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Digital PET/MRI Inserts for Preclinical Applications

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Digital PET/MRI Inserts for Preclinical Applications “Digital PET/MRI for Preclinical Applications” Von der Fakultät für Mathematik, Informatik und Naturwissenschaften der RWTH Aachen University zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Ingenieurwissenschaften genehmigte Dissertation vorgelegt von Dipl.-Ing. Björn Christian Weißler aus Wilhelmshaven Berichter: Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Volkmar Schulz Univ.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Achim Stahl Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Heberling Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 25.04.2016 Diese Dissertation ist auf den Internetseiten der Universitätsbibliothek online verfügbar. Feedback “Let me just share that I really enjoy seeing this progress! I have followed over the 1.5 year the evolution of this project, which is/was not an easy one. I appreciate the persistence, entrepreneurship and innovation competence at work here by all involved.” François Adrianus "Frans" van Houten, CEO of Royal Philips Electronics. Comment after the presentation on the IEEE NSS/MIC conference (Weissler et al., 2012a). “… it’s a research system that gave spectacular pre-clinical results.” Homer Pien, Senior VP and CTO of Philips Healthcare Comment about the publication in IEEE TMI (Weissler et al., 2015a) “Pretty impressive video and outcome of this project. Congratulations to Björn and the entire team for the great work.” Rene Botnar, Professor of Cardiovascular Imaging at King’ College London Comment about the publication in IEEE TMI (Weissler et al., 2015a) “We were impressed by the performance of the pre-clinical insert technology.” Kees van Kuijk, Head of the Radiology Department at the VU University Medical Center Amsterdam Written statement after a presentation of the results of (Weissler et al., 2015a) Table of Contents 3 Table of Contents 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 8 2. Fundamentals .................................................................................................................. 10 2.1 Positron Emission Tomography .................................................................................. 10 2.1.1 Positron-Emitting Radioactive Decay.............................................................. 10 2.1.2 Interaction of the Gamma Photons with Matter ............................................. 11 2.1.3 PET Scanner .................................................................................................... 12 2.1.4 Tracer and Applications ................................................................................... 13 2.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging ..................................................................................... 14 2.2.1 Nuclei, Spins and the Static Magnetic Field B0 .............................................. 14 2.2.2 Magnetic Resonance and the RF Field B1 ....................................................... 15 2.2.3 Relaxation and Receiving the MR Signal ........................................................ 17 2.2.4 Image Generation and Gradients .................................................................... 18 2.2.5 MRI Sequences ................................................................................................. 20 2.2.6 K-Space, Sampling, Field Of View (FOV), Spatial Resolution, and Bandwidths ...................................................................................................... 23 2.2.7 Contrasts and Applications .............................................................................. 26 2.3 Hybrid Imaging ........................................................................................................... 27 2.3.1 PET/CT ............................................................................................................. 28 2.3.2 PET/MRI........................................................................................................... 28 2.4 Conclusion and Summary ........................................................................................... 31 3. Requirements, Interferences, and Verifications ...................................................... 32 3.1 PET and the Influence from MRI ................................................................................ 32 3.1.1 Requirements on PET Performance Parameters ............................................ 32 3.1.1.1 Energy Resolution ....................................................................................... 33 3.1.1.2 Time Resolution ........................................................................................... 36 Table of Contents 4 Table of Contents 3.1.1.3 Spatial Resolution ........................................................................................39 3.1.1.4 Sensitivity ....................................................................................................41 3.1.1.5 Tracer Activity and Scan Time .................................................................... 42 3.1.1.6 Other Performance Parameters ................................................................... 43 3.1.2 Interferences from MRI .................................................................................... 43 3.1.2.1 Static Magnetic Field ................................................................................... 43 3.1.2.2 RF Excitation and Coils ............................................................................... 45 3.1.2.3 Gradient Switching ...................................................................................... 46 3.1.3 Combined Verification Experiment .................................................................. 48 3.2 MRI and the Influence from PET ................................................................................ 49 3.2.1 B0 Homogeneity ................................................................................................49 3.2.2 Spurious Signals, SNR and Image Uniformity ................................................ 52 3.2.3 Geometric distortions ....................................................................................... 56 3.2.4 Ghosting ............................................................................................................58 3.2.5 Temporal Stability ............................................................................................ 63 3.3 PET/MR Imaging .........................................................................................................64 3.3.1 Phantom studies ...............................................................................................64 3.4 Preclinical Applications ...............................................................................................66 3.4.1 Animal Handling .............................................................................................. 66 3.4.2 Temporal Synchronization ............................................................................... 67 3.5 Conclusion and Summary ............................................................................................ 68 4. Solid-State Detectors in PET/MRI: Components, History and Existing Systems ..............................................................................................................................70 4.1 Avalanche Photo Diodes (APDs) .................................................................................. 70 4.2 Silicon Photomultiplier (SiPMs) .................................................................................. 71 4.3 Existing Systems ..........................................................................................................73 4.3.1 Preclinical PET Systems .................................................................................. 73 4.3.2 Preclinical PET/MRI Systems .......................................................................... 74 4.3.3 Clinical Systems ...............................................................................................76 4.4 Conclusion and Summary ............................................................................................ 76 5. Step I: Analog SiPMs and Integrated Digitization ...................................................77 5.1 The System ...................................................................................................................77 5.1.1 Singles Detection Module (SDM) ..................................................................... 77 5.1.1.1 Detector Stack ..............................................................................................78 5.1.1.1.1 Scintillator Array and Light Guide ............................................................. 78 5.1.1.1.2 SiPMs and Sensor Board ............................................................................. 78 5.1.1.1.3 ASIC and Digitization Board ....................................................................... 79 Table of Contents Table of Contents 5 5.1.1.1.4 FPGA and Interface Board .......................................................................... 81 5.1.1.2 Singles Processing Unit (SPU) .................................................................... 82 5.1.1.2.1 Detector Stack Support ............................................................................... 82 5.1.1.2.2 Firmware Configuration and Debugging .................................................... 84 5.1.1.2.3 Communication ............................................................................................ 85 5.1.1.2.4 B0 Homogeneity Optimization
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