NIALS JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

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NIALS Journal of

Environmental Law

Vol. 1 2011

ISSN:

Published by Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies

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NIALS JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

Editor Professor Olanrewaju Fagbohun, Ph.D

Editorial Committee Professor ‘Lanre Fagbohun, Ph.D Dr. (Mrs.) Francisca Nlerum Mr. Adebisi Arewa Dr. (Mrs.) Chinyere Ani Mrs. Kehinde Ikhimiukor Ms. Bello Fatima

Editorial Board Honourable Justice Aloma Mariam Mukhtar, CON, FNIALS Justice of the Supreme Court of

Professor Epiphany Azinge, SAN Director – General, Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies

Professor Oluwole Akanle Centre for Law and Development Studies

Professor Rick Glofcheski Faculty of Law, University of Hong Kong

Professor Ademola Popoola Faculty of Law, Obafemi Awolowo University

Professor Oliver C. Ruppel University of Stellenbosch, South

Professor Yinka Omorogbe Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation

Professor Muhammed Tawfiq Ladan Faculty of Law, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Dr. Rhuks Akoh University of Hull, United Kingdom

CONTENTS

ii Page Table of cases ------v-vi Table of Statues ------vii-xviii Abbreviations ------xix-xxi

(i) Environmental Risk and Decommissioning of Offshore Oil Platforms in Nigeria. - Ayoade Morakinyo, University of . ------1-32

(ii) Copenhagen Summit: Expectations, Outcomes and Imperatives. - Ohurogu C. C and Okwezuzu G. E., Benson Idahosa University ------33-58

(iii) Adapting to Climate Change: Sustainable Mitigation Options for Developing Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. - Yemi Oke, . - - - - - 59-101

(iv) Environmental Pollution: Women’s Reproductive Health Concern. - F. A. R. Adeleke, University - -102-125

(v) Progressive Realization of The Right to Safe Water and Adequate Sanitation. - Gbadamosi Olaide, College of Law, Osun State University ------126-152

(vi) Life in Nigeria: Need For A New Paradigm on Environmental Quality. - Nwudego Nkemakonam Chinwuba, University of Lagos ------153-182 (vii) Addressing Environmental Concerns in the Exploitation of Solid Minerals in Nigeria: Issue, Problems and Prospects. iii

- Peter Terkaa Akper, NIALS - - - - 183-199

(viii) Combating Environmental Crimes in Nigeria: A Daunting Uncertainty. - Violet Aigbokhaevbo, University of Benin. ------200-229

(ix) The Trade and Environment Nexus: Issues for Nigeria as A Developing Economy. Helen Chuma – Okoro, NIALS - - - - 230-265

(x) Implementing An Effective Regulatory Scheme for Climate Change in Nigeria: The Role of Law - Olanrewaju Fagbohun & Francisca Nlerum, NIALS. ------266-295

(xi) Towards The Sustainable Environmental Management of Nigeria’s Coastal Region. - A. A. Adedeji, R. T. Ako and T. A. Ogunleye, OAU, Ife/ Kent Law School - - - -296-308

Notes and Comments

(xii) NESREA vis-à-vis FEPA: An Old Wine in a New Bottle - Alero Akeredolu, University of Ibadan - - - - -309-341

(xiii) General Index ------342-347

(xiv) Guidelines for Authors ------348-350

Table of Cases

Nigerian Cases Attorney General Lagos State v. Attorney General Federation [2003] NWLR (pt 833) ...... 153, 171 iv AG. Ondo State v. AGF & 35 Others [2002] 7 M. J. S. C. I ...... 123 Attorney General of Southern Nigeria v. John Holt Ltd [1915] A.C...... 599, 617, 179 Gbemre v. Shell Suyit no. FHC/B/C/153/05 14 Nov. 2005 ...... 308 Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited v. Lagos State Environmental Protection Agency [2001] 24 WLR 42 ...... 340 Mojekwu v. Ejikeme [2002] 5 NWLR (pt. 657) 402 ...... 326 Okutta v. the Registered Trustee [2008] 13 NWLR (pt. 1105) p. 632 ...... 204 Shell v. Udi [1996] 6 NWLR 483 ...... 308 Trenco (Nig.) v. African Real Estate Ltd [1978] 11 NSCC 220 ...... 204

Foreign Cases Bores Ford v. Sunderland City Council [2004] 1 All ER 160 ...... 175 Bp Southern African (PTY Ltd v. Mec for Agriculture, Conservation, Environment and Land Affairs [2004] (5) SA 124 (iv) ...... 119 Copeland v. Greenhalf [1952] Ch. 488, 497 - 8 ...... 179 Ellenborough Park Re [1956] Ch. 131 at 163 ...... 178 Government of the Republic of South Africa and others v. Grootboom and others [2001] (i) Sa 46 (cc) 2000 (Li) BCLR 116 (9) at 69B-D

Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg & Aner, High Court of South Africa No. 06/13865 ...... 147 M. C. Mehta v. Union of India (12) SCC 118 [2004] ...... ……149 Miles v. Easter [1933] 1 Ch. 611, 621 ...... 180 Moddy v. Steggles v

[1879] 12 Ch. D. 262 ...... 179 Nicholls v. Ely Beet Sugar Factory [1936] 1 Ch. 343, 349 -50 ...... 178 R. v. Oxfordshire [1993] 3 All ER 385 ...... 175 Residents of Bon Vista mansions v. Southern Metrogoutan Local Council, High Court of South Africa (witwatergrant Local Division) case No. 01/12312 ...... 148 Rhone v. Sterens [1994] 2 WLR 429 ...... 180 Trail Smelter Case [1941] 3 R. I. A.A. 1905 ...... 200 Tulk v. Moxhay 41 ER 1143...... 180 Zander v. Sweden ECHR [1993], Series A. No.279B ...... 150

Table of Statutes

International Instruments Abidjan Convention for Co-operation in the Protection & Development of the Maritime & Coastal Environment of the West & Central

vi Africa Region 1981 – 1989 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1981) ...... 144 art 24 ...... 144 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1980) ...... 444 art. 14(2)(c) ...... 144 African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 2003 ...... 44 art. s. 1 ...... Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, A/CONF. 177/20/Add. 1(1995) ...... 106, 114 Cairo Programme of Action ...... 114 chap. 1 ...... 114 princ. 2 ...... 138 para. 12 ...... 114 para. 26 ...... 114 Declaration by the United Nations General Assembly Millennium Summit ...... 158 Princ. 6 ...... 158 Dublin Statement ...... 141 princ. 4 ...... 141 European Charter on water Resources (2001) ...... 142 European Commission at the United Nations for Europe (ECE) Protocol on water and Health, (2000) ...... 143 art. 4(1) ...... 143 art. 5(1) ...... 143 art. 6(1) ...... 144 General Comment 14 on Economic Social and Cultural Rights ...... 137 para. 11 – 12 ...... 137 European Council of Environmental Law (2000) ...... 142 General Comment No. 15 on the Right to water ...... 134, 139, 145 art. 11(1) ...... 134 art. 12 ...... 134 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf ...... 7, 8 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) ...... 113, 127, 136 art. 2 ...... 137 art. 11 AND 12 ...... 130, 139 art. 12(1) ...... 113, 137 art. 12(2)(A) ...... 113 vii

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 ...... 117 International Convention Relating to Intervention of the High Seas 1969 ...... 112 Inuvialuit Agreement of 1984 ...... 89 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 31 ILRN 849(1992) ...... 72 art. 2 – 3 ...... 72 art. 3 ...... 72 art. 3(1) ...... 72 annex 1 ...... 72 London Dumping Convention 1992 ...... 7, 11 Mar del Plata Action Plan (1977) ...... 141 Nsiga Agreement of 2003 ...... 89 Nunavul Agreement of 1993 ...... 89 Protocol on water and Health to the 1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Water Courses and International Lakes ...... 137 art. 5(1) ...... 137 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa ...... 144 art. 15 ...... 144 Quebec’s James Ray Agreement of 1975 ...... 89 Rio Declaration ...... 112 princ. 2 ...... Resource Management Act 1991 ...... 97 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development Rio de Janeiro, 3 – 14 June 1992, Volume 1 A 1 ...... CONF. 151/26/Rev. 1 (Vol. 1), (United Nations: New York, 1993), art. 373 ...... 87 Stockholm Declaration (1972) ...... 112, 140 princ. 1 ...... 115, 140 princ. 21 ...... 112 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1972 (Stockholm) UN Doc. A 1 Conf. 48/14/Rev. 1 (UP Pub. E 73, 11.A. 14) ...... 62 princ. 1 ...... 62 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992 (Rio) A/CONF 15/26/ Vol. D, 8: 31 I.L.M 874(1992)...... 63 viii princ. 1 ...... 63 United Nations Convention on Climate Change 1992 ...... 116 art. 3(1) ...... 116 United Nations Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution...... 105 art. 1 ...... 105 United Nations Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution by the Dumping of ...... Wastes and other Matter 1972...... 11 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all form of Discrimination Against Women ...... 136 art. 14(2)(h) ...... 136 United Nations Convention on the Right of the Child 1989 ...... 136 Art. 27(1)...... 136 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 ...... 7, 8, 9 art. 211(2) ...... 113 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries experiencing Drought and /or Desertification Particularly in Africa (Paris) 33 ILM 1328 (1994) ...... 69 art. 1(a) ...... 70 art. 1(c) ...... 70 art. 2 ...... 70 art. 4(4) ...... 71 art. 9 ...... 71 art. 16 ...... 71 annex 1 ...... 71

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (U.N. Doc. A/AC. 237/18 (Part. 11) (Add. 1), Misc. 6 (1993), cm 2137; 31 ILM. 848 ...... 72, 73 art. 3 ...... 72, 73 United Nations Millennium Declaration 2000 ...... 131 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) ...... 118 art. 25(1) ...... 129, 168 art. 25(1) ...... 129, 168 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties ...... 9

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Nigerian Enactments Federal African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights ...... 71 s. 29(2) ...... 171 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights Ratification and Enforcement Act ...... 154 Agricultural and Rural Management Institute Act Cap. A10 LFN 2004 ...... 311 Agricultural (Control of Implementation) Act Cap. A13 LFN 2004 .. 311 Animal Diseases (Control) Act Cap. A17 LFN 2004 ...... 311 Associated Gas Re-injection Act Cap. A25 LFN 2004 ...... 311, 222 Civil Aviation Act Cap./ C13 LFN 2004 ...... Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 s. 2 & 6 ...... 331 s. 6(4)(a) ...... 331 s. 6(6)(c) ...... 123 s. 12(1) ...... 302 s. 20 ...... 123,310 s. 20(2) ...... 205 s. 36(5) ...... 334 chap. 2 ...... 123 Corrupt Practices and other Related Offences Act 2000 ...... 86 Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 ...... 156 s. 98 ...... 156 Criminal Code Act Cap. C38 LFN 2004 ...... 311, 312 Energy Commission of Nigeria Act Cap. E10 LFN 2004 ...... 312 Environment Conservation (ECA) 73 of 1989 ...... 120 s. 21(1) & 22(1)...... 120 Environmental Impact Assessment 1992 ...... 23 Environmental Impact Assessment Act 1992 Cap. E12 LFN 2004 .... 224 Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry of Nigeria 2002 ...... 14, 15 Exclusive Economic Zone Act Cap. E17 LFN 2004 ...... 312 Federal Environmental and Management Agency Act s. 37 ...... 302 Federal Environmental Protection Agency 1988 ...... 320 s. 4 ...... 320 Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act (FEPA) Cap. 131 LFN 1990...... 104, 105 s. 38 ...... 104 x Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act Cap. F10 LFN 2004 . 312 s. 1, 2 ...... 314 s. 2(1) ...... 318 s. 3 ...... 314 s. 5 ...... 314 s. 5(a)...... 32 s. 5(a – c) ...... 328 s. 6 ...... 330 s. 6(a – j) ...... 329 s. 8 ...... 314 s. 10 ...... 314, 330 s. 10(c)...... 328 s. 11 ...... s. 14 ...... s...... s. 16 – 21 ...... s. 21(4) ...... s. 11 ...... 330 s. 14 ...... 330 s. 16 – 21 ...... 314 s. 20 ...... 333 s. 21 ...... 332, 334 s. 21(4) ...... 334 s. 22 ...... 332 s. 23 – 25 ...... 332 s. 40 ...... 330 Harmful waste (Special Criminal Provision etc) Act 1988 ...... 224 Cap. H1 LFN 2004 ...... 13, 310,312 s. 2 ...... 224 s. 6 – 9 ...... 224 Land Use Act Cap. L5 LFN 2004 ...... 166, 167, 175, 176, 177. 306, 312 Minerals Act 1946 ...... 195 Mineral Act 6 M12 LFN 2004 ...... 312 Minerals and Mining Act 1999 ...... 186 Minerals and Mining Act 2007 ...... 190, 194 s. 56(1)(d) ...... 192 s. 61(1) (b) ...... 192 s.70(1)(g) ...... 192 s. 71(1)(a) ...... 192 xi

s. 90 (2) ...... 192 s. 91(h) ...... 193 s. 111 ...... 191 s. 114 ...... 191 s. 115 ...... 191 s. 118 ...... 191, 194 Minerals Ordinance 1964 ...... 193 National Environmental (Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing) Regulations 2009 ...... 211 reg.1 & 2 ...... 211 reg. 23 ...... 211 National Environmental (Chemical Pharmaceutical Soap and Detergent Manufacturing 2009 218 reg. 2 ...... 218 reg. 2(5) ...... 219 reg. 51 ...... 220 National Environmental (Food, Beverages and Tobacco Sector) reg. 2009 ...... 220 reg. 2, 5(3) & 12 ...... 220 reg. 49 ...... 221 National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA) ...... 122 s. 1(1) ...... 122 s. 24(1) ...... 122 National Environmental (Mining and Processing of Coal, Ores and Industrial Minerals) Regulation 2009 ...... 217 reg. 2 ...... 217 reg. 36 ...... 218 National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act (NESREA) 2007...... 13,303, 309, 313 s. 2 ...... 312 s. 3(a)...... 318 s. 3(2) ...... 319 s. 3(3) ...... 320 s. 5 ...... 320 s. 7 ...... 319 s. 8 ...... 330 s. 9(c)...... 326, 327 s. 10 ...... 322 s. 20 ...... 206 xii s. 20(3) – (4) ...... 206 s. 22(1) (3) – (4) ...... 20 s. 23(1). (3) – (4) ...... 207 s. 24(1) ...... 207 s. 24(5) ...... 208 s. 25(1) ...... 208 s. 26(1) – (4) ...... 208 s. 27(1) ...... 208 s. 27(2) – (4) ...... 209 s. 31 ...... 209 s. 34 ...... 209 s. 25 ...... 332 s. 26 ...... 330 s. 34(c)...... 333 National Environmental Sanitation and Waste Control Regulations, 2009 ...... 209 reg. 64, 65 ...... 210 reg. 78...... 210 reg. 81 ...... 210 reg. 83 ...... 210 reg. 106 ...... 210 National Environmental (Textiles Wearing Apparel, Leather and Foot and Wear Industry) Regulations ...... 215 reg. 2(4) ...... 215 reg. 11(a) ...... 216 reg. 20(2) ...... 216 reg. 51 ...... 216 National Environmental (Ozone Layer Protection) Regulation 2009 ...... 212 Reg. 22(1) ...... 212 reg. 22(2) ...... 212 National Environmental (Water shed, Mountainous Hilly and Catchments Areas) Regulation 2009 ...... 213 reg. 1(1) – (2) ...... 214 reg. 10(1) ...... 214 reg. 10(3) ...... 214 National Environmental (Wetland, River Banks and Lake Shores Protections) Regulations 2009 ...... 214 reg. 2. 3 ...... 215 xiii

reg. 31 ...... 215 National Governmental (Noise Standards and Control) Regulation 2009 ...... 212 reg. 1 ...... 213 reg. 12(1) ...... 213 National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act 2006 ...... 15 National Water Resources Institute Act Cap. N83 LFN 2004 ...... 312 Niger Delta Development Commission Act Cap. N86 LFN 2004...... 306 s. 7 ...... 306 Nigeria Minerals and Mining Act 2007 Cap. N162 LFN 2004 ...... 223 Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency Act 2007 s. 44, 45 ...... 305 Nigerian Port Authority Act Cap. N126 LFN 2004 s. 7(1) ...... 305 s. 40(1)(h) ...... 305 Nuclear, Safety and Radiation Protection Act 1995 Cap. N142 LFN 2004 ...... 222, 312 s. 43 ...... 222 Oil in Navigable Waters Act Cap. O6 LFN 2004 ...... 311 s. 1 ...... 305 s. 3(1) ...... 306 Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation Act, Federal Republic of Nigeria Gazette No. 72 Vol. 93, Act No. 15 A407-425 ...... 304 Oil Terminal dues Act Cap. O8 LFN 2004 s. 6 ...... 305 Petroleum Act 1969...... 12 Petroleum Act Cap. P10 LFN 2004 s. 8(1)(c) ...... 304 s. 9(1) (b)(i) and (iii) ...... 221, 304, 312 Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulations 1969 reg. 13 ...... 304 reg. 25 ...... 304 Petroleum and Production) Regulation 1969 ...... 12 Pest (Control of Produce) Act Cap. P9 LFN 2004 ...... 311 Property and Conveyancing Law 1959 ...... 176 Public Health Act Cap. P40 LFN 2004 ...... 311 Quarantine Act Cap. Q2 LFN 2004 ...... 311 xiv River Basin Development Authority Act Cap. R9 LFN 2004 ...... 312 Sea Fisheries Act Cap. S4 LFN 2004 ...... 312 Territorial Waters Act ...... 312 Town Planners (Regulation Etc) ...... 172 s. 18(1) ...... 172 Water Resources Act Cap. W2 LFN 2004 ...... 306

State Laws Lagos State Physical Planning and Development Regulations, 2005...... 162 s. 27 ...... 162 Urban and Regional Planning and Development Law, 2010 ...... 162 s. 18 ...... 163 s. 40 ...... 162

Foreign Enactments Africa African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Algiers) 68 INT’L ENVRL. 968 (1969) ...... 65, 67

African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, (Revised) Doc. EX/CL/50 (iii) ...... 67 art. IV ...... 67 Annex 2 ...... 67 Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa of 1900, P4 B.F.S.P 715 ...... 65 Declaration of African Co-operation and Economic Independence, May 28, 1973 12 ILM 996 ...... 66 paras. A40 – 44 ...... 66 Organisation of African Unity, the Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa, 1980 – 2000 (1981) ...... 67 chap. IX ...... 67 para. 266(a) ...... 67

Ethiopia Constitution of Ethiopia (1998) ...... 136 xv

art. 90(1) ...... 136

Gambia Constitution of Gambia ...... 136 art. 216(4) ...... 136

Ghana Constitution of the Republic of Ghana 1992 ...... 98 art. 36(8) ...... 98

Kenya Constitution of Kenya (2005) ...... 136 art. 65 ...... 136

New Guinea Constitution of New Guinea (1979) pt. VI ...... 90 s. 87C (5 – 6) ...... 90

South Africa South African Water Services Act 108 (1997) ...... 149 s. 4(3) ...... 149

Uganda Constitution of Uganda (1995) ...... 90 art. XXVII(iii) ...... 90, 136 art. 14 ...... 136

Zambia Constitution of Zambia (1996) ...... 136 art. 112 ...... 136

Asia India Constitution of India ...... 136, 149 art. 21 ...... 136, 149 art. 51A ...... 150

Europe xvi Switzerland Constitution of Switzerland (1991 ...... 136 art. 24 ...... 136

South America Uruguay Constitution of Uruguay (2004) ...... 136 art. 47 ...... 136 art. 65 ...... 136

United Kingdom English Commons Registration Act 1965 ...... 156 United States Illinois Constitution of Illinois ...... 136

Massachusetts Constitution of Massachusetts ...... 136 New York’s State Environmental Quality Review Act ...... 154

Pennsylvania Constitution of Pennsylvania ...... 136

Texas Constitution of Texas ...... 136

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Abbreviations

ANET - African Network for Environmental and Economic Justice APEC - Asian Pacific Economic Co-operation Forum AU - African Union BAT - Best Available Technology BPT - Best Practicable Technology CBOs - Community Best Associations CDM - Clear Development Mechanism CERs - Certified Emission Reductions CEFs - Chlorofluoro Carbon CLCP - Comprehensive Land Claims Process CNN - Cable News Network CRWA 2000 - Country Side Kind Rights of Way Act 2000 CRMA - Change Risk Management and Adaptation DEOPs - Decentralised Energy Options DMR - Discharge Monitoring Report DPR - Director of Petroleum Resources EA - Environmental Audit EAR - Environmental Audit Report EES - Environmental Evaluation Study EFCC - Economic and Financial Crime Commission EGASPIN - Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum xviii Industry EIA - Environmental Impact Assessments EIS - Environmental Impact Statement ELI - Environmental Liability Insurance ERA - Environmental Right Action ET - Emission Trading ETF - Environmental Trust Funds FEPA - Federal Environmental Protection Agency FGT - Future Generation Funds FPSO - Floating, Production Storage and Offloading GEF - Global Environmental Facility GHGs - Greenhouse Gases ICCPR - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICPD - International Conference on Population Development IEE - Initial Environmental Examination IIA - Inter-generational Impact Assessment IMO - International Maritime Organization Interpol - International Criminal Police Organization IPCC - Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN - World Conservation Union JPOI - Plan of Implementation LDCF - Least Develop Country Fund LSA - Low Specific Activity MEC - Minis Environmental Compliance MEF - Major Economic Forum MESA - Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs [Egypt] MDGs - Millennium Development Goals MID - Minis Inspectorate Department NDDC - Niger Delta Development Commission NEEDS - National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy NEPAD - New Partnership for Africa's xix

Development NERC - Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission NESREA - National Environmental Standard and Regulations Enforcement Agency NNPC - Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation NOSCP - Nigerian Oil Spill Contingency Plan NOSDRA - National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency OPL - Oil Prospecting Lease PEI - Public Environmental Inquiries PSC - Production Sharing Contracts SCCF - Special Climate Change Fund SIA - Sustainability Impact Assessment SIWI - Stockholm International Water Institute SMREMC - State Mineral Resources and Environmental Management Committees UN - United Nations UNCCD - United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCHE - United Nations Conference on Human Environment UNCLOS - United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCDP - United Nations Development Programme UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WAPPP - West African Power Pool Project WCED - World Commission for Environment and Development WCI - Western Climate Initiative WHO - World Health Organization WCED - World Commission on Environment Development WMO - World Meteorological Organization xx WTO - World Trade Organisation

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