmental approach to culture is concerned with the evolution of the organisation, its people, its products and its markets from youth to maturity (Lessem, 1990:78). The focus, therefore, is on evolving human beings operating within an interdependent environment. The developmental manager views individuals, organisations, products and markets as parallel phenomena, each subject to similar laws of structural evolution (1990:79). Lessem explains this statement by referring to living organisms which grows within a certain structure until a limit is reached. Beyond this limit the existing structure or model can no longer impose order on the larger mass. The next step is either disintegration or a step up to a higher level of order, for example when a single cell divides into two new cells (1990:79). The developmental manager practices what Lessem calls "social evolution". This involves setting in motion organisational changes in the direction of a more advanced stage of development of which only the barest outlines are known. Culture in a developmental context is both nationally and organisationally based, as the global and national setting of an organisation will influence its culture (1990:81). Christie compares the developmental approach to the social heart of the organisation. iv) Metaphysical management finds its home in the South and is the African manager's mother earth. Ironically, however, because of the dominance of the northwestern domain in society and business, this approach is far and away the least representative of actual management practice in South Africa (Christie, 1996:20). Superficially, metaphysical management concerns the management of corporate culture. At a more radical level, it implies managing the supernatural forces present in the organisation, and in particular, those that embody forces for good and forces for evil. Metaphysical dimensions to management include beliefs, values, assumptions, symbols, rituals and stories. To the metaphysical 105
manager, work ultimately concerns meaning, not money. Making for meaningful work implies the management of the organisation's identity and as custodian of the organisational identity, the manager is a missionary who strives for the attainment of meaningful life and work. Christie sees this approach as the organisation's spiritual soul (1996:21).
According to Owen (in Lessem, 1990:108), "the point is not that organisations become more spiritual, but rather that we might recognise that organisations, in their essence, are spirit, and then get on with the important business of caring intelligently and intentionally for this most crucial and essential element"' Metaphysical management is equally concerned with the way in which physical matter and energy, be it in the form of technology, materials, products or material aspirations, can be transformed into individual, team or company spirit (1990:108). There are three specific aspects or requirements for establishing a metaphysical culture, namely policy, strategy and operations. The first policy making requirement is for the would-be metaphysical culture to learn a new language as it expresses itself, both verbally and non-verbally, through myth and ritual, through liturgy and covenant, through spirit and culture (1990:110). The second strategic requirement of metaphysical culture is not to have a passion for excellence, but to transform spirit into matter or energy, or vice versa (1990:111). Finally and in operational terms, the metaphysical culture must be able to uncover, translate, act out and reveal both original and derivative stories that convey the spirit / energy of the organisation. For it are these stories, in their right form, in their right place and in their right time that transform energy into spirit and back again (1990:111). Ways in which the corporate culture is being perpetuated, are sensual. Management by walking about, management by storytelling and symbolic management are therefore the corner stones of the organisational culture. Values are shared not through abstract, lofty ideas and principles, but through management by walkabout and by engaging stories (Lessem, 1990:37). 106
The point of the above discussion on different organisational cultures and the way in which they may be classified, was not only to illustrate the variety in the corporate culture field, but also to touch on the fact that different organisations need different cultures under different circumstances. Lessem refers to this phenomenon as cultural propriety. "Each culture works on quite different assumptions about the basis of power and influence, about what motivates people, how they think and learn, how things can be changed. These assumptions result in quite different styles of management, structures, procedures and reward systems. Each will work well in certain situations, but get the wrong culture in the wrong place and there will be trouble. Different cultures are needed for different tasks. Cultures too will need to change over time as the tasks change, as the organisation grows, or as people change. Managers, therefore, need to be more aware of their own cultural predilections, and more aware of the cultural choices open to them and to their organisation" (Lessem, 1990:48).
The principle thus seems to be that an organisation's management needs to be aware of where their organisation is and what the challenges are that face them, in order for them to make a wise decision about what kind of culture to actively pursue.
3. INSTITUTIONALISING A CORPORATE CULTURE
An organisation's culture can be the result of a combination of many different and often very subtle factors and the institutionalisation of a culture can also take various forms - conscious as well as unconscious. In determining how organisations perpetuate and institutionalise their cultures, the focus will in the first instance fall on the influences which affect the development of company culture, whereafter acculturation and socialisation will be discussed.
3.1 Where Culture Comes From
Drennan (1992:5 - 28) identifies 12 influences affecting the development of an organisation's cultures. It should, however, be noted that a number of these factors do not only influence the development of a culture, but also perpetuate and institutionalise it. 107
3.1.1 Influence of a Dominant Leader:
With the authority to make decisions affecting virtually every person in the organisation, a strong-minded chief executive can exert a powerful influence in shaping a company's culture over a period of time. This is especially true if this person is also the owner and founder of the business (Drennan, 1992:5). The founder of an organisation bring his or her own values, beliefs, attitudes, philosophies, likes and dislikes with to the organisation being sest up (Tayeb, 1996:97). One such founder, who exerted an extremely positive influence, was Forrest Mars, founder of the company that produces, amongst other things, Mars Bars which is one of the biggest selling brands in the world. Drennan cites an example of practices instituted by Mars in the 1930's and which still govern Mars plants all around the world. "Way back in the 1930's Mars was a single status company. Everyone was called an associate; they were all paid weekly, they all clocked in and got 10% more pay every day if they clocked in on time. Everyone, including the MD, ate in the same cafeteria, used the same toilets, was provided with working clothes and was called by their first name. And the same policies carry on today, 60 years later" (1992:6).
Dominant leaders, however, do not always exert a positive influence. They can enjoy the decision-making power so much that they become intoxicated by it and abuse it to the detriment of the organisation. They find it ego gratifying to see managers jump, to use the muscle of their position to cut through procedures and make arbitrary changes. Chief executives of this type are often so impressed by their own superior knowledge and energy that it never strikes them that in productivity terms they could be their company's biggest liability (Drennan, 1992:8).
The culture a dominant leader creates only lasts as long as his presence in the company. The culture that a man like Mars establishes, however, continues way beyond his lifetime as succeeding managers add to and develop its basic simplicity and common sense. Over the years it digs into the company's psyche and becomes part of its personality. "And that is one of the distinctions between culture and style: culture stands the test of time, it continues beyond the working lifetime of the founder" (Drennan, 1992:9). 108
3.1.2 Company Tradition and History:
History and tradition can be a major factor in the culture of organisations - employees remember how it was and have long memories. According to Drennan, the reason for tradition's stronghold on culture, is that people prefer structure to their lives, to have a known framework within which to work so that they can adapt their behaviour to manage their environment successfully (Drennan, 1992:9). When people know how things are done, they do not have to keep developing new behaviours, the tried and trusted patterns will handle all the familiar situations. As a result, there is comfort in structure, comfort in a well-known environment. For these reasons as well, tradition and history do not only shape a culture, but play a very important role in perpetuating it.
3.1.3 Technology, Products and Services:
The nature of any business - its kind of technology, products or services - often has a prime influence in shaping its culture, determining how "we do things around here". The kind of product or service a company delivers, may place legal and / or social requirements on it. An example can be South Africa's only nuclear power station - Koeberg near Cape Town. The Nuclear Safety Act demands that not only the employees be extremely safety conscious, but that the community around the power station also be well versed in nuclear safety. Safety would therefore be a prominent feature of the power station's culture.
Changes in technology or the discovery of more efficient methods can make old skills redundant and radically change or even eliminate a whole part of a company's culture (Drennan, 1992:12). The future world of work with flexi-time and virtual offices as characteristics could do much to change and even eliminate the social aspects of company culture. 109
3.1.4 The Industry and its Competition:
For some industries, such as consumer electronics, rapid change and constant product innovations by competitors are normal and have simply become part of the culture. Their marketing and research people keenly watch the competition and keep coming up with innovations of their own to keep the opposition guessing. Similarly, production managers and trainers realise that constant training and retraining of their product assemblers is now part of the scene. Employees know, too, that product changes are to be expected and repeated retraining for them is the way things are done around here now' (Drennan, 1992:14). In other industries, where the pattern of work has remained largely unchanged for years and the business has a monopoly, as in the case with most state enterprises or parastatals, changing their culture may be a traumatic process. Where survival is not at stake, the company's market is largely assured, the business is large and practices have dug deep habit-forming grooves, moving the culture of a business in a positive direction can be a huge and frustrating task (1992:15).
3.1.5 Customers:
In today's business environment where service is more often than not the deciding factor in customer loyalty, it is only to be expected that customers will have a strong influence on company culture. Companies that depend on one customer for the bulk of their business, tend to listen very intently to their needs. As a result the style and culture of their business is greatly influenced by the style of the client (Drennan, 1992:15). In service industries where front-line staff meet large numbers of customers face to face every day, and where customers can simply move their business if they do not like what they get, customers loom large in the company's conscious. In some cases, customer needs and satisfaction have become the raison d'être of the company's philosophy (1992:16). In these instances, the total focus and culture of the business are devoted to the company's customers and their satisfaction. 110
3.1.6 Company Expectations:
A company's expectations have a large influence on how its employees behave as the urge to conform is a powerful driver of employee behaviour. Company expectations and the urge to realise them are important factors in institutionalising and perpetuating the culture. In terms of these factors, Drennan identifies three critical factors companies need to look at in shaping and maintaining their cultures. In the first instance, employees' expectations are largely shaped in the first three weeks of joining the business. It is during that time they learn what actually goes on. That is why the induction time - during which the expectations are made clear right from the start - is a crucially important time. If there is no planned induction, or it is done disinterestedly, emplOyees get the impression that the company does not care much about its standards (Drennan, 1992:17). Secondly, the standards set by first-line managers should match the expectations created at the induction stage. If the manager implies that the induction was just a bit of window-dressing, the employee will obviously treat the process with some disdain. If, on the other hand, the manager follows on and makes clear what is expected in her department, the employee's expectations will be reinforced and he or she will immediately strive to realise the company's expectations (1992:18). The third point is that the employee's fellow-workers have to match the standards spelled out at induction and by the manager. If they do not, the new employee will soon match the behaviour of his or her peers. The problem is escalated when the manager accepts the sub-standard behaviour and employees come to understand that what is accepted is actually what is expected. In fact, companies get no more than the behaviour they have come to accept. And what they accept becomes, in large part, their culture (1992:18).
The principles emphasised here are very important for diversity management efforts. Too often diversity management is implemented for the sake of political correctness while the company still accepts racist or sexist behaviour. Employees then come to understand that diversity does not really have to be valued and that they do not have to change their behaviour. 111
3.1.7 Information and Control Systems:
Computerised information and control systems have certainly had the biggest influence over the last decades in reshaping the structure and processes of companies in every kind of business. Although a number of these changes have improved productivity and made lives easier, not all have been for the better. Fear and complexity of computer systems can often develop an extensive subculture of systems to manage day-to-day affairs (Drennan, 1992:18). This could take the form of an extensive filing system to back-up the computer system that was supposed to create a paper-less office or handwritten schedules taking precedence over a sophisticated production control system. Computer information and control systems can radically change the operating culture of any company for good or ill. Disruption, morale problems and contorting complexity are the penalties of rushed introduction. "The antidotes to these dangers are taking the time and trouble to do detailed preparation, to train operating staff thoroughly and to bring them with you every step of the way" (1992:20).
3.1.8 Lejislation and Company Environment:
Multinational companies who have developed corporate mission statements or policies to guide the company worldwide are well aware how these have to be interpreted by their operating units round the world to accommodate the legislative and national cultures in which they operate. In many cases, corporations have developed core philosophies which apply across continents, but inevitably legislation and the culture of the environments in which they operate have material effects on how the philosophies are actually carried through in practice (Drennan, 1992:21).
This discussion also serves to reinforce the point that a company culture exists within the wider culture of its community and country in which it operates. 112
3.1.9 Procedures and Policies:
Company procedures and policies are necessary guidelines to help employees perform, but when they are implemented rigidly they deprive employees of the authority to act promptly in difficult situations and imply a lack of confidence in employees' capabilities. Employees then effectively repay the company's lack of trust by exercising no initiative when they otherwise could, and letting the company suffer for its inflexibility. On the one hand, the procedures and policies of any company have a prime role in shaping its culture, while on the other, they can also be the major source of employee frustration and alienation (Drennan, 1992:23).
According to Tayeb (1996:98) recruitment and selection procedures are highly instrumental in perpetuating a corporate culture. When organisations wish to recruit new members, the job advertisement itself gives some clues as to what kind of person they want. Screening procedures are used to weed out candidates who are perceived not to fit the organisational culture. Other procedures that play a perpetuating role include induction practices, promotion criteria, performance evaluation policies and disciplinary procedures (Tayeb, 1996:98).
3.1.10 Rewards Systems and Measurement:
Companies generally measure what is important to them, for example sales, costs, profit, market share and quality. Many companies produce figures on a monthly basis with actual achievement set against forecast figures for the month and year-to-date. As a result, managers get regular feedback on their performance and paying attention to the numbers becomes part of the culture. If bonuses and promotions are also awarded to those who do well on the numbers, then that behaviour is reinforced and repeated throughout the company (Drennan, 1992:24).
It is also important to realise that what gets measured becomes important. Those who wish to transform their company culture have to start measuring and rewarding what they want employees to treat as important. When you measure and reward desired behaviour, the whole company takes a different attitude. 113
3.1.11 Organisation and Resources:
The people who are part of a business adapt their behaviour to cope with the structures and constraints they have to live with until it becomes part of the normal way of doing things, part of the culture (Drennan, 1992:26). Constraints usually take the form of a lack of resources - financial or human in kind. This is especially true for smaller companies with less turnover where every cent has to be turned over twice to make the most of its spending power. The result of a prolonged situation like this can be low employee morale as they struggle with inadequate and hand-me-down equipment, and mediocre performance becomes the norm, just part of the culture. An abundance of resources, on the other hand, can lead to a wasteful culture where employees do not have to think twice about spending money - sometimes on expenses unrelated to the core business. A culture of entitlement can also result from this, with employees believing that the company has to compensate them for every bit of inconvenience they encounter in the performance of their duties. Transforming a wasteful culture into one where the core business and bottom-line drive expenditure may prove to be extremely difficult.
31.12 Goals, Values and Beliefs:
Sincerely held beliefs and values translate into action and it is by their actions that employees judge their companies. When values are translated into action, it often results in the stuff that legends are made of which show employees what the company really values. When employees start to believe that the company is really serious about, for instance customer service, soon they start doing the same until there are so many stories from everywhere in the business about people going to great lengths to fulfill the company's goals. "That's when the beliefs have penetrated deep and become part of the company's culture" (Drennan, 1992:27). Tayeb (1996:98), however, points out that employees, or organisational members, adapt their personal values to the organisation's needs to a limited extent only. As a rule, a workplace is not an "institution" like a prison. An employer cannot change the values of employees. However, sometimes an employer can activate latent values, 114
such as a desire for initiative and creativity, by allowing practices that provide employees with appropriate opportunities (Tayeb, 1996:98). The goals a company sets and the values it truly believes in have more influence in transforming company culture than any other factor. The goals are the true engine of change and excellence.
Based on the preceding discussion, it is clear that the nature of a particular corporate culture is a reflection of the original strategies of the founders of the organisation, as well as the learning and retention that have occurred over time (Tayeb, 1996:99). In keeping with Peppers (1995:10) definition of the organisation as a communication process, Drennan's (1992) 12 factors influencing organisational culture development are more focused on the traditional structures and systems of an organisation, as opposed to communication processes. If we accept that organisation happens during communication, it is logical to expect that the way in which members communicate and share meaning with each other will be a determining factor of the organisation's culture. For this reason, Pepper's (1995:13) five forms of organising will now be discussed briefly. This discussion will also serve to lay a foundation for the latter part of the chapter, which will focus primarily on communication in organisations.
3.1.13 The Individual Level:
The first and most fundamental level of transaction is the individual level. At this level the individual is in direct contact with the environment and with himself. The environment, therefore, shapes individual perceptions and visa versa. At this level, communication concerns environmental adaptation coupled with internal dialogues. This is the level of human perceptions, where attitudes, weaknesses and strengths, frailties and experiences come into play. As the individual level serves as a foundation for the other four levels, the organisation is built upon the strengths and frailties, the adaptive capacity of the individual as he or she copes with an uncertain environment (Pepper, 1995:13). 115
3.1.14 The Dyadic Level:
This second level of transaction is most notable because of the problems of mutual adaptation. The individual is required here to respond to the environment and at the same time shape and respond to the influence of others. The dyadic level includes interactions with co-workers, superiors and subordinates, and customers one-to-one. This is a level of extraordinary significance in the organisation because in terms of "organising", the dyadic level is the most fundamental level. Organising cannot occur in the absence of at least two people; thus, while the individual is the lowest common denominator in the organisation, the dyad is the basic organisational unit (Pepper, 1995:14).
3.1.15 The Snzall-group Level:
One could argue that the small group is actually a miniature organisation. The small group interaction includes variables such as roles, leadership, groupthink, power, hierarchy and conflict. This level of transaction includes interactions such as committee work, ad hoc groups, training sessions and strategy meetings, with the communication dynamics very similar to those of the organisation (Pepper, 1995:15).
3.1.16 The Inter-group Level:
This level has all the potential problems of the group level and adds to them the problems associated with bringing groups together to form some common understanding. This phenomenon is very common in organisations since groups such as Sales have to communicate with Marketing, and Finance with Procurement. In a very real sense, the inter-group level is similar to intercultural communication. It may, for example, be hampered by ethnocentrism, lack of understanding of other groups, an apparent lack of a common language and quite different perceptions of reality (Pepper, 1995:15). 116
3.1.17 The Technological Level:
Although this level may not seem to reflect the concerns of "human" transaction, we must remember that people use technology and then often become dependent upon it. Technology includes any form of mediated communication, from the telephone to personal computer, all of which has an impact on human communication. The impact is seen, for example, in how the use of technology affects face-to-face interaction, how the introduction of technology affects workplace climate, how access to technology democratises the workplace by making information available to more people and how mediated communication affects decision-making (Pepper, 1995:16).
The way in which communication happens on each of these five levels will have a decisive effect on the organisation's culture, as the communication processes create the organisational structures. At the inter-group level, Pepper referred to multicultural communication and the factors that may hamper it, and as this thesis is about improved diversity management practices it will only be appropriate to focus in the following section on acculturation and socialisation as ways in which the organisation institutionalise its culture and handle diversity.
3.2 Dealing with Diversity
An article by Hood and Koberg (1994) will be used to introduce the discussion on the ways in which organisations deal with diversity. Although the article is only concerned with diversity on the level of gender it is possible to apply its principles to the other areas of diversity as well. It also provides valuable insights into the ways in which organisations that are dominated by one group of people react to diversity.
Culture is defined as a system of shared symbols and meanings in which organisations are "social constructions, symbolically constituted and reproduced through interaction" (Smircich in Hood & Koberg, 1994:160). A cultural perspective on organisations brings us to understand that diversity, be it gender, race or age, is not the issue in organisations: the key is not in how people differ, but in how they think they differ (1994:161). The fact, for instance, that women earn less and continue to exist at lower levels in organisations are taken as symbols of the values, belief systems and norms of organisational cultures. 117
A cultural approach examines the patterns established for appropriate behaviour in a situation, patterns developed through interaction. In the case of gender, stereotypical expectations may cultivate a stereotypical sequence of behaviours that influences the future interactions between men and women in a particular environment. These interactions then constitute what is perceived as organisational reality (1994:161). It can thus be concluded that the dominant group in an organisation determines to a large extent the organisation's "reality" by means of acting on stereotypical expectations of other groups.
A cultural view of organisations further assumes that organisations are composed of multiple cultures and, as in the larger society, some cultures become more important or dominant than others. Domination imposes on the less powerful a need to know the feelings and responses of the power holders in order to respond to their demands and gain their approval. In other words, the less powerful have a need to acculturate (1994:161). Historically, the dominant cultures of organisations have been the white male majority groups. Characteristics typically associated with the male-dominated and managerial culture would reflect the traditionally masculine attributes of rationality, aggressiveness, independence and non-emotionality. A women-oriented culture would include characteristics typically associated with the traditional women's role: nurturing, helping, inclusion and serving others (1994:161).
Women moving into the traditional organisation are comparable with immigrants merging or fusing into a different society or country. Adaptation is a process whereby an individual is integrated into a new culture and acquires an increasing level of compatibility in the new environment. It implies that two or more cultural groups have some continuous, first-hand contact that causes change in individuals, be it cultural, psychological or both. In theory, the two cultures could be equally powerful and exert an equal influence on each other, but in practice one tends to dominate the other. Adaptation theory shows minorities, whatever their own cultures of origin, caught between two cultures. A key hypothesis of adaptation theory, however, is that it is possible for individuals to become acculturated, that is to assume the characteristics of a dominant culture in their society, without being assimilated - that is, without being accepted into it (1994:162).
One cultural group can dominate the other for political reasons or by agreement between both groups. However, domination is never eternal - processes of innovation will invariably occur in 118
which dominance may be reproduced or subverted. In organisations, domination occurs when the rules of the organisational rationality are structured to favour certain vested interests and to militate against others. This does not mean that alternative views cannot be articulated, but rather that opposition groups usually have less of an ability to make meanings stick (1994:164). This would mean that although minorities have the right to speak their minds and air their views, it very rarely means that they have the ability to change the dominant mind.
In conclusion to this discussion of Hood and Koberg's article, a few thoughts on socialisation will be mentioned. According to these authors, the ways in which boys and girls are socialised while growing up, make adaptation to organisations easier for men because males have created the structure and processes to which other males are expected to adapt. Organisational socialisation processes are important factors in adaptation because they represent the mechanism through which newcomers learn the organisation's culture and adjust to its environment (1994:168). Of the three stages of socialisation described by Feldman (in Hood & Koberg, 1995:168) - the procurement of appropriate role behaviour, the learning of work skills and abilities and the acquisition of the norms and values of a work group - the last can be the most difficult for the individual woman to achieve. Women are more likely to be "filtered out" at various stages than are men because of discriminatory selection or treatment, and can be denied the sense of peer acceptance, the involvement and the guidelines for appropriate behaviours granted to those who are members of the dominant cultural group.
The difficulties experienced by women attempting to "make it" in the corporate world, as described above, are in many instances the same difficulties experienced by other minority and stereotyped groups. It can be said that these difficulties are due to the fact that the majority of organisations were, and still are, not prepared for diversity and the demands it put on the traditional way things used to be done around here. The main reason for this is that the various groups have never gone to any real trouble to try and determine the other's reality, be it in an organisational or societal context. According to Fiske and Glick (1995:106), this segregation has important effects on organisational contexts: • in context with few or no minority group representatives performing a particular job, the occupational role often takes on a "white masculine culture" 119
the few women or minority groups representatives who do break into these jobs have a token status white men have little or no experience of dealing with a different person in the job, so they react on the basis of limited information, thereby promoting stereotypes dramatic power asymmetries are created between the traditional occupants of the job and the new people
The above-mentioned conditions make it extremely difficult for people from groups other than the majority group to really become part of an organisation. It is therefore absolutely necessary for organisations to deal with diversity as the changing demographics of our country and world leave them with no choice. Harquail and Cox (1993:164) identify two processes by means of which an organisational culture handles cultural diversity, namely organisational socialisation and acculturation. These two processes touch on the induction phase, but extend beyond it as well.
3.2.1 Orkanisational Socialisation is the process of conveying the organisation's goals, norms and preferred ways of doing things to members. Through the socialisation process, members come to understand the values, abilities, expected behaviours and social knowledge essential for assuming a specific organisational role and for participating as an accepted member (Harquail & Cox, 1993:164). A variety of mechanisms are used to transmit culture during socialisation, ranging from informal (for example rituals, stories and jargon) to structured and formal (such as induction programmes and performance appraisals). Pepper (1995:126) examines the issue of socialisation strategies in more detail and identifies seven such strategies:
Formal versus informal socialisation refers to whether or not the socialisation attempts are separated from the actual work environment. Individual versus collective socialisation refers to whether members are socialised individually or in batches. With batch "processing" members receive the same messages and generally develop a sense of group identity. Sequential versus non-sequential socialisation refers to stages of socialisation transition versus non-discreet stages, whereby individuals may be put into positions without an identifiable sequence. 120
Fixed versus variable socialisation refers to the level of certainty regarding the socialisation and career progression timetable. Tournament versus contest socialisation refers to tracking (tournament) versus non- tracking strategies, whereby the employee is given freedom to progress or move as his or her interests and abilities allow. Serial versus disjunctive socialisation refers to the strategy of having the newcomer trained by the departing person, or the holder of a similar position, versus the experience of taking a position without a trainer available. Investiture versus divestiture socialisation refers to the degree to which the individual's past is valued or not.
Three points of interest are worth noting in terms of the socialisation process. After the initial and more formal socialisation has taken place, the individual becomes part of an ongoing, small-scale socialisation process where familiarisation with the unspoken and unwritten rules of the organisation takes place (Harquail & Cox, 1993:65). For employees from different cultural backgrounds - often with different home languages - these unspoken rules and norms may be difficult to learn especially when they are not part of informal social networks. Zahrly and Tosi (1989), as quoted in Pepper (1995:127) found in their research that a more formal mode of induction led to a higher level of job satisfaction. "The implication is that when organisations wish to create a given outcome in their workforce, their socialisation strategy should not be left to chance. In this case, formal strategies wherein groups of newcomers were socialised together were effective in building job satisfaction."
Individuals may conform to group norms in outward behaviours, without necessarily changing their attitudes (Harquail & Cox, 1994:65). This may have particular bearing on people from different cultural and belief systems and may lead to a great deal of tension and stress for the individual.
According to Pepper (1995:135) the socialisation process is a strategic attempt by the organisation to reproduce its culture. The selection interview has as one of its objectives the identification of individuals who demonstrate congruence with the 121
existing culture. The newcomer, however, has the opportunity to play an active role in the socialisation process, turning it into a "process of negotiating meaning" (1995:136). The more individuals identify with the existing culture, the purer the level of reproduction. But when newcomers reject certain cultural components, such as work-before-family expectations and discrimination, the culture becomes available for modification by the newcomers (1995:136).
The above mentioned active process of transactional socialisation is happening more and more in South African organisations as a function of affirmative action and the resulting increased diversity in organisations' leadership. Newcomers in organisations look and think very differently from the majority of the existing members, which makes it increasingly difficult for the organisation to reproduce its culture. The only answer to this phenomenon is for the organisation and the individual to both play an active role in the socialisation process in order to share meaning and effect an evolution in culture.
3.2.2 Acculturation, the second process related to organisational culture and cultural diversity refers to the process of resolving cultural differences and of cultural change and adaptation between groups (Cox, 1993:166). Four acculturation processes, or strategies for handling intercultural relationships, are identified, each producing specific outcomes for both the organisation and individual employees. • Assimilation is a one-way process in which an organisation's culture becomes the standard of behaviour for all other cultures merging into the organisation. The goal of assimilation is to eliminate cultural differences, or at least the expression of the different cultures at work. Members of different cultural groups are thus expected to, at least, repress the norms, values and practices to which they have subscribed (Cox, 1993:166).
Traditionally, South African organisations have dealt with racial diversity by applying the process of assimilation. This has meant that blacks have been required to change in order to fit into the existing white culture of the organisation. "Steve Biko challenged this notion by proclaiming that too many white managers tend to treat 122
their black employees like 'abnormal whites'. In their attempts to create 'white blacks', managers were crushing the spirit of black people" (Fuhr, 1992:29). It can be argumented that to insist on English as the business language in most organisations today, is to keep on applying the principles of assimilation. This idea will be explored further in chapter four.
Separation refers to a situation where cultural exchange is minimal because the entering members are unwilling or unable to adapt to the organisation's culture and seek autonomy from it (Cox, 1993:166).
Deculturation occurs when neither the culture of the entering members, nor that of the organisation is influential or highly valued in framing the behaviour of incoming members. In these instances, the cultural identity of the members is ill-defined (Cox, 1993:167). Ramphele's (1993:12) viewpoint echoes these sentiments: many black men behave like white men, which they will not be able to sustain because they still belong to a social world where black men behave in a particular way. Carefully considered, this may provide some understanding as to why there have been so many affirmative action failures. People are turned into schizophrenics by the attempt to be "white" men during the day and like boys in the township in the evening. It is a very difficult mix to sustain (1993:12).
Pluralism refers to a two-way learning process in which both the organisation and the entering members adapt to reflect the norms and values of the other. Pluralism emphasizes interdependence and mutual appreciation between cultures and the importance of preserving micro-cultural group identity. The entering members assimilate a limited number of core values and behaviours while preserving important differences along other dimensions (Cox, 1993:167). In the words of Fuhr (1992:17): "People should not have to fit into ready-made corporate cultures. Cultures should rather be expanded to accommodate the diversity of their people". Thomas aptly summarises this process: "People of culturally diverse backgrounds want to use their talents and skills in the workplace but not lose what makes them unique" (1992:12). 123
According to De Bruyn (1992:22), the environments people join are very similar to the people who join them due to the fact that people are attracted to careers and organisations as a function of their own interests, personality and values. Those who do not fit in will leave while the organisation will, through selection, retain employees with largely common attributes and values. In a scenario such as this, the socialisation and acculturation processes run fairly smoothly and people become part of their organisation relatively quickly.
Within the South African context, however, this does not necessarily hold. "Because of the varying cultural backgrounds within the workforce, the scarcity of jobs, the level of desperation in the search and acceptance of jobs and the unsophisticated level of career guidance for many, the ideal of appropriate attraction, attrition and selection becomes severely distorted and the management of values in the workplace increasingly complex" (De Bruyn, 1992:22).
In terms of the above, it seems as if South African companies are not only having to deal with diverse cultures, but also with many employees whose values do not correspond with those of the organisation, as well as with people who do not want to be part of the organisation in anyway.
Pluralism as acculturation process is in line with Pepper's assertion (1995:39) that organisations are actually composed of many, often competing, subcultures. The emergence of subcultures within an organisation is natural in the development of work groups and happens on the basis of shared understandings and interpretations of events among members. The different groups do not experience the same reality and should be treated accordingly (1995:39). Subcultures do not only emerge due to the development of groups. In many instances, especially due to drives such as affirmative action and equal opportunity employment, people of different cultures are recruited and employed by organisations. These subcultures do not only exist along the lines of race and ethnicity, but also in terms of diversity variables such as gender differences, disabled people, sexual orientation and professional elitism associated with certain professions or job levels. It is increasingly necessary for organisations to effectively manage an increasingly diverse workforce right from the outset. 124
An indication of the way in which such diversity should be handled, may be found in the requirements for a truly multicultural organisational culture.
3.3 The Multicultural Organisation
Based on the way in which an organisation deals with and incorporates diversity into its structures and behaviours, organisations can be classified as either monolithic, pluralistic or truly multicultural. In today's cosmopolitan societies, easy international travel and the global village, it is possible to argue that few organisations can claim to be not multicultural in the sense of having members from different cultural backgrounds. In societies such as South Africa people have been conditioned to associate "culture" with race and colour. In other words, an organisation is multicultural when it is multicoloured.
At the 1992 National Conference of the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), Emilio Bermiss, executive director of the New York Mission Society, forecasted three possible scenarios for American business in relation to dealing with diversity (1992:12). The first was an organisation sensitive to the cultural differences and human resources each group can bring to the workplace. This case calls for "workers to move through the system with only the same barriers as white people." Then advancement for the individual would be predicated solely on merit. In the second scenario, Bermiss described a business world where "obstacles to access" remained that "denied the value of People of Colour". In this case, "the quality of work will erode and companies will end up with white mediocrity at the top". In the worst possible scenario, divisive, warring factions of workers and those left out of the work force will create an increasingly racist atmosphere, Bermiss contended. This condition will "result in a larger police state with leftist forces staging boycotts and work actions" that undermine productivity. By adopting a culture of "pluralism" (as discussed above), corporate America can "diminish polarization and develop a constituency for the whole", Bermiss concluded (1992:12).
Bermiss' (1992:12) three scenarios for the future closely resembles Cox's (1993:225) classification of organisations in terms of the cultures they employ and the organisation's attitude towards these groups of employees: 125
3.3.1 Monolithic Orjianisations:
Monolithic organisations are not even integrated in the formal structures. On the surface, such an organisation is demographically and culturally homogeneous and, for instance, dominated by white males with relatively few women and other cultural groups represented in the management positions. In addition, these organisations display extremely high levels of occupational segregation, concentrating employees other than, for instance, white males in "low-status" jobs such as secretaries and maintenance. In effect, the monolithic organisation ignores the effects of diversity on organisational experiences - it is taken for granted that all groups in the organisation experience reality in the same way as the dominant group (Cox, 1993:225).
The nature and composition of the monolithic organisation cause its behaviour to be self-perpetuating. The effect of hiring decisions in the organisation is to exclude persons who are demographically different from the majority. Persons from different groups who do enter the organisation have to adopt the existing organisational norms as framed by the majority group as a matter of organisational survival (1993:225).
In view of the current emphasis placed on human and civil rights and political correctness, it is evident that monolithic organisations have run their course. In South Africa this is particularly evident. A recently empowered majority is demanding equal and, at times, preferential treatment from employers and pressure from the government and international community leave employers virtually no choice. According to Cox (1993:227), many organisations respond to these forces by creating the plural organisation.
3.3.2 Plural Orkanisations:
The plural organisation recognises the heterogeneous composition of its workforce and takes steps to be more inclusive and accepting of persons from cultural backgrounds that differ from the dominant group. These steps include Affirmative Action, Adult Basic Education Programmes and Accelerated Development Programmes. Audits of 126
compensation systems ensure the absence of discrimination against minority group members (Cox, 1993:227).
Even though the plural organisation does much better in terms of managing employees from different backgrounds, it is still not multicultural as the problem of skewed representation across functions, organisational levels and workgroups still exists, leading to only partial structural integration results.
A major point distinguishing plural organisations from true multicultural ones is their approach to acculturation. As in monolithic organisations, acculturation takes place through the process of assimilation (Cox, 1993:228). The implication of this approach is that, although the organisation may have a multicultural appearance due to the diverse cultures it employs, the cultural aspects of integration are not addressed. People thus emanate from different cultural backgrounds but they are definitely not allowed to bring those backgrounds into the workplace.
Organisations' language policies are a case in point. For decades, employees were communicated to in English or Afrikaans, regardless of their level of comprehension. As the non-white members of the workforce became more literate, written communications were translated into the dominant black language in a specific region. Again, however, communicators seldom took care to ensure that especially business concepts were understood by the audience. It can thus be argued that the multicultural nature of the organisation was recognised in the form of translated communiquks. Multiculturalism was not valued, however, as the translated message had to conform to the dominant group's way - and words - of communicating.
But should the workplace be a platform for cultural expression? According to Mary- Anne Sinovich from Interman, a company specialising in professional language training, the workplace should not be seen as an opportunity to express one's cultural beliefs and rituals - specific cultures should simply be embodied in the organisational culture. To an extent, all employees change their behaviour, dress and attitude when they are at work, since the organisation demands different outputs from them than do their families or social life. It is true, however, that this change is easier for those employees whose 127
culture more closely resembles that of the organisation. Organisations should, therefore, be sensitive to the needs of those employees who have to make major adaptations every day.
3.3.3 Multicultural Orzanisations:
As has been stated, an organisation that simply contains many different cultural groups is a plural organisation. Sales and Mirvis (1984:107) consider an organisation to be multicultural only if it values its diversity. Fuhr refers to the "melting pot' culture where the company prides itself on its colour blindness. "We don't see white or black", they claim. "We treat all people the same." According to Fuhr (1992:29) "this approach completely ignores the issue of diversity in its quest for sameness and it is always the blacks who are expected to change in order to become the same!"
Cox (1993:229) ascribes the following characteristics to a multicultural organisation: A culture that fosters and values cultural difference Pluralism as an acculturation process Full structural integration Full integration of the informal networks An absence of institutionalised cultural bias in human resources management systems and practices A minimum of inter-group conflict due to the proactive management of diversity
These characteristics may seem like an unattainable dream, but through the proactive management of diversity it can become a reality. An example of a situation where the characteristics of a multicultural organisation are displayed is in the combat zone amongst soldiers. According to Connor (1992:15), the two elements that keep soldiers going are their common goal (survival) and their interdependence to achieve it. He calls this phenomenon the "foxhole mentality". Connor goes on to say that one way of managing diversity in South Africa is to continually create foxholes so that the incentive to work together is maintained (1992:15). 128
Connor's principle has much potential value, but some shortcomings as well. Management and trade union cooperation, for instance, does not function as a foxhole as neither party believe that there is a "burning platform" beneath their feet forcing them to work together for survival. The foxhole mentality can only work when parties believe that they have no other option but to work together - and that has to be clear to all involved. The other concern with this principle is what happens to the relationship once the danger has been taken care of. Is it not possible that only a threat to their existence will, in the long run, be able to bring the parties together and that "peace-time" cooperation may be all but impossible. It is necessary to look at diversity management as a process, not a series of crisis-driven interventions. The characteristics of the truly multicultural organisation seem to be closely related to what is implied by Lessem's metaphysical approach to management and corporate cultures (1990:37). Lessem stresses the importance of values, beliefs, assumptions, stories and rituals, all of which need attention in the processes and structures which can constitute a multicultural organisation.
4. ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND DISCOURSE SYSTEMS
The preceding discussion on how organisations deal with diversity through acculturation and socialisation, as well as what constitutes a truly multicultural organisation, clearly illustrates that the individual's experience of the organisation and its team members and the meaning ascribed to those experiences determine the individual's attitude towards and interaction with the organisation. The organisation's walls, furniture and equipment cannot determine its multicultural nature - only the employees, their behaviour and how the behaviour is interpreted can constitute a culture of valuing diversity.
Authors such as Bolman and Deal, and Frankl (quoted in Stothart & Crous, 1993:54), assert that meaning is a human being's most basic need and that the primary motivational force in man is a search for meaning through the realisation of values and ideals. Stothart and Crous (1993:54) further refer to authors whose research has indicated that whenever there are questions that cannot be answered, problems that cannot be solved and events that cannot be 129
understood, people vest objects, utterances and actions with subjective meaning that helps make their world intelligible. In striving to make the world understandable and manageable they often make sense of the complexity of everyday life by reading into things the meanings they wish to see. Similarly, people respond to the meanings they give to things, not to the things as such. As a result, the meaning of an object or event is often far more powerful than the reality.
The meaning ascribed to an object or event thus appears to be a personal experience, although in certain instances, group responses are also possible. According to Mead, as quoted in Hewitt (1984:67), the meaning of an object consists of the individual's initial readiness to act toward it in a certain way. The meaning is therefor not inherent as the object can be interpreted and acted towards in a variety of ways. Even if an object or event is intended in a specific way, the intention does not control the interpretation. The meaning of an act is not fixed and unchanging, but is determined through conduct as people act towards objects. As acts proceed and sometimes change from the initial intention, so also do the meaning ascribed to the object or event by the individual changes. It is important to note that people themselves are social objects to one another as they interact. The "reality" of the other person at a given moment depends on how the person is constituted as an object, as well as through the individual's behaviour in the situation (Hewitt, 1984:68).
Samovar, Porter and Jain (1981:108) specifically refer to the role of language in the construction of meaning. According to these authors, the notion of meaning refers to the fact that our structured and stable perceptions are not isolated from one another, but are related over time. If this was not the case, every perceptual input would be new and nothing would ever seem familiar.
Faules and Alexander (1978:8) add an important dimension to the discussion on meaning: "If meanings are in people and if the people change, then meanings change." They continue by emphasizing that meaning is highly dependent on the norms and values of the society. Therefor, as the norms and values of a group change, the significance attached to symbols change. Meanings can never be "correct" in themselves - they are only correct insofar as there is social agreement about what something means. If this process is true for society, it should 130
be true for organsiational cultures as well. When the organisation's culture change, the meanings established by its employees in that context are bound to change as well.
Organisations' systems of communication, or discourse systems, are fundamental building blocks of organisational culture and as such of the context within which employees communicate and share meaning.
4.1 Characteristics of a Discourse System
Conceiving of organisations as multiple discourse systems acknowledges the fact that organisations are dynamic and ever-changing which means that the context in which employees interact is not static and stable either. According to Rose (1988:140) "organisations exist dynamically in the meanings and interactions of their membership". Organisations might therefor be charaterised as interpretation systems whose social order must be negotiated and which consist of multiple, potentially conflicting cultures. Clearly, the concept of organisation rests in the network of subjective meanings that organisation members share to varying degrees (Rose, 1988:142).
Scollon & Scollon (1995:165) define discourse systems according to four characteristics:
1 The members will hold a common ideological position and recognise a set of extra-discourse features that define them as a group. These extra-discourse features may be common experiences (where were you when President Mandela was released from prison?), a common historical background (such as immigration from the same country of origin), a common race or gender, a common language or linguistic variety, or even common treatment by out-group members. Their ideology will guide their attitudes towards out-group members (1995:165).
2. Socialisation is accomplished primarily through these preferred forms of discourse. A somewhat circular, self-reinforcing system is set for potential members of discourse systems in that one learns how to be a member through learning how to use the preferred forms of discourse; and then one shows one's membership through competent use of these forms of discourse. Examples of how organisations engage in this form of socialisation, is on-the- 131
job-training, custom made training courses, such as courses on what is required of a buyer in the organisation, and succession training.
A set of preferred forms of discourse serves as banners or symbols of membership and identity. These preferred forms of discourse may include the use of involvement or independence face strategies, certain genres (such as letters of credit or invoices in business), or the use of certain specialised forms of address and a highly specialised lexicon (such as is used in law or the travel industry). The crucial point is that these preferred forms of discourse serve to symbolise identity and membership for members of the discourse system (1995:165). One consequence of this is that members will be reluctant to shift patterns of discourse, as it will be experienced as a change in identity. In the same way, members will use these forms as a guide to test others for membership in their discourse system (1995:166).
Face relationships are prescribed for discourse among members or between members and outsiders. A discourse system can be identified in part by having regular expectations of how members will speak to each other as well as how they will speak to non-members. The Utilitarian discourse system, for example, prescribes a face politeness system of symmetrical solidarity for public discourse among members. The Confucian discourse system, on the other hand, prescribes a system of hierarchy between ruler and ruled, fathers and children, husbands and wives (1995:166). Based on how their discourse system has socialised their behaviour, people express, for example, politeness in different ways and may be taken aback when their well-intentioned actions and words are rejected.
It can be said that intercultural communication is actually inter-discourse communication, and by keeping the above mentioned characteristics of a discourse system in mind, one comes to appreciate that intercultural communication entails much more than the ability or inability to understand the other person's language. The fact that socialisation is regarded as a characteristic defining the discourse system, is indicative of the fact that people include their backgrounds and past experiences their communication. 132
Based on the characteristics of discourse systems, Scollon and Scollon (1995:170) proposes an outline guide for the analysis of discourse systems which include four key questions as well as a number of secondary questions.
1. IDEOLOGY : What are the historical / social / ideological characteristics of the group?
Natural or purposive - corporate discourse systems are purposive or goal-oriented. Corporate structures come into existence for two broad classes of purposes, namely to make a profit for the owners, or to provide some servicee to some constituency. A secondary purpose for most corporate discourse systems is to provide employment. While institutions come into existence with certain external goals in mind, it is not long before internal and quite secondary goals come to dominate (Scollon & Scollon, 1995:174).
History - the major question to be considered in analysing a corporate discourse system from the point of view of its history, is to what extent is its history grounded in the history of a particular place and time. Generally speaking, the smaller and more local the discourse system, the more it will share in the characteristics of its time and place (1995:175).
Worldview - most international corporations and governmental organisations have taken on as their organisational worldview the Utilitarian discourse system's ideology. The Utilitarian system is highly individualistic and subscribes to an economic and rational concept of humans. It also underlies most thinking in management circles (1995:176).
Beliefs, values, religion - in modern corporate discourse systems, there is at least an informal understanding that employees will leave their beliefs, whether political or religious, at home when they report to work. Discourse is organised around the idea that objective facts and logical processes should be enough to determine courses of action (1995:176).
Place in culture, stance regarding other groups - the corporate ideology itself may be a more or less central aspect depending on the relative strength of the corporation. The stronger the position of the corporate discourse system, the more its employees are likely to think that strength derives from corporate ideology and therefor the more likely they are to self-consciously take that 133
ideology and ring it to the attention of others (1995:177). Difference in size or degree of internationality may not make a direct difference in ideology, but it will make a difference in how strongly an employee can put forward the company ideology in his or her dealings outside the company.
2. SOCIALISATION : How does one learn membership / identity? Education, enculturation, acculturation - corporate cultures have a large component of formal institutional learning as part of the means by which members become socialised. The type and quality of education determine whether a person will be hired by a specific corporation. Once she has been hired, however, enculturation and acculturation become major aspects of her learning how to become a full member. There is widespread recognition that success in taking on corporate identity and in being accepted as a member depends on successful enculturation (1995:179). Primary and secondary socialisation - primary socialisation takes place in the home during early childhood, whereas secondary socialisation happens at school. Children socialised into the Utilitarian discourse system will experience a natural match between their socialisation and the corporate ideologies of the multinational companies they may seek employment in once they have grown up. For children socialised into, for example, the Confucian discourse system, the match will be a more uncomfortable and painful one (1995:180). Theories of the person and of learning : Good and evil - there seems to be a good bit of ambivalence in corporate discourses about whether people are basically good or evil. Most frequently the problem is resolved by employing both incentive and coercive motivations for the learning of the new members of the discourse system (1995:181). Individual and collective - most institutional rewards or punishments take the basic position that the person functions as the isolated unit proposed by the Utilitarian ideology. This frequently goes against the actual needs of corporate task organisation (1995:181).
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Life cycle - the most important issue regarding socialisation and the life cycle within recent years has been the male mid-life transition on the one hand and the entry of more women into corporate careers on the other (1995:182).
3. FORMS of DISCOURSE : What are the preferred forms of communication?
a) Grammar of context - in corporate discourse systems, the idea of focused interaction dominates the grammar of context. Situations and events - speech situations and events are carefully orchestrated and controlled. Meetings, for example, may have an agenda which will include open discussion, but in corporate ideology it is necessary to prevent surprises from arising out of these discussions. Often such points will be anticipated and discussed in advance of the meeting so that what appears to be open is, in fact, equally closed (1995:184). Genres - genres vary considerably in corporate discourse systems. The ones most commonly found include business letters, memo's and the like. What is missing from corporations, however, are the use of lyric poetry, novels, songs, folk tales and myths. These forms of discourse are dismissed because they do not fit the ideological characteristics of the five W's and the one H (1995:185). Media
Face strategies - communication within a corporation is generally hierarchical, public communications are characterised by symmetrical solidarity, and communications with other corporate discourse systems are determined by the relationship between them (1995:186).
Patterns / types of cohesion - in corporate discourse one finds a strong preference for clear logical lines of analysis and presentation, which steer away from rhetorical appeals to emotion. This preference is not for the specific conjunctions as such, but for the overt statement of logical chains of cause and effect (1995:187).
Rhetorical strategies - in corporate discourse there is a preference for deductive strategies for the introduction of topics. It should be noted, however, that the choice between deductive and inductive strategies not only depends on the overall discourse system, but also on the relationship between actors and 135
the situation. Therefor, while deductive strategies may be preferred, they will not be used exclusively (1995:187). e) Functions of language : Information and relationship - because of corporate discourse's goal- orientation it tends to emphasize information over relationship. In collegial relationships, however, the information function of language is buffered by careful attention to the collegial relationship (1995:188). Negotiation and ratification - from external marketing and sales negotiations to internal brainstorming activities, corporations tend to express a high value for the negotiation of relative positions of power and status (1995:188). Group harmony and individual welfare - a major issue in management circles has to do with the question of group harmony over individual sucess within corporations. It is felt that at least some part of the divisiveness of western corporate discourse can be traced to the excessive individualism of members (1995:188). f) Non-verbal communication : Kinesics - this is the study of the movement of our bodies Proxemics - studies the use of space Concept of time
4. FACE SYSTEMS : What are the preferred or assumed human relationships? Kinship - the ideology of the Utilitarian discourse system has it that individuals should set aside personal, cultural and other group-derived relationships and enter into purely logical relationships in corporate discourse. On the other hand, many cultures emphasize that human beings are deeply connected to each other through their kinship ties (1995:192). The concept of the self - as a problem of corporate discourse systems, most members find themselves in constant conflict between the goals of the corporation and their own personal goals (1995:192). In-group-out-group relationships - in relationships with people outside the corporate discourse system conflict also arises. Should the opinions of the community be taken into consideration when the implementation of corporate decisions is contemplated? In most cases, such exercises are not for the 136
purpose of making more informed decisions, but rather act as marketing and public relations activities (1995:192).
4.2 Classifying Discourse Systems
Thatchenkery and Upadhyaya (in Boje, Gephart & Thatchenkery, 1996:311) advance the idea that four main discourses can be described: A continuous discourse is a discourse that has enjoyed a privileged status all through the life of the organisation. An introduced discourse is one that comes into use as a result of a significant event in the organisation or as a result of some reconceptualization of the core activity of the organisation. A cyclical discourse is one that gets privileged, deprivileged and reprivileged over time. A transformed discourse is one that changes dramatically in form, while preserving some critical elements of its earlier identity.
Introduced discourses are seen when massive restructuring or change occurs. In a smaller way, most organisational change processes attempt to introduce new discourses into organisations. Cyclical change and cyclical discourses can be observed by means of longitudinal studies of the organisation. Transformed discourses are seen when the core constructs of the organisation change dramatically, in other words, when a cultural change is manifested (Thatchenkery & Uphadhyaya in Boje, et. al., 1996:315).
In terms of a different point of views, Scollon & Scollon (1995:167) classify discourse systems as either voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary discourse systems are goal-oriented discourse systems such as corporations or other institutional structures which have been formed with specific purposes in mind. The defining aspect of a voluntary discourse system is that it is goal-directed. It has, in other words, a self-conscious ideology - such a system is created specifically to put forward a point of view or to accomplish a task. It implies that a set of values underlie the discourse system, and overtly or covertly guides its operations and its processes of making decisions (1995:167). 137
Involuntary discourse systems, on the other hand, are not created by conscious choice. These systems are formed by gender, race, ethnicity, generation and other such characteristics in which individual members have little choice about whether or not they share in the characteristics (1995:166). This does not mean, however, that they have no choice about membership and identity. It is not uncommon for individuals who share the characteristics of a certain discourse system to reject identity and membership, as when a member of a certain ethnic group chooses not to identify himself as a member. In such cases there is often conflict between membership and identity, because members of the group are likely to still treat the person as a member despite his attempts to reject identity with the group (1995:167).
Just as organisations do not exist in isolation, so do their employees not only belong to the corporate discourse system but potentially to a host of other voluntary and involuntary discourse systems. According to Scollon & Scollon (1995:169), most professional discourse takes place within five major types of discourse system :
The corporate culture The professional group The Utilitarian discourse system The generational discourse system the gender discourse system
The first two of these are, by and large, voluntary or goal-directed discourse systems. In other words, the corporate culture and the professional group are motivated by a goal-directed ideology. The Utilitarian discourse system is a broad, overarching ideological system widely spread through international businesses and governmental organisations. As a kind of background to corporate culture, on the one hand, it could be considered to be a goal-directed discourse system. On the other hand, most of its members begin their socialisation into the system at a very early age with little recognition of its ideological status. It might therefore better be considered an involuntary discourse system for many members. The generational as well as gender discourse systems of which one is a member, are involuntary discourse systems in that one is born into them (1995:169). 138
4.3 Discourse Systems and Organisational Power
Discourse systems encompass more than only words and language. In organisations, the whole system of communication also reflects power relationships or, as Scollon and Scollon (1995:42) refers to it "the vertical disparity between the participants in a hierarchical structure". A manager would have a +P (plus power) relationship with his or her subordinates, as the manager has certain privileges and responsibilities over the subordinate, whereas the latter owes certain duties to the manager. In most organisations, the organisational chart explicitly shows what the +P relationships are. As a result the language used between such participants is relatively predictable (1995:42). The subordinate would, for instance be more likely to refer to the manager as "Sir" and would probably be less likely to share the office gossip and rumors with the manager. Power thus influences both form and content of communication. In contrast to the situation described above, where there is little or no hierarchical difference between participants, their relationship would be considered to be -P or egalitarian. Close friends usually share -P relationships as neither is considered to be above the other. Similarly, two people who have equivalent ranks in their organisation may have a -P relationship even though they do not know each other at all (1995:42).
What is the role of communication, or organisational discourse, in the organisational power struggle? Drawing on Axley's (1984) work, Mumby (forthcoming in Jablin & Putnam, 1997:15) points out that most managerial conceptions of communication function according to a "conduit" model in which communication involves the relatively unproblematic transmission of ideas and information between senders and receivers. In research on organisational power, communication is largely taken for granted. While a sub-unit's power is measured in terms of its centrality, autonomy and access to resources, little or no attention is paid to how this power is communicated to other sub-units. Based on the discussion about the psychological and sociological functions of language earlier on in this chapter it is clear that organisational discourse cannot be regarded as a mere conduit of information when it comes to organisational power. It is, in fact, "a resource that controls organisational goals...(and) an inter-subjective process in which what counts as power, involves struggles over meaning" (Mumby, forthcoming in Jablin & Putnam, 1997:17). 139
In keeping with this line of thought, Gaventa (in Speer & Hughey, 1995:731), identifies three instruments of power: the first instrument is manifested through extensive resources that can be used to reward or punish various targets; the second instrument refers to the ability to construct barriers to participation or to eliminate such barriers through setting agendas and defining issues. This can be accomplished through control of topics, the timing of discussions and the range of discourse within a topic; the third instrument of power is a force that influences or shapes shared consciousness through myths, ideology, and control of information.
The instruments of power described here, reflect the role Mumby wants to see for communication when he points out that no attention is paid by the structural theories of power to how a sub-unit's power is communicated to other sub-units. Gaventa (1995:731) realises that a sub-unit displays its power by determining what is discussed in the organisation (setting agendas) and by influencing and shaping the organisation's shared consciousness. In this way, what is regarded as important by the powerful sub-unit, becomes the whole organisation's definition and perception of what is important.
While organisational members have a free choice in terms of interpreting their organisational experiences, it is mediated through the power relations in the organisations. An example to illustrate this phenomenon is provided by Gephart in Mumby (forthcoming in Jablin & Putnam, 1997:20). In his analysis of testimony at a public inquiry into a gas pipeline fire, Gephart shows how the official, "top-down" regulatory logic of the organisation prevails over the "situated logic", developed by on-site workers of work in action. The public inquiry functions as a remedial process that attempts to relegitimate the state's role as the arbiter of correct organisational safety procedures, while simultaneously closing off alternative interpretations of events.
Gephart's work is an example of the extent to which dominant, institutionalised meanings appropriate, and thus neutralise, alternative and oppositional interpretations of events. In terms of intercultural communication and diversity management, Gephart's analysis bears a grim message. Although organisational members are not prohibited from creating their own meanings, the -P meanings are overruled by the +P meanings in the instances where it really matters. This analysis corresponds with research done under the auspices of the critical 140
theories of organisational power and quoted by Mumby (forthcoming in Jablin & Putnam, 1997:33) that concludes that "the groups(s) which is best able to "fix" meaning and articulate it to its own interests is the one which will be best able to maintain and reproduce relations of power". This seemingly fair "survival of the fittest" orientation is, however, flawed in that it favours those organisational members most familiar with and accustomed to reigning organisational practices and politics. Newcomers, especially "different" newcomers such as women, disabled people and ethnic minorities, are thus at a disadvantage and will struggle to "fix" their meaning and in doing so establishing new power relations.
5. SUMMARY
The current chapter started off by examining the phenomenon of corporate culture and came to the conclusion that to organise is to communicate. The quality and nature of the organisational discourse therefore largely determine organisational cultures. One theoretical perspective suggests that an important element of organisation and culture is the minimisation of the anxieties of members (Allcorn, 1995:74). This perspective provides the important understanding that the quality of an organisation's culture may enhance or inhibit individual, group and organisational performance. Organisational culture may encourage members to cope effectively with or to defend against their anxieties. Organisations that nurture feelings of self-esteem, participation, empowerment and effectiveness create a sense of security and confidence for their members. Based on the classification of cultures as was presented in this chapter, low anxiety will probably be present in the metaphysical culture.
In contrast, some organisations de-skill and alienate their members. Employees feel mislead, helpless, suspicious and uncontrollably anxious when faced with internal and external problems that require change. These employees experience the need to change as a threat. The organisation's communication system, or discourse, which includes verbal and non-verbal communication as well as the use of symbols, will determine whether employees receive anxiety-increasing or anxiety-decreasing messages. The levels of anxiety present in an organisation will in turn be an important determinant of culture. 141
It can be inferred that in a diverse and multicultural organisation, anxiety levels would increase if the members' diversity is not recognised, valued and managed. According to the earlier discussion on what constitutes a truly multicultural organisation, the importance of pluralistic socialisation - where neither the new member nor the organisation is required to forsake their identity and culture - surfaced, as well as the fact that members' diverse values, beliefs and identities need to be valued and harnessed to the benefit of all.
The most important insight arising out of this chapter concerns the organisational culture as context within which employees communicate and share meaning. The organisation's culture is strongly influenced by the organisation's system of communication — in other words its discourse system. The discourse system is determined by factors such as the organisastion's ideology, socialisations processes, culture and the way in which human relationships are organised. The way in which employees experience the above mentioned factors, and use them in their communication interactions, will have a significant influence on how successfully meaning is shared.
A key factor in terms of organisational discourse is organisational power and the way in which power relationships influence organisational culture. The present chapter's focus on power was mainly from a communication point of view and concluded that the way in which individuals and groups use power in organisations, has a definite influence on communication and the construction of meaning in organisations.
Having examined organisational culture as the context within which employees communicate and share meaning, the next chapter will focus on the processes and means according to which communication and the sharing of meaning take place in organisations. 142
CHAPTER V
THE INFLUENCE OF LANGUAGE ON CORPORATE CULTURE
1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters it has been established that South African organisations today are faced with a plethora of changes in the society, which affect not only the environment in which they have to survive and thrive, but also the people they employ. The main thrust of society's transformation is the move towards democratisation that leads to a growing recognition of diversity. As society's changes and demands put more and different pressures on organisations, it is becoming clear that in order to survive, organisations need to think about diversity in different ways. In order to do that, organisational cultures need to change.
The dynamics of organisational cultures were discussed in Chapter IV and it became evident that an organisation's culture provides the context within which organisational members function while at work. The culture is the context within which they communicate and share meaning. Communication, whether verbally or non-verbally, is the prerequisite for all human interaction. It not only makes such interaction possible, but is also a major factor in determining the nature of social relationships. Many problems in social relationships, between either individuals or groups, are precipitated by communication problems. The verbal communication process includes the encoding of an idea into a word, or words, on the part of the sender and the decoding of that word, or words, on the part of the receiver. While the sender selects the terms that she feels best relay the meaning intended, the receiver has to interpret the terms. Ultimately the accuracy of the communication, or the correct interpretation, depends on a common meaning or an understanding between sender and receiver (Lampe, 1982:85). This process, which is troublesome even within a single largely heterogeneous group, becomes even more problematic when there are cultural or sub-cultural differences involved. And even more so when meaning has to be shared by speakers of different languages. Not only do 143
different languages have different names for the same objects, concepts or feelings, but it is also virtually impossible to translate the full richness of the intended meaning from one language into another. The use of a "neutral" third language by both parties may also not be the ideal solution as people are seldom able to express themselves as eloquently and clearly in a second language as what they are able to do in their mother tongue.
The matter is further complicated by the fact that human beings are also able to communicate through symbols. Symbols may take the form of graphics, but also exist in language genres such as metaphors, poetry and stories and are often used to express abstract ideas in ways that are easier to understand. Organisations make extensive use of symbols in instances such as creeds and mottoes, functions and rituals, logos, awards and promotional material. According to Dandridge (in Stothart & Crous, 1993:56), these things can be classified as symbols because organisational members believe and accept them in a way that facilitates the experiencing of specific values or feelings. The way in which employees experience and interpret organisational symbols is therefor also a process according to which meaning is established and shared in the organisational culture. The nature of the organisation's culture will determine the way in which symbols are used.
The aim of the current chapter is to examine how meaning is shared in organisations, specifically by means of language and the use of symbols. The first part of the chapter will be devoted to the ways in which the psychological and sociological aspects of language influence the sharing of meaning, followed by an examination of the role of symbolism in organisational communication processes.
2. UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE : PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
2.1 The Relationship between Language and Thought
Probably no topic is more central to the study of psycholinguistics than that which concerns the relationship of language, thought and culture. Does language influence, or even determine, thought? Does language affect our perception of nature and society? Steinberg (1993:158) cites an interesting story about a Sunday school teacher who were arrested in America in 1920 144
for teaching Bible stories in German to a young boy. This was against the law at the time, forbidding the teaching of a second language to children under the age of 13. The state had passed these laws essentially with the German language in mind and reflected the widespread belief that the German language was the embodiment of all that was evil in German culture, as well as the belief that to teach such a language to young Americans would be immoral and corrupting (1993:159). The teacher appealed to the Supreme Court of the State of Nebraska whose lawyers took the position that a language by its very nature represents the spirit and national character of a people. If this were true, the teacher would be turning the young Americans into German militarists by teaching them the German language.
The Sunday school teacher, however, did not give up when his appeal was denied and took his case to the United States Supreme Court where he won his case. The court overturned the previous conviction and ruled that the "mere knowledge of the German language cannot reasonably be regarded as harmful" (1993:159). Steinberg concludes this story by saying that in making a legal decision on the matter, the court also made a psycholinguistic decision about the relationship between language, thought and culture (1993:159). The truth of the matter, according to this author, is closer to the US Supreme Court's ruling than to the Nebraskan court's and this assertion will be elaborated on later.
Many theorists have tried their hands at explaining the relationship between thought and language. Most classical theorists, such as Aristotle, argued that the categories of thought determine the categories of language. According to this view, words are symbols for mental experience (Foss & Hakes, 1978:381). An opposite view about the relationship between thought and language was expressed by the behaviorist John B. Watson (in Foss & Hakes, 1978:382). According to Watson, thought is language. Watson (in Foss & Hakes, 1978:382) believed that during development speech becomes sub-vocal, and then goes completely "underground". Thought was said to be identical with this sub-vocal speech. Following Watson, the linguist Bloomfield and the philosopher Ryle proposed similar views on both the nature of thought (as a kind of speaking to ourselves) and the origin of thought (from speaking aloud). Ryle, for example, regarded ordinary thinking as an internal monologue where, in order for us to talk to ourselves (that is, to think), we should have previously learned to talk intelligently aloud and have heard and understood other people doing so (Steinberg, 145
1993:160). In its radical form, this position has no adherents today; the counter-arguments are simply too massive. A less radical view, but one that is also opposed to the classical theory, is that language determines thought. According to this view, thought is not to be identified with sub-vocal language, but the "categories" of thought are determined by linguistic categories (Foss & Hakes, 1978:382). Theorists in this camp are divided between those who think that language completely determines cognitive categories and those who merely say that language strongly influences cognitive categories.
Foss and Hakes (1978:382) distinguish between two main viewpoints, namely the "language- determines-thought" theorists who believe that linguistic categories are acquired first and then determine what cognitive categories are acquired. A "thought-determines-language" theorist on the other hand would say that cognitive development comes earlier in the life of a child and that the cognitive categories he develops determine the linguistic categories he will acquire. Although there are very few pure theorists of either type, the distinction makes the various viewpoints easier digestible.
On the question on what role speech as such plays in cognitive development, Steinberg quotes quite a convincing body of evidence to proof that speech cannot be the basis of thought. Steinberg (1993:160) mentions the fact that children understand language before they learn to speak themselves: "Researchers studying children have found that children's understanding of speech is well in advance of their ability to produce it" (1993:161). In these instances, neither the children nor the speech disabled people would have been capable of thought as their command of language is not optimal. Furthermore, people with speech disabilities are still able to understand speech, even though they are unable to pronounce words as people with no disability. One of the most convincing pieces of evidence quoted by Steinberg is the fact that people are able to think about one thing while talking about another (1993:162).
Having determined that speech do not determine thought, our attention now turns to the question of the extent to which language determines thought - bringing us back to the case of the Sunday school teacher. In examining this phenomenon the Whorfian hypothesis and the arguments for and against it will be used. 146
2.1.1 The Whorfian Hypothesis:
The Whorfian hypothesis had its origin with Sapir's view of language as a "tyrant" that not only reflects experience, but which actually defines it, imposing upon us particulars and ideas about the world (Steinberg, 1993:163). The more infamous partner in this hypothesis, however, is Benjamin Lee Whorf who was a chemical engineer by training, but who devoted himself to the study of American Indian languages and culture (Foss & Hakes, 1978:383). According to Whorl, the child's cognitive system is "plastic" - that is the system is susceptible of being organised in many different ways. The primary determinant of how it is organised is the structure of the language that the child acquires. Due to the linguistic structural differences between the different languages, Whorl theorised that the resulting cognitive systems would also by highly dissimilar (1978:383).
Whorl's views actually had two parts: the first, known as linguistic determinism, claims that linguistic structure determines cognitive structure. The second, referred to as the hypothesis of linguistic relativity, claims that the resulting cognitive structures are highly different in speakers of different languages (Foss & Hakes, 1978:383). According to this theory then, a Japanese speaker, for example, would have very different ideas from an English speaker as the grammars of the two languages are so very different. On the other hand, a speaker of German would automatically have more similar ideas to the speaker of English because the grammars are less different (Steinberg, 1993:164).
Steinberg wastes no time in presenting evidence against the Whorfian hypothesis (1993:168). In its purest form, the hypothesis cannot hold true due to, for example, the fact that deaf children who cannot speak do still think, as well as the fact that bilingual persons do not develop multiple personalities or behavioural problems from learning two or more languages. A lot of theorists and linguistics agree with Steinberg that Whorf's hypothesis, at least in its strong version, cannot be regarded as feasible (Hunt & Agnoli, 1991; Russell, 1991; Sherzer, 1987). 147
21.2 Where and how does language affect thought?
From the literature study conducted for this chapter, it would seem that the various theorists on this subject all seem to converge to the same point, namely that the "distinctions that are made implicitly by the grammar of a language, are far more important determinations of thought than are the explicit categorisations of the lexicon" (Hunt & Agnoli, 1991:378). The way in which the words and sentences of a language combine into discourse which then expresses culture, is thus far more important than the fact that Eskimo's have more words for snow than English speakers, or that the Hopi language seem to disregard time (both of these examples were used by Whorl to support his hypothesis (as discussed in Steinberg, 1993:164)). The different writers reach their conclusion in different ways, therefore a brief summary of three examples will now follow.
Danny Steinberg (1993): Steinberg's view on the relationship between language and thought is decidedly vague and general. "Thus, while language is neither the basis of thought nor is necessary for the functioning of thought, language can affect thought once thought is established" (1993:169). The ways in which thought can be affected, are to provide us with new ideas, and / or to bring about a change in beliefs or values. New ideas usually do not involve novel words or grammatical rules. What is novel is their arrangement. Thus, such sentences are created and understood on the basis of what the speaker already knows about the language in terms of its grammar and vocabulary (1993:170). The new ideas are thus presented by combining words that has not been combined or related to one another before. When a change in beliefs or values occur, a person's basic logical processing or conceptual categories have not changed, but the truth and attractiveness value he or she attaches to certain ideas (1993:170). A person's way of thinking does not change, but rather their values and goals.
Earl Hunt and Franco Agnoli (1991): Hunt and Agnoli state that the phenomenon of translatability contradicts the strong version of the Whorfian hypothesis which states that a thought expressible in one 148
language may not be expressible in another due to the differing cognitive structures (1991:377). However, they see the weaker version of the hypothesis as the issue of degree of naturalness of thought: "The weaker version of the hypothesis states that language differentially favours some thought processes over others, to the point that a thought that is easily expressed in one language might virtually never be developed by speakers of another language" (1991:378). They continue by stating that this means that at any time a language user thinks most efficiently about those topics for which his or her lexicon has provided an efficient code (1991:378). To return to the example of Eskimo's extended vocabulary of snow-words, the weaker version of the hypothesis would mean that it is possible for English speakers to conceive of, and talk about, all the varieties of snow for which the Eskimo's has specific words; the only difference would be that the English speakers would find it much more difficult to do so than would the Eskimo's.
Hunt and Agnoli conclude their article by stating that "every utterance in language A has a translation in language B. The issue is one of cost." (1991:387). iii) Joel Sherzer (1987): From Sherzer's point of view, it is discourse that creates, recreates, modifies and fine tunes both culture and language and their intersection, and it is especially in "verbally artistic discourse such as poetry, magic, verbal dueling and political rhetoric that the potentials and resources provided by grammar, as well as cultural meanings and symbols, are exploited to the fullest and the essence of the language-culture relationship becomes salient" (1987:296). The emphasis Sherzer places on the "artistic" use of discourse, is a reminder of the role stories and legends have to play in the organisational context. The discourse employed in organisational stories also draws on the organisation's cultural meanings and symbols and thus embodies the relationship between the organisation's culture and its use of language.
Sherzer regards language as both cultural and social. Cultural in the sense that it is one form of symbolic organisation of the world, and social in that it reflects and expresses group membership and relationships. Language includes grammar, but goes beyond it. As a sign system, language has the interesting property of being 149
unmotivated and arbitrary, as well as motivated (1987:296). It is unmotivated and arbitrary from the point of view of its properties as a formal, abstract system. It is motivated from the point of view of the meaningfulness and appropriateness that individuals feel about their language as it is used in actual social and cultural contexts (1987:296).
Moving from language to discourse, Sherzer looks at discourse as a level or component of language use, related to but distinct from grammar. It can be oral or written and can be approached in textual or sociocultural and socio-interactional terms. It can be shorter than a sentence, such as a greeting, or much longer than a sentence, such as a novel. "Discourse is an imprecise and constantly emerging and emergent interface between language and culture, created by actual instances of language in use and best designed specifically in terms of such instances" (1987:296). The essence of Sherzer's argument is that language does not reflect culture, but that language use in discourse creates, recreates and modifies cultures. Meaning, which is at the heart of the symbols- oriented conception of culture Sherzer works with, is on the one hand a mental construct, but it is a mental construct that is influenced by, as well as it influences, actual language use (1987:300). Sherzer (1987:306) concludes by saying that "discourse, and especially the process of discourse structuring, is the locus of the language-culture relationship".
Sherzer's explanation of the language-culture relationship can be usefully applied in the organisational context. Different organisations have different cultures, and since the members of organisations in the same country use the same language(s) in their communication, these differences cannot be ascribed to diverse cognitive structures created by different languages. When the way in which language is used in social contexts, is taken into consideration, the differences in cultures may be accounted for. Different organisations have different conventions of addressing superiors and subordinates, different designations for the same positions and different euphemisms for negative events or experiences. An organisation's discourse system strongly influences its culture as some organisation's discourse lends itself to discussions, and thus ways of thinking, not relevant for other organisations. 150
Having established the way in which the thought-language-culture relationship will be viewed in this chapter, namely that the crux of the matter is discourse and not lexicon, the section on psycholinguistics will be concluded with a brief discussion on the psychological functions of language.
2.2 Psychological Functions of Language
A useful illustration of the psychological functions of language in a cultural context is provided by Lampe. Lampe (1982:85) states that naming has been identified as the first dimension of language and is a group convention that entails the establishment of certain verbal symbols, or words, to refer to specific things or categories of things. This allows members of a group to speak of their world and to make verbal distinctions that are regarded as correct and important within the group. There is, of course, no natural or necessary relationship between a word selected and what the word signifies. As members learn appropriate words, they also learn the corresponding attitudes and behaviours accompanying those words. These attitudes and behaviours are also products of the group (1982:86). Not only do words affect feelings and behaviour, they also affect one's perception of reality.
In most people's minds, naming has a positive, or at least neutral, connotation, whereas name- calling is regarded a propaganda device, in that name-calling indicates the speaker's feeling towards, or evaluation of, the object referred to, and terms are used to influence an emotional or behavioural response toward a given person, thing or place (1982:86). Lampe (1982:86), however, is of the opinion that all naming is in fact name-calling, especially when the speaker has more than one alternative to choose from in naming a person, object or event. When alternatives are available, the choice of the particular label selected becomes extremely important due to the fact that over time, different names tend to develop different connotations. For this reason, no two words remain completely synonymous.
Based on his research, Lampe concludes that ethnic labels are not merely "neutral verbal indicators and that the choice of alternative terms is not strictly a matter of personal preference, especially if one is interested in effective communication and harmonious relations" (1982:87). The issue with ethnic, or intercultural labels, is that it is impossible to fully distinguish language from the culture in which it appear, nor can one speak of culture without speaking of its 151
underlying values. And without some understanding of cultural values, one cannot appreciate the meanings of words as they are used in that culture (1982:87). Members of an ethnic group who share a common subculture learn the appropriate preferences and prejudices, stereotypes and actions and reactions which, together with a common language, help to unite them. Thus, shared images of others outside the group are a result of common culture, similar experiences and perceived mutual interests within the group (1982:87).
In conclusion, Lampe (1982:88) asserts that the heart of the problem seems to be the fact that an individual or group may select or initiate the term they call themselves and while doing so bestow on it a desired meaning, but the individual or group can neither control what others call them nor determine the meanings of the term used. Miscommunication may result from dissimilarity of meanings and / or predispositions attached to words, so that while an individual believes she is using a label merely for identification or description, another may interpret the label used as a judgment. Thus ethnic labels can be naming for some but name-calling for others.
Clemmens (1988:298) observes that the creativity associated with linguistic inventiveness seems to act like a safety valve: "The socially disadvantaged, the poorly educated in most societies are the ones that supply their languages with an ever renewed vehicle of expression". The upper class tends to frown on linguistic change in much the same way as they are reluctant to agree to other changes. Linguistic purism is therefore an upper class prerogative (1988:299). In this context, it can be understood that language use can be used to reflect one's standing in the community. The use of private or semi-private language among minority groups can be said to pursue the same objective. The special language becomes refined, so as to selectively communicate only to fellow initiates, and to obfuscate its meaning to all others (1988:299). Private languages are used to distinguish groups and to establish and maintain a distinct identity for one group in comparison to the majority or dominant group. An example of such a secret code, in which words were not even pronounced, was the picture of a fish used by the early Christians in a hostile Rome. The need to maintain a distinct identity may also be the reason why certain groups persevere in using so-called low-prestige language varieties (Garnham, 1985:147). The psychological function of language in this respect is that of a group identity symbol. 152
In looking at the psychological functions of political correctness and jargon, Clemmens (1988:300) comments on the enormous increase of acronyms in contemporary language. Quite frequently, only the specialist in a specific field can grasp the meaning of a message infested with acronyms. By adopting the use of acronyms "the young neophyte enhances his standing in his own mind, in the eyes of the group he is in the process of joining, and also among those who no longer understand him, but who admire his learning. Psychologically, this process is no different from the acquisition of unnecessarily complex jargon in general" (1988:300). Pretentiousness is not, however, the only reason why people revert to strange expressions. Clemmens sites fear as another powerful motive. Under conditions of political repression the richness of verbal expression tends to atrophy. Even opponents to dictatorial regimes find themselves contaminated by prevailing speech patterns in situations where it is simply too dangerous to pursue originality in language use. An example in case is the damage inflicted upon the German language during the Hitler years (1988:301).
The psychological functions of languages, as studied by psycholinguistics, are predominantly at work on an individual level, although inferences about groups are also possible. The main use of language, however, is not to enable individuals to communicate with themselves, but to communicate with other individuals and groups. For this reason, sociolinguistics, which is the study of language in its social context, seems to be the logical next step when it comes to an examination of language. Furthermore, in the context of this study, organisations are social systems and therefore a social view of language cannot be ignored.
3. LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL CONTEXTS: SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context, and is based on the assumption that if we are to understand how and why individuals acquire, use and react to language and its dynamics, we need a greater understanding of human attitudes, motivations, identities and intentions (Giles & St Clair, 1979). In the section on psycholinguistics, the processes involved when people ascribe meaning to language were examined and some light was shed on language comprehension. This section, however, will aim to put language within a social context and comment on the tactics people employ to reach certain goals. In the context of the 153
whole dissertation, this section is regarded as very important as communication in organisations is also the use of language in a very specific social context.
3.1 The Concept of Schema
As schema is a key concept in social cognition as well as in the rest of the study, it is deemed necessary to discuss it in some detail at this point. A schema is an organised collection of one's beliefs and feelings about something (Baron & Byrne, 1987:94), which would mean that stereotypes, preconceptions and generalisations are schemata. The basic idea is that a person's mind is not merely a hodge-podge of isolated facts about everything in the world. The mind organises its contents very carefully and elaborately. Schemata are what the mind uses to organise the wealth of information about the world that it is being confronted with every waking moment (1987:95).
3.1.1 Types of Schemata:
Self-schemata - The self is in part a schema that helps individuals to process information. The self, in other words, is something that helps to interpret certain events and understand their implications (Baron & Byrne, 1987:95). Results of research done on the self-schema indicated that the self-schema is a powerful factor in the way people understand their social world. Events that bear on the self attract more attention, produce more thought, and are remembered better than other events (1987:95). Person and role schemata - For each person whom we know well, we have a person schemata that organises what we know and feel about the particular person. Sometimes a person will behave in a way that surprises you, even though that same behaviour would not be so surprising if done by someone else. The surprise occurs because that behaviour violates the way you have come to expect that person to act in other words, it doesn't fit your schema for that person (Baron & Byrne, 1987:96). We also have role schemata, or organised sets of expectations about how people in certain roles are supposed to act (1987:96). Event schemata - We have organised beliefs about the normal or typical course of events in various familiar situations. These schemata enable us to know in advance what will happen when we take an exam or go on a picnic. We don't need to be told 154
specifically to bring a pen to an exam, because our exam-taking script tells us that we will have to write (1987:97).
3.1.2 Schemata and Information Processing:
To answer the question of schemata's function, we need to look at schema effects on three main cognitive processes, namely attention, encoding and retrieval (Baron & Byrne, 1987:97). Attention refers to what you notice, encoding refers to what gets stored in memory and retrieval refers to what actually gets remembered later on. A basic principle is that some information is lost during each of these processes. You notice only a small part of the world that confronts you; you encode only a small part of what you notice; and you retrieve only part of what was previously stored in your memory (1987:97). Another way of contemplating this loss of information is that each of the three processes requires selection among all the possible things that could be noticed, encoded and retrieved. The selection process is not random - rather, the mind has ways of choosing what to notice and remember. Which is where schemata enter the picture. Schemata guide the selective processing of social information and thus act as one of the mind's main mechanisms for coping with information overload. But schemata do not simply operate as "cognitive filters". In addition to selection, they play a more active role by changing or distorting incoming information, filling gaps in such input, and in general, shaping our comprehension of the social world (1987:100).
3.1.3 Schemata Model for Intercultural Encounters:
To illustrate how schemata can be used to explain how people from different cultures communicate, Beamer's Schemata Model for Intercultural Encounters (1995:141) can be used. The model is also introduced at this point to propose a framework in which the reader can contextualise the remainder of the chapter. Up to now, diversity and its effect on organisations have been discussed, as well as the phenomena of culture, organisational culture and meaning, and the psychological influences of language on thought. 155
In an attempt to draw these variables together, Beamer (1995:141) proposes a model based on the assumption that if the culture of another person is unlike one's own, or is so unfamiliar that similar meanings cannot be attributed, then the more one finds out about the unlike or unknown culture, the better one's chance of success in communicating with it. What people know, or think they know, about each other and each other's cultures, thus influences the way in which they communicate. According to Beamer (1995:142), what communicator A knows about Culture B is a mental projection or schema projected by Communicator A. The term "schema" is used to refer to a generalised, stereotypical conceptualisation of a culture. Individuals conceptualise about the relatively unfamiliar by using their pre-existing mental categories or schemata, supplied by their culture, into which information can be organised (Beamer, 1995:142).
FIGURE 11 : Relationship of Schemata to Actual Cultures and Communication
Source : (Beamer, 1995:145)
Beamer (1995) thus suggests that when people from different cultures communicate, they actually do not communicate with each other, but with each other's schemata of the other person's culture. In this communication process, the actual idea is not being transmitted. What is transmitted is the sound waves of speech, the lines of a graphic or the written document. 156
"These codes then link to the meanings that reside in the minds of the communicators. Codes travel; the meanings do not travel" (Beamer, 1995:147).
In this study up to now, various elements have been introduced which influence the meanings that reside in the minds of people, such as stereotypes, ethnicity and cultural background. In the sections to follow, techniques people use to diminish, or increase, the distance between what they believe they know and the reality, will be introduced.
3.2 Interpersonal Communication Strategies
When coming into contact with other people, especially for the first time, individuals tend to employ a variety of tactics with which to establish the parameters and terms of the interaction. People also use different aspects of other's language use as clues to gain as much information as possible about each other. In Giles and St. Clair's book "Language and Social Psychology", a variety of authors and researchers write about the phenomena humans use and encounter during interpersonal communication episodes.
3.2.1 Judkments based on Speech:
"Language, central in any discussion of disadvantage, is capable of evoking strong social stereotypes which may have serious effects upon the school life of certain children" (Edwards, in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:43). This quotation makes a very important point about language in social contexts. Apart from a person's physical appearance, the way he or she speaks is the first information others can use to form an opinion about the person. In the case of media such as radio or in a telephone conversation, voice and the use of language are the only clues available to the receiver. The findings of several research studies have suggested that people build up powerful judgments and, consequently, expectations about behaviour and abilities based on how people speak and the language they use (Giles & St. Clair, 1979:24).
This phenomenon may be of particular importance in the South African context. Although the Constitution recognises 11 official languages, English is more and more used as the official business language and it may be asserted, based on the research 157
findings quoted above, that people's ability in the English language is often used to base expectations of business acumen on. If the assertion proves to be true, this prejudice will work to the detriment of non-standard English speakers, namely Afrikaans speakers and especially the native black language speakers whose disadvantaged social and educational background did not prepare them to eloquently express themselves in English in the business environment.
3.2.2 Accommodation Theory - Convenience and Divergence :
The way we speak, in terms of vocabulary, style and tone, change according to the situation we find ourselves in. "... the nature of the setting, the topic of the discourse and the type of person with whom we are talking all interact to determine the way we speak in a particular situation" (Giles & Smith, 1979:45). Giles and Smith assert that people's moods, feelings, motives and loyalties feature prominently in the production and interpretation of verbal output. In their discussion, they start off with background information about convergence and then proceed to show how the interpersonal accommodation theory evolved out of four psychological theories, namely similarity- attraction, social exchange, causal attribution and Tajfel's theory of inter-group distinctiveness (1979:46). The relevance of this discussion in the context of diversity management is that it sheds light on how and why the perceived differences and similarities between people make it easier or more difficult to interact with them.
"Convergence" is a modification of speech in social interaction and describes the processes whereby individuals shift their speech styles to become more like that of those with whom they are interacting (1979:46).
The flipside of the convergence coin is known as divergence. Situations may occur where the speaker might wish to dissociate himself from the listener, for various reasons, and hence accentuate their linguistic differences, a process termed speech divergence (Giles & St. Clair, 1979:159).
The four influences on the accommodation theory, according to Giles and Smith, are as follows: 158
Similarity-attraction processes: In its simplest form, the theory proposes that the more similar our attitudes and beliefs are to certain others, the more likely it is that we will be attracted to them (1979:47). Speech convergence is but one of the many devices a person may adopt to become more similar to another.
Causal attribution processes: The work of Heider, Kelley, Jones and Davis on causal attribution theory suggests that we interpret other people's behaviour, and evaluate the persons themselves, in terms of the motives and intentions that we attribute as the cause of their behaviour (in Giles & St Clair, 1979:50).
Social exchange processes: In its simplest form social exchange theory states that prior to acting humans attempt to assess the rewards and costs of alternate courses of action. Thus, if they have the choice -of doing or saying one thing or another, they tend to choose the alternative that maximises the chances of a positive outcome, and minimises the chance of an unpleasant one (Heider, et.al . in Giles & St Clair, 1979:48).
Processes of inter-group distinctiveness: Tajfel proposes that when members of different groups are in contact, they compare themselves on dimensions which are important to them, such as personal attributes, abilities, material possessions and so forth. He suggests that these "inter-group social comparisons" will lead individuals to search for, and even create, dimensions on which they can make themselves positively distinct from the out-group (in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:52).
The preceding discussion on the accommodation theory and the four psychological theories on which it has been based, has shed some light on the measures people take - consciously or unconsciously - to make themselves more acceptable to the recipient of their communication, or to distinguish themselves more clearly from the other person or group. The implication of these theories on diversity management is that people should be aware of the processes they themselves, as well as the other person, employ during the communication process. An understanding of these processes could prevent us from taking the easy way out and acting on stereotypes, rather than making provision for the various ways in which people respond to each other. The implication of these 159
theories is also very important to organisational communication practitioners and should be taken into account when communication strategies are drawn up.
3.2.3 Beyond Initial Interaction:
Where the previous section dealt with strategies people employ to make the initial interaction experience as positive and beneficial as possible, it is now necessary to proceed towards an examination of the factors influencing the development or disintegration of interpersonal relationships. According to Charles Berger (in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:123), the primary concern when strangers meet is to reduce uncertainty. It is specifically argued that the uncertainty is caused by the difficulty to predict the likely behaviour of the other person(s) in the situation so that one can select from his or her own behavioural repertoire the alternative modes of behaviour which are deemed most . appropriate for the situation. The social context is, however, not the only determinant: the motives, attitudes and values attributed to each other in the situation also determine repertoire selection (in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:124).
Berger continues his discussion by suggesting that uncertainty may occur on different levels, namely the cognitive and behavioural (in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:124). Cognitive uncertainty in terms of first meetings is different from the uncertainty level of a given stream of discourse. In certain circumstances, the level of uncertainty of verbal exchanges made in interaction may not be reflective of the underlying cognitive states of uncertainty of the participants. Many interactions involving strangers acting out formal roles may involve a discrepancy between cognitive and behavioural uncertainty. Thus, what gets said and the way it gets said may be highly predictable in formal role situations; however, the cognitive states of the actors in such situations may remain highly uncertain (in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:125).
Organisational contexts are not specifically conducive to the development of close interpersonal relationships and people are often satisfied to interact within the safe boundaries of social rules and norms instead of getting to know one another as individuals. In these circumstances it can be expected that stereotypes would be perpetuated and would be used as guidelines in interpersonal interactions. 160
Uncertainty at the level of initial interaction is natural and understandable, but when we wish to develop significant and long-term relationships, failure to achieve higher levels of knowledge and understanding may be disastrous. Berger (in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:127) mentions three "antecedents to interpersonal knowledge generation", in other words, three determinants of the degree to which persons will monitor their own communication outputs and the outputs of others in order to gain knowledge and understanding:
Incentives - When persons come to believe that the other person can satisfy certain needs, that is that the other person has incentive value, we expect that efforts will be made to find out more about the person with high incentive value so that the perceiver can develop strategies for obtaining rewards from him (Berger, in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:128).
Deviation - It is asserted that behaviour that deviates from expectations, norms and rules will be more closely monitored than expected behaviour (Berger, in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:129).
Future Interaction - The last determinant is the probability that the parties will interact again in future (Berger, in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:131).
Berger's article concludes with a discussion on passive, active and interactive strategies for dealing with uncertainty. Passive strategies: Not all strategies for generating knowledge and understanding involve communication. Persons can learn a great deal about others by assuming the roles of unobtrusive observers. These strategies are referred to as "passive strategies" as an indication of the lack of direct intervention by the observer, which means that the observer has minimal effects on the actor's behaviour (Berger, in Giles & St. Clair, 1979:134).
Active strategies: These strategies require the observer to take overt steps in order to procure information about the actor. Two such strategies are identified, namely "Asking other about the target" and "Environmental structuring". 161
iii) Interactive strategies: These strategies place the observer and actor in face-to-face interaction with each other. Three strategies are identified, namely "Verbal interrogation", "Self-disclosure" and "Deception detection".
4. THE ROLE OF SYMBOLISM IN THE SHARING OF MEANING
The importance of symbolism in the context of this study is the role it plays in the constitution of meaning. The theory of symbolic interactionism, clarifies the relationship between symbols and meaning as follows (Wood, 1982:67)
Human beings act toward phenomena on the basis of the meanings they attach to the phenomena. Humans do not act without reason, and meaning constitutes that reason. An understanding of human behaviour must therefor be centrally concerned with the meanings that humans have for the phenomena they experience. This meaning, in turn, is being used by the individual to guide his or her behaviours (Wood, 1982:67).
Meanings arise in social contexts out of the social interaction that one has with one's fellows. Meaning is not inherent or intrinsic to the make-up of things, neither do meanings reside in just the individual who ascribes them to phenomena. According to symbolic interactionism, meanings are social products that are constructed through our interactions with others and the ways in which others act towards phenomena. Meanings are not created in a vacuum (Wood, 1982:68).
Through an interpretative process of self-communication the individual modifies and manages particular meanings. Although meanings are constructed in the context of social interactions, the meaning of a thing to a given individual is not simply an application of others' meaning for the thing. To interpret something, we must first communicate with ourselves to point out, for instance, which things are significant out of all the possible things to which we could give attention. Second, we must interpret the meanings of those things we have isolated for our attention. We call upon past experiences with similar things, identify the implications of the things for us and place the things within the context of our cognitive and value systems. Only then have we arrived at a definition of what the thing means to us. 162
Interpretation is thus a formative process in which meanings are used and revised to guide action (Wood, 1982:68).
The way in which symbols convey meaning, has certain implications for human interaction. Only if we understand how the ability to think symbolically affect our daily interaction with others can we fruitfully apply the theory to organisational communication and diversity management. Based on the works of Cassirer and other authors, who recognise the importance of symbols, Wood (1982:69) identifies five implications of human's symbolic abilities:
Symbols define: Symbols are used to name, to identify, to define experiences, objects and people. This is not an objective, automatic process of merely applying labels. Instead, the definition of experiences is a selective and individual process in which individuals shape their meanings of experiences. The names selected emphasize particular aspects of what is being named and neglect other aspects of it. More importantly, though, each way of naming a person, for instance referring to a woman as "mother" instead of "executive", suggests appropriate behaviour towards her (Wood, 1982:69).
Symbols organise: The organising function of symbols protects humans from the chaos life would have been if they had to experience everything as a unique phenomenon. Our definitional ability allows us to recognise and call attention to particular features of a phenomenon. Complementing this is our abstracting ability that allows us to organise experiences and to classify them. As symbol users, we can think in abstract ways. To organise our experiences, we generalise. We create categories to represent groups of similar phenomena and experiences. This uniquely human ability to symbolise and abstract, can also proof to be the source of extreme rigidity in thought. Overgeneralisation leads very easily to stereotyping when we use our general categories to define individual members of a specific class. Whether positive or negative, stereotypes encourage rigid, uncritical thought and action (1982:75). As stereotyping leads us to experience only parts of a person or a phenomenon, it also 163
restricts our repertoire of possible actions towards the person or phenomenon since the reality we ascribe meaning to is a limited one.
Symbols evaluate: All symbols have connotative meanings - the various connotations different people may have for the same word is a good example. It is these connotative meanings that add value to definitions. Because values are associated with symbols - thus rendering them evaluative - language necessarily suggests attitudes and judgments. It was said earlier that attitudes and actions are directed by symbolic definitions - now we see that those definitions imply evaluations. The implication is that the values associated with the symbols used will influence a person's thought and behaviour towards the phenomenon represented by the symbols. The language used to define the things we encounter influence perceptions. "Attitudes and actions are formed and modified by the linguistic screens through which we interpret our world" (Wood, 1982:78).
Symbols allow hypothetical thought: The human capacity for hypothetical thought is made possible through the use of symbols. Symbols are used to designate various possibilities such as hopes and fears, and as soon as a possibility has been designated, it can be thought about. To symbolise an idea is to give it existence as something we can evaluate and respond to. With symbols we can create ideas in our mind that have no reality outside our minds and we can act to bring these ideas into a "real" existence because we are focused on them (something we call visioning) (Wood, 1982:81).
Symbols allow self - reflection: Self-reflection was described by Mead as the ability of the self to stand outside the self and view it as an object - describe it, evaluate it and respond to it (Wood, 1982:86). This enables us to reflect on our own behaviours, judge them and, if we choose, revise them in future situations. We can plan our activities, analyse what courses of action and attitude are necessary to our goals and then organise ourselves to implement the defined behaviours. 164
The discussion on the functions of symbols and the human ability to symbolise force the organisational communicator to make some startling realisations about the publics he or she attempts to communicate with. It also provides us with a lot of insight into the complexities of diversity and the effective management thereof. An understanding of how human beings makes sense out of their environments, ascribe meaning to what happens to them and interact with themselves and other people, may lead to the conclusion that diversity management should actually be the management of meaning and symbols. People react negatively to people who are different; not because of the actual skin colour, disability or gender, but because of what that difference signifies to them. At this point, it is proposed that communication is the only way in which symbols and meaning can be "managed". The word is placed in inverted comma's to indicate that meaning cannot be managed in the true sense of the word. Through communication, however, people are in a position to discuss the meanings they attach to events and phenomena and the more frequent the communication, the higher the probability that mutual understanding will be increased.
The latter part of this chapter will be dedicated to an examination of symbolism in the context of organisations.
4.1 Symbolism in Organisations
According to Dandridge, as quoted by Stothart and Crous (1993:56), "the term "organisational symbolism" refers to aspects of an organisation which are used to make comprehensible the subconscious feelings, images and values inherent in an organisation". It can thus be said that symbols in an organisation make the culture tangible. As symbols will be referred to regularly in this discussion, it is deemed necessary to briefly look at what a symbol is.
According to Charon (1979:38) all objects are social objects. "Objects may exist in physical form, but for the human being, they are pointed out, isolated, catalogued, interpreted and given meaning through social interaction." The implication of this statement is that all objects in nature are not fixed stimuli but are constantly changing as they are defined and redefined by interaction. However, objects change for the human not because it changes, but because the people change their definition. 165
Symbols, then, according to Charon (1979:39), are one class of social objects and are as such defined according to their use. All symbols are used to represent whatever it is that people agree they should represent (1979:40). Letters and words are symbols, for example, but so can objects be made into symbols as well, for example the cross. It is, however, important to always keep in mind that objects do not have an intrinsically symbolic meaning: "Many social objects are not used to represent something else, and are therefore not symbols. A flower is used for drugs, for smelling, for picking, for food. However, if I use it to represent my love for you, it becomes a symbol. The same physical object therefore, can be a purely social object to some and a symbol to others. And for still others that object does not exist because it goes unnoticed, serves no useful function in their world" (1979:40).
Although the distinction between objects and symbols may appear to be blurry, Charon (1979:40) emphasizes an important point in stating that "symbols are social objects used for representation and communication". Symbols are used for communication, because through symbols we are able to communicate to others and interpret others' meanings. What is essential though when symbols are used in communication, is that the symbol should arouse in one's self what it arouses the other individual - the "sender" and "receiver" should attach the same meaning to the object.
In organisational life, symbols play a big role in indicating what the organisation is all about. In the first instance, the organisation's name, logo and motto carries symbolic value in that it makes the organisation visible - gives a face to it. The name and logo are reproduced on corporate clothing, stationery, vehicles and buildings, the choice of which has the potential to add to or detract from the image of the organisation. Behaviour in organisations is very often given a symbolic value, wittingly or unwittingly. Employees may feel that a manager who walks the shopfloor is spying on them while the manager attempts to signify interest in the employees and longs to establish a relationship of trust with them. Organisational events such as reward and recognition ceremonies may be heavily embued in symbolism - from who gets invited right down to the value of the rewards.
Useful as his classifications may be, Dandridge does not have the final word in organisational symbols classification. Daft (1993) based his classification system on symbol content which is expressed in terms of a continuum ranging from instrumental content to expressive content.
166
FIGURE 9 : Continuum of Symbol Functions
Myths Retirement Mission Health Honour Achievement Stories lunch Metaphors Symbols Guard Awards
INSTRUMENTAL CONTENT (Helps organisation do its work)
EXPRESSIVE CONTENT (Meets emotional needs of members)
Poorly understood Well understood Abstract Concrete
Source : Stothart & Crous, 1993:57
Symbols with an instrumental content help the organisation and its members to perform in that they concern the logical cognitive aspect of work, and are generally more concrete. Those with expressive content pertain to underlying feelings and emotional needs, and tend to be abstract. The result is a continuum of symbol functions performed by abstract symbols such as myths and stories, and by concrete symbols like achievement awards (Daft, 1993). The organisation chart is an example of a symbol that serves an instrumental purpose by letting people know their position and role within the organisation, while also communicating expressive information about status, prestige and power.
Stothart and Crous (1993:57) observed that the meanings held by members of an organisation are also presented in terms of a continuum by Gray, et al (1995). At one end, meanings are entirely idiosyncratic; at the other, meanings are so deeply internalised that they are not consciously questioned. In the middle, meanings are widely held or shared. As was explained earlier on in this chapter, symbols and meaning cannot be divorced - an object is only a symbol due to the meaning it carries in the eyes of the people using it and responding to it. Symbols communicate through the meanings ascribed to them. In linking the 167
meaning continuum to the continuum of symbol functions, it may be assumed that meanings will be the most widely shared at the instrumental content end of the continuum, and the most idiosyncratically held at the expressive content end.
4.2 Communication, Meaning and Organised Action
After the preceding discussion on symbolism and the role symbols fulfill in organisations, the question can rightly be asked how is it possible for organisational members to engage in organised action? The question stems from the evidence presented that people interpret the same phenomenon, event or message according to the meaning they ascribe to it and that these meanings potentially differ vastly from person to person. The second leg on which our question rests is the assumption that organisational members need a shared vision to mobilise them into action. With different people attaching different meaning to the same circumstances, organised action seems to be virtually impossible.
After decades of research, researchers still admit to not having a conclusive answer to the question of how groups make collective sense of their experience and how they come to take organised action. One theory is that organised action is the product of consensus among organisational participants, a view that has led to the conceptualisation of organisations as systems of shared meanings (Donnellon, Gray & Bougon, 1986:43). In this view, organisation members act in a coordinated fashion as a result of sharing a common set of meanings or interpretations of their joint experience. A second theory, that of Weick and Salanick, argues that only minimal shared understanding is required, as organisations are primarily based on exchange, for example work for pay. Therefore, in order to produce organised action, group members only have to share the knowledge that the exchange will continue. It is not necessary that members subscribe to the same goals or share the same interpretations of their joint action (Donnellon, et al, 1986:43).
Stevenson and Bartunek (1996:77) state that organisational culture implies a shared view of the meaning of events, but that most theorists agree that this shared view is not based on a rational or objective belief system. Rather, an organisational culture is jointly constructed through social processes that take place in the organisation. The two authors uses Martin's (1992) grouping of organisational research into three perspectives to look at the factors 168
influencing cultural agreement (see Figure 10). Two of these perspectives, namely the integration and fragmentation perspectives, corresponds closely with the two theoretical standpoints on the subject of organised action as mentioned by Donnellon, et al., whereas the third, the differentiation perspective, subscribes to a more mediated view. In terms of the integration perspective, there is cultural unity within the organisation and an overall shared cultural viewpoint (Stevenson & Bartunek, 1996:77) on which action is based. The differentiation perspective subscribes to a series of overlapping, nested organisational subcultures which creates inconsistency across the organisation and consensus only within the subgroups (1996:77). The fragmentation perspective abandons claims of cultural clarity and of universal or subgroup agreement. It focuses rather on a multiplicity of understandings and meanings that rarely coalesce into a stable consensus either within or between groups (1996:77).
FIGURE 10 : Mechanisms for Developing Cultural Agreement from three Cultural Perspectives
Cultural perspective Power and formal position Interaction and informal position Integrative Perspective Top-down power and high hierarchical Interaction, particularly position leads to cultural viewpoints with those at the top leads shared across the organisation. to cultural viewpoints shared across the organisation.
Differentiation Perspective Differences based on power and Differences based on in- functional position lead to different formal interaction and in- cultural viewpoints. position lead to different cultural viewpoints.
Fragmentation Perspective Shifting group memberships lead Overlapping and temporary to no particularly shared viewpoint. cliques and social circles lead to no particular shared viewpoint. Source : Stevenson & Bartunek (1996 : 80).
Using power, position and interaction as the mechanisms through which cultural agreement, and thus organised may be reached, Stevenson and Bartunek (1996:80) evaluates their effectiveness based on the three cultural perspectives.
According to Figure 10, cultural agreement is virtually impossible in organisations based on the fragmentation perspective. In the absence of such agreement, it may be inferred that organised action is only possible in so far as the members of the organisation base their 169
actions on the exchange relationship, namely that they trade their efforts and work for money in the form of a pay cheque (according to Weick's theory). This kind of relationship could only exist in an organisation of highly skilled and mobile professionals who are not dependent on the organisation. Integrative organisations' members need the organisation to give them direction and a reason for existing professionally, and therefore consensus and shared meaning plays a major role in organised action.
In terms of the differentiative organisation and how it mobilises its employees, the coordinated management of meaning (CMM) theory shed some light on the issue. According to Rose (1988:140), organisations exist dynamically in the meanings and interactions of their membership to the extent that integration is often tenuous, and the sharing of goals often problematic. Thus organisations may be characterised as interpretation systems whose social orders must be negotiated and which consist of multiple, potentially conflicting cultures (1988:140). One theoretical perspective that could provide an insight into the process of negotiating meaning, is CMM. CMM has been labeled a "cognitive social action" theory of communication rules, which means that in CMM, rules are cognitive or interpersonal knowledge that individuals employ to contextualise and to sequence interpersonal action (Rose, 1988:140). A major function of rules in social systems is the coordination of action in interpersonal episodes, but coordination can never be assumed. At a minimum, coordination means that conversational participants are able to enact message behaviours that make sense to each other, and that allow them to identify which episode is occurring. The reasons why particular behaviours are taking place, however, may not be agreed upon (1988:145). At a maximum, coordination means that not only are conversational participants able to make sense out of an emerging episode but they also feel that what is occurring is within their control (Rose, 1988:145). The CMM approach is applied to the differentiation perspective due to the fact that subcultures and groups in organisations are more likely to engage in conversations as a process of sharing meaning and thus engaging in organised action, than what the organisation as a whole or highly independent individuals are. It is, however, important to keep in mind that organisations seldom fall exclusively in any of the three categories. All three perspectives are more likely to be jointly present in organisations. 170
The final word on the subject of how organisational members engage in organised action, comes from Donnellon, Gray and Bougon (1986:43) in whose opinion "the basis for organised action in the absence of shared meanings is a socially shared repertoire of communication mechanisms. That is, certain communication forms may develop and sustain interpretations of group experience which, if not similar, at least allow members to coordinate their actions". Donnellon, et al, use the concept of equifinal meaning to explain the relationship between meaning and action when organised action takes place while group members subscribe to different meanings. The concept is derived from the concept of equifinality, a concept developed in systems theory to account for the existence of multiple routes to a single end (1986:44). Equifinal meanings, then, are interpretations that are dissimilar but that have similar behavioural implications. When organised action follows the expression of such dissimilar interpretations, we refer to these interpretations as equifinal meanings. In the organisational context, it means that organisational members may have different reasons for undertaking the action and different interpretations of the action's outcomes, but they nonetheless act in an organised manner (1986:44). The premise of Donnellon et.al's study is that, in the absence of shared meaning, organised action is made possible by the shared repertoire of communication behaviours group members use while in the process of developing equifinal meanings for their joint experience (1986:44). The study found that group members make extensively use of sense-making communication by means of the following communication behaviours : Metaphors may be defined as the assertion that A is B, where A and B belong to two different categories (1986:48). An example of how metaphors were used in their study to convince people to go on strike, are supplied on p. 48 : "The coalition of people who interpreted Blue's action as power play, adopted the metaphor of 'striking is getting revenge'. After considerable communication virtually all of the members .... began to view Blue's actions as inappropriate, although several still refused to strike, because they saw striking as irresponsible. Only when the meaning of striking was enlarged through the use of the metaphor 'striking is principled behaviour', did other group members agree to the proposed action". In South African organisations today metaphors are also used to encourage organised action, for example when a management decision is turned into a racism issue which could be used to motivate industrial action. 171
Logical argument is defined as sets of utterances that include a premise, an inference and a conclusion, used in the context of disagreement to move another person to agreement through incremental steps (1986:50). Affect modulation refers to communication behaviours that evoke or alter sentiment in such a way as to cause the redefinition of a situation (1986:50). These behaviours include high pitch, fast tempo, agitated motions and postures, and lexical choices such as 'Hitler' which have strong affective or value components. Linguistic indirection is the purposeful use of behavioural forms that are ambiguous and therefore create equivocality. These are created through behaviours such as using the passive voice, intransitive verb forms, modifiers, broad and imprecise terms and ellipses (1986:50). It is also mentioned that this mechanism has been recognised by several theorists as an effective means for achieving consensus or suppressing dissent. Linguistic indirection makes it very difficult to assign responsibility to a specific individual or group, or to find out exactly what transpired before a decision was reached, for example, on salary increases. It is also one of the ways in which the ideological use of language is employed to maintain the status quo or to effect change in a specific direction (refer to chapter 5).
7. SUMMARY
An essential property of meaning is a linguistic coding system (Samovar, et al, 1981:109). Through language, people are able to take the raw materials provided by external stimulation and produce meaning by naming and defining their categories. Eventually, people learn to linguistically code their experiences so that they can be recalled, manipulated and shared with others. The experiences can then also be related to other experiences through the use of words that represent experiences and come to stand for them. Meaning, then, "becomes tied to our language facility and depends on our use of words to describe it" (Samovar, et al, 1981:109). These thoughts expressed by Samovar aptly summarises the reason why this chapter on meaning in organisations was introduced by a discussion about language.
In the context of organisational communication, Samovar et al.'s ideas on how language constitutes meaning have far reaching implications. The communicator has to be very sensitive 172
to the meaning ascribed to certain words and expressions as people's connotations may lead them to read a totally different message than the one that was intended. The whole process of how meaning is ascribed forces us to look at the organisation through different eyes. It is not a stable world within which people behave according to rules, regulations and procedures. Instead, it is a fluid, ever changing environment that is continually shaped and re-shaped through the meanings people ascribe to events and objects and how they react to it. The same object or event can be reacted to in very different ways from one day to the next due to changes in people's perceptions or the environment.
The extensive use of symbols in organisational discourse contributes to the dynamic, changing nature of the organisational culture as context of interaction. For this reason the chapter also covered the issue of how a diverse workforce can engage in organised action aimed at achieving the same business goals. The conclusion that was reached was that organised action is only possible through communication processes — only by means of communciation can shared meaning be negotiated and established.
In preparation for the empirical research component of the study, as well as to logically draw together all the variables discussed up to this point, the following short chapter will be used to present a model of organisational communication on the dyadic level, focusing on the process of sharing of meaning between people with diverse characteristics and backgrounds. The model will also attempt to dispel any confusion about the relationships between the variables, and will specifically illustrate the relationships between organisational discourse, power and ideology.
173
CHAPTER VI
A SCHEMATA MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
I. INTRO It UCTION
When developing a model to serve as an explanation for the process individuals go through in order to share meaning, it should function at the level of the dyad. The reason being that at least two people have to be present for meaning to be shared and communication to take place. In the organisational context, the dyad is also of fundamental importance. This is a level of extraordinary significance in the organisation because in terms of organising, the dyadic level is the most basic. Organising cannot occur in the absence of at least two people; thus, while the individual is the lowest common denominator in the organisation, the dyad is the most basic organisational unit (Pepper, 1995:14). It can thus be inferred that the quality of the interpersonal or dyadic relationships in the organisation will have a significant influence on the overall health of the organisational culture. Hence, in examining the dynamics of organisational language, the level at which to start is also the most basic, namely the interpersonal or dyadic.
The standard communication model, derived from Shannon and Weaver's transmission model of 1949, shows a process that begins with a sender who transmits a message having encoded it, through a channel to a receiver, who decodes it and responds to it (Beamer, 1995:142). Subsequently, various researchers have suggested modifications that take into account the cultural basis of the codes and the inescapable complications when cultural codes differ. In this regard, Beamer (1995:142) cites names such as Campbell & Level, 1985; Gudykunst, 1984; Haworth & Savage, 1989; and Samovar & Porter, 1991. These models attempted to shed light on the semantic issues of communication, tint in- how meaning is shared and understood among communicators. This leads to the closely associated question which is also at the centre of this study: how is meaning shared 174
between people whose cultures differ, given that meaning is culture-based as well as idiosyncratic.
Beamer (1995:142) starts to address this question by referring to the answers that the disciplines of psychology and linguistics have sought to the questions about how and why communication has meaning. Meaning is linked to language, but communication is more than a simple correlation between word and thing. In 1923 already, Ogden and Richards (as quoted in Beamer, 1995:142) suggested that in communication, language (symbol) refers to a thing or referent, which triggers thought. Thought or reference is pre-existent, independent of the symbol or the referent. The word does not represent the thing in a kind of "word-magic" as it was dismissively called by scholars in the 1920's and 1930's. Especially when communication takes place across cultures, and different languages are involved, we need to keep reminding ourselves that the word and the thing to which it refers are not the only components in communication : the thought or reference is also present in the mind.
Beamer continues the discussion by turning to the work of Fodor (1981) and his Representational Theory of Mind (1995:143). This notion of Fodor is that a "language of thought" exists in the mind in a structured logical form that is somewhat analogous to the structure of language, in internal representations. The theory of mental representations has received much attention in the past decade as scholars explored the connection between communication and cognition. Two such scholars are Sperber and Wilson (1986) (in Beamer, 1995:143) who offered a theory that meaning is mapped, through the mechanism of language, onto a surface grammar structure in the mind, which is linked to semantic content that has been acquired without formal structures. They call this Relevance Theory, and demonstrate that contextual factors play an important role in the cognitive process of determining meaning. Meanings are summoned up from an existing store of meanings that reside in the individual mind, by triggers in the contexts of worded messages; hearers make assumptions about the optimal relevance of the contextual clues and assign meanings to the worded messages.
The scholars and viewpoints presented by Beamer, as well as the notions of other theorists put forward in the earlier discussions about psycholinguistics, symbolic interactionism and meaning, all provide valuable insights into the question of how language, communication and meaning interface, but it also indicates that no definitive answer has yet been found. In a personal attempt to clarify the relationship between language and meaning, specifically in 175
the organisational context, Beamer's Schemata Model of Intercultural Communication was adapted to incorporate the variables covered in this study. Beamer's model has already been introduced in Chapter V with the aim of providing a framework for interpretation for the subjects covered in the chapter. In the following sections of this chapter, however, the model will be adapted for the purposes of the present study.
Before the adapted model can be presented, however, it is first of all necessary to recap what is meant by the concept "schemata" as this concept is at the centre of the functioning of the model.
2. THE CONCEPT OF SCHEMATA
In Beamer's view (1995:144), the term "schema" refers to a generalised, stereotypical conceptualisation of culture. She also makes use of Triandis' definition to further explain the concept (1995:144) : schemata are organised categories and their associations, held in a cognitive framework, possessing affect, and forming attitudes, values, expectations, norms, rules, and unstated assumptions. When the two definitions of schemata are combined, it seems to say that schemata are stereotypes out of which stereotypes are created. In the first instance, the schemata are constructed out of a limited amount of knowledge fleshed out through generalisations and stereotypes. Based on these schemata, people form expectations and value judgements about the behaviour of the other person or group.
This process is, however, not all evil. It is, in fact, a necessary part of human communication and sense-making of the world around us and what we experience. Humans' pre-existing mental structures enables the ordering and acquisition of information. Without categories in which to file information and experiences, we would have had to start all over again whenever the environment and situation changed.
In a particularly useful discussion about the functioning of schemata, Beamer turns to the work of Casmir (1995:144). In the words of Casmir, "one of the most consistently bothersome areas of human communication is the relationship between an individual's perception and the "reality" with which he or she must deal". Individuals conceptualise the relatively unfamiliar by using their pre-existing mental categories or schemata, supplied by their culture, into which information can be ordered (1995:144). This process involves 176
complex cognition activities such as recall and inference, which is similarly extended to communicating with unfamiliar cultures. Utterances and written language link to or summon up meanings in the minds of the communicators. The communicator imagines or projects what the other culture must be like, and adopts previously learned strategies for encoding a message and transmitting it (1995:145). The projections speakers have of other cultures are schemata of varying complexity, depending upon how much about the culture is known. One's projected schema of another culture is based largely on one's own culture, perhaps even to a greater degree than on data collected about the other culture. According to attribution theory, we all try to make meaning of behaviour by attributing it to causes from the situational context and from personality (1995:145). In intercultural communication, when information is incomplete, meaning is inferred based on preconceptions of how certain causes produce certain effects. The priorities in one's own culture predict the characteristics one looks for in another culture. This can obviously lead to distortion in the schemata of what is important, compared to what actually is important in the other culture (1995:146). From the above discussion it thus emerges that all messages sent out by the communicator are filtered through his or her schemata of the other culture, and in the same way, all incoming messages are also filtered in the process of ascribing meaning to what is being communicated.
In adapting Beamer's schemata model to the present study on diversity management in organisations and the role language has to play, it is necessary to broaden the model to include a wider variety of variables applicable to more situations than only the multicultural. The main reason for this need is that by applying the model to intercultural communication only, it is implied that the members of a culture are homogeneous and that schemata only come into play when the communicators' cultural backgrounds differ. Variables such as gender, age, status, power and position are not brought into the equation, and factors such as these are of the utmost importance when human beings engage in the process of the sharing of meaning. These factors also come into play within cultures and can subdivide seemingly homogeneous groups into various subcultures.
In the following section, the Schemata Model will be introduced and explained in terms of how it attempts to clarify the process of the sharing of meaning between diverse individuals in the organisational context. 177
3. A SCHEMATA MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
The model proposed in this study to explain the process of sharing of meaning between individuals in the organisational context is in essence an adaptation of Beamer's schemata model of intercultural encounters. The model is, however, extensively adapted to incorporate a number of variables not considered in Beamer's model and which broadens the model's application possibilities to a wider variety of diversity situations than only the intercultural. Following is an explanation of the dynamics and applications of the model.
3.1 The External Environme t
As was explained in Chapter II according to systems theory, the organisation is not independent and isolated from its environment. It is, rather, highly dependent on and greatly influenced by the environment within which it functions. The technological, legal- political, economical and socio-cultural environments shape the marketplace in which the organisation competes, and also directly influence the communities from where the organisation draws its workforce. Through employees, customers and competitors the outside world reaches across the borders of the organisation. It is, however, not only a one-way process. The organisation also has an influence on its environment in terms of how it impacts on its employees' lives, as well as on the community in terms of factors such as its impact on the natural environment, social investment efforts and the development of infrastructure. Due to the relationship of mutual influence and interdependence between the organisation and its environment, a broken line represents the organisational borders in the model.
3.2 The Organisational Environ is ent
According to the model, the organisational environment in which organisational members engage in communication is determined by the organisational culture, discourse, ideology and power relationships. These four elements are in actual fact not as clearly distinguishable as the model suggests, but rather act as interdependent elements creating a context within which interpersonal relationships are played out.
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Power relationships would play a determinant role in interpersonal communication in that it defines the relationship between the participants as that of superior to subordinate, or equals communicating from similar power bases. The way in which the participants perceive the power relationship will determine the dynamics of the interaction in terms of, for instance, the way in which the individuals will address one another, the topics they will feel comfortable to discuss, as well as the level of openness, honesty and self-disclosure present in the interaction.
Organisational ideology and discourse are very closely linked in the sense that the organisation's values and priorities, as defined by its ideology, determine the discourse, or system of communication, used by the organisation and its members. The ideology determines what can be discussed and what not, it determines the content of discussions, as well as the way in which events and experiences are interpreted. In this sense, the discourse system perpetuates and maintains the ideology according to which the organisation functions.
Organisational culture can be regarded as the overall framework within which the discourse system, power relationships and ideology function. By regarding culture as "the way we do things around here", it becomes clear that the culture has an important role to play in determining the discourse as well as the power relationships. Conversely, however, the culture is also continuously defined and redefined through the discourse system, power relationships and the organisational ideology. It can thus be said that culture influences and is influenced by the other three elements. Depending on the organisation's ideology, the culture can be predominantly metaphysical (with the emphasis on making for meaningful work, not necessarily profit), developmental (emphasising the evolution of the company, its people, products and markets), rational (management focuses on rationally based principles which can be applied regardless of the context) or primal (where money and getting results are the main management motives) (Christie, 1996:13). Depending on the emphasis in the corporate culture, power relationships will be established based either on the ability to lead symbolically and share meaning (metaphysical), the ability to develop people and lead the organisation to maturity (developmental), the ability to manage scientifically and correctly apply the principles (rationally), or the ability to show a profit (primal). It follows then logically that the organisational discourse system will be structured in accordance with the organisation's focus and the priorities and goals it has set for itself. 180
The model thus proposes that the factors discussed above function as a complex unit to establish the context within which organisational members engage in communication and the sharing of meaning.
3.3 The Process of Sharing Meaning
According to the proposed model, the meaning communicator A wants to share with communicator B is filtered three times before it reaches communicator B. Before the filtering processes are discussed, the concept of schemata as used in the model need to be explained.
The definition and functions of the schemata in the model concur with what was proposed by Beamer and the theorists she quoted, namely that schemata are organised categories and their associations, held in a cognitive framework, possessing affect, and forming values, attitudes, expectations, norms, roles, and unstated assumptions (Beamer, 1995:144). The model developed in this paper aims to explain the role of some of the variables discussed in the course of the study, in creating the schemata people use to organise their world and engage in communication. The factors which influence the schemata are the following : The communicators' cultures and ethnic backgrounds have a major role to play in determining the individual's worldview, as well as his or her orientation towards people of other cultures. Ethnicity and culture lay the foundation in childhood for what people would value and hold as important as adults and also establish rites, rituals and ways of doing things. In most instances, people define themselves in terms of their culture and associate themselves closer with people sharing a similar background and culture, than with members of so-called out-groups. Ethnocentrism is closely linked to culture and ethnicity, and refers to the phenomenon that people tend to regard their own culture as superior to other cultures, and consequently also regard themselves as superior to members of other cultures. The socialisation processes an individual was subjected to is a further factor codetermining the way in which an individual would view him- or herself in relation to other individuals. In the organisational context especially, socialisation plays a very important role in establishing the individual's perceived place in the hierarchy. Pluralistic socialisation allows individuals to retain their identity and to contribute the strength of their diversity to the organisation. Assimilation as socialisation process expects of 181
individuals to forsake their identity in favour of the organisation's culture and way of doing. The individual who feels valued and can identify with his or her organisation, would probably have a better self-image than the individual who feels alienated.
The above mentioned three elements not only influence a person's schema of herself, but also the schemata the person has of the other party in the communication process. The following additional elements also have an influence on one communicator's schemata of the other communicator, but not so much on the person's schema of him- or herself : Stereotyping refers to the process of using overgeneralisations as foundation on which to build expectations and assumptions about the behaviour and reactions of other people. Not only are assumptions and expectations about behaviour created, but value judgements are made about the behaviour and the motives attributed to these actions. The actions of one member of a specific group are furthermore generalised to apply to the whole group; conversely, the perceived actions of the group as a whole is believed to be true for each individual member of the group. In essence then, stereotyping robs people of their individuality and does not make allowances for behaviour not "typical" of that what is expected from the group. Factors that are closely related to stereotyping are prejudice and attitudes. Prejudice can be viewed as the outcome of stereotyping, whereas attitudes are also determined by prejudices. Both prejudices and attitudes can be viewed as the conduits through which stereotypes are turned into action and behaviour. Power relationships determine how people view one another in terms of the potential impact the other person is likely to have on your life and destiny. People who are perceived to have more power, regardless of the source, are likely to be treated with more respect which would mean that communicator A would take more care in selecting the terms in which to address communicator B, as well as the content of the conversation. Communicator B on the other hand, will have nothing to lose and would probably be more careless in his or her communication.
Having explored what is meant by schemata, as well as the elements that influence the creation of schemata's, the foundation has now been laid to proceed with an explanation of how meaning is shared in a dyadic communication process.
As was mentioned earlier, all messages passing from communicator A to communicator B pass through three sets of filters. 182
The first set of filters includes those elements mentioned in the preceding discussion which influence the creation of schemata - both in terms of how the person views herself and the other party in the interaction. When the message passes through these filters, the individual clears the meaning of it in her own mind and makes certain decisions regarding the way in which the message has to be encoded in order to best convey the intended meaning. At this point, the individual employees his or her schemata about the other person to decide which words to use, what non-verbal communication codes will best serve the purpose of the message and also what the costs or benefits of the sharing process could be. Communicator A will also attempt to anticipate and predict communicator B's reactions and responses to the message. It has to be noted that for people from the same discourse systems these elements will be very similar, which means that their schemata would probably be very close : "Successful communication is based on sharing as much as possible the assumptions we make about what others mean. When we are communicating with people who are very different from us, it is very difficult to know how to draw inferences about what they mean, and so it is impossible to depend on shared knowledge and background for confidence in our interpretations" (Scollon & Scollon, 1995:12).
The second set of filters specifically concerns language, both in terms of the particular language communicator A chooses to use, for example Zulu instead of English, as well as the specific words or phrases he chooses, such as freedom fighter instead of terrorist. Language as a phenomenon includes various elements that determine its use at the dyadic or interpersonal level, and which also determine the level of distortion or enhancement of the message while it is being encoded into words, be it verbal or written. The relationship between language and thought, as studied by psycholinguistics, provides meaningful insights into people's reasons for choosing certain words and phrases above others when engaging in a conversation. A very important insight provided by certain psycholinguists, such as Hunt & Agnoli (1991), is that no language is unable to support a discussion about a specific topic, even when that language does not have the extended vocabulary another language may have. The first language would just experience considerable more difficulty to share meaning in that concepts would have to be clarified by means of lengthy and cumbersome explanations. In trying to avoid this cost, speakers of the first language may steer clear of such unfamiliar territory. In organisations then, the concept of "ubuntu", for instance, 183
may be virtually impossible to encode into words in more Western organisations. Due to this, the members may find it difficult to act out the principles of ubuntu as they do not clearly understand what is meant by it. This does not mean, however, that Western organisations are incapable of talking about, or living, ubuntu - it just means that the cost, or effort it requires from their language and mental categories, is quite high. Symbolism is a highly significant element of language use and communication. Symbols are not only graphic representations of ideas, such as a wink or picture, but also include genres of language use such as metaphors and organisational stories, myths and legends. The way in which a person chooses to convey an idea could have a lot to do with how well that idea is understood and accepted, hence the extensive use of stories, metaphors and comparisons especially in situations where complex, abstract or disturbing news has to be conveyed. The reason why symbols are viewed as a filter, is that the meaning attached to symbols tend to be highly individualistic or, at the least, group specific. When deciding on a specific metaphor or story, communicator A would have to be more than reasonably sure that communicator B would attach more or less the same value and meaning to the symbolism. The study field of sociolinguistics researches the use of language in social contexts and looks at how people use language to communicate more than words. The theory of divergence and convergence, for instance, deals with how people would make a conscious effort to either behave more like, or more unlike, the other communicator, depending on how valuable or desirable future interactions are regarded to be. One of the most salient contributions of sociolinguistics is the phenomenon of inter-group biases. This theory posits that individuals tend to view the language use of the in-group more positively than that of the out-group even when members from both these groups engage in the same language use. The motivations and reasons for the in-group member's language use are attributed more positively than that of the out-group member. These findings are of particular importance in intercultural or diverse communication situations and means that communicator A would be more likely to ascribe the worst motivations to communicator B's reactions when they are not members of the same group. The theories of sociolinguistics are viewed as filters due to the possibility that communicators can wilfully distort their communication to serve certain social ends. 184
The third set of filters through which the message passes, is the same set which influences the creation of schemata in the minds of the communicators. By assuming the role of third set of filters, however, these elements are in action on the part of the receiver of the message, hence at the level of decoding the encoded message received. As the receiver of the message also has this set of filters through which his or her schemata of the sender is established, the message being received also has to pass through these filters in the process of decoding and deciphering the meaning. Although the elements are the same, they will be applied differently in the mind of the receiver, or communicator B, due to his or her different background, values, culture and group membership. The view communicator B holds of communicator A will provide the framework within which B will go about decoding the message and getting to the meaning.
The final level on which the model aims to provide clarification, is that of how relationships develop and along with it, the communication behaviour of the participants. At the level of initial interaction, the suggestion is that people communicate from schema to schema. Due to the fact that they are unfamiliar with each other, the individuals have little else to depend on but their assumptions of the other person based on the group of which he or she is a member, as well as the image the other person chooses to portray (which may or may not differ significantly from who the person really is). As the relationship develops, however, the parties involved learn to trust one another and self-disclosure should increase. As their confidence and trust in the relationship grow, the individuals learn more about each other and have to rely less and less on the information in their schemata. The need to portray a certain image is also likely to diminish. The result of this process should ideally be that communicators A and B eventually find themselves in a long-term relationship in which the communication is person to person and the sharing of meaning only has to pass through the filter of language.
SUMMARY
No one-dimensional, static model can ever pinpoint the dynamic process of human communication with complete accuracy. The Schemata Model of Interpersonal Communication in the Organisational Context is no exception. Its value, however, lies in the fact that it recognises that the sharing of meaning involves much more that the actual spoken or written words. 185
The complete individual, including his or her background, culture, attitudes, socialisation, values and beliefs are involved in the process. Added to that, the total environment within which the interaction takes place also influences the extent to which the intended meaning of one party concurs with the meaning received, and acted upon, by the other party.
Although the model's theory may appear to be sound, its practical value can only be ascertained by applying it to an actual organisational context. The aim of the following chapter is thus to determine the model's validity by applying it to an organisational context by means of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. 186
CHAPTER VII
EMPIRICAL A4S A,ARCH DESIGN
INT ODUCTION
In the previous chapter, the variables discussed in the course of this study were consolidated into a model as a means of illustrating their influence on the interpersonal process of sharing meaning and, hence, their influence on the organisation as a whole. In this, the empirical research chapter, the Schemata Model of Interpersonal Communication in the Organisational Context will be applied to an actual South African organisation in order to determine the model's applicability as a framework for describing, analysing and predicting the process through which individuals share meaning in a diverse and multicultural organisational context.
In the following section, the organisational context within which the research was conducted, as well as the actual sample group that participated, will be discussed. The bulk of the chapter will be taken up by an explanation of the research design. As the study aims to examine the specific organisational context on three levels, the research design will be elaborated upon in some detail in terms of the methods to be used and the reasons why. The interpretation and discussion of the implications of the results will follow in Chapter VIII.
RESEARCH AIM
The aim of the empirical research segment of the study is to determine the value and applicability of the Schemata Model as a framework for describing, analysing and predicting the interaction between a number of variables in the process employed by individuals to share meaning in an organisational context.
The study was conducted on three levels within the specific organisational context, namely the micro (or interpersonal level), the meso (or internal organisational level) and the macro (or external organisational level). In analysing the meso and macro levels, interpretative analyses were used to determine the nature of the context provided for interpersonal communication by the 187 specific organisational unit in question. In terms of the micro level both quantitative and qualitative analyses were used. The quantitative analyses, done by means of two questionnaires, aimed to determine the link between personal values and organisational experience. The qualitative analysis, in the form of observation, was conducted to determine the link between the values and experiences expressed in the questionnaires and individuals' behaviour towards one another.
2.1 Research Objectives
In order to realise the main aim of the research project, the following objectives have been set:
1 To give an interpretative analysis of the broader external environmental influences impacting on a specific, anonymous South African utility organisation. To give an interpretative analysis of the organisation's internal environment in terms of culture, discourse, ideology and power. To give a thick description of how interpersonal communication and the sharing of meaning are influenced by the variables identified in the Schemata Model of Interpersonal Communication in the Organisational Context. To provide a three-level comparison between stated organisational policy, expressed personal attitudes and values, and attitudes and values manifested through behaviour.
3. ESEARCH DESIGN
Given the nature and complexity of the issues to be examined, it was decided to conduct a multi- step study, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods.
3.1 Quantitative Methodology
The quantitative methods employed in the research consisted of two questionnaires. As the Schemata Model of Interpersonal Communication in the Organisational Context suggests, a certain set of variables influences the language by means of which meaning is encoded, while another set of variables influences the schemata that are employed when meaning is decoded. In order to study the variables that come into play when meaning is encoded, two methods were used, namely a Values Questionnaire and the Semantic Differential Scale. Due to the fact that 188 the variables used in encoding meaning are deeply personal and most often not consciously employed, the two questionnaires were used as an attempt to operationalise the respondents' values.
3.1.1 The Values Questionnaire:
The Values Questionnaire that was used in the study is based on Graves' "Emergent- cyclical double-helix model of adult biopsychosocial behaviour" and was developed by Graves, Beck and Cowan of the National Values Centre in Texas, USA (Dorfling, 1992:41). The questionnaire was validated by Dr Sharon Underwood of the Texas Woman's University in Denton, Texas, and was obtained from and used with permission of the National Productivity Institute in Pretoria. The questionnaire consists of ten questions each evaluating six levels of an individual's values system. Responses to the ten questions are ultimately relayed to six ordinary scales that jointly illustrate the elements comprising the individual's value system (Dorfling, 1992:41). The six value constructs measure the following values (1992:41):
BO Family or clan values CP Power or domination values DQ Stability and conformity values ER Material and success values FS People or harmony values GT System or interdependence values
In elaborating on what each of these constructs entail, a brief background is necessary. According to Graves, Beck and Cowan human value systems develop through various levels (Dorfling, 1992:20). The evolution at each level occurs in reply to a specific problem of existence, but the solution ultimately contributes to the creation of a new problem which necessitates a new coping system. The developmental process, or evolution, can be of a first or second order nature. First order changes are basically efforts to improve the existing coping system without changing it radically. Second order changes, on the other hand, entail a quantum leap to a whole new coping system on a different level (Dorfling, 1992:20). The levels consist alternatively of individualistic and collectivistic systems and manifests as follows (Dorfling, 1992:21): 189
The individualistic system of values on the first level focuses on survival and is the most basic, also called the reactive or automatic system. As this system is primarily applicable to babies, it is disregarded in the organisational context (Dorfling, 1992:21).
The second level system develops out of the first and is a collectivistic one focused on the perpetuation of clan, family or race. The system of organisation values based on this second level applies to employees who are activated by issues of safety and security. They prefer undemanding jobs in a team context with a friendly, paternalistic manager who gives clear instructions. Money is important as it provides for basics such as food and housing (Dorfling, 1992:21).
The third level sees the development of the egocentric system that subscribes to hedonism, power and domination of the fittest as its values. In organisations, individuals subscribing to this system are those who do not like a suffocating routine and will do almost anything for money. Money is very important for this individual as it enables him to buy things that he wants. In organisations these individuals prefer to work for a strict supervisor who gives them room to also take the hard line (Dorfling, 1992:22).
At the fourth level, the absolutist value system, which is also a collectivistic system, values order, structure and stability. In organisations, these individuals prefer a stable job that is clearly defined, and work best with supervisors who tell them what to do, do not change their minds easily and maintain strict discipline. The value of money for these individuals is that it enables them to make provision for the future while maintaining a reasonable standard of living.
The fifth level is once again an individualistic one that values materialism, competition, risk taking, success and status. Employees functioning on the this level thrive on competition, political games and negotiations and measure their success in terms of material status symbols (Dorfling, 1992:22).
At the sixth level the collectivistic system focuses on values of sensitivity for others' feelings and needs, consensus, team building and harmony. The sixth level employee prefers to work with people and reacts well to participative management. He or she prefers a supervisor who facilitates harmony within the workteam (Dorfling, 1992:22). 190
The final level is once again an individualistic one that values a systemic orientation, flexibility in times of change and competence rather than status or position. The seventh level employee will choose a career that gives him room for self-actualisation and which demands creativity and initiative. This employee prefers a manager who gives him access to information and other resources and who allows him to attain his objectives in his own way (Dorfling, 1992:23).
3.1.2 The Semantic Differential Scale:
The Semantic Differential Scale was first developed by Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum in 1957 and is based on the idea of semantic space - the idea that people tend to evaluate things along a spatial continuum. They also contend that people's evaluations occur along three dimensions of meaning, namely activity, potency and evaluation. The evaluation dimension is of particular interest in communication research, because by measuring respondents' attitudes, researchers are also dealing with predispositions of actual behaviour (favourable or unfavourable) towards the artefact, person or construct being investigated. The semantic differential scale can be used to investigate responses that range from favourable to unfavourable towards an artefact, an individual, a group, an organisation or a construct (Huysamen, 1992:17).
The value of the scale lies in the fact that it is a "standardised and quantified procedure for measuring the connotations of any given concept for the individual" (Anastasi, 1981:601). Kruger, Smit and Le Roux (1996:163) observe that the semantic differential consists of a number of bipolar semantic items that contain opposing adjectives on each scale extreme. Respondents are asked to evaluate a concept by making a mark at the appropriate point between opposing adjectives on the semantic continuum that is the semantic scale. The scale thus measures the variation in intensity and direction of an attitude, while the centre of the scale indicates a neutral position (Kruger, et al, 1996:21).
In the context of the present study with its focus on diversity management, the constructs that were to be investigated had to be topical in the specific organisational context, but also of relevance to the topic of diversity. For these reasons the researcher chose to analyse respondents' connotations of the construct "affirmative action". Employees' experiences of affirmative action, through which racial diversity is introduced into organisations at an accelerated speed, is an important factor determining attitudes, and ultimately behaviour, towards other racial groups. Due to connotations of reversed 191
discrimination, opportunities lost and the opportunity for formerly disadvantaged groups to "get their own back", affirmative action is a very emotive issue about which very few people can claim to feel indifferent.
Apart from affirmative action, which was the researcher's specific choice, a number of other organisational concepts, which are open to different value-laden interpretations due to diversity in terms of gender, race, culture, and organisational position, were identified with the help of a focus group. The latter consisted of five employees specifically selected by the researcher due to their well-developed organisational networks and knowledge. The members of this focus group were not members of the actual research group. By giving the focus group members a few examples of what is meant by a semantic differential scale, participants were encouraged to identify those organisational "buzz words" which evoke different emotions and attitudes. Respondents were also asked to identify the bipolar semantic items that could be used to describe each of the concepts.
The additional four constructs developed in this way warrant elaboration for the sake of clarity. Finesse is a project through which the whole organisation's financial and commercial systems will be integrated by means of a new computer system to be installed throughout the organisation. More or less 10 000 organisational members' way of working will be directly impacted, with the rest of the organisation affected more indirectly. Transformation refers to a government initiated change process aimed at fundamentally transforming the industry in which the particular organisation is a mayor role player. The performance management process in the particular company consists of a performance contract concluded between a supervisor and subordinate according to which the subordinate's performance is rated twice annually. Training opportunities include both functional training and personal development.
3.2 Qualitative Methodology
The qualitative methods used can best be classified as ethnographic in nature. Traditionally associated with anthropology, these approaches may be defined as "the analysis of multiply structured contexts of action, aiming to produce a rich descriptive and interpretative account of 192 the lives and values of those subject to the investigation" (Morley & Silverstone, in Jensen & Jankowski, 1991:150). Morley and Silverstone (1991:153) further illuminate the concept of ethnography by stating that at its simplest, the ethnographer's task is to "go into the field" and, by way of observation and interview, to attempt to describe - and inevitably interpret - the practices of the subjects in that cultural context, on the basis of his or her first-hand observation of clay-to- day activities.
Jankowski and Wester (in Jensen & Jankowski, 1991:54), state that despite the several versions of ethnography currently in existence, three basic principles are agreed upon: Ethnographic research is concerned with cultural forms in the widest sense of the term, including the everyday as well as religion and arts. Studies generally acknowledge the need for long-term participant observation, with the researcher serving as the primary instrument of inquiry. Multiple data-collection methods are generally employed as a check on observational findings.
Ethnography as a research methodology has advantages and disadvantages. The method's main strength is that it offers a "contextual understanding" of the connections between different aspects of the phenomena being studied. "Ethnography allows us to produce knowledge in contexts where the significance of the data can be more readily ascertained" (Morley & Silverstone, in Jensen & Jankowski, 1991:156). In the current study, context is of the utmost importance as the objective of the study is to examine the sharing of meaning between diverse individuals within an organisational context.
Morley and Silverstone (1991), however, also identify three main disadvantages of ethnography: Ethnography, as did other qualitative research methods, has acquired a bad reputation over time due to ill-conceived studies that fail to achieve the fundamental requirements for data collection and reporting. An ethnographic study therefore runs the risk of being disregarded as valuable due to the methodology it employs (1991:154). The emphac;is on the context of actions raises considerable problems concerning the delimination of the field of research and of establishing which elements of the (potentially infinite) realm of an action's context are going to be relevant to the particular research project (1991:155) A complex problem facing ethnographic researchers is that of interpretation. People do not always explain clearly what they mean or what their intentions are, especially when they are very familiar with one another. It is therefore up to ethnographer to attempt to explicate the often unspoken informal logic of communication and other everyday practices. "We face the 193
difficulty of finally telling stories about the stories which our respondents have chosen to tell us" (Morley & Silverstone, in Jensen & Jankowski, 1991:156).
The particular ethnographic field research method that was employed in the empirical research portion of the study was observation. The primary purpose of this method is to "describe in fundamental terms various events, situations, and actions that occur in a particular social setting" (Jankowski & Wester, 1991:61).
Newcomb (1991:100) elaborates by stating that researchers are able to observe actual work routines, and "in the course of the observation record(ing) decision-making processes, conflict, negotiation, and compromise, all of which are part of the production process at different levels." According to Newcomb (1991:100) the key to analysing the processes of production are observations of the exercise of power.
The degree of success in observation is related, in some cases, to the level of participation. In this regard, the more knowledgeable researcher has the advantage. If the researcher knows little or nothing about the technical processes involved, observations will be limited, narrowly directed, or simply incorrect (Newcomb, 1991:101).
The primary disadvantages of observation are often rooted in limited access. When the researcher is too dependent on the goodwill of host institutions or individuals he or she may too easily accept the host's point of view. Participant observation is also limited by the duration of the researcher's access and it is difficult to generalise from "snap-shot" experiences. One of the main limitations the researcher has to contend with is the extent to which his or her presence alters the normal procedures he or she wishes to observe. "Since invisibility is impossible, the only resource is extensive and varied background information" (Newcomb, 1991:101).
3.3 The Value of Triangulation
The most fundamental decision that had to be made in designing the research methodology, was the choice between a quantitative or qualitative study. Given the nature and complexity of the issues to be examined, it was decided to conduct a multi-step study, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods.
In designing the methodology and determining which data collection methods would be most suited to the objectives of the study, it was decided to follow a multiple method strategy, also 194 known as triangulation. One of the assumptions of a multiple method strategy is that such an approach provides more valid results than a single research strategy: "...the weaknesses in each single method will be compensated by the counter-balancing strengths of another" (Jick, 1979, as quoted in Jensen & Jankowski, 1991:62). Jensen and Jankowski point out the following advantages of triangulation as research methodology (1991:63): It can stimulate inventive uses of familiar research methods, and thus may help to uncover unexpected dimensions of the area of inquiry; Given appropriate theoretical and meta-theoretical reflection on the status of each set of data and findings, it may at times allow for more confidence in the conclusions of qualitative studies; Perhaps most important, triangulation can assist in constructing a more encompassing perspective on specific analyses, what anthropologists call "holistic work" or "thick description".
4. THE ORGANISATION AND SAMPLE IN QUESTION
The organisation to be examined will remain anonymous for business and ethical reasons. The phenomena investigated here are not restricted to any particular organisation thus rendering the identity of the specific organisation irrelevant.
The organisation that was investigated is a state owned utility with almost 40 000 employees working at different sites all over the country. The sites differ in size from a huge head office where almost 2 500 employees work to very small depots, sometimes with less than ten employees in remote rural areas. The organisation is a public enterprise and thus accountable to, and dependant on, the government. Due to its size and the critical importance of the service it renders, the organisation is an important player in the national economy and it is also involved in projects beyond South Africa's borders. Workplace democracy is a management priority and the organisation is often cited as an example in terms of participative management, az well as the progress made with affirmative action. It is therefore understandable that organised labour wields a lot of power in the organisation, to the extent that managers sometimes feel that they have lost their prerogative to make decisions and are rendered incapable to manage their business.
Due to the size of the organisation in question it was not possible to survey it in its entirety. It was therefore necessary to select a sampple and the choice fell on four sections in one of the larger 195 business units. The business unit has 830 employees working in five departments. Each of the departments is divided into a number of sections. The 65 respondents in this study represent 7,8% of the total business unit population. The sections included two Stores departments, the Recruitment section as well as the Organisational Behaviour section. The reasons for these choices were the following: the researcher is familiar with the particular business unit (having worked there for four years) which made access easy, and which also ensured that the respondents were not uncomfortable with the researcher's presence; the ease of access facilitated the completion and return of the questionnaires; the departments are particularly interesting from a diversity point of view. the fact that the researcher has been working in the business unit of which the specific department forms part, fills to a large extent the longitudinal void left by the scope and time constraints of the current study. It was not necessary for the researcher to first become familiar with the environment before observation could start in earnest, as the people and environment were well known to the researcher.
Due to the size and different geographical locations of the group of respondents, participant observation for the whole research group was not possible and it was thus decided to use a specific department, namely Stores, as sample of the sample group. Since the different departments included in the total sample group showed significant similarities in terms of composition and are all part of the same organisational business unit, it was deemed that the participant observation data could at least be applied to the rest of the sample group for the purposes of the current study.
The Stores department has 27 employees and represent 41% of the total respondents group. A young, white woman manages the department. The 27 employees consist of two white women, two black women, three white men and 20 black men. The white people are all in supervisory positions, but seven black men are also supervisors. The black women are in administrative positions and the majority of the black men are general workers in the stores. The average age of the group is 35 years, with the youngest a black man of 26, and the oldest a white man of 52 years of age. None of the employees are illiterate, with the lowest literacy level being ABD Level III. The highest qualified employee is a young black man with a B.Comm degree and he is currently busy with his Honours degree. The rest of the team has attended numerous functional training courses, as well as interactional skills and managerial and supervisory development programmes, where applicable. The strongest three of the organisation's recognised trade unions (Mineworkers' Union, NUM and NUMSA) are each represented by a very active 196 shopsteward in the department, ensuring that the Stores was a suitable environment in which to study power relationships.
5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted on three levels within the specific organisational context, namely the micro (or interpersonal level), the meso (or internal organisational level) and the macro (or external organisational level). The following section will be devoted to an explanation of the data collection methods that was employed on each of the three levels.
5.1 The External Organisational Environment
Through the method of interpretative analysis aimed at generating a thick description, the organisation's external environment was analysed and described in terms of four groups of influences, namely technological, socio-cultural, legal-political and economic. The four groups of influences were identified in the study's second chapter and their impact on South African organisations was extensively discussed. For the purposes of analysis, however, only those factors particularly relevant to the organisation in question were highlighted and elaborated upon. Organisational literature, such as mission and value statements and the results of previous research, was used and referred to in the analysis where applicable.
5.2 The Internal Organisatio f al Environment
The specific internal organisational environment was analysed qualitatively by means of interpretative analysis in order to generate a thick description in terms of four dimensions that were identified during the course of the study. The four dimensions are organisational culture, organisational ideology, organisational discourse and organisational power.
As each of these dimensions is extremely complex and difficult to pinpoint, parameters had to be established to guide the discussion. In analysing the organisation's ideology, the framework provided by Scollon & Scollon (1995:170), and discussed on p.215 of the study, on the ideological characteristics of a discourse system, was used. The value of this particular framework is that it operationalises the elusive concept of organisational culture to the extent that it can be analysed in tangible terms. 197
In examining the organisational discourse, Scollon & Scollon's framework (1995:170) (as was discussed on p.215 of this study) of the forms of discourse in a discourse system, was used. The reason for using this framework, is much the same as in the case of the ideology framework.
In terms of organisational culture and power, the framework for discussion was derived from the elements identified when these two dimensions were discussed in earlier chapters of the study (organisational culture: Chapter III; power: Chapter IV).
Organisational literature, such as mission and value statements and the results of previous research, was used and referred to in the analysis where applicable.
5.3 Interpersonal Level
The methodology employed at the interpersonal level was a mixture of qualitative (i.e. observation) and quantitative (i.e. the Values Questionnaire and the Semantic Differential Scale) methods of investigation.
5.3.1 Observation:
In the current study, the researcher attended four direct reports' meetings and four weekly supervisors' meetings for a period of one month (October 1997). The former meeting consisted of the manager of the department, her secretary and the employees who report to her directly — a total of eight attendees. The so-called direct reports were all men, three black and three white. The latter meeting took place between the storekeeper and the supervisors reporting to him. The storekeeper is a white man and his direct reports are all black men, except for one black woman. The supervisors' meeting took place every Monday morning at 07:30 and the direct reports' meeting every Monday morning at 08:00. The researcher took detailed notes at these meetings, paying specific attention to the ways in which meaning was shared, and transcribed the notes as soon as possible after the meetings in as much detail as possible. The use of a video camera or audio tapes to tape interactions was considered, but due to practical difficulties the idea had to be abandoned. This meant that the researcher had to depend on notes taken during meeting and interactions, as well rely heavily on memory when compiling more detailed reports. In order to overcome this obstacle, the researcher made a point of writing down everything 198
that had happened in a meeting within an hour or two after the meeting while words, behaviour and events could still be remembered clearly. Frequent conversations with the manager, as well as informal conversations at, for instance, the coffee bar also provided valuable insights. Although the amount of time spent in the department was limited (three hours per week apart from attending the above mentioned meetings), it was adequate for the scope of the study and provided sufficient information for the purpose of applying the Schemata Model to an organisational setting. The researcher has also been working in the business unit, of which the particular department forms part, for a period of four years and thus had ample knowledge about the environment.
5.3.2 The Values Questionnaire:
Organisations consist of a mixture of employees subscribing more or less to the above mentioned value systems. In an attempt to determine how employees' value systems influence the process of sharing meaning, the Values Questionnaire was applied to the 65 members of the research group. The questionnaires were handed out to the respondents either by the researcher or by the supervisors. The purpose of the study was explained to the respondents and they were given the option to decide against completing the questionnaires. The researcher set a date by when the questionnaires had to be returned — five working days were allowed. The questionnaires were either returned via the company's internal mail system, or were collected by the supervisors and returned to the researcher in person. Although the majority of the respondents could complete the questionnaire by themselves, a significant obstacle was encountered in terms of the level of comprehension of certain respondents compared to the level of language and concepts used in the Values Questionnaire. The fact that mere translation into Zulu and Sotho could not solve the comprehension problems necessitated the use of an interpreter to explain the questionnaire, as well as to record the participants' responses. Due to the complexity of language and concepts used, one of the employees in the Stores department was utilised to explain the questionnaire to his fellow employees on a one-on- one basis. This problem influenced the research group in the sense that more questionnaires completed by employees with higher literacy levels were received than questionnaires from semi-literate or illiterate employees. The final response rate was 89%. 199
5.3.3 The Semantic Differential Scale:
After construction, the completed Semantic Differential Scale was given to the 65 members of the research group to complete. The questionnaires were handed out to the respondents either by the researcher or by the supervisors. The purpose of the study was explained to the respondents and they were given the option to decide against completing the questionnaires. The researcher set a date by when the questionnaires had to be returned — five working days were allowed. The questionnaires were either returned via the company's internal mail system, or were collected by the supervisors and returned to the researcher in person. Although the comprehension problems experienced with the values questionnaire did not occur to the same extent with the Semantic Differential Scale, the interpreter was once again used to ensure that the respondents understood what was required of them.
5.4 ata Processi g
The data from the Values Questionnaire and the Semantic Differential Scale questionnaire was captured on two different Excel spreadsheets and the analysis was done according to the Kruskall-Wallis statistical analysis method. A significant variance between groups of respondents was indicated by a p-value of less than 0,05. 200
FIGURE 12: Summary of Findings of Personal Values Questionnaire
MALE FEMALE -30 30-40 40+ BLACKIWHITE SUPERV NOT Family values Ni 4 :::::::::: .--5:::gz 10 12 10.5 :::::::.ieil g:5.::::::::: 7.5 12 Power values ::::::::::•1:3:::::. ::::'::::::::::::::"X6.: 7 11 11 12 8 8 10 Stability values 26 33.5 32 27 28.5 .... 27z:>>:3::: 27.5 32
Material values 22 26.5 25 25 20 23 21 .:W:;: : :::i::., People values 23.5 24 25 24 22 25 I 20 26 23.5 Interdependence values 18 17 18 16 19 ::::::::17:::::::::::::::::..za::: 17 18
Significant at at least 0.05 on Kruskall-Wallis Median Test
FIGURE 13: 'Summary of Semantic Differential Scale Results
Respondents
GENDER AGE RACE LEVEL
Affirmative Action Fair 0.0991 0.1084 0.1882
Affirmative Action Necessary 0.1562 0.2463 0.2621
Affirmative Action Fast 0.9226 Affirmative Action Voluntary 0.7639 ...... Affirmative Action People-driven 0.4145 Affirmative Action Successful 0.4077 0.1182 0.0837 0.6606
Affirmative Action Opportunity 0.6120 0.1256 0.4778
Affirmative Action All Benefit 0.7919 0.3894 0.2420 Affirmative Action Career opportunities 0.8128 0.9720
Affirmative Action Inspires 0.2494 0.1139 0.2900
Affirmative Action Cost effective 0.1076 0.9825
Affirmative Action Empowers 0.9405 0.5792
Affirmative Action No reversed racism 0.2659 0.9083
Transformation Improvement 0.3459
Transformation Necessary 0.0948 0.1600 ....
Transformation Fast 0.5909 0.1802 0.3360
Transformation Money well spent 0.0503 0.0591 Transformation Things different 0.7115 0.1320 0.3273 0.1458
Transformation Good faith 0.7655 0.9364
Transformation Opportunity 0.4703
Transformation We are involved 0.0976 0.5295 0.6400 .
- Transformation Career opportunities 0.4952 0.0570
Transformation Inspires 0.8485 0.5387
Transformation Transparent 0.5954 0.1858 0.1161 0.5624
Transformation Influence decisions 0.2592 0.6948 0.1430
Finesse Improvement 0.4913 0.0546 0.5355 Finesse Necessary 0.1318 0.2876 0.3408 Finesse Fast 0.8824 0.9530 0.8538 0.5778 Finesse Money well spent 0.1956 0.4784 0.2563
Finesse Things different 0.5436 0.6184 0.1398 0 .6758
Finesse Easier Work 0.4806 0.2725 0.0779 0.1412
Finesse Opportunity 0.7559 0.4743
Finesse We are involved 0.8675 0.8429 0.0845 0.1471
Finesse Will be a success 0.1656 0.3180
Finesse Good idea 0.1569 0.5020 0.0630
Finesse Time well spent 0.7957 0.1724 0.2501
Finesse Future investment 0.2204 0.1312 0.2558
Finesse Based on user needs 0.2576 0.0586 0.2751 201
Performance Mngt. Objective 0.2215 0.4153 0.0807 0.1857 Performance Mngt. Fair 0.8802 0.9421 0.6201 0.1503 Performance Mngt. Reward performance 0.6625 0.5630 0.0662 0.5874 Performance Mngt. Motivates 0.7244 0.8148 0.2714 ..0820 Performance Mngt. Necessary 0.3322 0.1965 . i:::;:;!::: :.:.;.,. 0.0924 Performance Mngt. Easy to understand 0.2036 0.5806 0.1679 Performance Mngt. Does not scare me 0.1300 :::]:;:::;:... g.c*;:i;iii:::::::::::i :ii;i::: Performance Mngt. I have a say 0.0825 0.1488 0.0982 0.0516 Performance Mngt. Consistent 0.4494 • 0.2020 1.0000 Performance Mngt. I have confidence in it 0.4765 0.8426 0.0881 0.0647 Performancepngt. Time well spent 0.4878 0.5960 0.0606 ::ii :, Training More for employees 0.6882 0.9027 0.4003 0.1348 Training Based on employees needs 0.6660 0.1411 0.2800 :iiii;i;iiiiii:i:::: Training Based on business needs 0.6727 0.3020 " .:::;::::::::PP.P.::::::::::::::::: 0.4098 Training Motivates 0.2412 0.4905 ' 0.4450 Training Necessary 0.0435 0.2343 ''''' i::::::.... 0.9804 Training More for Blacks 0.9692 0.0697 . 0.0549 0.2138 Training Personal development 0.8789 0.2682 0.1292 0.5007 Training Is easily accessible 0.9044 0.7553 0.6965 0.0652 Training Is more for men 0.7681 0.8303 0.3022 0.9188 Training For the younger 0.8771 0.0829 0.6648 1.0000 Training Time well spent 0.7313 0.3922 0.3865 0.0678
Significant at at least 0.05 on Kruskall-Wallis Median Test
6. CONCLUSION
The empirical chapter aimed to determine the applicability of the Schemata Model as a framework for describing, analysing and predicting the interaction between individuals in an organisational context. In applying the Model to a specific organisational context, the context of interaction and its influence on the sharing of meaning was the main focus. Data was collected by means of various processes, including descriptive analyses, questionnaires and observation. The reason why different data collection methods were used was to compensate for one method's weaknesses with another's strengths.
Along with a number of difficulties experienced in the course of the study that were highlighted the researcher also pointed out the measures that were taken to minimise the effect of these obstacles on the data that was gathered and, by implication, the final results of the study.
In the following chapter the results will be presented, analysed and discussed and the study's relevance for communication and diversity management issues will be highlighted. 202
CHAPTER VIII
AN APPLICAION OF THE SCHEMATA MO EI OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN AN 0 ID\ GANISATIONAL CONTEXT: A THICK ESCRIIPTION
INTRODUCTION
In attempting to explain the relationship between the elements of diversity management and organisational culture, the Schemata Model of Interpersonal Communication in an Organisational Context was developed and its applicability researched according to the research design described in the previous chapter. In the current chapter the findings of the empirical research as well as an interpretation of the implications thereof will be provided, followed by suggestions for future research.
As the Schemata Model addresses the organisational context on three levels, the research design was also done on three levels. It thus follows logically that the results should also be discussed in terms of these three levels, namely the external organisational environment, the internal organisational environment and the level of interpersonal or dyadic interaction and communication.
EXTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL ENVIRONMENT ESULTS
As was asserted from the beginning of the study, organisations do not exist in isolation and, according to the systems approach, interact intensely with their environments - both influencing it and being influenced. In the following discussion, it will be examined how the external environmental factors influence the internal functioning of the organisation. Due to the limited scope of the study, however, no specific attention will be paid to how the organisation in turn influences its environment. The Schemata Model incorporates four main groupings of elements 203
in the external environment influencing the organisation. In the context of the specific organisation in question, the examination of the four elements resulted in the following findings:
2.1 Technological Influences
In the world at large, technology is making unprecedented inroads into people's lives, and the business environment is not excluded from these trends. In this particular organisation, a lot of time and funds are currently being invested in implementing a new computer system to ultimately integrate the materials management, procurement, finance and maintenance functions. The implications of this project are quite far reaching. On the first and most obvious level, the implementation of new software presupposes that employees have the necessary skills to optimally operate the new system. The assumption is, however, not true in all instances. The company still has, for instance, about 5% employees who are illiterate and not at all able to work on a computer. Training should therefore be high on the agenda. Apart from people who are unable to operate the new system, the company will also have to cope with those who are unwilling to change their current way of working. Currently not a lot of attention is being paid to marketing the new system and the grapevine is abuzz with stories about how this project is costing hundreds of millions of rands and might turn out to be a complete failure.
The second level on which the new system will have a major impact is that of work processes. In integrating the actions of the above-mentioned departments, the system promotes a process approach to the business, as opposed to the existing functional one. Once again, very little attention is currently being paid to prepare the segment of the workforce likely to be affected by the changes. It should also be said, however, that the implementation process is extremely time consuming and is not envisioned to be completed within the next few months.
In terms of more advanced systems being implemented and contributing to the changing world of work, it has to be mentioned that some sectors of the business are more advanced than others. An example of this is the Procurement function that is currently developing electronic data interfaces (EDI) with a number of major suppliers. EDI eliminates, for the first time, hard copies and paperwork and is thus demanding different skills and understanding of the business process. The organisation is, however, not an island and the decision of an organisation the size of this one to go the EDI route, would in all likelihood have a tremendous impact on how their suppliers 204
and trade partners structure their businesses. If the organisation does not stay sensitive to the needs of the small players in the market, these suppliers could be sidelined simply because the organisation's technology renders trading impossible. With the proliferation of technology in organisations, the fear of technology replacing people is growing. In the organisation under discussion, this fear is manifested in the extensive negotiation processes all forms of business process enhancement and restructuring are subjected to. In almost all instances, the first questions to be raised are the ones about job losses and people becoming redundant. Fear of the threat that technology may hold for humans, frequently stands in the way of progress and works to the detriment of the organisation.
In terms of communication processes in the organisation, the growing use of electronic mail systems has far reaching implications. Information is communicated far quicker than before and is also not subjected to filtration to the same extent as before when a given message had to be communicated verbally down the line. The most obvious and difficult problem to address in this scenario is of course the phenomenon that illiterate employees can fall farther behind as the sources of information become more inaccessible to them. If the literacy problem is not addressed the gap between the information rich and the information poor will increase to expand. This situation is particularly relevant to the specific organisation as the profile of employees varies from illiterate general workers to engineers with masters' degrees. The former group's needs and interests are still very basic and tangible, whereas the latter group is forerunners in, and major customers of the technology race. The communication challenge thus grows as well in that the information needs of both these extremes, as well as that of the bulk of the workforce who find themselves somewhere on the continuum in between, have to be met.
2.2 Economic Influences
As is the case with a majority of South African organisations, the particular organisation's prime challenge, and opportunity, is the fact that South Africa is once again a global player. With the lifting of sanctions local enterprises' inefficiencies and unfitness for competition have been exposed and a lot of hard lessons had to be learned very quickly. Due to the nature of this particular organisation - a state enterprise with no direct competition in the South African market - competition is not perceived to be an immediate threat. It is, however, understood in the higher echelons of the organisation that given a few changes to the present situation, international companies could quite possibly buy currently mothballed plant from this 205
organisation and introduce direct competition. Should this happen, this organisation's serious inefficiencies would certainly be exposed. An ironic contradiction currently exists within the specific organisation in reply to certain economic pressures. Due to the extensive capital outlay required to build new production plant, and the rise in domestic demand, especially during winter, it was decided to pose a challenge to the existing plant to dramatically improve performance statistics. The challenge was to have been realised by the year 2000, but at the end of 1996 - within only two years - the targets were met and it was estimated that the saving amounted to millions of rands. The improvement in availability and reliability, however, resulted in excess capacity that cannot be absorbed by the local market due to worse than expected economic growth rates.
A challenge related to the return to the global market, is that of excellence in customer service. Customers suddenly have a wide choice of variations on the same product to choose from, and very often only the packaging and the customer focus of the sales staff distinguish the different brands and determine market share. As is the case with competition, the customer service challenge is not much of a reality in this organisation yet since it has no direct competition in South Africa. Getting employees to keep the end-use customer in mind when they make decisions proves to be easier said than done, especially in the production part of the business. Yet, a strategy will have to be devised and implemented, as the ideal world of no competition will not exist forever.
Undoubtedly the most pressing economic influence on this organisation at the moment, is also a political one: privatisation. At the beginning of 1996, the government announced a major restructuring of the whole industry in which this organisation is a major player. The industry involves the whole of this organisation, as well as service delivery structures on local governmental levels. Due to severe inconsistencies in terms of service delivery, consensus exists that the industry needs to be restructured. Due to the relative good performance of this particular organisation - compared to that of the other South African State enterprises - government does not seem to be in a hurry to decide what the industry should restructure towards. Various workgroups have been established to investigate the situation and have produced their reports and recommendations, yet no decision is forthcoming. Due to the fact that the decision is a governmental one and that all proposals and preferences from the organisation's side have to be negotiated with the recognised trade unions at a corporate level, the individual groups and business units are being incapacitated to a large extent. Managers are very wary of making decisions about changes to the way their businesses are run, even if it does not involve changes to reporting structures, while the trade union 206
representatives are keeping a close watch to ensure that no changes take place without being negotiated at the appropriate forums.
2.3 Legal-political Influences
Due to the organisation under discussion's close relationship with the South African government - the latter is its sole shareholder - the extent to which political events influence its functioning cannot be underestimated. The government's role in the direction the organisation will have to take in future has already been elaborated upon in the previous section and will thus not be included in the current section.
As was the case with most South African organisations, the political democratisation of the country was, and is, also reflected in the democratisation of this particular organisation. Participative management has been embarked upon, although it needs to be said that the organisation's participative management philosophy and structures have been in place long before the new Labour Relations Act became a reality. The fact that the structures have been in place for some time, however, does not mean that the parties involved have come to grips yet with all the practical implications of participative management. Be it at business unit, group or corporate level, problems are experienced frequently and they often lead to a complete breakdown in negotiations. Due to the characteristics of the negotiation process, strategic decision making has turned into a time-consuming process. Although the value of broader involvement cannot be denied, the organisation's current structures and processes too often devolve to the level of destructive mudslinging and personal power struggles to really add value.
In terms of representation, the organisation's five recognised trade unions collectively have 70% of the workforce as members and hence have a significant powerbase. A movement is currently underway to remove middle and senior management as well as professionally graded employees (Patterson's M, E, F, P and S bands) from the so-called bargaining unit. This would mean that management would negotiate on behalf of these employees and that the agreements reached with the trade unions would not be applicable to them. The drive was born out of the gainshare and performance bonus negotiations in the middle of 1997 when the trade union demands resulted in the above mentioned category of employees receiving significantly smaller bonuses than what they would have had management's initial proposals been implemented. 207
The implementation of the new Labour Relations Act and Basic Conditions of Service would have profound implications for this organisation -, as will be the effect on other organisations as well. The main point of concern is the apparent disregard for economic considerations in favour of worker demands. In terms of protecting its employees, this organisation has already issued a guarantee that in the current transformation process no employees will lose their employment. This could become a guarantee to be regretted when it becomes obvious that in the interest of continued existence, it is necessary to retrench employees who do not add value to the organisation. In a more legal sense, the Labour Relations Act also makes it difficult for organisations to dismiss employees who are found guilty of misconduct. In this particular organisation quite a few cases are being whispered about in the corridors where errant employees had to be reinstated due to technical considerations. Not only do organisational ethics suffer, but its economic viability is also eroded.
2.4 Socio-cultural Influences
One of the first elements that come to mind when considering socio-cultural influences on organisations, is workforce diversity. With the democratisation of South African society and organisations came the voice of diversity that sounds louder with each passing day. In South Africa, the legacy of a past ruled by apartheid laws, the concept of diversity has come to mean race and ethnicity, while issues such as gender, age and people with disabilities are disregarded. The main source of diversity in higher organisational ranks at present is affirmative action. Although it is not legislated as yet, expectations are that affirmative action ratios - and penalties when these targets are not met - could become law if organisations are not seen to be doing enough. The organisation being examined in this study is, due to its close ties with the government, under pressure to make affirmative action work and hence it is perceived by its peers to be a successful pioneer in this field. This view, however, is not widely shared within the organisation. In an internal Culture, Climate and Communication Survey conducted for the organisation by the National Productivity Institute in early 1996, only 16% of the employees surveyed thought that affirmative action has a positive impact, and 20% were of the opinion that it added real value to the organisation.
Although historically workforce diversity has come to have racial and colour connotations, the issue of employment equity in terms of female employees is becoming more prominent. 208
Expectations in the organisations are that targets for women in management might become a reality as early as 1998. Not much energy is currently being spent on gender equality due to the affirmative action drive - which, for some reason, focuses mainly on men. The government, however, has made public its commitment to liberate women and ensure their rights are honoured, hence workplaces will have no choice but to follow suit.
For the organisation under discussion in this study, it has become very important to portray the image of a good and responsible corporate citizen, hence community involvement takes place at various levels. In the first instance, the company has to educate a large number of its customers on the use of its product, not only on how to use it safely, but also most cost effectively. As the product entails a shift away from traditional ways of doing things, especially in the rural areas, the company has had to learn about the customs and traditions of its customers before attempting to sell its product and engage in education. A related issue is the non-payment for services which eventually leads to services being cut. Disgruntled customers then attempt to obtain the product illegally which not only results in huge revenue losses for the company, but too often also in serious injury or even death for the culprits and innocent victims - such as children - alike. The organisation's community relations thus also have to have a strong education and development message. Community involvement also takes the form of sponsoring educational projects, community projects such as a woman of the year competition, and occasional sport sponsorships. A serious shortfall in the community development programme at present is the lack of central control resulting in business units having to make their own decisions on what to support and what not. Not only is the potential impact of a concerted effort thus diminished, but the danger also exists that conflicting messages are carried into the communities.
Africanisation of South African workplaces is an unavoidable result of a policy to transform the demographic profile of the managerial ranks. What is meant by this concept, is basically that organisations' philosophies and ways of doing things are moving away from the more Eurocentric to embrace that of the African continent. In most instances, the white employees of the company studied, regard "different" as "deficient". Examples being cited include black managers' disregard for punctuality, and the lengthy nature that decision-making processes have acquired due to consultation and consensus. What is abundantly clear, is that organisational cultures are changing - they are now being determined by different managers than before and demand a different set of behaviour from employees than before. The implication is that employees will have to be socialised differently when joining the organisation and that organisational values, and the behaviours that embody them, will have to be redefined. 209
3. INTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL ENVIRONMENT RESULTS
The above discussion presented the results of the interpretative analysis of the organisation's external environmental realities and how they influence the organisation. The current section will report on the interpretative analysis findings in terms of the internal organisational environmental factors as identified in the Schemata Model. Before the findings are reported, however, it is necessary to expand on how the elements used to analyse each of the four factors were decided upon.
In analysing the organisation's ideology, the framework provided by Scollon & Scollon (1995:170) on the ideological characteristics of a discourse system, was used. The value of this particular framework is that it operationalise the elusive concept of organisational culture to the extent that it can be analysed in tangible terms. In examining the organisational discourse, Scollon & Scollon's framework (1995:170) of the forms of discourse in a discourse system, was used. The reason for using this framework, is much the same as in the case of the ideology framework. In terms of organisational power, the analysis was based on the discussion of power in the study's chapter on the influence of language on corporate culture. For the analysis of organisational culture, the framework as presented in the study's chapter on organisational culture was used.
3.1 Organisational Ideology
Scollon & Scollon's model (1995:170) identifies five dimensions in terms of which organisational ideology may be analysed:
3.1.1 Reason for existence:
The organisation in question originally had a purposive reason for being in that it aimed to sell a product and provide a service. Over time, however, this purpose changed, especially in the eyes of its employees, who now regard the organisation's main purpose as providing them with employment and security. An example of how this change is manifested today, is the fact that employees expect, and receive, guarantees in terms of employment and benefits whenever changes to the business and its functioning are contemplated. Such guarantees are given despite business realities that may demand 210
radical changes that would necessitate redeployment, retrenchments or a cut in benefits. It would thus appear that providing employees with security is more of a driving force within the company than being profitable. The results of this ideology is that the employees display an alarming lack of business acumen and mainly try to gain as much as possible from the organisation for as little as possible in return.
3.1.2 History:
As a public, or state, enterprise the organisation's history, from its establishment in 1923, closely reflects that of South Africa. Due to its close links with government, it was always rather quick to respond to changes in the political environment and to follow the lead of the governing party. The company used to have lifelong employees whose first job was with the organisation and retired in its employ some 40 years later. Often a few members from the same family would be employed in different branches or business units and it was not uncommon for children to aspire to spend their working years at the same company where their fathers have spent theirs. In recent years, however, this trend has changed drastically. Children cannot be assured of following in father's footsteps anymore, and father himself has realised that there is life beyond the boundaries of this organisation. People are reaching top positions at much younger ages than before and are thus not prepared to spend the next 20 years managing the same department or business unit. Hence the workforce is becoming more fluid and loyalty to the organisation cannot be assumed anymore.
3.1.3 World view:
In terms of worldview, this organisation is dominantly Utilitarian - a view found in most Western, developed countries and organisations. However, changes to the workforce composition due to affirmative action, democratisation, Africanisation and concepts such as Ubuntu, are clashing with the Utilitarian worldview with its emphasis on the individual, rationality and performance. It would seem unavoidable that the organisation will have to amend its worldview to accommodate the needs and requirements of its changing workforce and customer base. 211
3.1.4 Beliefs, values, religion:
The organisation's values are respect, superior performance, customer service and ethics. These values have remained unchanged for at least four years, and do not have a particularly high profile in the organisation. It is possible that the majority of employees would not be able to name more than one or two of these values when asked at any given time. More importantly though, no behaviours have been linked to these values to make them an everyday reality. The employees also had no part in formulating the organisation's values. Although the organisation's values do exist on paper, they are not enough of a reality to guide people's behaviour. For instance, although ethics is a stated value, other considerations frequently come into play when employees have to be disciplined for misconduct varying from late coming to the unauthorised use of company vehicles, resulting in not guilty verdicts due to technicalities.
In terms of religion, or spirituality, in the organisation the search for a new ideology is evident. One example of this is the fact that official Christmas cards are not being sent anymore during the festive season for fear of offending other religious groups. The danger of creating such a "neverland" with no strong values or clear spiritual backbone, is that the people occupying it make their own rules and follow their own feelings. When people do not agree on the foundation upon which relationships have to be built, it is virtually impossible to unite the organisation around a common purpose (Nash, 1994:7).
3.1.5 Place in culture:
The organisation sees itself as a responsible corporate citizen, contributing in a major way to the welfare and stability of the communities in which it is involved. It is an important contributor to the development of new technologies and plays a key role in the reshaping and restructuring of the industry in which it operates. Based on these observations, it is understandable that this particular organisation would have a sense of self-importance and see itself as a force to be reckoned with. 212
3.2 Organisational Discourse
3.2.1 Grammar of context:
In the organisation carefully orchestrated speech situations are still at the order of the day, for example most meetings have a pre-determined agenda as well as formally compiled minutes. It is however important to note that these formalities do not necessarily ensure productive and successful meetings or speech situations. In negotiations also very little is left to chance - trade unions and management alike would caucus extensively before and even during meetings, while seemingly spontaneous actions such as walk-outs, are also carefully orchestrated for maximum impact.
The Utilitarian genre is still evident in communication media such as business letters and memo's, yet a shift is perceptible. Evidence of such a shift may be found in the use of the performing arts (in the form of industrial theatre) to convey important and complex messages, as well as the use of traditional African praise singing at certain occasions such as when the new Chairman of the Board was introduced to the organisation. These instances are still, however, very controlled and carefully planned and not spontaneous at all. Organisational members engage unofficially in storytelling, jokes, cartoon drawing and even singing, but these genres very seldom find their way into the official channels. Cartoon drawings are an example: a variety of cartoons, mostly with the organisation / boss / supervisor as the butt of the joke, can be found on display in numerous offices around the organisation. However, none of these ever find their way into the official publications. It can therefore be suggested that the corporate organisation lives a different life to that of its employees.
3.2.2 Face strategies:
Hierarchical communication, the majority of which is top-down, is a distinct characteristic of the particular organisation's discourse. Although a number of special channels have been created to facilitate bottom-up communication, such as management walk abouts and discussion forums, employees still feel that it is difficult to get their voices heard. Managers too feel frustrated by the lack of bottom-up communication, but for a different reason. The formal channels to give employees a voice almost invariably focus on 213
providing them with an opportunity to raise problems and concerns, for example management walkabouts, briefing sessions and participative management structures such as workteam sessions and BU forums. The prospect of being confronted by a seemingly never-ending barrage of problems and accusations, as opposed to constructive inputs, lead to management's resistance towards these interventions. This results in lower management visibility and an increased feeling amongst employees that management is deaf and blind to their needs. A sense of equality is created by the fact that all employees, managers included, call each other by their first names. Only very senior management, such as the Chairman of the Board and the CEO are referred to as "mister". Levels are however distinguished by the unwritten rules of what can and cannot be said to whom, i.e. the tacit meanings contained in the situation.
3.2.3 Patterns of cohesion:
As can be expected of a largely Utilitarian organisation, this particular company also displays a strong preference for logic in analysis and presentation. People rarely make emotional appeals in an attempt to motivate a project or change a decision. The facts have to make sense and the emotion has to have a solid backing of evidence or otherwise be disregarded.
3.2.4 Functions of languaje:
Language is primarily regarded as a means to convey information and receive feedback. With the changes affirmative action brought to the managerial ranks, more managers now use language for storytelling and relationship building, thus softening the Utilitarian edge. During negotiations care is taken to keep the language as neutral as possible and all attempts possible are made, mostly from management, as opposed to organised labour's side, to preserve the relationship. Language is also used to keep information from employees. This statement may sound like a contradiction, but with the advent of transparency employees are being showered with such a lot of data that it is increasingly difficult to find the information they need amongst the overload. The illusion of being informed and empowered with information exists, but quite often the "story behind the story" is what counts but it is not revealed. The above mentioned is not exclusively true of management, however. Trade union representatives often have feedback sessions with their constituents, but the emotional 214
appeal of these sessions is often so strong that the information sharing takes a distant second place. People sometimes take part in mass action without necessarily knowing the truth about the issue at hand.
3.2.5 Non-verbal communication:
Due to its nature and profile in the South African economy, the organisation projects a strong corporate image with men in so-called "office jobs" almost always wearing ties, if not suits. At the more distant business units, people tend to be more informal, but the formal attire is usually donned for a visit to head office. It is also noticeable that people's dress change as they move up the corporate ladder - "affirmative action" employees dress like their white counterparts do. At after hour functions, however, people do tend to dress more "traditionally". Seniority is symbolised by bigger offices with a lot more personal choice in terms of furniture and interior decoration. In open plan offices, managers' offices are closed off - a sought after commodity in such a setting. The organisation has a number of policies regulating the non-verbal ways in which seniority and importance are established. In terms of hotel accommodation, for instance, employees' seniority determines their hotel's number of stars. Car hire and air ticket classifications are also determined by the employee's grading.
3.3 Organisational Culture
At the beginning of 1996, the National Productivity Institute conducted a Climate, Culture and Communication Survey for the organisation. A total of 3 055 employees, covering all groups and gradings in the organisation, participated. According to the survey results, the organisation as a whole has a culture of being more concerned about process than results, and of caring more for jobs than for people. Its normative and closed characteristics also significantly outscored the pragmatic and open dimensions. In the NPI study's results, a buearucratic, inflexible and parochial organisation is portrayed - a true reflection of the nature of a huge state enterprise.
In terms of the categorisation of corporate cultures proposed by Harrison & Handy (in Hampden- Turner, 1990:23-24), this particular organisation falls primarily into the role or Apollo culture. The role culture is highly formalised and centrally directed and is bureaucratically and scientifically managed. In this culture the role, or job description, is often more important than the person who 215
fills it and position is the major power source. Role cultures offer predictability and security to the individual and the chance to acquire specialist expertise without risk. Technical expertise and depth of specialisation are more important than product innovation or product cost.
In terms of socialisation, the organisation has a formal induction programme for newly recruited graduates and employees with diplomas. These graduates-in-training (GIT's) and diplomats-in- training (DIT's) attend a three days corporate orientation programme where they are addressed by several senior management members and visit a number of plants to give them an overview of the business. At the various business units more localised induction programmes follow the corporate programme. Here all new employees are introduced to their immediate working environment during the course of a day. No formal schedule of induction days exists, which result in situations where people work for the organisation six months or longer before attending an induction day. Graduates-in-training (GIT's) are put on training programmes for between 18 months and two years during which time they are exposed to the whole spectrum of activities in their business unit before they are appointed based on performance. New employees without formal qualifications, though, are not afforded this training opportunity and thus do not receive the same exposure to the bigger organisation. It has to be noted, however, that the bulk of the socialisation process takes place informally: in the tea-room, during friendly. chats in a colleague's office and via the office grapevine. The informal process tend to be exclusive in the sense that men and women, black and white usually keep to themselves and established circles of friends do not undergo a lot of change.
The acculturation process currently prevalent in this particular organisation is assimilation - a one-way adaptation in which the organisation's culture becomes the standard of behaviour for all other cultures merging into the organisation. Evidence for this statement can be found in the phenomenon that although black managers are being appointed, they act, dress and strive to behave as much as possible like the white managers they learned from and eventually replaced. Performance and excellence are also still measured in the same target- and statistics-driven ways as before. In terms of communication, the philosophy of assimilation is applied by practices such as the emphasis on written communication, despite the fact that a significant percentage of the workforce is illiterate or semi-literate, as well as the choice of English as business language, regardless of employees' levels of understanding and the emotional way in which people tend to react to language. 216
Based on its acculturation process, it can be inferred that the organisation displays the characteristics of a plural organisation. The plural organisation recognises the diversity of its workforce and takes certain steps to be more accepting and inclusive towards employees from former minority groups in the organisation. In this organisation these steps include an affirmative action policy, accelerated development programmes, and a few diversity value workshops. In essence, however, the organisation has a multicultural appearance, but the cultural aspects of integration are not addressed. Great care is taken, for example, to ensure that taskgroups include representatives from all groups, but the same care is not always taken to ensure that all the representatives understand their role, the task at hand and are actively involved throughout.
3.4 Organisational Power
Power in its most general sense is the ability to act in pursuit of one's aims and interests. At the institutional level, power is the capacity that enables some persons to make decisions, pursue ends or realise interests. In the third instance, as an institutionally endowed capacity, power is limited by social structure.
In this particular organisation, the power of sanction is largely grounded in formal position, hence the social or organisational structure largely acts as determinant of power. An individual's position in the formal organisational structure determines his or her power. Organisational politics, however, plays a significant role in determining how much actual power is vested in the position. In the case of affirmative action candidates, especially, the "power behind the throne" often belongs to knowledgeable mostly white, mostly male employees who know the business inside out. Some of them are quite content to wield a lot power behind the scenes and enjoying a lot of protection while preparing the new appointees for their future careers. Others, however, feel trapped and frustrated, especially if they don't have the financial resources to resign, and the organisation regards them as too valuable to be granted early retirement or separation packages. A related phenomenon is the extensive use made of external consultants to help steer the business. A number of these consultants are former employees who left to help their department or business unit attain its affirmative action targets, on the basis of concluding a contract with the organisation for at least a year. Although this practice is more the exception than the rule due to trade union resistance, it does happen and is a prime example of power vested in a person.
A significant powerbase is vested in organised labour. More or less 70% of the organisation's workforce is unionised, which explains the considerable power the shopstewards wield. It has to 217
be pointed out, however, that shopstewards often indulge in personal power struggles amongst themselves and with management representatives. It can thus be said that shopstewards' power transform from the personal kind - the basis on which employees choose a specific person to represent them - to the more positional - the position of shopsteward gives a person access to forums and people they would not have been exposed to was it not for the position the persons find themselves in.
Both management and organised labour use information and the control of agendas as an instrument of power. As was mentioned earlier in the study, it can be argued that the concept of transparency actually clouds issues more than before due to the information overload employees are exposed to. It is also interesting to note that not all issues are shaved under the transparency comb. Only certain meetings' minutes are distributed, for instance, and great care is taken to protect the identities of who said what in minutes that are distributed. In this way, the real issues in the organisation are clouded and not readily discernible for all employees. In terms of trade unions' use of information, it happens quite often that constituents are hardly informed about the issues of the day and allow themselves to be led by the opinions of an individual who they believe are better informed. If that individual, however, is in it for personal gain, the ignorance of his or her supporters is to his or her advantage and it will be sustained.
4. INDIVIDUAL LEVEL RESULTS
4.1 Values Questionnaire
9.1.1 Findings in terms of race: 220
It should be noted, however, that the women's lower family values score did not translate into a higher systemic values score which would have been a true indication of professionalism and independence. The lower family values score is also offset by women's higher rating of the stability / conformity value. Although not statistically significant, women do regard stability as more important than what men do. It could also be suggested that the lower rating of family values is indicative of the role conflict experienced by the modern woman who finds it virtually impossible to balance a dynamic career and a healthy family life. The importance of family values is thus underplayed in the career context.
The significant variance between male and female respondents in terms of power / domination values indicate that men subscribe more to power and also do not regard routine as that important. They would furthermore go to great lengths for money and prefer a strict supervisor who gives them room to also take the hard line. This result seems to confirm a stereotype: men have little regard for those around them and solve problems by taking the hard line. The stereotype is, however, again countered by the fact that male and female respondents attached equal importance to the value of people / harmony.
Based on the outcome of the values research it seems as if values as reason why people ascribe different meanings to the same phenomena and ideas, can largely be disregarded in the organisational context. This is contrary to previously held convictions that differences in terms of variances such as race, gender and age would also result in definite value differences. A possible explanation is that "in modern corporate discourse systems there is at least an informal understanding that employees will leave their beliefs, whether political or religious, at home when 221
they report to work" (Scollon & Scollon, 1995:176). If employees comply to this organisational requirement, the lack of variances in terms of values can be explained by the fact that the questionnaires were completed at work and that the respondents answered the questions in their capacity as employees.
A further explanation for the lack of significant differences in values could be the process of institutionalising and perpetuating the corporate culture. The first step an organisation takes in perpetuating its culture is to ensure that its values are reflected in its recruitment policies and practices. It would therefore mean that people who display a belief in the organisation's values would stand a better chance at being employed than applicants who don't. In this way, the organisation would consist of people whose fundamental values are compatible, if not identical, regardless of gender, age and race. Should this assumption be true, it would mean that values are determined by factors other than race, gender and age, and this study would suggest that culture is that determinant. In the words of Smircich in Hood & Koberg (1995:160): "A cultural perspective on organisations brings us to understand that diversity, be it gender, race or age, is not the issue in organisations: the key is not in how people differ, but in how they think they differ". And how people think they differ, is determined by the meaning they ascribe to their own behaviour and that of their colleagues.
Due to the fact that organisations have boundaries, despite being part of a supra system and external environment, and that they wittingly or unwittingly determine their own cultures, the deduction that values are not the fundamental issue in the sharing of meaning cannot necessarily be generalised to other populations or situations as well. The results of the current study only suggest that in organisational contexts values do not form the basis of people's different interpretations of events, behaviour and language. In other words, the quality of dyadic communication in the organisational context is not determined by fundamental differences between members due to personal values. The results of the Semantic Differential Scale research will now be discussed in an attempt to determine why different people ascribe different meanings to the same phenomenon in organisational contexts.
222
4.2 Semantic Differential Scale
The Semantic Differential Scale measured respondents' perceptions of five organisational concepts, namely affirmative action, transformation, the Finesse project, performance management and training opportunities. In all cases, affirmative action and / or the transformation process resulted in the most significant differences between groups of respondents. The greatest differences between groups of respondents occurred between black and white respondents.
4.2.1 Findings in terms of race :
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U-CCX W ,:( -1U) CC W W —1W 1--OZO iwowp i<01—w0I — Ocom i—cew,>u)w < iwcew w u) tw — i w o ocozu) i Affirrraivektio Tiatictrrr#io Am:me Frcject FerfarrEnce NinagErre-t Trairin In the case of black versus white respondents, a high percentage of statistically significant variances were recorded in terms of the affirmative action and transformation dimensions, 223 although at least one significant variance was recorded for each of the other concepts as well. It was consistent with expectations to find that black and white respondents' feelings towards affirmative action were significantly different with black respondents being consistently more positive. The only exception was in terms of how successful respondents thought affirmative action was. Both groups had a neutral stance on the success of the initiative. Possible explanations for this finding could be the way in which affirmative action is implemented in South African organisations today. It is mostly target-driven and creates the feeling that only a limited number of highly educated and skilled black people benefit from it. White employees feel threatened by the process, while black employees in the lower ranks experience the process as passing them by. Both groups therefor question the success of affirmative action. Although neither black nor white respondents were too critical of the transformation process, black respondents were significantly more positive than their white counterparts on a number of dimensions. This finding could possibly be explained by a sense of alienation from the organisation experienced by some white organisational members. For a lot of them the "good old days" are over and they are struggling to come to terms with a new look organisation that demands new functional and especially interpersonal skills from them. An organisational initiative to change things further may therefor not be viewed as a good thing. White organisational members' more uncertain employment situation currently can also be expected to play a role in their more unfavourable perceptions of organisational change processes. 4.2.2 Findings in terms of age : In terms of the different age groups, affirmative action and the transformation process once again resulted in the largest number of significant variances. The responses towards performance management, Finesse and training were predominantly in the middle range of the scale. What is very interesting to note is that the younger age group (younger than 30) displayed the most variety in their responses. They expressed very definite positive and negative feelings and very rarely opted for the middle of the scale. 224 E R a N 1.1- Ct Et W Q - U) C.) W -1 W -I CC --I W 1 I W < u_ W 1 W Z IWOWF 1 a 0 1- Lo 0 F/5 w TU Ce W > U) I 1 ce W W ICY CC I CL 0 o co z u) i < I- _1 VAT a. W I W>-O 0 L.L. CESSA ec u) o POR Z < W 0 D W 1.t 01 ° z ° Lij 1 zw Z 0 woop 0 2 wma u_ a. w 0 0 0 w 0 Li- 0 MOTI U NE wix z a OP 80 z z 2 2 2 AffirrrEtiveAclicn TrarsfcrrrEticn Ares:Eel:bled RirforrrErreMmagemant Trairirg The younger group was especially positive about the transformation process and performance management and displayed the most negative feelings towards affirmative action. The older age group (older than 40) was the most negative overall of the three age groups. They were especially negative about affirmative action and transformation, whereas Finesse, performance management and training drew mostly neutral responses with a few ranging to the positive. 225 The middle age group (30 - 40 years old) also produced the most neutral responses of all three groups. They displayed a limited number of very positive or very negative reactions to the given concepts and by far the largest portion of their responses were right in the middle of the scale. They were, however, marginally more negative about affirmative action and positive towards performance management. In an attempt to explain the different age groups' responses, it is suggested that the younger group still displays the optimism of youth and that they are not as contaminated by the political correctness demanded by the organisation as their older colleagues in the middle group. This combination enables them to express their feelings and perceptions more honestly and freely in the belief that they can make a difference. The younger age group also had higher qualifications than the other groups, which could explain their more critical orientation. The older group (older than 40) seems to display more cynicism than the other two groups. This is manifested especially in the negative attitude they display towards the transformation process - "we have seen all this before - nothing new will come out of it". The negativity displayed towards affirmative action and transformation could also indicate a lack of confidence in their future in the organisation, an observation that is underlined by their willingness to openly express how they feel. It almost indicates that they feel they have nothing to lose. The fact that the older group is most negative about the organisational initiatives which will change the organisation dramatically in the foreseeable future (affirmative action and transformation) seem to indicate that they don't see a place for themselves in such a changed organisation. The processes with which they are more familiar (training and performance management) drew more neutral and even positive responses. The 30 - 40 year old age group seems to be trapped in the middle with very few responses extremely positive or negative. They seem to represent the faceless masses who don't have particularly strong opinions about their organisation and who are reasonably satisfied as long as they receive their pay cheque and are not treated too badly. This age group has probably accumulated enough fringe benefits associated with years of service for them to feel that they will lose something should they have to leave the organisation now. Hence the neutral responses "not to make waves". 226 4.2.3 Findings in terms of gender: Male versus female responses indicate that men and women only experience affirmative action significantly differently, with the male responses more positively. On the whole, however, male respondents were consistently more positive than females in terms of all five concepts. This could be due to the more paternalistic nature of organisations in which men are still unofficially regarded as "first among equals" and where - e- Femie z o u- ce u) CL UJ LU > CL Z W CL W cl) ID ILL L.u< LI_wwz< iwowE- l< TE 1-d 0 I- 0 in ' Z S LL <1111--ww>co icKccuiu) i cect i woow --ICLLU 1 WW>- 0< E D U) >-W 4.2.4 Findings in terms of organisational level: Findings for respondents at supervisory versus non-supervisory levels differed from the other groups' in that no significant differences were recorded for any of the affirmative action dimensions. In terms of all four the other concepts, however, at least one statistically significant variance was recorded for each concept - again a different pattern to any of the -e- ap Ncrl CL I- 0 0 U- Ce U) 0 W - 1 LU Z W 0 W ...cTu) iu-W The responses from supervisors versus non-supervisory level employees were the most consistent in their differences. Virtually without exception supervisors were more positive towards all the given concepts. In most instances, supervisors displayed the same 228 sentiment towards a particular dimension as the non-supervisors, but their response was almost always more positive. Therefore the two graphs (see p. 322) show a largely similar pattern (except for a few instances) with the supervisors more positive and the non- supervisors more negative. In attempting to explain this finding, organisational socialisation and role expectations seem to offer an answer. Supervisors seem to feel that their position expects of them to react positively to whatever the organisation initiates and that criticism would be disloyal. This perception is supported by the fact that only in terms of four dimensions were supervisors negative - and then only mildly so. Neutrality is apparently also not good enough seeing that many more positive than neutral responses were recorded. Supervisors seem to feel that they have to justify and approve of the organisation's actions despite their personal feelings. Proof of this may be found in the fact that they agree with the unfavourable perceptions of the other employees, but that they are not so harsh in their opinions and are much more positive on the whole. 4.3 Observation Results Behaviour that was encountered in the observation part of the study tends to support the findings of both the Values Questionnaire and the Semantic Differential Scale research. The clearest and most significant example of how organisational experience influences sensemaking, is the interaction between the trade union shopstewards and the rest of the department. In the specific department the Mineworkers' Union (majority white membership) and the National Union of Mineworkers (majority black membership) are each represented by a very militant and outspoken shopsteward. This organisational role they play seems to have a definite influence on the way they view themselves, as well as the reactions they evoke from their colleagues. In the opinion of the researcher, the racial polarisation evident in the department could to an extent be a consequence of the two shopstewards' behaviour. In being as outspoken and aggressive as they are, they are doing more damage than good to the cause they are fighting for as well as the constituents they represent. During the period that was spent at the department, the issue about which language should be used during meetings was coming to a head. A Code of Conduct had been drawn up specifically aimed at the workteam session meetings. These meetings took place once every fortnight and ideally included every member of the department. In terms of the Code of Conduct, English was 229 identified as the language in which the workteam sessions would be conducted. Apart from the workteam sessions, weekly direct reports' meetings took place between the departmental manager and her direct reports (a team consisting of eight members) and the storekeeper and the supervisors reporting to him. The latter meeting usually involved six people. The direct reports'. and supervisors' meetings did not have a language code and were mainly conducted in English mixed with a bit of Afrikaans and Zulu spoken between certain individuals. During one particular meeting (13 October 1997) between the departmental manager and her direct reports, the MWU shopsteward insisted on speaking Afrikaans with the manager translating his feedback into English for the rest of the meeting. The NUM shopsteward protested against this by stating that if the white man can use his mother tongue in the meeting, the three black people should also have the opportunity to do so. The manager responded by saying that it cannot be helped if people feel uncomfortable speaking in English and that they should just get on with the meeting: "I am not going to fight about language." The NUM shopsteward's reaction was that he regarded the incident as an insult to his language and that he cannot be part of the meeting under such circumstances. He subsequently walked out of the meeting and was joined by the other black man. The black female secretary, however, stayed behind. The MWU shopsteward reacted to the walk out by saying that he will not be manipulated and that the black people did not have any problem speaking Afrikaans outside the meeting. It should be noted, however, that the black secretary could not speak or understand Afrikaans at all and that English therefore had to be spoken to enable her to compile the minutes. Following the meeting discussed above, the three black people who were part of the meeting lodged a group grievance against the manager based on her handling of the language issue. The grievance was, however, withdrawn. In reflecting on the incident against the background of the department's functioning, it becomes clear that the two shopstewards acted and reacted to each other in terms of their personas, or schemata, as union representatives. When the NUM shopsteward first objected to the use of Afrikaans, he spoke like a trade unionist making a point - not like an employee raising a concern. Based on her previous experiences of him as a troublemaker and a "stirrer" the manager became angry immediately and attacked instead of concentrating on the merit of his argument. In effect, she sided with the MWU shopsteward by defending him and trying to silence the objection. The NUM shopsteward then acted in the confrontational tradition of trade union politics and staged a walk out. 230 As far as the MWU shopsteward is concerned, his insistence on speaking Afrikaans was probably staged. In the previous week's meeting (6 October 1997) - when the NUM representative was not present - he did not have any problems expressing himself in English and it was not necessary for the manager to translate for the benefit of the secretary. Immediately after the walk out, he also switched over to English. Both white and black employees present in the meeting seemed to respond to the shopstewards as their leaders. When the walk out took place, the black man who followed the shopsteward said very softly on his way out that he had to support him. The subsequent grievance bears further testimony to the shopsteward's leadership in that the manager's secretary joined in as well as an employee with superior education and a higher job grading. The MWU shopsteward's following showed their support by means of a few remarks after the walk out, but more openly outside the meeting. In discussions with the manager about the grievance that was submitted, the merit of the complaint was very seldom mentioned. Her main concern was the breach of trust she experienced from her secretary's side by joining in, as well as her anger and frustration with the NUM shopsteward. She reluctantly agreed that the MWU shopsteward also had to carry some blame, but it was clear that she was reacting to the NUM shopsteward in terms of her schemata of him based on his union activities and not to him as an individual or even an employee. Her experiences of him in the organisational context therefore have a major impact on the schemata she has of him as a person. 5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY's FINDINGS The findings of the Semantic Differential Scale research suggest that the different ways in which people ascribe meaning to the same event, object or behaviour are determined by organisational factors, that is the organisational culture. The Personal Values research revealed very little discrepancies between the personal values of the various groups surveyed which could mean that the people in the organisation do not differ fundamentally. What is different, however, is the meanings they ascribe to the different concepts of the Semantic Differential Scale. Due to the few value differences, these differences in meaning cannot be ascribed to people's fundamentally different viewpoints of the world. The suggestions would therefore be that organisational experiences determine how people ascribe meaning to events in an organisation. According to the philosophy of Symbolic lnteractionism : " Meanings arise in social contexts" (Wood, 1982:68). If it is therefore true that the social context, in this case the organisation, gives rise to meaning, the 231 different meanings attached to the Semantic Differential Scale concepts by the different groups should be the result of different experiences in that social context. It can thus be said that the different groups of employees are treated differently, hence their varying experiences in the same culture, or social context. The fact that black and white respondents did not display a large number of differences in meaning seem to suggest that race as a function of diversity is not the most important characteristic that distinguishes people. Age, gender and especially organisational level proved to be much more important factors. The fact that organisational level, i.e. supervisor or not, produced the most significant variances is a clear indicator that organisational experience is a key determinant of the way in which people ascribe meaning. The organisation that was used for this study provides a relevant example of how an organisation distinguishes between employees - a distinction that has the potential of shaping their meanings forever. In the particular organisation new employees at different stages of their lives and career development are inducted and socialised in different ways. Young recruits with diplomas or degrees attend a three-day organisational induction as well as a business unit specific induction programme. They are also regarded to be "in training" for a period of at least 18 months before they are appointed in a permanent position. During the training period they spend time in different departments and are exposed to the business as widely as possible. A current initiative in the organisation is a focus on the development and retention of so called "young professionals" - a group defined as people younger than 30 with a formal tertiary education and an organisational career path. Young recruits without tertiary qualifications are inducted in the same way, but do not undergo a training period and are thus not exposed to the larger organisational environment. The graduates are also more exposed to the organisation's leadership, hence their formal and informal socialisation could be expected to differ vastly from that of the non-graduates. The graduates-in- training are usually those earmarked for the leadership positions that would explain why the supervisory level employees' attitudes were consistently different from those of the non supervisors. The organisational focus on the development of young people would also explain the younger than 30 years age group's outspoken and decidedly more positive attitudes towards the Semantic Differential Scale concepts. With the organisation investing so much in them they have reason to feel confident and positive. 232 With the organisation investing so much time, resources and effort in its leaders of the future, it also ensures that the desired culture is maintained and perpetuated, according to Drennan's 12 influences affecting the development of organisational cultures (1992:5-28). Through the induction and development programmes, the new recruits come into contact with the dominant leaders who have led the company to success and learn from them, in this way being exposed to company tradition and history in a powerful way. The development programmes afford them the opportunity to view the organisation's technology, products and services, as well as its competition and the broader industry, through the organisation's eyes, thus shaping future choices and perceptions. The company's expectations of its employees, as well as behaviour that will be rewarded - either with awards or promotion -, are overtly and covertly made clear. By means of this relatively simple example, it was illustrated how individuals' organisational experiences can shape their processes of ascribing meaning. Furthermore, the way in which an organisation treats its employees is determined by its culture, which leads to the conclusion that organisational culture should be regarded as a significant factor in the diversity management process. Based on this study's research findings, organisations may very well be insisting on treating employees, who subscribe to basically the same values and world view, differently based on the perception that they are different. Ironically enough the differential treatment of groups of employees then results in different sense making processes which in the end result in different behaviours, because "human beings act toward phenomena on the basis of the meanings they attach to the phenomena" (Wood, 1982:67).. Organisations could thus be guilty of instituting self- fulfilling prophecies. 6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE SCHEMATA MODEL As the aim of the empirical research was to determine the applicability of the Schemata Model of Interpersonal Communication in the Organisational Context, it is necessary to contextualise the findings in reference to the Model. One of the most important findings of the research was its confirmation of the importance of the context within which human beings interact. The organisation in question is a major player in the South African economy and being a parastatal, it cannot escape becoming a political play ball at times. The external pressures and influences have a decisive impact on how the organisation's leadership makes internal business decisions. The internal business decisions determine to a 233 large extent the distribution and use of power in the organisation, based on its ideology. Organisational culture and the kind of discourse the organisation engages in are also hugely influenced by external factors. Both the external environmental and internal organisational factors then co-operate to set the stage for interpersonal interaction within the organisation. The Model proposes that individuals react to each other based on the idea (schemata) they have of each other. People therefore do not communicate with each other directly, but rather with the picture they have of the other person in their minds. Different factors are believed to influence the process of constructing schemata as well as the subsequent processes of sensemaking and the sharing of meaning. It was thought that the different ways in which people respond to these factors, such as socialisation and culture, had to do with how their fundamental outlooks on life differed. The research, however, proved that this assumption could no longer be made. Black and white respondents, for instance, did not display a large number of differences in the personal values research, yet recorded a relatively high number of differences in organisational meaning. Hence the suggestion that elements in organisational life magnify race as a function of organisational diversity. The fact that organisational level, i.e. supervisor or not, produced the second highest number of significant variances is a further indicator that organisational experience is a key determinant of the way in which people ascribe meaning. It can therefore be expected that the sociolinguistic phenomenon of intergroup biases would be strongly influenced by the way in which groups of individuals are treated by their organisation, and not necessarily by the more generally accepted functions of diversity such as race, gender and age. Support for this assumption may be found in organisations where black people are appointed in managerial positions and then find that the organisation looks different from the other side of the polished desk. The same goes, however, for managers who take the time to expose themselves to the life of an ordinary employee. Once you have experienced the humiliation and degradation of queuing for your lunch in a filthy dining room before returning to an unfair supervisor and a never changing job, it is easier to understand where the trade unions find support for industrial action. The above examples served to show how a person's position and experiences in the organisation have the ability to influence the filters through which meaning is filtered in the encoding and decoding processes as well as the schemata employed during communication. In organisational life, the in-group is not necessarily those who look like you and come from the same background. The in-group is more likely to be those who share the same experiences. 234 Due to the political and social history of South Africa, it happened in most cases that groups who shared the same organisational experiences also shared similar backgrounds. White men coming from superior education and social backgrounds most often found themselves in the powerful organisational positions. Despite often sharing the same social and educational privileges, white women experienced discrimination and limited opportunities in the way of their career paths. Black people, on the other hand, usually found themselves in the lowest organisational rankings ill- equipped for advancement due to inferior education and severe discrimination. Based on their positions and experiences in the same hypothetical organisation, it can be suggested that white men would generally have been satisfied and loyal employees, thinking highly of their employer. White women by and large might also not have been too unhappy and would not have felt a great need for things to change. The black workforce, however, would have been very dissatisfied and would have proven to be fertile soil in which resentment and mass action could grow. It has to be mentioned as well that the basis for the organisation's different treatment of these three broad groups was not based on fundamental differences in their values or worldviews, but rather on an assumption of competence. In terms of interpersonal communication and the sharing of meaning between members of these different groups, it can be expected that the process would have been clouded by the schemata each had of the other based on his or her position and associated status in the organisation. Individuals' self images in organisational communication transactions would also have been influenced by the power they perceived themselves to wield in relation to the other person as well as the way in which they have been socialised in the organisation. These schemata would have been instrumental in decisions pertaining to, for example, choice of subject and choice of words, and would have been a deciding factor in the process of decoding the other person's response. The way in which the organisation treated each of these highly simplified groups of people significantly influenced their schemata of themselves and of other employees, thus impacting on relations in the workplace. The political and social transformation process in South Africa is forcing organisations to do away with outdated practices and in doing so, to change their cultures to accommodate all employees. Based on the findings of this study, these cultural changes should be driven by the fact that employees respond to the way in which the organisation treats them and construct their schemata for interpersonal communication in the workplace accordingly. 235 7. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The most important area for further research opened up by the current study is to determine conclusively the importance of personal values in interpersonal communication and the sharing of meaning. The study's findings that organisational experience and position, rather than personal values, determine employees' responses to organisational phenomena introduce a new perspective on human resources management. Due to the limited size of the sample used in the study, it is not possible to generalise its findings to include situations outside the workplace. It might not even be possible to generalise the findings to all workplaces due to the differences in cultures between different organisations. It is however extremely important to determine whether experience is only a particularly powerful determinant in organisational contexts or whether it plays a significant role in people's everyday lives. Should experience be proven to only be of significance in organisations, it will also have to be determined if it is a largely South African phenomenon or whether the principle can be applied globally as well. In view of the importance of diversity management in South African organisations today, the findings of this study warrant further research specifically into its applications in the field of diversity management. Should further research confirm that organisational level and experience are more important factors in diversity management than, for example, race, gender and age as such, organisations will have to rethink their diversity management strategies to become more focused on the organisational culture. The way things are done around here will have to move away from treating different groups in different ways based on unsound reasons. An important hindrance in the data collection process of this study, was the researcher's inability to find a values questionnaire aimed at the comprehension level of the illiterate and semi-literate employees. This reality necessitated the use of an interpreter to explain the questionnaire, as opposed to merely translating, as well as to record the responses. Apart from the time that was consumed by having to administer the questionnaires in this way, the use of a third party opened up the possibility of the data being contaminated either due to mistakes in the interpreter's recording or to the respondents reacting to the interpreter and not only to the questions. In the interest of good science and truly useful results, it is critical for such a values instrument to be developed. 236 8. CONCLUSION This, the empirical chapter, set out to determine the validity of the Schemata Model as a framework for describing, analysing and predicting the interaction between a number of variables in the process according to which meaning is shared between individuals in an organisational context. In applying the Model to a specific organisational context, the context of interaction and its influence on the sharing of meaning was the main focus. Data was collected by means of various processes, including descriptive analyses, questionnaires and participant observation. The results of the research clearly indicate that the context in which human interaction takes place - in this case the organisation - is of extreme importance to the quality of the communication transaction. The findings suggest that corporate diversity management programmes should be focused on the organisational culture, and not necessarily on facilitating understanding between people of different races. Interestingly enough, surprisingly few significant differences between black and white employees' personal values were recorded in the research, although perceptions of organisational phenomena differed significantly in a number of instances. This finding would suggest that South African organisations should no longer be locked in the apartheid frame of mind in which race, and the assumed fundamental differences it implies, is the main determinant of differences between people. Due to the significant differences recorded in terms of organisational level between supervisory and non supervisory level respondents, the current study concludes that organisational experience is a highly significant factor influencing the sharing of meaning between individuals in organisations and should as such be managed as an integral part of a diversity management strategy. The way in which an individual experiences his or her organisation is by and large a function of the organisational culture - the way things are done around here. Organisational culture determines socialisation, power relationships, policies and procedures, reward systems, discourse systems and ideology, all of which have a significant impact on the day to day experiences of all employees. Affirmative action is one of the main channels through which diversity is injected into the decision making levels of organisations today, but the way in which organisations conduct their business do not necessarily change along with their workforce demographics. The organisation's culture has to change in order to make allowance for people who need to be treated as individuals - not members of a uniform group. The introduction of diversity puts new demands and challenges to the existing workforce and for this the organisational culture should also make provision. 237 The findings of the study should, however, not be seen as concluding that personal factors such as values, beliefs, attitudes and socialisation within a specific community and culture are of no importance in terms of diversity management. These factors cannot ever be ignored or considered of lesser importance. The study is, however, highlighting the probability that within the organisational context, the importance of the organisational culture can and should not be underestimated. Due to various processes, such as tertiary education, recruitment policies and procedures, and organisational socialisation, an organisation's workforce does not truly reflect the broader society on a psychological level. Therefore, different factors came into play when the diversity of a workforce has to be managed and therefore the importance of the organisational culture has to be recognised and factored in when a diversity management strategy is developed. In the context of the Schemata Model, the findings' implications are that in organisational communication transactions between individuals, the individuals involved also communicate through their various schemata, as do individuals in other situations. The difference in organisational situations is that the individuals' positions in, and experiences of the organisation significantly influence those schemata. The consequence of this dynamic is that organisational diversity management cannot succeed if individuals' experience of their organisation's culture is not taken into account. The quality of dyadic communication is not only influenced by who people are (their personal values) but also by what they experience (the organisational culture). 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BLACK ASIAN WHITE COLOURED VALUES QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS : Below are sets of statements describing attitudes and personal characteristics. There are 6 options for each question. You have to indicate to what extent you agree with some, or all 6, of the statements by giving each statement a value to the total of 12 points for each question. The more you agree with a particular statement, the higher the value you should give to it. You may give all 12 points to one statement, or you may divide the 12 points between 2 or 3 statements, for example : 1, 2, 4, 2, 3. The important thing is to ensure that the total for each of the sets of questions adds up to 12. 1. PEOPLE WHO KNOW ME BEST SEES ME AS ... g...... something of an individualist who lives by my own standards ..... stable and responsible with firm convictions, beliefs and principles ..... security-conscious, sometimes superstitious, very loyal to family ..... a "rebel" who loves to call the shots 244 e...... ambitious and progressive, with strong aspirations, initiative and drive f...... open and honest, sensitive to feelings and people-orientated (12) 2. I LIKE A JOB THAT HAS ...... a lot of security, with a close group of co-workers like me ..... a lot of action, with a chance to make a lot of money quickly ..... a lot of stability, with orderly work and rewards for loyalty a lot of opportunity for advancement, with pay based on merit and my performance ..... a lot of interest in human needs and relationships a lot of freedom to do things that interest me by my own standards (12) 3. I CAN BEST ME MANAGED WHEN I HAVE ... g. .. control over my own destiny and challenges that stretch my abilities c...... a boss who calls the shots but does not hassle me d...... a management system that is fair, consistent and follows the rules b...... a boss who shows a personal interest in me and stays in charge ..... an atmosphere that responds to the needs and feelings of everyone access to the information I need and the freedom to do a job in my own way 12) 4. I PREFER TO WORK FOR AN ORGANISATION THAT ... d. is well organised, consistent and appreciates loyalty and dedication g. understands and accepts individual uniqueness without judging it c. offers action and adventure, pays me well and leaves me alone f...... considers the needs, feelings and well-being of both employees and customers b. creates a protective and secure family atmosphere without threats e. provides avenues and incentives to climb the job ladder (12) 5. OUR COUNTRY FUNCTIONS BEST WHEN WE ... g. .. understand our interdependency within a greater global community and need and use less so that life may continue f...... are aware of the needs of all other human beings and place their well- being ahead of anything else e...... develop our potential as a nation, strengthen our competitive edge and confront our problems head-on ..... are protected by strong leaders who inspire us and take care of our needs during difficult times ..... don't take any nonsense from anybody, stand up for ourselves and take what we want when we want it continue to do what made us great as a country, defend and uphold our basic principles and live in a decent, just and law-abiding manner (12) 6. LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS ARE ... e...... necessary, but we only make progress when we can bend them a bit d. absolutely essential in order to maintain stability, discipline and order c. generally designed to protect selfish interests and punish the rest of us 245 g...... functional guidelines that should encourage personal responsibility b...... protective of those in trouble and tell the rest of us what's expected of us f...... helpful if they benefit all people and are enforced in a humane manner (12) 7. THE BEST WAY FOR ME TO COPE WITH LIFE IS TO ...... attach myself to a person or group which will take care of me ..... be tough enough to take care of myself so that I can get what I want ..... hold to my beliefs and keep doing what's right in order to obtain the ultimate reward ..... learn to negotiate with the world in order to enjoy life to its fullest ..... seek peace with my inner being and the inner selves of others ..... avoid being compulsive, regimented, or technologically-dependent by accepting the inevitability of nature's way (12) 8. DIFFERENT PEOPLE SEE LIFE IN DIFFERENT WAYS. TO ME LIFE IS ... f...... an experience through which a person explores what it means to be human and becomes aware of the human nature of others b...... somewhat scary and mysterious, but it's a good feeling when I know I'm safe g...... a synthesis of man, nature and events resulting in an atmosphere of diversity and the inevitability of change c...... like a jungle where the toughest survive and the most powerful dominate e...... full of opportunities for those who are willing to take the risks necessary to advance themselves and achieve the good life d...... an orderly place, controlled by a set of basic laws and principles which determine our destinies and show us the right way to act (12) 9. TO ME, MONEY IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT ... b...... pays for the basic necessities such as food and shelter c...... enables me to buy the things I want so I can feel like somebody d. provides me with a decent standard of living today and security for the future g .....allows me freedom to be myself and to do what I find interesting f. is a means whereby we can provide for the needs of ourselves and others e. demonstrates that I've been successful and deserve to enjoy life's good things (12) 10. I MAKE DECISIONS BASED ON ... f...... the impact of my decision on the well-being of other people d...... what is right and consistent with our standards and ways of living c. what's in it for me now; if you don't, someone else might rip you off e. what will pay off for me in terms of material gain and / or personal recognition b. the favourable signs and omens that come to me g. the effect on our total life system (12) 246 APPENDIX B SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE QUESTIONNAIRE Dear Respondent, Thank you for agreeing to complete this questionnaire. I want to assure you that your response will only be used for the purposes of my study, and that you will remain anonymous. Please ask me if you need any help in completing the questionnaire. Thank you Charmain Dombai What is your gender? MALE FEMALE How old are you? YOUNGER THAN 30 30 - 40 OLDER THAN 40 Are you a supervisor? YES NO What race are you? BLACK ASIAN WHITE COLOURED 1. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION Fair Unfair Necessary Unnecessary Fast Slow Forced Voluntary Target-driven People-driven Successful Unsuccessful Threat Opportunity 247 All benefit Only some benefits Job losses Career opportunities Inspires Demotivates Expensive Cost effective Disempower Empowers Reversed racism No reversed racism TRANSFORMATION Improvement Things will be worse Necessary Unnecessary Fast Slow Money well Money wasted spent Nothing new Things will be different Good faith Hidden agenda's Threat Opportunity We are We are not involved involved Job losses Career opportunities Inspires Demotivates Transparent Not transparent We can Others decide our future influence decisions THE FINESSE PROJECT Improvement Things will be worse Necessary Unnecessary 248 Fast Slow Money well Waste of money spent Nothing new Things will be different Our work Our work will be more will be easier complicated Threat Opportunity We are We are not involved involved It will be a It will be a failure success Bad idea Good idea Time well Waste of time spent Investment Restraint on the future in the future Based on Based on hidden users' needs agenda's 4. PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT Objective Subjective Fair Unfair Reward good Does not really reward me performance for my efforts Demotivates Motivates Unnecessary Necessary Easy to Difficult to understand understand Scares me Does not scare me have a say I have no say in my rating in my rating 249 Inconsistent Consistent I have I don't have confidence confidence in it in it Time well Waste of time spent 5. TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES More for More for managers employees Based on the Based on employees' money available needs Based on the Based on what needs of the business employees want Demotivates Motivates Unnedessary Necessary More for More for white employees black employees Focuses on Focuses on personal job related skills development Is easily Is not easily accessible accessible Is more for Is more for women men Is more for Is more for older younger employees employees Time well Waste of time spent 245 g. functional guidelines that should encourage personal responsibility b. protective of those in trouble and tell the rest of us what's expected of us f. helpful if they benefit all people and are enforced in a humane manner (12) 7. THE BEST WAY FOR ME TO COPE WITH LIFE IS TO ... attach myself to a person or group which will take care of me be tough enough to take care of myself so that I can get what I want hold to my beliefs and keep doing what's right in order to obtain the ultimate reward learn to negotiate with the world in order to enjoy life to its fullest ..... seek peace with my inner being and the inner selves of others avoid being compulsive, regimented, or technologically-dependent by accepting the inevitability of nature's way (12) 8. DIFFERENT PEOPLE SEE LIFE IN DIFFERENT WAYS. TO ME LIFE IS ... f. an experience through which a person explores what it means to be human and becomes aware of the human nature of others b. somewhat scary and mysterious, but it's a good feeling when I know I'm safe g. a synthesis of man, nature and events resulting in an atmosphere of diversity and the inevitability of change c. like a jungle where the toughest survive and the most powerful dominate e. full of opportunities for those who are willing to take the risks necessary to advance themselves and achieve the good life d. an orderly place, controlled by a set of basic laws and principles which determine our destinies and show us the right way to act (12) 9. TO ME, MONEY IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT ... pays for the basic necessities such as food and shelter enables me to buy the things I want so I can feel like somebody provides me with a decent standard of living today and security for the future g...... allows me freedom to be myself and to do what I find interesting f. is a means whereby we can provide for the needs of ourselves and others e. demonstrates that I've been successful and deserve to enjoy life's good things (12) 10. I MAKE DECISIONS BASED ON ... f...... the impact of my decision on the well-being of other people d...... what is right and consistent with our standards and ways of living c...... what's in it for me now; if you don't, someone else might rip you off e...... what will pay off for me in terms of material gain and / or personal recognition b...... the favourable signs and omens that come to me g...... the effect on our total life system (12)