DOCSLIB.ORG

MARITIME REGISTRATION Euromar/Portugal, Germany, Hong Kong, Liberia, Luxembourg, Marshall Islands, Sweden, Antigua & Barbuda

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
MARITIME REGISTRATION Euromar/Portugal, Germany, Hong Kong, Liberia, Luxembourg, Marshall Islands, Sweden, Antigua & Barbuda E-Avis ISDC 2018-15 MARITIME REGISTRATION Euromar/Portugal, Germany, Hong Kong, Liberia, Luxembourg, Marshall Islands, Sweden, Antigua & Barbuda Current to: 6 April 2018 Please refer to as: K. Nadakavukaren / A. Aronovitz / J. Curran / S. De Dycker / J. Fournier / N. Strainer / M. Sychold / S. Tscheulin / H. Westermark, Legal Opinion on Maritime Registration, current to : 6 April 2018 E-Avis ISDC 2018-15, available on www.isdc.ch. This text may be downloaded for personal research purposes only. The Swiss Institute of Comparative Law does not accept liability for any other use of the text. Any additional reproduction for other purposes, whether in hard copy or electronically, requires the consent of the Institute. E-Avis ISDC Série de publications électroniques d’avis de droit de l’ISDC / Elektronische Publikationsreihe von Gutachten des SIR / Serie di pubblicazioni elettroniche di pareri dell’Istituto svizzero di diritto comparato / Series of Electronic Publications of Legal Opinions of the SICL 17-183 2 Table des matières I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 5 A. EUROMAR/PORTUGAL .............................................................................................................. 10 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 10 1.1. Background on role of shipping in local economy ................................................................. 10 1.2. Portugal’s two maritime registers ........................................................................................ 10 1.3. Background on ship registration (who is responsible; where are the laws/ordinances found; how often are they adjusted) .............................................................................................. 13 1.4. Any current discussions as to registration requirements ....................................................... 14 2. Questions .................................................................................................................................. 14 2.1. What are the conditions on registration for the various categories of internationally active commercial high seas ships? This should include a differentiation among different types of ships (e.g., passenger ships, tankers, cargo ships) ................................................................. 14 2.2. What are the requirements regarding the revocation of a licence/flag? ................................. 17 2.3. What are the supervisory obligations toward fleets, ship owners, and seafarer recruitment and placement services (SRPS)? ................................................................................................. 18 2.4. To what types of taxes are shipowners and fleetowners subject? .......................................... 19 2.5. What is the fee system used by the officials?........................................................................ 21 B. DEUTSCHLAND .......................................................................................................................... 24 1. Einleitung .................................................................................................................................. 24 1.1. Hintergrundinformationen zur Rolle der Schifffahrt in der nationalen Wirtschaft ................... 24 1.2. Hintergrundinformationen zur Schiffsregistrierung ............................................................... 24 1.3. Werbung für die Deutschen Flagge ...................................................................................... 27 1.4. Aktuelle Diskussion zu Registrierungsbedingungen ............................................................... 28 2. Fragen ...................................................................................................................................... 29 2.1. Registrierungsbedingungen, Schiffszertifikate, Schiffsbesetzung ............................................... 29 2.2. Bewilligungsentzug (angeordnete Entlassung aus der Flagge) .................................................... 34 2.3. Aufsichtsbestimmungen ......................................................................................................... 35 2.4. Besteuerungsarten ............................................................................................................. 39 2.5. Gebührenregelungen .......................................................................................................... 39 C. HONG KONG ............................................................................................................................. 41 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 41 1.1. Background on the role of shipping ............................................................................................. 41 3 1.2. Background on ship registration .................................................................................................. 41 1.3. Current discussions around registration requirements ............................................................... 43 2. Questions .................................................................................................................................. 44 2.1. Conditions on registration ........................................................................................................... 44 2.2. Requirements for revocation of flag/licence ............................................................................... 45 2.3. Supervisory obligations ................................................................................................................ 46 2.4. Taxes ............................................................................................................................................ 48 2.5. Fee system ................................................................................................................................... 49 2.6. Other charges ............................................................................................................................... 49 D. LIBERIA ..................................................................................................................................... 50 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 50 1.1. Background on role of shipping in local economy ....................................................................... 50 1.2. Background on ship registration (who is responsible; where are the laws/ordinances found; how often are they adjusted) ...................................................................................................... 51 1.3. Any current discussions as to registration requirements ............................................................ 63 2. Questions .................................................................................................................................. 63 2.1. What are the conditions on registration for the various categories of internationally active commercial high seas ships? This should include a differentiation among different types of ships (e.g., passenger ships, tankers, cargo ships) ....................................................................... 63 2.2. What are the requirements regarding the revocation of a licence/flag? .................................... 64 2.3. What are the supervisory obligations toward fleets, ship owners, and seafarer recruitment and placement services (SRPS)? ......................................................................................................... 64 2.4. To what types of taxes are ship-owners and fleet-owners subject? ........................................... 64 2.5. What is the fee system used by the officials? ............................................................................. 65 E. LUXEMBOURG .......................................................................................................................... 67 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 67 1.1. Background on the role of shipping ............................................................................................. 67 1.2. Background on ship registration .................................................................................................. 68 1.3. Current discussions around registration requirements ............................................................... 68 2. Questions .................................................................................................................................. 69 2.1. Conditions on registration ........................................................................................................... 69 2.2. Requirements for revocation of flag/licence ............................................................................... 72 2.3. Supervisory obligations ................................................................................................................ 72 2.4. Taxes ...........................................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Guide to Shipping Register and Shipping Tax Regime in Hong Kong Contents
    Guide to Shipping Register and Shipping Tax Regime in Hong Kong Contents The Hong Kong Shipping Register 1 Taxation of Shipping Profits in Hong Kong 8 Schedule 12 The Hong Kong Shipping Register Until 3 December 1990, the United Kingdom Merchant Shipping Acts (the “Acts”) (except for the Merchant Shipping Act 1988) applied to registration of ships and to mortgages of ships in Hong Kong. A ship registered at the Port of Hong Kong was, therefore, a British ship. Hong Kong reverted to Chinese sovereignty on 1 July 1997 and became a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China. Section VIII of Annex I to the Sino- British Joint Declaration which relates to the transfer of sovereignty states that: “The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall maintain Hong Kong’s previous systems of shipping management and shipping regulation, including the system for regulating conditions of seamen. The specific functions and responsibilities of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government in the field of shipping shall be defined by the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government on its own. Private shipping businesses and shipping-related businesses and private container terminals in Hong Kong may continue to operate freely. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall be authorised by the Central People’s Government to continue to maintain a shipping register and issue related certificates under its own legislation in the name of ‘Hong Kong, China’.” The Hong Kong Government appointed a Steering Committee in 1987 to advise the Government on the establishment of an independent shipping registry. The result was enacted as the Merchant Shipping (Registration) Ordinance (Cap 415) (the “Ordinance”), which came into effect on 3 December 1990.
    [Show full text]
  • SHIP ARREST in PANAMA (QUESTIONS 1 to 9)
    SHIP ARREST IN PANAMA (QUESTIONS 1 to 9) 1. Please give an overview of ship arrest practice in your country. The Republic of Panama and the Panama Canal are brand names in international shipping. The Panamanian Ship Registry is the largest in the world in number of vessels as well as tonnage. The Panama Canal is a focal point since there are over 21,000 ships calling Panamanian Ports every year and over 14,000 of them transit the waterway. Until March, 1982, a United States Federal District Court for the Canal Zone (1) handled maritime claims at the Panama Canal. Since then, as a result of the Panama Canal Treaty Torrijos-Carter, Panama took over its maritime jurisdiction and the Maritime Court of Panama was created by Law 8 of 1982, which also adopted procedural rules closely patterned following the U.S. Rules of Civil Procedure. Since 1982 Maritime Court of Panama functioned as a specialized tribunal where the Judge is required by law to bear maritime law expertise; today there are two specialized maritime courts, being a direct consequence of a growing practice in the maritime litigation field. Furthermore, the National Assembly of Panama adopted a bill amending the existing procedural rules for admiralty claims. The Maritime Code of Panama amended by Law 12 of 2009, fashioned after the U.S. Supplemental Rules for certain Admiralty and Maritime Claims of Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, incorporated American procedural devices such as: oral trials, discovery, arrests procedures, limitation of liability and mixed in rem and in personam claims. All ships present in Panama, whether transiting the canal or calling any port, are subject to the jurisdiction of the Maritime Courts of Panama.
    [Show full text]
  • How the International Legal Regime Creates and Contains Flags of Convenience Eric Powell
    Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law Volume 19 | Issue 1 Article 12 2013 Taming the Beast: How the International Legal Regime Creates and Contains Flags of Convenience Eric Powell Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/annlsurvey Part of the Law of the Sea Commons Recommended Citation Powell, Eric (2013) "Taming the Beast: How the International Legal Regime Creates and Contains Flags of Convenience," Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law: Vol. 19: Iss. 1, Article 12. Available at: http://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/annlsurvey/vol19/iss1/12 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Academic Journals at GGU Law Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law by an authorized administrator of GGU Law Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Powell: Flags of Convenience TAMING THE BEAST: HOW THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL REGIME CREATES AND CONTAINS FLAGS OF CONVENIENCE ERIC POWELL* I. INTRODUCTION Centuries-old maritime jurisprudence continues to guide the law of the sea today. These baseline understandings are necessary to maintain order of the largest international commons, the sea.1 The seas’ central role in globalization, though, strains some of this established law. In particular, the question of jurisdiction has become increasingly complex as ships regularly ply every ocean and visit ports in dozens of countries. Many of these ships are actually subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of States with which they have no connection and which have limited incentives to regulate. This paper explores how this jurisdictional non sequitur arose, and when international law permits concurrent jurisdiction.
    [Show full text]
  • 1963 REGISTRATION of SHIPS UNDER CONSTRUCTION 2 .Pdf 195.65 KB
    (iNTERNATIONALMARITIME COMMITTEE J International Subcommittee on REGISTRATION OF SHIPS UNDER CONSTRUCTION 2. REPLIES TO QUESTIONNAIRE ITALY RSC 4 SWEDEN RSC 5 DENMARK RSC 6 NETHERLANDS RSC 7 GERMANY RSC8 FEBRUARY 1963 RSC -4 11 - 62 ITALIAN MARITIME LAW ASSOCIATION REGISTRATION OF SHIPS UNDER CONSTRUCTION REPLY TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE I. The questionnaire. Registration of ships under construction in an official register is compulsory in Italy, pursuant to article 233 of the navigation code which reads as follows 233. (Declaration of construction). Whoever undertakes the con- struction of a vessel or craft shall previously file with the competent office of the place where the construction of the hull is going to be carried out a declaration thereof indicating the yard and the factory where the hull and the propelling machinery will be constructed. and the names of the persons who will be in charge of such construction. The office shall register such declaration in the register of ships under construction. The changement of the persons in charge of the constructions shall likewise be notified to the office and endorsed on the registrar. Registration of ships under construction must be effected, as stated in article 233 of the navigation code, prior to the commencement of the construction. The following instruments may be registered, when they refer to ships under construction: Shipbuilding contracts (article 238 of the navigation code). Contracts of sale (art. 2684 n. i of the civil code). Contracts which constitute or modify rights of usufruct or of use on a ship or which transfer such rights (article 2684 n. 2 of the civil code).
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 6: Registra Tion
    CHAPTER 6: REGISTRA TION Concept of ship registration It would be expected that most countries with a maritime industry,regardless of its size or state of development, would be broadly familiar with the concept of ship registration. This is a concept which has been presentsince shipshave been flying flags at their masts. Registration confers a "nationality" on a-ship and this gives the ship the right to fly the flag of the country in which it is registered. Ship registration is thus a process by which nationality and related rights and duties are conferr~d on a ship. The country in which the ship is registered also assumesjurisdiction over the ship. Any country that wishes to acquire and develop a national fleet needsto establish a shipping register. All the countries that participated in the ESCAP shipping policy project have national registers at present, but this was not the case when developing countries first acquired tonnage. In some casesthe vesselshadto be registered under another flag, until the national register was established. The acquisition and the development of national fleet(s) have thusprovided the nucleus for the development of the institutional and legal structure required for modem shipping and the developmentof maritime related industries. During the 1980sthe attention of shipping policy makers particularly from developed maritime countries around the world was drawn more closely to the subject of shipping registration as many shipowners, attempting to improve theircompetitive position in tight shipping markets, moved their ships to what were commonly called open registers. 95 Chapter6 "Open registers" were flexible with regard to the ownership of the vessels that could be registered while "closed registers" required that the ownershiprested in nationals of the country of registry.
    [Show full text]
  • Recommended Reading List
    Recommended reading list General reading Bray, Capt David. DP operator’s handbook: a practical guide . Nautical Institute, 2009 Carson-Jackson, Jilian. A simulation instructor’s handbook: the learning game. Nautical Institute, 2010 Clark, Ian. Stability, trim and strength for merchant ships and fishing vessels (2nd edn). Nautical Institute, 2008 Dykstra, Don. Commercial management in shipping . Nautical Institute, 2005 Gorton, Lars, Hilenius, Patrick, Ihre, Rolf and Sandevärn, Arne. Shipbroking and chartering practice (7th edn). Informa, 2009 Hopkins, Frederick and Watkins, Gordon. Business and law for the shipmaster (7th edn). Brown, Son & Ferguson, 1989 Incoterms 2010 . International Chamber of Commerce, 2010 Isbester, Capt Jack. Bulk carrier practice: a practical guide (2nd edn) . Nautical Institute, 2010 Mills, Stephen. Bills of lading: a guide to good practice (2nd edn). Witherby, 2005 Ozcayir, Oya. Port state control (2nd edn). Informa, 2004 Port and terminal management . ICS, 2013 Maclachlan, Malcolm. The shipmaster’s business companion (4th edn). Nautical Institute, 2004 Tallack, Robert. Commercial management for shipmasters: a practical guide . Nautical Institute, 2000 Wilson, John. Carriage of goods by sea (7th edn). Longman, 2010 Journals Containerisation International (monthly) Fairplay (weekly) Journal of Transport Economic and Policy (three times a year) Lloyd’s List (daily) Lloyd’s Shipping Economist Maritime Policy and Management (seven times a year) Offshore Support Journal (10 times a year) Trade Winds (weekly) Associations
    [Show full text]
  • The Merchant Shipping (Registration of Ships, Sales and Mortgages) Laws of 1963 to 20051
    THE MERCHANT SHIPPING (REGISTRATION OF SHIPS, SALES AND 1 MORTGAGES) LAWS OF 1963 TO 2005 LAW No 45 OF 1963 AS AMENDED A LAW TO PROVIDE FOR THE REGISTRATION OF SHIPS, THE TRANSFER OR TRANSMISSION AND THE MORTGAGE THEREOF AND FOR MATTERS INCIDENTAL THERETO The House of Representatives enacts as follows: PART I - PRELIMINARY Short title. 1. The Merchant Shipping (Registration of Ships, Sales and Mortgages) Laws of 1963 to 2005 shall be cited together as the Merchant Shipping (Registration of Ships, 45 of 1963 32 of 1965 Sales and Mortgages) Laws of 1963 to 2005, and shall be read as one with the Code, 82 of 1968 and the Merchant Shipping (Safety and Seamen) Law. 62 of 1973 102 of 1973 42 of 1979 25 of 1980 14 of 1982 57 of 1986 64 of 1987 28(I) of 1995 37(I) of 1996 138(I) of 2003 169(I) of 2004 108(I) of 2005. Cap 292 38 of 1963. Interpretation. 2. — (1) In this Law, unless the context otherwise requires - " the Code" means the Merchant Shipping Acts, 1894 to 1954, of the United 57 and 58 Vict. Kingdom, to the extent of their application to the Republic and subject to the c. 60- 2 and 3 necessary modification required under its Constitution; Eliz. 2 c. 18. " Community shipmanagement company " means a corporation providing 2 of 108(I)/2005. shipmanagement services , which has been established and operates in accordance with the laws of a Member State and which has its registered office, central administration or principal place of business within the European Economic Area ; "consular officer of the Republic" means the member of the consular service of the Republic nominated by the Council of Ministers for this purpose and includes any other person nominated by the Council of Ministers to be a consular officer of the Republic for the purposes of this Law; 1 Consolidation Note : Includes the latest amendments introduced by Law 108(I)/2005.
    [Show full text]
  • The Liberian Shipping Registry
    World Maritime University The Maritime Commons: Digital Repository of the World Maritime University World Maritime University Dissertations Dissertations 1999 The Liberian shipping registry : strategies to improve flag state implementation and increase market competitiveness Christian Gbogboda Herbert World Maritime University Follow this and additional works at: http://commons.wmu.se/all_dissertations Part of the Strategic Management Policy Commons Recommended Citation Herbert, Christian Gbogboda, "The Liberian shipping registry : strategies to improve flag state implementation and increase market competitiveness" (1999). World Maritime University Dissertations. 143. http://commons.wmu.se/all_dissertations/143 This Dissertation is brought to you courtesy of Maritime Commons. Open Access items may be downloaded for non-commercial, fair use academic purposes. No items may be hosted on another server or web site without express written permission from the World Maritime University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WORLD MARITIME UNIVERSITY Malmö, Sweden THE LIBERIAN SHIPPING REGISTRY: STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE FLAG STATE IMPLEMENTATION AND INCREASE MARKET COMPETITIVENESS By CHRISTIAN G. HERBERT Liberia A dissertation submitted to the World Maritime University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in MARITIME SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (MSEP) (Administration) 1999 Ó Copyright Christian G. Herbert, 1999 DECLARATION I certify that all the material in this dissertation that is not my own work has been identified, and that no material is included for which a degree has previously been conferred on me. The contents of this dissertation reflect my own personal view, and are not necessarily endorsed by the University. ……………………………………………………… (Signature) ……………………………………………………… (Date) Supervised by: Name: Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • Flagging Interest: Ship Registration, Owner
    ! ∀#∃%&∋()!∗ +# ∋∋ ,∋(∋ FLAGGING INTEREST Ship Registration, Owner Anonymity, and Sub-standard Shipping Michael Galley Introduction An unregistered ship, not flying the flag of any state, is a stateless entity, with no legal rights on the high seas. An owner may register a vessel in almost any state of his choosing, depending on his objectives and motivation; the choice of options is wide and each register may offer its own legal and commercial benefits. This paper examines the various types of shipping registers, the inducements that many offer, particularly in the way of owner anonymity and lack of regulatory interest, and the way in which this can lead to the prevalence of sub-standard shipping. From the outset however, it needs to be recognised that whilst a number of open registers may be worthy of the tag Flag of Convenience – and even use the term itself - this is by no means true of all open registers. Shipping Registers Shipping registers are traditionally divided into the “closed” registers of the more traditional maritime nations, and “open” registers of States, which may have a more relaxed regime of financial and regulatory controls and often with their minimal requirements of owner nationality. What might be termed the intermediate registers, the “second” or “international” registers, lie somewhere between the other two categories. Registering a vessel involves entering the details into a State’s public records1 and is a crucial element of public international law. It confers nationality on a ship and establishes the jurisdiction of that State over the ship, which is the power 1 According to international regulation, some ships may be excluded from a nation’s register on account of their small size.
    [Show full text]
  • Port and Dock Operations
    Property Risk Consulting Guidelines PRC.17.24 A Publication of AXA XL Risk Consulting PORT AND DOCK OPERATIONS INTRODUCTION Unless a country is land locked, a large percentage of its international trade will typically be via its ports. With the increase in international commerce and trade, ports have more so become crucial logistics centers. Processes to handle freight and cargo have had to be rationalized and handled as an industrial process using the most advanced concepts in logistics and technology. Recent trends in port and dock facilities include advancement of information technology such as EDI and e-commerce, which are accelerating the integration of transport systems. Ports are also having to accommodate larger ships by deepening and widening channels and constructing new berthing facilities with sufficient water depth and length. In general the port authorities own most of port assets such as breakwater, access channel and land. A large proportion of cargo handling equipment at container and break-bulk terminals is however owned by private companies. In assessing property risk at a port it is importance to know the customer’s business purpose and to identify ownership of property and the customer’s liability toward it. The majority of port authorities are fully responsible for navigational aids, harbor master services, dredging, and port information. Other public and private bodies provide services such as pilotage, stevedoring, towage, ship agents, land transport and other shipping services. Property at a port is not limited to buildings and their contents, but includes mobile equipment such as the quayside or dockside cranes, rubber tire or rail mounted gantry cranes, staddle carriers, forklifts etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia No 26 of 12 April 2001, Page 2677
    Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia No 26 of 12 April 2001, page 2677 1582 Maritime Code (PZ) Pursuant to the second indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 and the first paragraph of Article 91 of the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia I hereby issue an DECREE promulgating the Maritime Code (PZ) I hereby promulgate the Maritime Code (PZ) adopted by the National Assembly of the Republic of Slovenia at its session of 23 March 2001. No. 001-22-31/01 Ljubljana, 2 April 2001 President of the Republic of Slovenia Milan Kučan, [signed] MARITIME CODE (PZ) PART ONE Section I - GENERAL PROVISIONS Article 1 This Code shall regulate the Republic of Slovenia’s maritime sovereignty, jurisdiction and supervision in respect of the safety of navigation in territorial seas and internal waters, protection of the sea from pollution from vessels, the legal rules in seaports, property law, contractual and other obligational relations pertaining to vessels, the registration of vessels, the limitation of a shipowner’s liability, the general average, writs of execution and insurance on vessels, and the conflict of laws. Article 2 The provisions of this Code (hereinafter: Act) shall apply to ships, boats and other vessels of Slovenian nationality, and to relations concerning navigation in the territorial sea and internal waters of the Republic of Slovenia, unless otherwise stipulated by this Act. Article 3 Unless otherwise stipulated by this Act, terms shall be used with the following meanings: 1. A vessel shall be an object intended for sea navigation. 2. A floating object shall be an object which is permanently moored or anchored or laid on the seabed and which is not intended for navigation (floating hotels, restaurants, workshops, warehouses, pontoon bridges, floating platforms, bathing platforms, mooring and signalling buoys, clam fisheries and other sea exploitation facilities).
    [Show full text]
  • Certificate in Shipping Management
    EAST AFRICA BRANCH Student no …………………….. Friday 16th June 2017 – Evening. CERTIFICATE IN SHIPPING MANAGEMENT. Instructions. Time allowed – 2 Hours. Answer all questions in sections A and B Each question in section A carry 2 Marks and Section B 10 Marks. No use of unauthorized material in examination room In section A , circle the correct answer Use answer sheet provided to answer section B questions. SECTION A 1. Which of these water bodies is NOT an ocean? A. Pacific B. Caribbean C. Arctic D. Indian. 2. Which of the following is the odd one out? A. Africa. B. Antarctica. C. Europe. D. Iceland. 3. Which of the following factors cannot influence the supply of shipping?. A. Time spend in the port. B. The number of ships. C. The size of the berth. D. The size of the ship. Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers – East Africa Branch – June2017 Certificate Examination Page 1 4. One of the following statements about iron ore is INCORRECT. A. It is used in the steel manufacturing industry. B. It is carried by purpose build carrier. C. It is the least leading dry bulk D. It is exported from Sweden. 5. Practioners in dry cargo chartering comprises of the following EXCEPT? A. Brokers B. Charterers C. Bankers D. Ship-owners. 6. Which of the following is NOT one of the areas of the shipping intermediaries? A. Tanker chartering. B. Port Agency C. Sales and Purchase. D. Ship owners. 7. In economic terms shipping is described as what type of demand? A. Derived B. Contrived C. Pent – UP D. Final.
    [Show full text]