ffiFW'

In particular. initially, rights of the usage of the Economic Activity in land and its primary resources. that were so vital to the local econom,v in this period of North West history. The Forest Products One of the major primary renewable resources that the forest had was its growing timber. This by was an asset which could be managed and Phil Hudson exploited by the crown and its major landhold- ers for their own use.2 It could also be granted to members of the local community, either by Apart from agriculture and forestry, the commu- tradition, gift or franchise.3 In Quernmore, nities and lessees of the Quernmore Forest area during the thirteenth century, the master forester were also engaged in exploiting many other held the issues of the forest, of the Lord (The primary resources. In particular these included King), for a fee, and was allowed the right to clay digging for ceramics, the mining and grant to others the farm of produce Otc. Later, processing of iron, charcoal burning, stone and from the fourteenth century, this post appears to slate quarrying, millstone making and coal have been an appointed one, and the holder mining. Just how important these operations presented accounts to the seigniorial lord. were to the economy and to whom is not yet clear, as there are few accounts which give any From time to time the holder of this post had to figures or quantities which can be analysed, but supply forest products on demand to the crown. there are references to all these activities in the The surviving records in the Keepers' Reports surviving records. There are also many features and the Duchy papers show just what use forest in the landscape which suggest that these products were put to. For example, in 1374-5 activities were long practised in the area, firstly the chief forester of Quernmore was ordered to by the Romans and, when they left, by the local provide Ralph of Ypres, parker, with sufficient communities. oak trees to re-enclose the new park.4 In the early fifteenth century there was an order to Though there is no surviving early written Robert of Urswyk, master forester in 1413, to evidence, these economic activities were re- deliver to the masons and carpenters working at corded in the written accounts of the post- sufficient stone and timber for Conquest period and the later documents. new works. A previous record of 1377 shows These activities were recorded either because that 260 oaks were taken from Quernmore to these industries became more valuable to the provide timber for Lancaster Castle works.5 In forest ministers and their lessees, or the evi- 1440 Sir Alexander Radcliffe, farmed the Lune dence has been found in the more reliable, Mill and was permitted to take timber for its detailed and accurate primary surviving docu- repair from the forest. Previous to mentation. Quernmore this, in 1397,the mill had been re-erected by Sir In the medieval period the economic well-being Ralph Ypres who had been given four oaks for and development of the forest village communi- this purpose by the Duke of Lancaster.6 Other ties, particularly in north west , ap- members of the community who had certain pears to have been directly associated with rights of forest products were the monastic granted rights and privileges given out from the houses. The had rights, to the crown and its grand lessees. under-wood granted in 1094 by William II.z To Cunliffe-Shaw termed these rights as: these rights of underwood King John added a right to the tithes of venison and pannage within of the "the franchkes foresttl the royal forest of Quemmore. The woodland rights which allowed the economic activities, and the rights to this were of great importance discussed in detail below,l to take place. to the priory, and were often disputed with the Earl of Lancaster's officers.

15 The Priory usually used previous grant docu- The offenders were mostly local people u'ho, it ments which dated back to the foundation of the can be assumed, needed these items and were house, to back up their claims.8 For example, presented for damage to trees, which they eut these rights were disputed in the 1330s but were without right or the permission of the foresters. upheld on payment of a fine of 5s and 6s.8d.e At the Eyre of 1357 there were several men Later in the fourteenth century Raiph, prior of from and Slyne who offended by Lancaster, went to court and pleaded that the over-stepping their ancient rights to take fire- forester of the Earl, in enclosing a new park wood. with paling the Brook (the a next to Frith "...John de Dacre of Skerton and son John, son eastem boundary ofLancaster and the boundary of Robert the Crayne sold three cart loads of between the woods of the Earl and the Priory), logs which were taken by themselves within the "..had enclosed divers small pieces of land and forest to their own profit..." places, wood of the Priory in dffirent omitting "...Laurence son of John the Smith came into nevertheless divers small pieces land and of the forest an took a load of stumps at his will to wood of the Earl outside the paling. sell to his profit..." Wherefore the Prior asked that he might enjoy the small pieces omitted..."to A similar offence was corlmitted by John, son of Roger the Walker of Caton, along with that It was ordered the: William son of Isabel, William of Singleton, "...priory might enjoy the small pieces so Thomas of Caton, and many others. But it was omitted in exchange for the land and woods of the charcoal bumers who were perhaps the most the priory that were now included within the persistent offenders. new paling of the park.t'tt Charcoal Burning. The monastic houses also had rights to estover, Charcoal buming is thought to have been one of housebote and firebote, and access to the forest the early activities which caused problems and with their carts to collect this wood.l2 some destruction to the forest landscape. It is a The Burgesses of Lancaster also had a similar woodland indusby that has been carried out by right to dead wood for burning, good oakwood man in the Quemmore Forest area since Roman for buildings and repairs, to be taken with view times. 14 was a of the foresters. This right dating back to Evidence has been found which indicates that grant late Count John's to the town in the the Romans used charcoal as a fuell5 to fire rights local twelfth century.l3 The of the their pottery kilns in the Lythe, Ashpots and burgesses and freemen of Lancaster, Skerton, Low Pleasant areas.l6 ln the medieval period and Slyne with Hest, appear to have extended the charcoal industry appeared to be well into the common and waste, particularly to the established in Quemmore Forest and brought in and lands they held on Quernmore common income, which was occasionally recorded in the other rights in the Lythe and on the Shire Oaks. various foresters accounts, and in the Eyre fines Just what these activities were has been difficult lists, as income from "Carbo" or "Cordwood"; to ascertain, but it is assumed that these men proof that the activity was of some economic carried out some exploitation of the primary importance.lT products. Tak- resources especially woodland In the records of the early seventeenth century ing examples of evidence from the Eyre Court there are references to the value of coppice Rolls there appears to have been, on a number woodland managed for the pu{pose of produc- activities going on in of occasions, some illegal ing furnace charcoal.l8 ln the late seventeenth the forest's woodlands. Not only the regular and eighteenth centuries there are many refer- assarting, poaching, the deer fines for hunting ences to income from "carbo" to be found in the game, pasturing and and other but for stock Lancaster Corporation Minute Books' 19 taking various woodland produce.

16

, 'qqtF[.'.'

There are references dating from the thirteenth The associated field remains differ; for exam- to the eighteenth century, to the use of quanti- ple, the sammel pits are resource-location ties of wood and charcoal in the records based, between 2 to 3 metres across and vary in connected with forges and iron furnaces in the depth. Some still have accompanying mounds Lune and Quemmore Valley. It is only in this of prepared sammel or associated spoil. The context in connection with iron smelting and water channels are rarely found and are seen associated smithy work that charcoal burning only as weak features, taken off the natural within the forest woodland economy can be springs. Many of the old roads and tracks are effectively discussed. 2o disused, overgrown and damaged and some have been walled across when a later field The field evidence associated with charcoal was imposed. burning can be found in several relict forms: system pitsteads, the remains of the woodland shelters As already mentioned above, early evidence of which housed the people working the coppice charcoal use has been found in the Roman woodland, lanes and trackways for access, pits pottery kilns at Low Pleasant, SD 522 593 and from which a clay-based mixture called sammel the Lythe Valley at SD 523 621. Fragments of (used to cover the wood in the stacks dwing a charcoal was also found on the medieval-dated burn) was dug and on some sites minor chan- iron smelting, or roastiirg hearth site nearby.2a nels used to bring water near to the pitstead Charcoal was in demand in throughout where it was used to control the damping of the the medieval period, as a means of smelting and fire during a burn. working iron in forges. Often located on sites in the remote woodlands, usually near to a The Quernmore Forest pitstead remains are seen source iron ore (haematite), iron-bearing as flat circular or elongated platforms, often dug of iron. 25 into the hillside and banked up either by soil rocks or bog from the back digging, or in some cases Much field evidence has recently been found in supported by a few courses of dry-stone the Lower Lune Valley, but with little documen- walling. The surface of the pitstead was packed tary support, for a number of iron smelting sites. clay soil. The pitsteads vary in size from 4 These include sites in Quernmore, plus three metres to 7 metres in diameter. Larger examples more in the adjoining area at are found elsewhere e.g., in the Furness area.2l Outhwaite, at SD 615 654, Barkin Wood and It is assumed that some of the pitsteads were Barkin Bridge,26 near SD 601 639, to add to also used as convenient work sites by bark several others already well known in the pub- peelers.22 lished literature.2T The more widespread use of iron in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ln Quernmore remains of the conical huts used and the use larger iron smelters and blast as woodland shelters are quite rare, but exam- of furnaces, must have put pressure on woodland ples can be found in Cragg Wood at SD 5429 owners to produce more charcoal. It is possible 6149; SD 5431 6132 and SD 5408 6142. This many of the pitstead remains seen in could be because of the temporary nature of Quemmore are from this period of activity. many of the huts and because the materials used, oftenjust tree branches, sods, bracken and Eventually demand did lead to a shortage, even ling, were not very durable. When remains are to co-operation on buying woodland supplies found they take the form of circular low-banked between the rival forge and furnace owners, in foundations, about 3 metres across, with the order to keep the prices down and maintain remains of a small stone fireplace in the wall, or regular reliable supplies. One such agreement a stone-based circular foundation outline with was made in about 1753 between Myles Birkett or without a fireplace. Some are U-shaped and of Halton Furnace and Caton Forge and Myles a few are rectangular in form. These last tlpes Postlethwaite of Leighton Furnace. 28 are often classed as temporary dwellings built There is a map in the Lancaster Reference by "barkers" the forest bark peelers.23 Library,zg and a similar map was reproduced

17 with amendments by Bellis and Shackleton,30 For example: a document of 1296 records "rent that shows a named charcoal pitstead in Quern- of Gilbert the smith for a plot of waste at the more Forest at SD 545 615. This site, and forge 1s.6d."35 This is a reference to the Halton presumably other pitsteads found nearby, were Forge at SD 498 650, a site that worked iron in use in the period around 1800 and were later from the thirteenth until the late nineteenth shown to be near woodlands allocated for century. The earliest North West forest cutting by local landowners.3l reference to this link between charcoal rights and working is from a cottars in an The field evidence found in the northem part of iron list of inquiry on the lands of Ralph de Beetham, in the Quemmore area suggests that charcoal buming activities have been carried on over 1254.31 many years, presumably to provide fuel for the Iron Smelting iron furnaces and forges. bloomery The fieldwork has located several sites where Over two hundred pitsteads, not all of the same iron slag and associated charcoal has been period, have been recorded and mapped within found,38 but as yet there are no definite signs of the present-day surviving woodlands. Some any structures which could be interpreted as evidence ofpitstead sites has also been recorded fumaces or bloomeries. Slag heaps are re- in various previous woodland sites which are corded at Blackwood End SD 513 576 and now meadow or pasture land, for example on Gibson's Farm at SD 516 587. Medieval-period the Lythe at SD 5248 6225. bloomery structures were not permanent and they were very large, unlike later One area where charcoal burning has been most not the sixteenth century ones stone with hand concentrated is in Cragg Wood,32a SD 542 614, built of water-wheel powered where a field survey has recorded 83 pitsteads bellows39 or the blast type furnaces which were brought into use of varying ages and sizes, along with some locally early+o late eighteenth linked trackways, buildings and other associated from the to the The the medieval period remains and a map of these remains has been century.4l earliest of been small, prepared.32b Cragg Wood is an area of ancient iron "bloomeries"42 would have shaped hearths woodland, extending to some 90 acres, now in bowl only some 5 or 6 feet across, set on a hillside to take advantage of the Littledale, but which was once part of Quern- prevailing These hearths were con- more Forest. Although the trees seen in Cragg wind. structed from layers washed and crushed iron Wood today are mostly managed oak and birch, of ore (in some examples this there are in places some signs of relict coppice, of the Quernmore was possibly crushed iron carbonate nodules and the site was once common land. knapped out of the local millstone rock) in The existence of some ancient field walls, layered charcoal, the charge, topped by a clay banks and ditches, both on the perimeter and and stone dome.43 internally, and some ancient building founda- These simple struchres were possibly used tions, suggests that this area was enclosed fields again and again on the same site, leading to a or as woodland, possibly in the medieval pe- build-up of ash, charcoal fragments and the riod.33 Enclosure by these walls would be remaining ropy iron slag. It is these types of required in order to protect and manage this remains that the field work has located at five valuable resource, as a means of producing the sites within the forest; Clougha Access SD 527 type of fuel needed to operate the medieval and 605; Gibson's Farm SD 513 582 & SD 516 587; later forges and fumaces which provided the and Blackwood End SD 513 576, to add to the local iron supplies.3a site excavated by King near the Mount Pleasant Direct references to charcoal burning in the Roman Kiln at SD 522 593.44 Quernmore Forest records are rarely found but There is one characteristic seen in the the activity is germane to the iron mining and Quern- more slags which is different to the samples the associated furnaces and forges: found at the upper Roebumdale site of Lord Morley's "iron furnace".45

18 ,,"--*rytl rw

Air Photo of Rowton Brook area of Quernmore, showing Ashpots Wood and the distrurbed ground where the coal, clay and iron mining was carried out.

19 The Quernmore slag is from a bloomery that "Smithy or Smith" as in Smithy Wood and has not been operated at a very high tempera- beck, (near a smithy or forge). There was an ture, i.e. below 800 degrees C. as very little old smithy site adjoining the Gibson's Farm slag reduction has taken place. As a consequence sites at Titteringtons Farm SD 515 583. slag has because the this a high iron content The "Black Wood" name is in association with charge has not been heated sufficiently enough the above-mentioned iron slag site at Black get to the iron to run,46 to part it from the Wood End Farm, as is the field name "Cinder process bloomery mass. The bloomery does not Field" adjoining the site. Although there is no leave glassy, residue behind a vitrified, slag close proximity place-name association with the seen as typical of the later "blast" t)?e fur- two Gibson's Farm slag sites, there are several naces.47 Sites this period are found else- of charcoal burners' pitsteads in the nearby "Ash- where on the forest periphery.a8u potts Wood", perhaps the source of fuel for All these Quernmore sites and the Roeburndale these operations. located or /fatha6a8b ones are near streams The bloomery slag site on Clougha almost connected leats to exhibit evidence of being by adjoins the Crag Wood and other named wood- a water As none of the sites have been supply. lands where there are the remains of pitsteads. excavated order to interpret them they in fully, The site is not in close proximity to a field or still remain undated. place name. It is, however, perhaps too much to The place name evidence is also useful, for in ask for place-name evidence to survive as some Quernmore Forest there are the iron smelting or of these slag sites were out on the Quernmore bloomery and charcoal burning associated place Common lands until the c1500 copyholds and name elements of "Cinder,'49 (sinder:0; as in the l8l7 enclosure. There were also personal Cinder Hillsl and Cinder Field.52 "Black" as in names which appeared in the records from time Blackwood and Blackwood End, at SD 513 576 to time. For example, in the thirteenth century (as sites of dark blackened soils, perhaps from there is "Simon the Fuyer"55 who was a furnace charcoal burning): "Coppy" as in Coppy Croft operator. or Wood, (could be from place name "coppice" Iron deposits have been exploited all over as in coppice woodland; there is also a "Coppy north- and not just in the Kiddy Lane" in south Quernmore, adjoining the Quernmore Forest area. ln Quernmore there is slag sites): 53 as in Fumace Ford and "Fumace" evidence for iron workings which date from the Bridge,sa as in Pit Field, (there are several "Pitt" thirteenth century in the foresters' accounts and in association with mining or disused charcoal the attachment rolls at the Eyre Courts, evi- pits): "Forge", as in Forge Wood; "Ash" as in dence which shows how important this activity contentious, Ashpotts. This last name is a bit was to the local economy. "Ash" being associated with "Ash Wood" rather than burnt "ashes"; "Ashpotts" suggests the use Unfortunately, the forest accounts on the mining of fire to burn wood or bracken for potash, but and processing into iron are rather vague when there are no remains of any potash pits in the looking for items specific to Quemmore. The woodland, only several charcoal pitsteads, entries and other primary industry records were traces of iron mirring and millstone making. usually grouped together either as Lonsdale, However, this woodland does adjoin Roman Wyresdale,56 Lancaster, BleasdalesT or kiln and medieval bloomery sites, the iron Bowland, very rarely separately just for mining sites to the west, and in a field to the Quernmore.58 east there are several sites where there appears Further to the south east, in other forest lands to have been some burning of the ground and where the accounts appear to be either better some remains seen as building foundations at kept or have survived in a readable state, there SD 5290 5931: "Red" as in Red Beck, (as for were many more references to income and rents red ferric oxide, iron stained or perhaps burnt from iron based activities.sg rocks).

20 r,El#n

However, together these medieval records do The site is on very rough pasture so there has present a picture of widespread iron working been little disturbance of the works, only accu- within the metes of the forest regard and mulated debris and the effects of weathering. confirm that there was exploitation of this Here are also found the foundations of the resource within the Royal Forest Lands. buildings,65 the small-walled compounds, all of which appear to be part of these ancient iron The iron mining sites found to date are in three workings. It is possible that the miners lived up places in central Quemmore. The fields to the on these sites when the stone was being quar- west of Ashpotts and Rowdon Brook Wood at ried and the nodules were being knapped out SD 5258 5956; to the north of Fell End at SD and gathered.66 5315 6010; and to the south east of Cragg Wood at SD 551 611. One of the iron mining Another site where there is a very convoluted sites is situated due west of Ashpots Wood. landscape, which shows evidence of mining, is There are signs of bog iron on the fells to the to the south east of Cragg Wood at SD 551 611. east and some fragments of high ferric content Here there are traces of iron in the shale; the rocks and strip beds of iron rich siltstones to be diggings are seen on the surface and possibly found in the becks of Quernmore. Moselet'O there were some underground workings to take and Johnson's6l recent surveys show evidence iron rich nodules out of the shales.67 of these minerals on these sites and elsewhere.62 In the seventeenth-century records, e.g. in the The iron at the Fell End site at SD 5315 6010 master foresters returns and Duchy Court occurs in the Upper Carboniferous Namurian pleads, there are references to iron forges and Gritstone rocks as small nodules of fenic furnaces,68 which suggest that there was some carbonate. These nodules have been knapped continuity of this industry within the area. At out by the workers who appear to have dug the same time there does not appear to be the large quarry-type holes and, occasionally, deep quantity of local iron ore to sustain any long- pits in order to extract the iron. ln the case of term activity. the iron mining at the Ashpotts area, at SD 5258 If the local iron was worked to its maximum 5956, the iron occurs as ferric oxide rich extent from the thirteenth to the sixteenth nodules in the shales. In order to extract these centuries, the weak iron beds and nodules of the workers have surface or drift mined, nodules the Quernmore Forest and its immediate environs and at some time they have resorted to the use would have been worked out long before the 63 of "Hushes". beginning of the rapid increase in this activity in Associated waterworks survive which had the mid to late seventeenth century. It would dams, cuttings and head races constructed in the have been uneconomical to try and exploit this hills above Fell End to take water from Trough finite resource further. However, there were Brook and the adjoining springs, works which still in the area the extensive woodlands, which also appear to have been part of the water are a renewable resource of charcoal if properly supply for the Rowton Brook Corn Mi11'64 This managed and, if this was so, the industry could re-directed water was held behind the "hush have carried on by importing the iron ore from a walls" which were then broken to release it to nearby deposit, possibly the Furness area.69 wash out the soft shale and rubble, leaving ln conclusion, there is within the forest area behind the heavier iron bearing nodules' field evidence supported by references to sug- On the Fell End site there is evidence of gest links with charcoal buming and iron min- extensive quarrying, many chisel-marked rocks, ing. There is also evidence that these forest flat working areas, with large piles of knapped activities led to a third, that of iron smelting and gritstone, the sites where the miners were working, though there is not arLy positive extracting the iron nodules from the qua:ried evidence which can be linked up to locate rock. specific named sites or dates of working.

21 F I

There is a lack of identifiable structures and associated works near to any of the slag or charcoal sites. However, the number of sites found, the quantities and qualitiei of the slags do suggest that perhaps. there was perhaps just a local influence involved.

Quemmore Forest may be an area in which iron working and smelting was important to the local economy over some 600 years and may have been more widespread in these forests than was previously known. The sites found to date may well have provided enough iron to meet local demands, until supplies became more readily available from the larger-scale operations of the eighteenth century, at a time when there was extended trading with better communications by both road and canal.To

The argument can be taken a stage further to postulate that the local iron working, forge and furnace sites at Arkholme, Caton, Halton, Haverbreaks, Homby, Keerholme, even Leighton, were in existence much earlier. That they were pre-eighteenth cenfirry in date and that there were local skill survivals from the medieval period. This technology survived in the local artisan population along with other basic skills, local and traditionally handed down knowledge and were still there when required to mount these later iron smelting operations. It can possibly be argued that this industry was an example of the dependency of the surro.unding communities on the forests resources from the earliest times until the late seventeenth century. The skills needed to mine and quarry for iron and other associated stone working skills necessary for building forges and furnaces were also transferable to another important to the forest economy, that of quarrying and working the local gritstone. It is this aspect of the economic activity in the forest which will now be discussed, again in context with resource dependency and the topics already covered, but also as a much more widespread activity. REFERENCES

l. Shaw (1956) op.cit., chapter VI, 90-102.

2. Cantor, L. (ed.) The Medieval English Landscape, Croom-Helm 1982, Forests, Chases, Parks and Warrens, 62-3. 3. Rackham, O. Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape, Dent 1976,70-74.

4. Shaw (1956) op.cit., 68.

5. Ibid, 68, quotes several item from the Deputy Keepers Reports., XXII, app.349.

6. For further discussion and a wealth of early references, see Shaw op.cit., Chapter V, 64-89..

7. Faner, W. (1902) op.cit., 292. Charter of Sees, 1094, William II, 7-8, grants to the priory of St Mary's, Lancaster, two estates at and Bulk, plus the underwood in Quernmore as far as the Frith Brook. 8. Lancashire Pipe Rolls 296;27th July I 149, l4th. Stephen, a Roger Gernet, as Chief Forester of Lancaster, witnesses confirmation of Lancaster Priory lands given by Roger of Poitou.

9. Duchy of Lancaster, misc. books, No.l, fol. 110.

10. This is argued against a previous case, Viz: In an ordinance made by Robert de Hungerford, chief counsellorto Henry, Earl of Lancaster, on l8th. October 1335, gave permission to the Prior of Lancaster, to enclose his several woods and pastures with hedge or ditch according to the assize of the forest, and to take two cart loads of dead fallen wood on the land assigned by the forester to the least damage to the lord.(this last right had been granted by earl Edmund by charter dated I lth Feb. 1271. See Lancaster Charters 515. I l. Lancaster Charters, 517.

12. Duchy of Lancaster Forest Proceedings, 39/17/1, m.2,4, lAd.

13. see, Count Johns Charter of Mortain, I194. 14.Leather,G.M.andWebster,PV.(1988)'TheQuernmoreKilns'lnJones,GDBAndShotter,DCA"Roman Lancaster. Rescue Archaeolory In An Historic City 1970-75." Brigantia Monograph

15. Salway, P. Roman Britain, Oxford, 1982,631.

16. Leather, G.M. Excavations at Low Pleasant, Quernmore,1972. Contrebis Vol.l No.l. 9.

22 E:ry

17. Shaw (1956) op.cit., l77,Eyre Presentment's for Lonsdale 1359, Henry of Helme and his brother William cut down.....for charcoal burning within the said forest and burnt the same to the great destruction of the forest. The place name Helm, the possible homestead of Henry, has survived in two fields called Helmsteads and is shown on the cI760 map of , field which adjoin the named periphery holding of High Style 18. Ibid, 73. In 1610 Abbistide ( Vaccary) contained l4 ashes at 3s, no doted oaks, 200 sapling oaks at 4d and underwood worth l2d. and 20 acres fit for coppice (Charcoal Burning), tenant was Nicholas Doml

19. There is reference to this activity being carried on in Quernmore, for example: page221-6 1708, "lncome from Carbo and Cable Toll for the farm of the pasture of Thornbush, Longmoor Yeat and Quernmore, 54 pounds." 20. Shaw (1956) op.cit., 37. lnquest at Lancaster on Roger Gernet lands, 27th May l252,jurors said Roger was forester at fee and had issues of same which were 64s.3d yearly and when a forge was raised in the forest. Rogers share of the iron was worth 9s yearly. 21. Marshall, J.D. & Davies-Shiel, M. lndustriai Archaeology of the Lake Counties. David & Charles 1969.49-51. 22. Coqer, H.S. Notes on Primitive Dwellings. 1901. Transactions of Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society xvi 1901. Cowper has notes on primitive huts of a possible Scandinavian origin, and circular huts ofthe ancient Cumbrians, and discusses fypes seen as charcoal burners and bark peelers types. Also notes on rough stone building foundations in the area. 23. Marshall, J.D. & Davies-Shiel, M. (1969) op.cit., 167-170. 24.Kng, A. excavation report in, Leather, G.M. "Roman Lancaster some excavation reports and some observations." B.D.P. Preston 1972. 25. There was a statutory regulation in the sixteenth century imposing a ban on Lakeland bloomeries to avoid the over-exploitation of the woodlands in the Lake District and the Furness peninsula see Bouch, C.M.L. & Jones, G.P. A Short Economic & Social History of the Lake Counties, 1500-1830, 1961,129. This could have had the effect of moving the Furness iron smelting industry further south to less-exploited woodlands in the valleys of Lonsdale and perhaps the woods in Quernmore Forest. 26. Hudson, P.J. & Price, J.W.A. lronworking Sites in the Lancaster Fells. Contrebis Vol. XV, 1989, 68-77.

27 . Price, J.W.A. The Industrial Archaeology of the Lune Valley, Centre for North-West Regional Studies, Occasional Paper No.l3, University of Lancaster, 1983. 28. Fell, A. The Early Iron Industry of Furness 1908.142. 29. Lancaster City Library, Map PL.34l1.

30. Bellis, R. & Shackleton, G.M. Slate Delfes in Quarmor. Concebis Vol. VIII, 1980. 54. 3 l. Riddell of Gresgarth, and later Edmondson.

Edmondsons buy Gresgarth Hall and estate (only some 300 acres) and manor of Caton in 1804, and had increased their land holding in the area to 2,540 acres with a rental income of 1,764 pounds per year in, 1873. Edmondsons begin to exploit in full their righs to woodland, minerals, turf, shooting and fishing, as well as expanding the estates land and were one of the prime movers in the final enclosure of Quernmore Commons in 1817. 32a. L.R.O., DDHH Box 42, The name Cragg Wood is modern, a map dated cI800 Lands of Intack Farm, in Box 42 shows the area on the north of the as "Baines Wood" and the one to the south of the river as "Far Oak Banke".

32b. See Hudson, P J. Charcoal Burning in Quernmore Forest, Conkebis VXIV, (1988) pp2543. 33. Eyre Attachment Roll, 1301. In l299.Richard son of Anabill had one forge in forest during a year and a half and felled 80 oaks without inspection.

34. Shaw (1956) op.cit.,66. Forest of Lancaster had 2 forges in Quernmore and one in Wyresdale, latter worked by Ralph of Preston, 1262-7 , paid 2.5 marks rental. 35. Lyons, P.A. Chetham Soc. Misc. 1884. 142.

36. McCann, P.H.S. A Comparative Study of Halton and Wray 1700-1900. 1969u unpublished M.A. thesis, University. oflancaster,9: In 1779 a petition by the Halton Fumace Co. addressed to the court of the Duchy of Lancaster "...for lease of certain rivulets or brooks of water in his Majesties forest of Quernmore...with rights of fishing and a licence to erect mill engines and other works thereon..." This company also operated the Caton Forge in Quernmore Forest.

z3 37. Lancashire Inquests, 7,1254, 198. "...Symon the Smyth holds 2.5 acres and shall have the carbo in the wood, for 3 shillings..."

38. Hudson, P.J. & Price, J.W.A. (1989), op.eit., S8-71.

39. The Morley iron furnace in Roeburndale, adjoining Barkin Bridge, which was recorded as operating in 1637 appears to have had water porver ilom a wheel rvhich may have been used to power bellows.

40. Rawlinson-Ford, J. & Fuller-Maitland. J.A. (eds.), Lucas L J. A History of Warton . 1931, refers ro the Leighton Furnace. A Furnace located at SD 485 778, founded in 1713 and operated until 1806. 41. Marshall, J.D. Furness in the Industrial Revolution. Milner 1958. 17-28. 42. Gale, W.K.V. Iron and Steel. Longmans 1969. Chapter on Early Iron Making up to 1700, 10-25. 43. Tylecote, R.F. A History of Metallurgy. 1976.70-72.

44. King, A, (1972) op.cit., Q7216. 45. Duchy ofLancaster Pleads Chas 13, bdl 345.

46. The temperature at which iron will run is about 1525 degrees C.

47. The slags from some of the Roeburndale sites are in contrast more glassy, and have less iron content, suggesting that these furnaces have been operated at a much higher temperature, but not in excess of 900 to 1000 degrees C., high enough to get better reduction as the process has extracted much more of the iron. This suggests that the Roeburndale sites are later and must have had some bellows assistance, possibly by water power, as all the sites are near to the river. The furnaces would have been solidly built and constructed with a tuyere for the air to be blown into the furnace mass thereby increasing the temperature. However, any structural remains of these sites in Roeburndale may have been washed away in the Wray flood of 1967. 48a. Duchy of Lancaster Pleads Chas 13, bdl 345. ln 1637 Henry lord Morley of Homby, Master Forester of Quernmore; a. complaint of tenants destroying woods etc., but he confesses his own use of wood for his iron works on his Hornby Castle Estate. These Roeburndale sites are possibly the ones referred to and operated by Lord Morley of Hornby in the seventeenth century. There are no documents to be found in the Hornby Castle Muniments to indicate any income or expendinre from iron works of any kind,

48b. The results of field work in Tatham are being prepared to be presented in a paper by Phil Hudson & John Wilson, (forthcoming).

49. Cinders Hill Farm, Ellel at SD 502 529,is said to be named from the piles of cinders and slag found on the site

50. Ekwall, E. (1922) op.cit., 108. The name is derived from O.E. sinder, dross, in keeping with the slag deposits, "the dross" of the bloomery.

51. Ken, J. Historical Society of Lancashire & Cheshire, paper, 1872, paper. Cinder Hill, Ramsbottom (the Rossendale Bloomeries) Describes similar types of iron working sites in tle Rossendale Forest; ... Bloomery sites with stone bases and clinker. Excavated in 1870. thought to be from fifteenth century. Others in the area at Millar Barn (SD 835 218), and Meadow Wood-Newchurch, Priests Booth, Smithy Croft, Raikshead, and Red Brook. Bases are 12ft x 10ft with a centre channel for draught, some have clinker roads built from spoil. Rake has a tradition that it was worked by the Ashworth family who came from Sheffield at the time of the Roses Wars. (also see, Shaw ibid. p139; A reference in forest Compoti 1295-6,(Ex. Chetham Soc. CXII De Lacy Compoti) shows income from an iron forge farmed out in Rossendale 3.0s.0d. and in 1304 revenue of chases in Rossendale shows 30.7s 2d as the expenses of mining and smelting ore in the chase. 52. The Record Society. Vol.l0, Wills: Records a Cinder Hill & Field, Melling. Will of James Russell, Synder Hill (cinder), Melling, L,1637. and the Melling Parish Registers. 19.9.1635 Baptism Jacob f. Petrus Russell de Forge in Hornby Parish and Isabell his wife, & 1638 baptism Charles son of Charles Russel de forge etc, and 1642 baptism Margaret daughter of George Rossa (sic) de forge. 53. But the latter name "copy" might also be derived from the "copyhold" nature of the land tenancy. 54. In Roeburndale near Birks Farm, there is a Furnace Ford Bridge at SD 632 668. However, Higham M.C. (1992) page 208, attributes the place name to a site on the ford on the Monks Road of Furness Abbey.

Nearby Bofton has Birks Holme Barn on site of iron slag heaps, the barn is owned by the Thorntons of Birks in late seventeenth century, they were well off but only appear to have interests in agriculture and timber trade. iron sites are also found in close association at Lowgill SD 65 I 650; Hindburn SD 648 652. Outhwaite, Cragg Pasture., SD 615 654.

55. Attachment Roll, 1301, Quernmore Forest. Lists presented Eyre April eleventh 1301, Simon le Fuyer, who held farm for 2years of the lord earl two forges in Quernmore Forest, and felled for working the same 100 oaks without view of the foresters over last two years. delivered to prison by sheriffRichard of Hoghton.

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56. Shaw (1956) op.cit., 186; Foresters returns for 1345; Quemmore, Wyresdale and Bleasdale are all together, the iron ore retum has a total of 7s 4d with Bleasdale share ls. 10d., the iron mine in Wyresdale has 4s and the rest is Quernmore at ls 6d. 57. The Record Society of Lancashire & Cheshire. Voi. 54.22. In William of Hornbys'foresters accounts for 13l4 under Bleasdale, ..."Iron mine there l4s, 780 pieces of iron sold as remainder fiom previous year 4.1s.3d..." 58. Duchy of Lancaster Records. 28/32117lf.,1 .v. ln 1384 the earl of Lancaster received the profits from the iron mines in Quernmore Forest. 59. Duchy of Lancaster Assize Roll, R..425: A 1323 Inquest for Trawden states the iron ore smithies are worth f8.l3s.4d yearly when set to farm, and at Brocklehurst in 1280 iron ore from one forge brought in f l.l4s.0d over a27 week period.

60. Moseley, F. The Namurian of the Lancaster Fells, in Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society vol. 14 pt. 4, 1953. 61. Johnson, E.W. A Tunnel section through a programming Namurian (Arnsbergian, E) delta, in the western Bowland Fells, north Lancashire. Geological Joumal Vo.l6, (1981). 96. 62. Ibid, Johnson recorded iron nodules and ironstone lenses at Rowton in a series of striped beds in silty mudstones adjacent to a site where there is evidence of surface and pit mining at SD 525 595.

63. Hushes are sections of walling which create small dams to hold a sufficient amount of water which when released, by the breaking of the dam, rushed down the iron mining site and washed out the lighter soils and rubble, leaving behind the heavier iron nodules or ore. This method was used extensively in lead mining in the Yorkshire Dales.

64. These remains have been partly destroyed when the Thirlemere water pipeline was brought through the area in the late nineteenth century. 65. Monkhouse, F.J. Article on Pre-Elizabethan Laws in CWAA v42,p53. After trouble with miners in 1356 The King sends a bailiff to examine the Alston area miners rights etc. Jury report states miners 'dwelt in shiels, that is, in the shields or shielings which were rough huts made of walls of turfs and roofed with poles and turf or a thatch of moor rushes or heather'. 66. These building foundation remains seem to fit in with the types recorded elsewhere; for example: ones found in the Alston area dating from the mid-fourteenth century.

67. The site might also have been one where shale was extracted for the Roman tile and pottery kilns which were close by.

68. Duchy of Lancaster Pleads CHas 13, bdl345. Henry Lord Morley of Hornby Castle. Master forester of Quernmore complaint of tenants destroying woods digging pits etc., but he confesses his own use of wood for his iron works.

69. Ore to supply the Leighton Furnace and the ones at Halton and Caton were thought to have been shipped in from the Furness Mines, or from mines in the Lakes areas. 70. Marshall, J.D. (ed.) 1967. The Autobiography of William Stout of Lancaster, 268. Stout was selling iron from the lakes bloomeries to the nailers of Settle in 1709. 71. Most of this article is extracted from: Hudson, P.J. Landscape and Economic Development of Quernmore Forest, Lancaster: An lJpland Marginal Area in North West Lancashire to c1850. Unpublished M.Phil, Univ of Lancaster, 1994.

25 KEY Water Mill WM lVater Com Mill WCM Possible Water Usc PWM Horse Mill HM t Iron Slag Site lS I lron Bloomery iB Iron Mining IRON FWM Roman Pottery Kiln R HatFactory H WM Tannery (?) L HM Fulling Mill F wcM c o Tenter Site T Coal Mrning C Weaving w Quarry a

o

c/cPWM

INDUSTRIAL SITES IN QUERNMORE FOREST

PtH 1997

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