“The 1961 New York City Zoning Resolution, Privately Owned Public

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“The 1961 New York City Zoning Resolution, Privately Owned Public “The 1961 New York City Zoning Resolution, Privately Owned Public Space and the Question of Spatial Quality - The Pedestrian Through-Block Connections Forming the Sixth-and-a-Half Avenue as Examples of the Concept” University of Helsinki Faculty of Arts Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies Art History Master’s thesis Essi Rautiola April 2016 Tiedekunta/Osasto Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos/Institution– Department Humanistinen tiedekunta Filosofian, historian, kulttuurin ja taiteiden tutkimuksen laitos Tekijä/Författare – Author Essi Rautiola Työn nimi / Arbetets titel – Title The 1961 New York City Zoning Resolution, Privately Owned Public Space and the Question of Spatial Quality - The Pedestrian Through-Block Connections Forming the Sixth-and-a-Half Avenue as Examples of the Concept Oppiaine /Läroämne – Subject Taidehistoria Työn laji/Arbetets art – Level Aika/Datum – Month and year Sivumäärä/ Sidoantal – Number of pages Pro gradu Huhtikuu 2016 104 + 9 Tiivistelmä/Referat – Abstract Tutkielma käsittelee New Yorkin kaupungin kaavoituslainsäädännön kerrosneliöbonusjärjestelmää sekä sen synnyttämiä yksityisomisteisia julkisia tiloja ja niiden tilallista laatua nykyisten ihanteiden valossa. Esimerkkitiloina käytetään Manhattanin keskikaupungille kuuden korttelin alueelle sijoittuvaa kymmenen sisä- ja ulkotilan sarjaa. Kerrosneliöbonusjärjestelmä on ollut osa kaupungin kaavoituslainsäädäntöä vuodesta 1961 alkaen ja liittyy olennaisesti New Yorkin kaupungin korkean rakentamisen perinteisiin. Se on mahdollistanut ylimääräisten kerrosneliömetrien rakentamisen tornitaloihin yli asemakaavassa määritellyn neliömääräkaton tiiviin rakentamisen sallivilla alueilla vastineeksi julkisen sisä- tai ulkotilan avaamisesta samalle tontille. Tarjoamalla yhden julkitilaneliömetrin rakennuttaja on parhaimmillaan saanut rakentaa pilvenpiirtäjäänsä kymmenen kerrosneliömetriä lisää tilaa. Käytännössä tornitalot ovat näin nousseet kaavan normaalitilanteessa sallimaa korkeammiksi. Järjestelmän turvin on tähän mennessä rakennettu yli 500 eri kokoista julkista tilaa yli 300 eri kohteeseen ja se on myös tuottanut noin 1,5 miljoonaa lisäkerrosneliömetriä kaupungin, lähinnä Manhattanin alueen, pilvenpiirtäjiin. Kaavoituslainsäädäntö määrittelee 14 erilaista tilatyyppiä, joita kaikkia koskevat eri suunnitteluohjeet ja joista jokaisesta tarjoutuu erikokoinen bonus. Sekä sallitut tilatyypit, niistä tarjoutuvan bonuksen suuruus että niiden suunnitteluohjeet ovat vuosien saatossa muuttuneet useampaan kertaan. Tilat voivat esimerkiksi olla erilaisia aukioita, atriumeja, katettuja jalkakäytävän levennyksiä tai erilaisia ulkona tai sisällä kulkevia reittejä tontin ja sillä sijaitsevan rakennuksen halki. Etenkin osa läpikulkureiteistä on kaupungin tiettyihin kortteleihin jalankulun helpottamiseksi määräämiä edellytyksenä rakennusluvan myöntämiselle. Näistä pakollisista läpikulkureiteistä vain osa on kerryttänyt bonuksia rakentajilleen. Esimerkkeinä käsiteltävistä tiloista kuusi muodostaa kortteleita halkovan, vuoroin ulko- vuoroin sisätilassa kulkevan kävelykadun nimeltä Sixth-and-a-Half Avenue Manhattanin kuudennen ja seitsemännen avenuen välille, loput neljä tilaa taas muodostavat vaihtoehtoisia läpikulkuja tälle vuonna 2012 jalkakäytävillä yhteen liitetylle reitille. Tilat on rakennettu pääasiallisesti 1980- ja 1990- lukujen aikana ja osa niistä on uudistettu viimeisten kymmenen vuoden sisällä. Mukana on niin neliöbonuksia tuoneita kuin pakotettujakin tiloja. Osa niistä tarjoaa käyttäjilleen taukopaikkoja, osa on tarkoitettu vain nopeaan läpikulkuun, osa liittyy kiinteästi tontilla sijaitsevien pilvenpiirtäjien toimintoihin, osa on muista toiminnoista täysin irrallisia, osa on auki aina, osa suljetaan työpäivän päättyessä. Yhteistä kaikille tiloille on se, että vaikka ne sijaitsevat yksityisellä tonttimaalla, ei tonttien haltijoilla ole oikeutta rajoittaa niiden käyttöä, muuten kuin kaupungin määrittämien säännösten puitteissa. Yhteistä on myös se, että tiloille rakennusluvan myöntämisen yhteydessä määritellyt suunnittelu- ja ylläpito-ohjeet ja -rajoitukset pätevät siihen asti, että tontilla sijaitseva rakennus puretaan. Koska tällaiset yksityisomisteiset mutta silti julkiset, kaikille avoimet ulko- ja sisätilat muodostavat merkittävät osan New Yorkin kaupungin julkitilasta, on perusteltua käsitellä myös niiden tilallista laatua kaupunkilaisen tai kaupungissa vierailevan turistin näkökulmasta. Ovatko ne nykyisin hyväksi ymmärrettyä kaupunkitilaa ja jos eivät, miten niitä voisi kehittää, miten ne parantavat jalkaisin liikkuvan ihmisen kokemusta kaupungista, ja ovatko ne todella kaikkien kaupunkilaisten käytettävissä? Laatua tarkastellaan toisaalta kaupungin itse itselleen asettamien tavoitteiden, toisaalta tunnustettujen kaupunkitutkijoiden kuten William H. Whyten, Jan Gehlin ja Jeff Speckin tai American Institute of Architectsin New Yorkin osaston teesien kautta. Arvioinnissa hyödynnetään myös Sixth-and-a-Half Avenuesta muutaman viime vuoden aikana ilmestyneitä lehtiartikkeleita ja kirjoittajan omakohtaista kokemusta tiloista. Tutkielma onkin syntynyt osin juuri näissä käsittelemissään tiloissa. Avainsanat – Nyckelord – Keywords New York, kaavoitus, kaavoituslainsäädäntö, julkinen tila, yksityisomisteinen julkinen tila, hyvä kaupunkitila Säilytyspaikka – Förvaringställe – Where deposited Helsingin yliopiston kirjasto, Keskustakampuksen kirjasto Muita tietoja – Övriga uppgifter – Additional information Tiedekunta/Osasto Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos/Institution– Department Faculty of Arts Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies Tekijä/Författare – Author Essi Rautiola Työn nimi / Arbetets titel – Title The 1961 New York City Zoning Resolution, Privately Owned Public Space and the Question of Spatial Quality - The Pedestrian Through-Block Connections Forming the Sixth-and-a-Half Avenue as Examples of the Concept Oppiaine /Läroämne – Subject Art History Työn laji/Arbetets art – Level Aika/Datum – Month and year Sivumäärä/ Sidoantal – Number of pages Master’s thesis April 2016 104 + 9 Tiivistelmä/Referat – Abstract This thesis talks about the zoning bonus system in New York City and the privately owned public spaces created as part of this system. It also reflects on the spatial quality of the existing spaces. The concept of privately owned public space is discussed with the help of ten indoor and outdoor spaces located within a 6-city-block area in Midtown Manhattan. The zoning bonus system, officially called incentive zoning, was introduced in the 1961 New York City Zoning Resolution. It is a logical continuation to the development of the skyscrapers in the first half of the 20th century and the need to regulate their height and volume, and to secure light and air at street level in a skyscraper intensive city. The bonus system has made it possible to add square meters to those skyscrapers that have already reached the zoning district specific top limit in exchange for the provision of indoor or outdoor public space on the zoning lot. The bonus has varied between three and ten square meters of additional space for each square meter of public space provided. In practice this means that the developers have been able to build taller towers than the base floor area ratio for the zoning lot would otherwise permit. All in all, more than 500 privately owned public spaces have been built since 1961 at more than 300 locations in New York City and especially Manhattan. The built bonused floor area adds up to approximately 1.5 million square meters. The Zoning Resolution and its amendments define 14 different types of privately owned public space that all have their own specific design guidelines and that all have provided the developers with different sized floor area bonuses. The permitted types of space, the sizes of the bonuses, the design guidelines, as well as the permit processes have all varied within the past 50 years. The privately owned public spaces can be different kinds of plazas, atriums, covered sidewalk widenings, arcades or various types of indoor or outdoor routes through the host buildings. In some parts of Manhattan the City of New York has mandated the provision of these public through-block connections. In some case the bonuses have been withheld. Six of the ten spaces discussed here form a 6-block-long mid-block pedestrian passageway called Sixth-and-a-Half Avenue, the other four spaces form two variants to the named route. In 2012 the route located between 6th and 7th Avenues was formalized with the help of street signs and connecting crosswalks. Most of the spaces forming the route and its variants have been built in the 1980’s and the 1990’s with some having been renovated within the past ten years. Of these spaces some have been mandated, some have brought bonuses to their developers. Some offer places to sit, some are only meant for quick walk-throughs. Some are tightly linked to the functions of their host buildings, some are separate corridors. Some are always open, some close at the end of the business day. What is similar to all the spaces is that even if they are located on private property, the property owners cannot control the use or the users of the spaces except for within the City-specified rules of conduct and opening hours. Another shared aspect is that all the spaces will need to follow the design and maintenance guidelines valid at the time the host buildings received their building permits up until the buildings are demolished or a renovation permit is applied for. As these kinds
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