DOCSLIB.ORG

Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 Technology to Genome Editing in Glioblastoma Multiforme

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 Technology to Genome Editing in Glioblastoma Multiforme cells Review Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 Technology to Genome Editing in Glioblastoma Multiforme Nadia Al-Sammarraie and Swapan K. Ray * Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29209, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-803-216-3420; Fax: +1-803-216-3428 Abstract: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive malignancy of the brain and spinal cord with a poor life expectancy. The low survivability of GBM patients can be attributed, in part, to its heterogeneity and the presence of multiple genetic alterations causing rapid tumor growth and resistance to conventional therapy. The Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated (Cas) nuclease 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) system is a cost-effective and reliable gene editing technology, which is widely used in cancer research. It leads to novel discoveries of various oncogenes that regulate autophagy, angiogenesis, and invasion and play important role in pathogenesis of various malignancies, including GBM. In this review article, we first describe the principle and methods of delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. Second, we summarize the current knowledge and major applications of CRISPR-Cas9 to identifying and modifying the genetic regulators of the hallmark of GBM. Lastly, we elucidate the major limitations of current CRISPR-Cas9 technology in the GBM field and the future perspectives. CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing aids in identifying novel coding and non-coding transcriptional regulators of the hallmarks of GBM particularly in vitro, while work using in vivo systems requires further investigation. Citation: Al-Sammarraie, N.; Ray, S.K. Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 Keywords: glioblastoma multiforme (GBM); CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing; apoptosis; proliferation; Technology to Genome Editing in autophagy; angiogenesis; cell invasion and migration Glioblastoma Multiforme. Cells 2021, 10, 2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/ cells10092342 1. Introduction Academic Editors: Jacques P. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive primary tumor, which arises from the Tremblay and Antonella Arcella abnormal astroglial cells in the brain in most cases as well as in the spinal cord in less often cases [1,2]. The incidence of GBM is approximately less than 10 per 100,000 individuals Received: 24 May 2021 worldwide, and a significant number of the GBM patients show a low survival rate of Accepted: 4 September 2021 Published: 7 September 2021 14 months or less [3,4]. The heterogenous nature of the GBM contributes to its therapy- resistance and poor prognosis; hence, identifying genetic regulations of the hallmarks of Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral this malignant disease may help device effective treatments [5,6]. with regard to jurisdictional claims in Almost all GBM patients are presented with the high-grade of the disease, which published maps and institutional affil- is characterized by rapid recurrence after surgery and resistance to radiotherapy and iations. chemotherapy [7,8]. Resistance of GBM to therapies is a major challenge for treatment of the patients and it can result from several mechanisms, which collectively constitute the hallmarks of this malignancy [7,8]. The resistance mechanisms can either accelerate initial tumor growth or potentiate regrowth of the more resistant tumor after the treatment [7,8]. One of the major hallmarks of GBM is the presence of GBM stem cells (GSCs), which are Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. genetically heterogeneous cells with more distinct properties than primary tumor cells, and This article is an open access article they play critical roles in disease recurrence and therapy resistance [9,10]. Sustained prolif- distributed under the terms and erative signals is another major cause of resistance, which results from aberrant expression conditions of the Creative Commons of the growth and trophic factors [11]. Escaping the programed cell death or apoptosis and Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// activating the pro-survival pathways are other major mechanisms of therapy resistance creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ in GBM [12]. Autophagy or recycling of cellular building blocks is also an important 4.0/). survival mechanism that is activated in GBM and it is one of the major causes of therapy Cells 2021, 10, 2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10092342 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cells Cells 2021, 10, 2342 2 of 18 resistance [13]. Aberrant inflammation and immune response are correlated with rapid Cells 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW progression and resistance to therapy [14,15]. Angiogenesis or aberrant2 of 18 new blood vessel formation is also correlated with rapid progression and therapy resistance in GBM [15,16]. Finally, interaction between tumor cells and the surrounding microenvironment potentiates thetherapy migratory resistance and in GBM invasive [12]. Autophagy properties or recycling of the tumorof cellular cells, building contributing blocks is also to rapid relapse of GBMan important and poor survival outcome mechanism [17 that–19 is]. activated in GBM and it is one of the major causes of therapyGenetic resistance knockout, [13]. Aberrant knock inflammation in, and overexpression and immune response have been are correlated widely used to screen for with rapid progression and resistance to therapy [14,15]. Angiogenesis or aberrant new theblood molecular vessel formation pathways is also correlated that govern with rapid the hallmarksprogression and of GBMtherapy and resistance to study in the function of variousGBM [15,16 genes]. Finally, in pathogenesis interaction and between progression tumor ofcells this malignantand the surrounding disease [20 –23]. In the past, scientistsmicroenvironment used ‘gene potentiates targeting’ the migratory for changing and invasive the genome properties in of the the specifictumor cells, places with addition orcontributing deletion to ofrapid either relapse entire of GBM genes and poor or singleoutcome bases. [17–19]. Although gene targeting has highly Genetic knockout, knock in, and overexpression have been widely used to screen for beenthe molecular useful pathways in understanding that govern the the hallmarks function of GBM of specific and to study genes, the thisfunction technology of takes long timevarious to genes make in pathogenesis a mutant geneand progression and it is of expensive. this malignant Subsequently, disease [20–23]. In several the ‘gene editing’ technologiespast, scientists used such ‘gene as Transcriptiontargeting’ for changing Activator-Like the genome Effectorin the specific Nucleases places with (TALENs) and Zinc- Fingeraddition Nucleasesor deletion of (ZFNs) either entire have genes been or discoveredsingle bases. Although to improve gene thetargeting gene has targeting to a great extent.highly been Still useful scientists in understanding were looking the function for of a specific cheaper genes, and this quicker technology gene takes editing technology long time to make a mutant gene and it is expensive. Subsequently, several ‘gene editing’ thantechnologies TALENs such andas Transcription ZNFs. The Activator Clustered-Like Effector Regularly Nucleases Interspaced (TALENs) Short and Zinc Palindromic- Repeat (CRISPR)-CRISPRFinger Nucleases (ZFNs) associated have been discovered (Cas) nuclease to improve 9 (CRISPR-Cas9)the gene targeting to system a great is the latest gene editingextent. Still technology scientists were [20 looking], which for standsa cheaper out and as quicker the fastest, gene editing cheapest, technology highly than versatile, and most reliableTALENs geneand ZNFs editing. The tool Clustered for using Regularly widely Interspaced to discover Short genetic Palindromic alterations, Repeat oncogenic targets, (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated (Cas) nuclease 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) system is the latest gene andediting epigenetic technology regulation.[20], which stands Currently, out as the CRISPR-Cas9 fastest, cheapest, system highly isversatile, the number and one choice for editingmost reliable genes gene or editing genome tool for in using various widely cancers to disc includingover genetic GBMalterations, [21– oncogenic24]. targets,In and this epigenetic article, weregulation. will first Currently, briefly CRISPR discuss-Cas9 the system basic principleis the number of CRISPR-Cas9one system (Figurechoice for1 editing) and itsgenes application or genome in to various GBM cancers in revealing including the GBM function [21–24]. of genes that contribute to maintainingIn this article, we tumor will first cell briefly growth discuss and the stemness, basic principle escaping of CRISPR the-Cas9 programmed system cell death or (Figure 1) and its application to GBM in revealing the function of genes that contribute to apoptosis,maintaining tumor inducing cell growth autophagy, and stemness, promoting escaping angiogenesis, the programmed deregulating cell death or immune response andapoptosis, inflammation, inducing autophagy, and potentiating promoting angiogenesi cell invasions, deregulating and metastasis immune (Figure response2 ). Finally, we will discussand inflammation, the pitfalls and andpotentiating current cell limitations invasion and of metastasis CRISPR-Cas9 (Figure gene2). Finally, editing we systems in GBM researchwill discuss and the futurepitfalls and prospective. current limitations of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing systems in GBM research and future prospective. Figure 1. 1.PrinciplePrinciple
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Emerging Roles for 3 Utrs in Neurons
    International Journal of Molecular Sciences Review 0 Emerging Roles for 3 UTRs in Neurons Bongmin Bae and Pedro Miura * Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 8 April 2020; Accepted: 9 May 2020; Published: 12 May 2020 Abstract: The 30 untranslated regions (30 UTRs) of mRNAs serve as hubs for post-transcriptional control as the targets of microRNAs (miRNAs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). Sequences in 30 UTRs confer alterations in mRNA stability, direct mRNA localization to subcellular regions, and impart translational control. Thousands of mRNAs are localized to subcellular compartments in neurons—including axons, dendrites, and synapses—where they are thought to undergo local translation. Despite an established role for 30 UTR sequences in imparting mRNA localization in neurons, the specific RNA sequences and structural features at play remain poorly understood. The nervous system selectively expresses longer 30 UTR isoforms via alternative polyadenylation (APA). The regulation of APA in neurons and the neuronal functions of longer 30 UTR mRNA isoforms are starting to be uncovered. Surprising roles for 30 UTRs are emerging beyond the regulation of protein synthesis and include roles as RBP delivery scaffolds and regulators of alternative splicing. Evidence is also emerging that 30 UTRs can be cleaved, leading to stable, isolated 30 UTR fragments which are of unknown function. Mutations in 30 UTRs are implicated in several neurological disorders—more studies are needed to uncover how these mutations impact gene regulation and what is their relationship to disease severity. Keywords: 30 UTR; alternative polyadenylation; local translation; RNA-binding protein; RNA-sequencing; post-transcriptional regulation 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Therapeutic Strategies in Fragile X Syndrome: Dysregulated Mglur Signaling and Beyond
    Neuropsychopharmacology REVIEWS (2012) 37, 178–195 & 2012 American College of Neuropsychopharmacology All rights reserved 0893-133X/12 ............................................................................................................................................................... REVIEW 178 www.neuropsychopharmacology.org Therapeutic Strategies in Fragile X Syndrome: Dysregulated mGluR Signaling and Beyond 1 ,2 ,1,3 Christina Gross , Elizabeth M Berry-Kravis* and Gary J Bassell* 1 2 Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Departments of Pediatrics, Neurology, 3 and Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is an inherited neurodevelopmental disease caused by loss of function of the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). In the absence of FMRP, signaling through group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors is elevated and insensitive to stimulation, which may underlie many of the neurological and neuropsychiatric features of FXS. Treatment of FXS animal models with negative allosteric modulators of these receptors and preliminary clinical trials in human patients support the hypothesis that metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling is a valuable therapeutic target in FXS. However, recent research has also shown that FMRP may regulate diverse aspects of neuronal signaling downstream of several cell surface receptors, suggesting a possible new route to more direct disease-targeted therapies. Here, we summarize promising recent advances in basic research identifying and testing novel therapeutic strategies in FXS models, and evaluate their potential therapeutic benefits. We provide an overview of recent and ongoing clinical trials motivated by some of these findings, and discuss the challenges for both basic science and clinical applications in the continued development of effective disease mechanism-targeted therapies for FXS.
    [Show full text]
  • Regulators of G-Protein Signaling and Their G Substrates
    0031-6997/11/6303-728–749$25.00 PHARMACOLOGICAL REVIEWS Vol. 63, No. 3 Copyright © 2011 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 3038/3698761 Pharmacol Rev 63:728–749, 2011 Printed in U.S.A. ASSOCIATE EDITOR: ARTHUR CHRISTOPOULOS Regulators of G-Protein Signaling and Their G␣ Substrates: Promises and Challenges in Their Use as Drug Discovery Targets Adam J. Kimple, Dustin E. Bosch, Patrick M. Gigue`re, and David P. Siderovski Department of Pharmacology, UNC Neuroscience Center, and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Abstract ................................................................................ 728 I. Introduction............................................................................. 729 A. Biological and pharmaceutical importance of G-protein coupled receptor signaling .......... 729 B. The classic guanine nucleotide cycle of heterotrimeric G-protein subunits .................. 729 C. Structural determinants of G-protein subunit function ................................... 730 1. G␣ subunit........................................................................ 730 2. G␤␥ dimer ........................................................................ 730 3. Structural basis for intrinsic GTP hydrolysis activity by G␣ subunits ................... 730 4. Structural features of Regulators of G-protein Signaling—the G␣ GTPase-accelerating proteins..........................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Methamphetamine-Induced Changes in the Striatal Dopamine Pathway In
    Park et al. Journal of Biomedical Science 2011, 18:83 http://www.jbiomedsci.com/content/18/1/83 RESEARCH Open Access Methamphetamine-induced changes in the striatal dopamine pathway in μ-opioid receptor knockout mice Sang Won Park1*, Xine Shen2, Lu-Tai Tien3, Richard Roman1 and Tangeng Ma1 Abstract Background: Repeated exposure to methamphetamine (METH) can cause not only neurotoxicity but also addiction. Behavioral sensitization is widely used as an animal model for the study of drug addiction. We previously reported that the μ-opioid receptor knockout mice were resistant to METH-induced behavioral sensitization but the mechanism is unknown. Methods: The present study determined whether resistance of the μ-opioid receptor (μ-OR) knockout mice to behavioral sensitization is due to differential expression of the stimulatory G protein a subunit (Gas) or regulators of G-protein signaling (RGS) coupled to the dopamine D1 receptor. Mice received daily intraperitoneal injections of saline or METH (10 mg/kg) for 7 consecutive days to induce sensitization. On day 11(following 4 abstinent days), mice were either given a test dose of METH (10 mg/kg) for behavioral testing or sacrificed for neurochemical assays without additional METH treatment. Results: METH challenge-induced stereotyped behaviors were significantly reduced in the μ-opioid receptor knockout mice when compared with those in wild-type mice. Neurochemical assays indicated that there is a decrease in dopamine D1 receptor ligand binding and an increase in the expression of RGS4 mRNA in the striatum of METH-treated μ-opioid receptor knockout mice but not of METH-treated wild-type mice.
    [Show full text]
  • Supplementary Table 1
    Supplementary Table 1. 492 genes are unique to 0 h post-heat timepoint. The name, p-value, fold change, location and family of each gene are indicated. Genes were filtered for an absolute value log2 ration 1.5 and a significance value of p ≤ 0.05. Symbol p-value Log Gene Name Location Family Ratio ABCA13 1.87E-02 3.292 ATP-binding cassette, sub-family unknown transporter A (ABC1), member 13 ABCB1 1.93E-02 −1.819 ATP-binding cassette, sub-family Plasma transporter B (MDR/TAP), member 1 Membrane ABCC3 2.83E-02 2.016 ATP-binding cassette, sub-family Plasma transporter C (CFTR/MRP), member 3 Membrane ABHD6 7.79E-03 −2.717 abhydrolase domain containing 6 Cytoplasm enzyme ACAT1 4.10E-02 3.009 acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase 1 Cytoplasm enzyme ACBD4 2.66E-03 1.722 acyl-CoA binding domain unknown other containing 4 ACSL5 1.86E-02 −2.876 acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain Cytoplasm enzyme family member 5 ADAM23 3.33E-02 −3.008 ADAM metallopeptidase domain Plasma peptidase 23 Membrane ADAM29 5.58E-03 3.463 ADAM metallopeptidase domain Plasma peptidase 29 Membrane ADAMTS17 2.67E-04 3.051 ADAM metallopeptidase with Extracellular other thrombospondin type 1 motif, 17 Space ADCYAP1R1 1.20E-02 1.848 adenylate cyclase activating Plasma G-protein polypeptide 1 (pituitary) receptor Membrane coupled type I receptor ADH6 (includes 4.02E-02 −1.845 alcohol dehydrogenase 6 (class Cytoplasm enzyme EG:130) V) AHSA2 1.54E-04 −1.6 AHA1, activator of heat shock unknown other 90kDa protein ATPase homolog 2 (yeast) AK5 3.32E-02 1.658 adenylate kinase 5 Cytoplasm kinase AK7
    [Show full text]
  • Suppression of Rgsz1 Function Optimizes the Actions of Opioid
    Suppression of RGSz1 function optimizes the actions PNAS PLUS of opioid analgesics by mechanisms that involve the Wnt/β-catenin pathway Sevasti Gasparia,b,c, Immanuel Purushothamana,b, Valeria Cogliania,b, Farhana Saklotha,b, Rachael L. Neved, David Howlande, Robert H. Ringf, Elliott M. Rossg,h, Li Shena,b, and Venetia Zacharioua,b,1 aFishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029; bFriedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029; cDepartment of Basic Sciences, University of Crete Medical School, 71003 Heraklion, Greece; dGene Delivery Technology Core, Massachusetts General Hospital, MA 01239; eCure Huntington’s Disease Initiative (CHDI) Foundation, Princeton, NJ 08540; fDepartment of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029; gDepartment of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390; and hGreen Center for Systems Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390 Edited by Solomon H. Snyder, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, and approved January 5, 2018 (received for review June 23, 2017) Regulator of G protein signaling z1 (RGSz1), a member of the RGS studies have documented brain region-specific effects of other family of proteins, is present in several networks expressing mu RGS proteins (RGS9-2, RGS7, and RGS4) (29–33) on the opioid receptors (MOPRs). By using genetic mouse models for global functional responses of MOPRs, the role of RGSz1 in opioid or brain region-targeted manipulations of RGSz1 expression, we actions is not known. We hypothesized that the expression and demonstrated that the suppression of RGSz1 function increases the activity of RGSz1 are altered by chronic opioid use and that the analgesic efficacy of MOPR agonists in male and female mice and manipulation of RGSz1 expression will impact the development delays the development of morphine tolerance while decreasing the of tolerance to the drug and its analgesic and rewarding effects.
    [Show full text]
  • CHIP Phosphorylation by Protein Kinase G Enhances Protein Quality Control and Attenuates Cardiac Ischemic Injury
    ARTICLE https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18980-x OPEN CHIP phosphorylation by protein kinase G enhances protein quality control and attenuates cardiac ischemic injury Mark J. Ranek1, Christian Oeing1, Rebekah Sanchez-Hodge3, Kristen M. Kokkonen-Simon 1, Danielle Dillard1, M. Imran Aslam1, Peter P. Rainer 1,6, Sumita Mishra1, Brittany Dunkerly-Eyring1, Ronald J. Holewinski2, Cornelia Virus3, Huaqun Zhang5, Matthew M. Mannion5, Vineet Agrawal1, Virginia Hahn1, Dong I. Lee1, Masayuki Sasaki1, Jennifer E. Van Eyk 2, Monte S. Willis3, Richard C. Page 5, Jonathan C. Schisler 3,4 & ✉ David A. Kass 1 1234567890():,; Proteotoxicity from insufficient clearance of misfolded/damaged proteins underlies many diseases. Carboxyl terminus of Hsc70-interacting protein (CHIP) is an important regulator of proteostasis in many cells, having E3-ligase and chaperone functions and often directing damaged proteins towards proteasome recycling. While enhancing CHIP functionality has broad therapeutic potential, prior efforts have all relied on genetic upregulation. Here we report that CHIP-mediated protein turnover is markedly post-translationally enhanced by direct protein kinase G (PKG) phosphorylation at S20 (mouse, S19 human). This increases CHIP binding affinity to Hsc70, CHIP protein half-life, and consequent clearance of stress- induced ubiquitinated-insoluble proteins. PKG-mediated CHIP-pS20 or expressing CHIP- S20E (phosphomimetic) reduces ischemic proteo- and cytotoxicity, whereas a phospho- silenced CHIP-S20A amplifies both. In vivo, depressing PKG activity lowers CHIP-S20 phosphorylation and protein, exacerbating proteotoxicity and heart dysfunction after ischemic injury. CHIP-S20E knock-in mice better clear ubiquitinated proteins and are cardio- protected. PKG activation provides post-translational enhancement of protein quality control via CHIP.
    [Show full text]
  • Regulators of G-Protein Signaling (RGS) Proteins: Region-Specific Expression of Nine Subtypes in Rat Brain
    The Journal of Neuroscience, October 15, 1997, 17(20):8024–8037 Regulators of G-Protein Signaling (RGS) Proteins: Region-Specific Expression of Nine Subtypes in Rat Brain Stephen J. Gold,1,2 YanG.Ni,1,2 Henrik G. Dohlman,3 and Eric J. Nestler1,2,3 1Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry and Departments of 2Psychiatry and 3Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06508 The recently discovered regulators of G-protein signaling (RGS) richment in striatal regions. RGS10 mRNA is densely expressed proteins potently modulate the functioning of heterotrimeric in dentate gyrus granule cells, superficial layers of neocortex, G-proteins by stimulating the GTPase activity of G-protein a and dorsal raphe. To assess whether the expression of RGS subunits. The mRNAs for numerous subtypes of putative RGS mRNAs can be regulated, we examined the effect of an acute proteins have been identified in mammalian tissues, but little is seizure on levels of RGS7, RGS8, and RGS10 mRNAs in hip- known about their expression in brain. We performed a system- pocampus. Of the three subtypes, changes in RGS10 levels atic survey of the localization of mRNAs encoding nine of these were most pronounced, decreasing by ;40% in a time- RGSs, RGS3–RGS11, in brain by in situ hybridization. Striking dependent manner in response to a single seizure. These re- region-specific patterns of expression were observed. Five sults, which document highly specific patterns of RGS mRNA subtypes, RGS4, RGS7, RGS8, RGS9, and RGS10 mRNAs, are expression in brain and their ability to be regulated in a dynamic densely expressed in brain, whereas the other subtypes (RGS3, manner, support the view that RGS proteins may play an im- RGS5, RGS6, and RGS11) are expressed at lower density and portant role in determining the intensity and specificity of sig- in more restricted regions.
    [Show full text]
  • Therapeutically Significant Micrornas in Primary and Metastatic Brain
    cancers Review Therapeutically Significant MicroRNAs in Primary and Metastatic Brain Malignancies 1,2, 1, 1,2 Akilandeswari A. Balachandran y , Leon M. Larcher y , Suxiang Chen and Rakesh N. Veedu 1,2,* 1 Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia; [email protected] (A.A.B.); [email protected] (L.M.L.); [email protected] (S.C.) 2 Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +61-893-602-803 These authors contributed equally. y Received: 20 July 2020; Accepted: 3 September 2020; Published: 7 September 2020 Simple Summary: The overall survival of brain cancer patients remains grim, with conventional therapies such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy only providing marginal benefits to patient survival. Cancers are complex, with multiple pathways being dysregulated simultaneously. Non-coding RNAs such as microRNA (miRNAs) are gaining importance due to their potential in regulating a variety of targets implicated in the pathology of cancers. This could be leveraged for the development of targeted and personalized therapies for cancers. Since miRNAs can upregulate and/or downregulate proteins, this review aims to understand the role of these miRNAs in primary and metastatic brain cancers. Here, we discuss the regulatory mechanisms of ten miRNAs that are highly dysregulated in glioblastoma and metastatic brain tumors. This will enable researchers to develop miRNA-based targeted cancer therapies and identify potential prognostic biomarkers. Abstract: Brain cancer is one among the rare cancers with high mortality rate that affects both children and adults.
    [Show full text]
  • Autophagy As a Potential Therapy for Malignant Glioma
    pharmaceuticals Review Autophagy as a Potential Therapy for Malignant Glioma Angel Escamilla-Ramírez 1 , Rosa A. Castillo-Rodríguez 2 , Sergio Zavala-Vega 3, Dolores Jimenez-Farfan 4 , Isabel Anaya-Rubio 1, Eduardo Briseño 5, Guadalupe Palencia 1, Patricia Guevara 1, Arturo Cruz-Salgado 1, Julio Sotelo 1 and Cristina Trejo-Solís 1,* 1 Departamento de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Ciudad de México 14269, Mexico; [email protected] (A.E.-R.); [email protected] (I.A.-R.); [email protected] (G.P.); [email protected] (P.G.); [email protected] (A.C.-S.); [email protected] (J.S.) 2 Laboratorio de Oncología Experimental, CONACYT-Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Ciudad de México 04530, Mexico; [email protected] 3 Departamento de Patología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Ciudad de México 14269, Mexico; [email protected] 4 Laboratorio de Inmunología, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; [email protected] 5 Clínica de Neurooncología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Ciudad de México 14269, Mexico; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +52-555-060-4040 Received: 5 June 2020; Accepted: 14 July 2020; Published: 19 July 2020 Abstract: Glioma is the most frequent and aggressive type of brain neoplasm, being anaplastic astrocytoma (AA) and glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), its most malignant forms. The survival rate in patients with these neoplasms is 15 months after diagnosis, despite a diversity of treatments, including surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. The resistance of GBM to various therapies is due to a highly mutated genome; these genetic changes induce a de-regulation of several signaling pathways and result in higher cell proliferation rates, angiogenesis, invasion, and a marked resistance to apoptosis; this latter trait is a hallmark of highly invasive tumor cells, such as glioma cells.
    [Show full text]
  • Transforming Growth Factor ß1-Mediated Functional Inhibition Of
    Myelodysplastic Syndromes SUPPLEMENTARY APPENDIX Transforming growth factor 1- mediated functional inhibition of mesenchymal stromal celβls in myelodysplastic syndromes and acute myeloid leukemia Stefanie Geyh, 1* Manuel Rodríguez-Paredes, 1,2 * Paul Jäger, 1 Annemarie Koch, 1 Felix Bormann, 2 Julian Gutekunst, 2 Christoph Zilkens, 3 Ulrich Germing, 1 Guido Kobbe, 1 Frank Lyko, 2 Rainer Haas 1 and Thomas Schroeder 1 1Department of Hematology, Oncology and Clinical Immunology, University of Duesseldorf, Medical Faculty; 2Division of Epigenetics, DKFZ- ZMBH Alliance, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg and 3Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Duesseldorf, Medical Faculty, Germany *SG and MR-P contributed equally to this work. ©2018 Ferrata Storti Foundation. This is an open-access paper. doi:10.3324/haematol. 2017.186734 Received: December 19, 2017. Accepted: May 14, 2018. Pre-published: May 17, 2018. Correspondence: [email protected] Figure S1 Downregulated genes Downregulated genes Upregulated Figure S1. Heatmaps showing the 50 most upregulated and downregulated genes between the 3 healthy MSC controls and the 9 RCMD-, RAEB- and AML-derived MSC samples. Color scale depicts the rlog-transformed FPKM values for each gene and every sample. Figure S2 Downregulated genes Downregulated genes Upregulated Figure S2. Heatmaps showing the 50 most upregulated and downregulated genes between the 3 healthy MSC controls and the 3 RCMD, RAEB and AML MSC samples, respectively. Color scales depict the rlog-transformed FPKM values for each gene and every sample. Figure S3 A. B. 0.0015 *** ** <-3 -2 0.0010 RCMD RAEB AML -1 0 1 0.0005 Log2FC LTF 2 CCL26/GAPDH INHBB >3 0.0000 TGFB2 y S h D ML M A ealt ll LTF H a EGF 0.003 *** ** INHBB TGFB2 0.002 INHBB IGFBP7 0.001 GDF11 LIF/GAPDH BMP1 0.000 y L th M TNFSF12 l A FGF13 ea ll MDS H a FGF13 0.0015 * TNFSF10 TNFSF10 0.0010 0.0005 SPP1/GAPDH 0.0000 y th l AML ea H all MDS Figure S3.
    [Show full text]
  • Oxidized Phospholipids Regulate Amino Acid Metabolism Through MTHFD2 to Facilitate Nucleotide Release in Endothelial Cells
    ARTICLE DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04602-0 OPEN Oxidized phospholipids regulate amino acid metabolism through MTHFD2 to facilitate nucleotide release in endothelial cells Juliane Hitzel1,2, Eunjee Lee3,4, Yi Zhang 3,5,Sofia Iris Bibli2,6, Xiaogang Li7, Sven Zukunft 2,6, Beatrice Pflüger1,2, Jiong Hu2,6, Christoph Schürmann1,2, Andrea Estefania Vasconez1,2, James A. Oo1,2, Adelheid Kratzer8,9, Sandeep Kumar 10, Flávia Rezende1,2, Ivana Josipovic1,2, Dominique Thomas11, Hector Giral8,9, Yannick Schreiber12, Gerd Geisslinger11,12, Christian Fork1,2, Xia Yang13, Fragiska Sigala14, Casey E. Romanoski15, Jens Kroll7, Hanjoong Jo 10, Ulf Landmesser8,9,16, Aldons J. Lusis17, 1234567890():,; Dmitry Namgaladze18, Ingrid Fleming2,6, Matthias S. Leisegang1,2, Jun Zhu 3,4 & Ralf P. Brandes1,2 Oxidized phospholipids (oxPAPC) induce endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. Here we show that oxPAPC induce a gene network regulating serine-glycine metabolism with the mitochondrial methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase (MTHFD2) as a cau- sal regulator using integrative network modeling and Bayesian network analysis in human aortic endothelial cells. The cluster is activated in human plaque material and by atherogenic lipo- proteins isolated from plasma of patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the MTHFD2-controlled cluster associate with CAD. The MTHFD2-controlled cluster redirects metabolism to glycine synthesis to replenish purine nucleotides. Since endothelial cells secrete purines in response to oxPAPC, the MTHFD2- controlled response maintains endothelial ATP. Accordingly, MTHFD2-dependent glycine synthesis is a prerequisite for angiogenesis. Thus, we propose that endothelial cells undergo MTHFD2-mediated reprogramming toward serine-glycine and mitochondrial one-carbon metabolism to compensate for the loss of ATP in response to oxPAPC during atherosclerosis.
    [Show full text]