A^ü. i
REPRESENTATIVE DIRECTORS, BLACK THEATRE PRODUCTIONS,
AND PRACTICES AT HISTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
1968-1978
Alex C. Marshall
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
March 1980
Approved by Doctoral Committee:
Graduate College„Representative il
ABSTRACT
This investigation described the status of Black Theatre productions
and practices at four year historically Black Colleges and Universities
with degree programs in Speech and Drama, Speech and Theatre, or Communi
cations. The objectives of this study were: (1) to profile the directors
and their production philosophies and practices; (2) to chronicle and
categorize Black plays produced during 1968-1978; (3) to characterize the
practices in theatre management and (4) to describe trends, and chart some
implications from the data collected.
Primary data for this study was obtained from mailed questionnaires
and thirty-two audio recorded interviews with theatre practitioners at the
43rd National Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts (NADSA) Convention in
Chicago, Illinois, on April 4-7, 1979. Thirty-six questionnaires were mailed and thirty (83%) were returned; twenty-four (66%) were usable for
this investigation.
Results of the study revealed that the directors were academically
trained, experienced, of varying ages, Black, male dominated, and dedicated
The absence of women as theatre directors suggested areas for study to
clarify the reasons for this situation.
Respondents believed that productions should be primarily enter
taining which suggested their having traditional responses to the function of art that has been assailed by the proponents of the Black Arts Movement who call for art as a political influence. Ill
The preponderance of Black plays seemed to confirm the prominent
role of historically Black Colleges and Universities in the dissemination
of Black Drama. The abundance of Black productions on these campuses
provides an excellent opportunity to study, create and develop performance
theories, criteria for the evaluation of Black productions and inquiries
into Black playwrights and their audiences.
Primary sources of funding for productions and related research were
from the University or College Administration. Nonetheless, the efforts by
these directors to secure funds from the private sector, tours, government
grants and student organizations suggested that funding by the administrations was inadequate and that these directors diverted energies for fund raising to maintain their production programs and related research activities.
This investigation with its generalizations and probes clarified the
need and offered some directions toward a research renaissance to address the years of "benign neglect" of both Black Theatre and historically Black
Colleges and Universities as viable areas of scholarly inquiry. IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
From: Alex
Because you love me I have much achieved, Had you despised me then I must have failed, But since I knew you trusted and believed, I could not disappoint you and so prevailed—Paul Lawrence Dunbar
To: Dr. John S. Scott Miss Rita L. Mowry Dr. Ramona T. Cormier Mrs. Shari Cappuzzello Dr. David W. Addington Dr. Winifred 0. Stone Dr. Lois A. Cheney Dr. Robert L. Perry Dr. Charles Boughton Miss Celeste Whitson Mrs. Mintie S. Marshall Mr. Errol R. Lam Mrs. Betty J. Marshall Mr. Harmon Watson Mr. Brandon K. Marshall Grambling State University Miss Kathy J. Duncan Foundation National Association of Speech and Dramatic Arts
Subj ect: Asante! Gracias’. Shei-Shei! Merci! Danke! Thanks! V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM...... 1
Introduction...... 1
Statement of the Problem...... 7
Importance of the Study...... 8
Research Methodology...... 8
Review of the Literature...... 10
Summary...... 13
Footnotes...... 15
CHAPTER II DIRECTORS' PROFILES, PHILOSOPHIES, AND PRACTICES...... 17
Introduction...... 17
Demographic Data on the Representative Directors...... 17
^Definitions of Black Theatre...... 22
Production Philosophies and Perceptions...... 25
Directorial Practices...... 28
^•Summary.. . 32 P
Footnotes, 34
CHAPTER III PROFILE OF BLACK PLAYS PRODUCED 1968-1978...... 36/0
Introduction...... 36
Chronology of Black Plays and Playwrights...... 39
Types of Black Plays Produced...... 41 VI
Page
Frequency of Plays and Playwrights...... 45
Touring of Productions...... 48
Summary...... 50
Footnotes...... 51
CHAPTER IV THEATRE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES...... 52
Introduction...... 52
Funding for Productions andR elated Research...... 53
Promotion and Publicity...... 56 'p
Special Projects...... 58
Audience Analysis and Development...... 62
Summary...... 62
Footnotes...... 66
CHAPTER V SUMMARY, AND IMPLICATIONS...... 67
An Overview of the Research Problem...... 67
Directors’ Profile, Philosophies, and Practices...... 70
Black Plays Produced 1968-1978...... 76
Selected Theatre Management Practices...... 78
Conclusion...... 81
Footnotes...... 83
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 84
APPENDIX A...... 92
APPENDIX B...... 100
APPENDIX C...... 120
APPENDIX ...... 124 vii
Page
APPENDIX E...... 127
APPENDIX F...... 133
APPENDIX G...... 139 viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Education and Teaching Experience of Representative Directors...... , 21
2 Sex and Age of Representative Directors...... 22
3 Rank Order of the Directors' Perceptions of the Theatrical Experience...... 27
4 Rank Order of Directors' Intrinsic Considerations in Selecting a Script...... 121
5 Rank Order of Directors' Extrinsic Considerations in Selecting a Script...... 121
6 Rank Order of Directors' Social Concerns in Selecting a Script...... 122
7 Rank Order of Directors' Considerations in Analyzing the Script...... 122
8 Rank Order of Directors' Perceptions of Their Relationship with Technical Staffs...... 12 3
9 Rank Order of Directors' Perceptions Concerning the Production Training of Students...... 125
10 Rank Order of Directors' Perceptions of the Training of Students' Preparation as Performers...... 125
11 Responses of Representative Directors on Adjunct Production Training of Students...... 12,6
12 Responses of Representative Directors on Participation of Students in Production Activities...... 126
13 Rank Order, Number, and Percentage of Plays Produced 1968-1978...... 38
14 Chronology of Black Plays and Playwrights 1968-1978... 39 IX
Page
15 Chronology of the Number of Black Plays Produced 1968-1978...... 40
16 Purposes of the Black Theatre Productions...... 41
17 Types of Plays Produced 1968-1978...... 43
18 Black Male and Female Playwrights Produced 1968-1978...... 46
19 Most Frequently Produced Full Length Plays and Playwrights 1968-1978...... 47
20 Most Frequently Produced One-Acts 1968-1978...... 47
21 Most Frequently Produced Musicals and Playwrights 1968-1978...... 48
22 Year, Titles, and Types of Productions Toured 1968-1978.... 134
23 Chronology of the Number of Productions Toured 1968-1978... 136
24 Number and Radii of Distances Travelled of Touring Productions 1968-1978...... 13 7
25 Sources of Funding for Touring Productions...... 138
26 Rank Order of Purposes for Touring Productions...... 138
27 Primary Sources for Funding of Productions...... 55
28 Purposes for Researching Production Activities...... 56
29 Types and Purposes of Workshops...... 60
30 The Perceptions of the Audience's Role by Twenty-four Representative Directors...... 140
31 Responses to Audience Analysis and Development Practices...... ’...... 143. CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
You’ve done taken my blues and gone— Sure have! You sing ’em on Broadway. And you sing ’em in Hollywood Bowl. You mixed ’em up with symphonies, And you fixed 'em so they don't sound like me. Yep, you done taken my blues and gone'. You also took my spirituals and gone. Now you've rocked-and-rolled 'em to death! You put me in Macbeth, In Carmen Jones, and Anna Lucasta, And all kinds of Swing Mikados And in everything but what's about me— But someday somebody'll Stand up and talk about me, And write about me— Black and beautiful— And sing about me, And put on plays about me! I reckon it'll be me myself! Yes, it'll be me.—Langston Hughes^
Chapter I is divided into six sections: (1) Introduction;
(2) Statement of Problem; (3) Research Methodology; (4) Importance of
Study; (5) Review of the Literature; and (6) Summary.
Introduction
White and Black observers have pointed with adulation and pride to the tremendous success of such professional stage productions as
Emperor Jones, Lulu Belle, Porgy, In Abraham's Bosom, The Green Pastures,
Golden Boy, Hello Dolly, The Great White Hope, The Wiz, and Timbuktu.
These productions cannot, however, be said to reflect Black Theatre 2
because, in the main, they are not indigenous to black life. And for the most part, Black artists did not write, produce or direct those plays.
The real drama of a people is rooted in their life, reveals their psy chology and, to some extent, receives their financial support.
The professional or commercial theatre has not historically been an authentic reflection of Black people. Alain Locke observes that "the au thenticity of Black Theatre, its rootedness, may be determined by dealing dramatically and artistically with race material and by the development of Black playwrights. "2'*s^fhe Broadway theatre has not produced authentic dramatic representations of Black life or plays focused on racial themes.
For example,|since A Raisin in the Sun between 1960 and 1969 there were some 320 plays, 128 musicals, and 31 revues produced on the Broadway stage.
Of that total, only five plays were written by Black playwrights: Purlie
Victorious—Ossie Davis (1962); Blues for Mister Charlie—James Baldwin and Tamborines to Glory—Langston Hughes (1962); The Amen Corner—James
Baldwin (1965); and Purlie—book by Ossie Davis (1969). ""t"-The 1970-78 era was equally sparse for Broadway productions of plays written by Black playwrights. A few Black-written musicals found their way to Broadway popularity. But when one considers that the prestigious Frank
Silvera Writer's Workshop alone was responsible for more than fifty new
Black plays each year since 1970, the slight number of non-musical Black plays to reach Broadway seemed hardly encouraging even to those who were represented. They were: Charles Gordone's No Place to be Somebody (1971);
Joseph Walker's The River Niger (1973); Ray Arahna's My Sister, My Sister
(1974); Ron Milner's What the Wine Sellers Buy (1975); Ntozake Shange's
For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow is Enuf 3
(1976); and Richard Wesley’s fine play The Mighty Gents (1977) which suffered the indignity of a one-performance Broadway run, yet gained two
Tony Award nominations. Nonetheless, Black regional theatres too, have their peculiar problems.
Since 1900, Black Regional Theatre Groups in America were sporadic and short lived. With few exceptions, they were not able to establish a solid economic base within their various communities. From 1910 through the 1950’s, according to Lofton Mitchell, "seventeen major groups have attempted to build a permanent Harlem Theatre and all have been thwarted chiefly by the lack of local support."-3 Mitchell's book, Black Drama, reviews those early theatres' attempted diverse functions. To the Lafayette
Players, Lincoln Players and Alhambra Players^it meant proving Blacks could do plays like Whites. To the Krigwa Players, Negro People's Theatre, Harlem
Suitcase Theatre, Negro Playwrights Company, American Negro Theatre, Com mittee for the Negro in the Arts Theatre Chapter, People's Showcase Theatre, and Elks Community Theatre it meant portraying Black life with dignity and exposing injustices. To the Harlem Experimental, Rose McClendon Players,
Pioneer Drama Group, and Penthouse Players it meant showing Blacks reacting like Whites in similar settings. And finally, to the Federal Theatre it meant experimentation without financial risk. Outside the New York area, during the same period, the Gilpin Players located in Cleveland, Ohio, now known as The Karamu Theatre, produced plays directed to the Black Community performed by Black actors.
During the late sixties and early seventies Black Theatre in America showed a certain vigor and eloquence. This era came to be variously known as the "Black Arts Movement," "Black Cultural Movement," and the "Revolu tionary Arts Movement"’’However described, this was a period when Black
Theatre groups were established in large cities and small communities
throughout this country J, Many of these groups produced one or two success
ful plays and folded. George Eckstein observed that "together with the
radical political groups, much of the new black theatre groups were reduced
in scone and means and some disappeared altogether."A One of the most
notable groups organized in 1966 by Robert Macbeth and Ed Bullins, The New
Lafayette Theatre, has folded along with its publication, Black Theatre.
"'F Notable Black Theatre groups to survive the late sixties and early
seventies have been Douglas Turner Ward’s Negro Ensemble Company, Barbara
Ann Teer’s National Black Theatre, the AMAS Repertory Theatre, the Fredrick
Douglass Creative Arts Center, the New Federal Theatre, Vinnette Carroll’s
Urban Arts Corps Theatre and Imamu Baraka’s Spirit House Movers. These
sustaining groups have demonstrated Black Theatre as an institution charged with providing focus for Black people’s survival. Simply, they have been
functional Black Theatres, Spirit Houses, where the collected energies of
Black people coalesce to define and re-define the humanistic place of Black people in American society.
f~Black Theatre here then is defined as plays primarily written by, directed by, performed by, accessible to, and thematically centered on the culture, problems, and aspirations of Black people. Paul Carter Harrison further described Black Theatre as "an event—the total impact of environ mental rhythms which massage our senses and arouse the spirit—utilizing
the powerful Kuntu forces—Song-Dance and Drum
Historically Black Colleges and Universities have nurtured the growth and development of Black Theatre. Here historically Black Colleges refers 5 *5
to, "those institutions of higher education that were founded primarily
for Black Americans, Negroes or Colored People, although their charters £ were, in most instances, not exclusionary."0 Of the twenty-four Colleges
and Universities included in this investigation eighteen (75%) are public
and six (25%) are private institutions of higher learning. The earliest
date of the establishment of these Colleges and Universities was 1865 and
the latest date was 1950. The years of existence ranged from twenty-eight
to one-hundred and. thirteen years with an average existence of ninety
years. Student enrollments ranged from seven-hundred and thirty-five to
eight-thousand three-hundred and seventy-six with an average student popu
lation of three-thousand four-hundred and sixteen. As major employers in
their communities, their staff sizes ranged from one-hundred to two-
thousand full-time employees. The median staff size is two-hundred and
thirteen.• These Colleges and Universities are multimillion-dollar educa
tional enterprises whose presidents often are of humble origins. The
faculty size of the historically Black Colleges and Universities in this
investigation ranged from forty-nine to eight-hundred and thirty-one, for
an average of two-hundred and nine. Also, on average, thirty-five percent
of the faculties have earned doctorates.
One of the most influential pioneers in educational theatre, Randolph
Edmonds, has stated that "the college theatre, more so than any other
organization provides fertile soil for the growth and development of Black
Theatre."7 Edmonds believed that one important role of Black Theatre at
Black Colleges and Universities "was as a laboratory for the objective
teaching of drama."8 Edmonds’ greatest contribution to Black educational
theatre was the organizing of the Negro Intercollegiate Drama Association 6 y
and thé Southern Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts which is now known
as the National Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts (NADSA). In 1930,
Edmonds perceived that practically every major subject area in the nation's
schools had its professional organization and that athletics did not become
popular in this country through individualistic intra-mural programs;
consequently, the idea was advanced that an intercollegiate organization in
drama might prove helpful in stimulating interest in Black educational
theatre. Edmonds called a conference of his friends from Howard University,
Hampton Institute, Virginia State College, and Virginia Union. On March 7,
1930, these pioneers met at Morgan State and founded the Intercollegiate
Drama Association. The present departments of Speech Communication and
Theatre Arts at Black Colleges owe their very existence to those bold and
imaginative pioneers.
The NADSA organization's goals were: to encourage the s.tudy of drama
in member schools; to exchange plays and productions; to encourage the
writing and production of plays based upon Black life; to present festivals,
tournaments, professional meetings and workshops; to introduce world drama
to students through classroom study—productions ; and to contribute to a
significant aspect of American and world drama building a National Black
Theatre. Alain Locke declared, "that the development of the newer forms of
drama has proved most successful where laboratory and experimental condi
tions have been obtained and that development of race drama is by those
circumstances the opportunity and responsibility of our educational centers.
Recently, Paul Carter Harrison amplified Locke's and Edmonds' visions stating
that, "ideally, the black playwright/dramatist should have the opportunity
to investigate the viability of his ethnic impulses in a black non-commercial
environment such as the black university."^ 7
For many years then, the historically Black Institutions have been charged with providing for Black playwrights—away from the market place— a place where aesthetic judgements could be exercised with potency, free from economic concessions. Since historically Black Institutions of higher learning have played an important role in the growth, development, and sustaining of Black Theatre, it seemed important and necessary to examine the recent dimensions of Black Theatre productions and practices on these campuses.
Statement of the Problem
In 1917 at Howard University, Dr. Alain Locke and Professor Mont gomery Gregory organized and implemented the Speech and Drama Department which stimulated the development of other Speech and Drama programs at other Black Colleges. Since then, incredibly, there have been only fifty- five doctoral dissertations and fifteen M.A. theses written on or related to Black Theatre/Drama: seventy dissertations and theses in nearly fifty years of American scholarship. One can readily perceive that there is a great void in research on Black Theatre and this study was an attempt to fill that void.
This investigation was designed to describe the present status of
Black Theatre productions and practices at four year historically Black
Colleges and Universities with degree programs in Speech and Drama, Speech and Theatre, or Communications. The objectives of this investigation:
(1) to profile the directors and their production philosophies and practices;
(2) to chronicle and categorize Black plays produced during 1968-1978;
(3) to characterize the selected practices in theatre management; and (4) to describe trends, and chart some implications from the data collected. 8
Importance of the Study
Scholars have long recognized the Importance of society to take a
serious interest in the control of its affairs. tBlack people, particularly, Vbs»«- have seen that lessons could be learned from studying past conditions and
events.fi They now demand accounts about current practices while the infor- mation can still be used as a guide for formulating policies and plans for the future. 1\Bierefore, in order to view the future of Black Theatre it seems necessary to know the recent and current status, condition, and practices of Black Theatre on the campuses of historically Black Institutions
Some of the data collected in this study may serve as a foundation for further research acout Black Theatre on many campuses. This study also pro vides background information from which historically Black schools may indi vidually and collectively examine their theatre production programs. Carter
V. Good has suggested that "a study of the status of conditions at any given time may be repeated later, thus affording descriptions at different periods of time so that comparisons can be made, the direction of change noted and evaluated and future growth guided.Good’s observation provides a basis for the methodological strategies of this study which follows.
Research Methodology
Primary data for this study was obtained from questionnaires sent to the directors in Speech and Drama Departments at thirty public and private four year historically Black Colleges and Universities granting degrees in Drama and whose theatre programs had been in existence for at least ten years. 9
Larry L. Leslie suggested that "the most valuable technique in
gaining responses from the questionnaire is to enlist the cooperation of
an organization suitable for use as the study population.Therefore,
the target organization for this investigation was the aforementioned
National Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts (NADSA). The NADSA roster
of directors was used to compile the mailing list for this study. Question
naires were sent to thirty-six directors at the historically Black Colleges
and Universities. Later, the NADSA Newsletter was sent to member schools by the editor which made an appeal to the directors to cooperate in pro viding data for this investigation. Additionally, at the 1978 NADSA con vention in Memphis, Tennessee, this researcher was given the opportunity
to address the participants regarding the importance of the directors’ responses in enhancing the effectiveness and validity of the study. Of
the thirty-six questionnaires mailed, thirty (83%) were returned and
twenty-four responses (66%) were used. Six (17%) were not used for the
following reasons: the information was not available because a new person was just hired in that position and no records were available; sufficient
information pertinent to this study was omitted; directions were not
adequately followed concerning certain items on the questionnaire; or questionnaires were received after the results had been tabulated. Six
(17%) did not return the questionnaires.
The questionnaire requested information in the following areas:
(1) Departmental Data; (2) Directing Strategies; (3) Training of Students;
(4) Touring of Productions; (5) Funding; (6) Black Theatre Productions;
(7) Promotion and Publicity; (8) Theatre Management; and (9) Demographic
Data on Directors. A copy of the questionnaire is included as Appendix A, 10
page 91. Questionnaires were sent to the thirty historically Black
Colleges and Universities on March 2, 1979. A follow-up letter was
mailed on September 28, 1979. Those schools that had not responded by
November 1, 1979 were contacted by telephone.
The results were tabulated by hand on to sheets and then placed
into tables. A number of the items on the questionnaire required the
respondents to rank their preferences. Responses on each item were
averaged and where appropriate placed in a table showing the rank order,
number, and percentage of responses.
Also, data was gathered from audio recorded interviews with thirty-
two theatre practitioners at the 1979 National Association of Dramatic and
Speech Arts (NADSA) Convention in Chicago, Illinois, April 5-9, 1979. The
following questions were posed to representative Black Theatre practitioners:
(1) What is the present condition of Black Theatre on your campus? (2) What
is Black Theatre? (3) What is your area of expertise? (4) How do you find
fulfillment in your work? Graphic presentations of selective primary re
sponses have been used to facilitate understanding.
Review of the Literature
The review of literature has been divided into two areas: (1) un published dissertations and theses that are related to some aspect to Black
Theatre/Drama and (2) published and unpublished works that are related in
some way to this study, as compiled by University Microfilms International,
Ann Arbor, Michigan. 11
Literature related to Black Theatre/Drama. An exhaustive chrono
logical review for background references and to place the number and types
of scholarly studies in perspective since 1948, is presented in Appendix B,
page 100 . (^Literature related to this study. Again a chronological review is
presented. The book entitled The Negro in the American Educational Theatre:
An Organizational Development (1911-1964) (1964) by Floyd L. Sandle addressed
itself to the history and development of theatre on the campuses of Black
Colleges and Universities. This work examined the role of Little Theatres on those campuses in the development of Black Theatre history. The author wrote about the pioneers and organizations that contributed to the growth
of Black Theatre covering a period of fifty-three years. This study also analyzed the influence of pioneer playwrights and actors in the development of Black Theatre. It also surveyed the work of the Southern Association of
Dramatic and Speech Arts as a factor in the development of educational theatre in Black Colleges by summarizing philosophies, procedures, and problems as indicated in the association’s publications. Sandle's work further traced the growth of the curriculum in Speech and Drama in Black
Colleges.13
The Black Teacher and the Dramatic Arts (1970), contained a section of dialogue among administrators, teachers, and students, concerning the college situation in the dramatic arts. Three areas were discussed: the nature of the problem; the causes; and the solutions. Some of the problem areas were: (1) administration and fellow educators; (2) budget; (3) lack of scholarship support; (4) family and community attitudes; (5) facilities;
(6) instructional overload; and (7) lack of professional ethics. 12
"Sheppard Randoph Edmonds: His Contributions to Black Educational
Theatre." Allen Williams, Ph.D., Indiana University, 1972, focused on
Edmonds’ activities from the beginning of his professional career in 1926
to the present day as a teacher, director, playwright, pioneer, and active
participant in educational theatre organizations. Williams further per
ceived "Edmonds' story in Black educational theatre remains an affirmation
of many achievements rather than a record of total victory for any one of his many efforts."^
"A Study of Educational Theatre Programs in Ten Selected Small
Liberal Arts Colleges in South Carolina." Dale 0. Rains, Ph.D., Louisiana
State University, 1976, presented a record of the theatre programs in ten selected liberal arts colleges in South Carolina from its beginnings through
1973. A historical study, it required an investigation of available histori cal materials and required the researcher’s personal observation of facili
ties, interviews with department chairs, and questionnaires. The study affirmed "the educational theatre at these colleges was a viable academic endeavor. "I*3
"An Analysis of Educational Theatre’s Role in Playwright Development."
Michael Mobley, Ph.D., Florida State University, 1975, examined the hypothesis that educational theatre was not fulfilling its proper role in the develop ment of playwrights. Some of the findings were: (1) Although most of the theatre departments agreed that educational theatre has the potential and the responsibility to develop playwrights, less than half offered one course in playwriting and less than forty-percent regularly worked with new material and (2) Production of new scripts in theatre departments was largely confined 13
to student written scripts. Thus, the non-student playwright was not being supported nor developed. These findings were based upon data from ques tionnaires.
There was a study on "The History of Black Theatre at Bowling Green
State University," M.A. Thesis, March 1977 by Gladys Perry which chronicled and documented the development of production activity of Black Theatre at predominately white Bowling Green State University from 1938-1977. This investigation further explored correlations between Black student enroll-
IQ ment, Black faculty in Theatre, and Black Theatre activity at the University.
"A Study of Selected Ethnic Theatrical Experience Incorporated in the Theatre Programs of American Colleges and Universities," Dana Carpenter,
Ph.D., Kansas State University, 1977, attempted to determine the extent to which the selected ethnic theatrical experience was incorporated in the content and performing areas of the theatre programs of American Colleges and Universities. Data for this survey was obtained from questionnaires.
Some pertinent conclusions were: (1) Colleges and Universities made limited attempts to make provisions for the inclusion of selected ethnic theatrical experiences in production and research and (2) Only Black institutions made 19 the Black theatrical experience a high priority in content and performance.
This review of literature revealed no study which concentrated on the investigation of the status of Black Theatre productions and practices at historically Black Colleges and Universities during 1968-1978.
Summary
The problem of this investigation was to describe the present status of Black Theatre productions and practices at four year historically Black 14
Colleges and Universities with degree programs in Speech and Drama, Speech
and Theatre or Communications from 1968-1978. The objectives were: (1) to
describe the profiles of the directors, production philosophies, and practices; (2) to chronicle and categorize Black plays produced during
1968-1978; and (3) to characterize selected practices in theatre management;
(4) to describe trends and implications from the data collected.
In order to describe the present status of Black Theatre productions and practices of representative directors at historically Black Colleges and Universities a survey questionnaire was used (Appendix A? page 92).
The questionnaire requested information in the following areas; (1) Depart mental Data; (2) Directing Strategies; (3) Training and Participation of
Students; (4) Touring of Productions; (5) Funding; (6) Black Theatre Pro ductions; (7) Promotion and Publicity; (8) Theatre Management; and (9) Demo graphic Data on Directors. The questionnaire was mailed to thirty-six directors and twenty-four (66%) respondents were used in this study. Where appropriate, the results were tabulated and placed in tables showing the rank order, number, and percentage of responses.
A review of the literature related to Black Theatre/Drama (Appendix B, page l<3.0) revealed that there has been no study which concentrated on the present status of Black Theatre productions and practices at historically
Black Colleges and Universities during 1968-1978. A view of the profiles, philosophies and practices of representative directors follows in Chapter
Two. 15
CHAPTER I — FOOTNOTES
^-Selected Poems: Langston Hughes (New York: Random House, Inc., 1974), p. 190.
^W. D. Wright, "The Cultural Thought and Leadership of Alain Locke," Freedomways XIV (First Quarter, 1974), 41.
^Lofton Mitchell, "Harlem has Broadway on its Mind," Theatre Arts XXXVII (June, 1953), 68.
^George Eckstein, "Softened Voices of Black Theatre," (Summer, 1976), 306.
^Paul Carter Harrison, Kuntu Drama: Plays of the African Continuum (New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1974), p. 7.
^Elia Blake, Jr., Linda Lambert, and Joseph L. Martin, Research Report (Washington, D.C. Institute for Services for Education, 1974), p. 10.
^Randolph Edmonds, "What Good Are College Dramatics?"' Crisis XLI (August, 1934), 234.
^Randolph Edmonds, "Some Whys and Wherefores of College Dramatics" Crisis XXXVII (March, 1930), 92.
^Alaine Locke, "Steps Toward the Negro Theatre," Crisis XXV (December, 1922), 66-67.
^Harrison, Kuntu Drama: Plays of the African Continuum, p. 6.
^-Carter V. Good, A. S. Barr, and Douglas Seates, The Methodology of Educational Research. (New York: Appleton-Century Company, 1941), p. 289.
1 9 Leslie, Larry L. "Increasing Response Rates to Long Questionnaires Journal of Educational Research, LXlll (April, 1970), 348.
13Floyd Sandle, The Negro in the American Educational Theatre: An Organizational Development (1911-1964) (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Brothers, Inc., 1964).
1^William R. Reardon and Thomas D. Pawley, eds. The Black Teacher and theDramatic Arts: A Dialogue, Bibliography, and Anthology. (Connecticut: Negro Universities Press, 1970), pp. 13-46.
^Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 33, No. 11, 1971, p. 6502. 16
16Ibid., Vol. 37, No. 5, 1976, p. 2507-A.
17lbid., Vol. 36, No. 8, 1976, p. 4863-A.
18Master Abstracts: A Catalog of Selected Master Thesis on Micro film, 1977, p. 21.
19Dissertation Abstracts International. Vol. 38, 1977, p. 3143-A. CHAPTER II
DIRECTORS’ PROFILES, PHILOSOPHIES, AND PRACTICES
When a man starts out to build a world, He starts with himself. Then the mind starts seeking a way, His eyes look out on the world, The eyes see there materials for building, See difficulties, too, and the obstacles. The hand seeks tools to cut the wood, To till the soil, and harness the power of the waters. Then the hand seeks other hands to help, Then the dream becomes not one man’s dream alone, But a community dream Belonging to all hands who build.""Langston Hughes1
Chapter II is divided into six sections: (1) Introduction;
(2) Demographic Data on Representative Directors; (3) Definitions of Black
Theatre; (4) Production Philosophies and Perceptions; (5) Directorial
Practices; and (6) Summary.
Introduction
Today play directing is recognized as an art in its own right. As Ruth Klein observes in a theatrical production ^'it is not enough that the
audience see and hear the actors; they must see and hear the playT^/only
the director can make that possible.Thus, the director is placed in a
unique position to bring about the effective fusion of the visual, aural,
and emotional elements of a production. Because of this responsibility as
a unifying force the play director is placed at the center of the theatri cal triangle described by John Dietrich as "composed of the author who had 18
created the script, the actors and technicians who expressed the author’s
ideas in action, and the audience for whom the play was produced.Con
sequently, because of the nature of his position in the theatrical ex
perience, the director is a very influential figure. Therefore, for this
study, it was necessary to examine the backgrounds, philosophies and
practices of the directors at the historically Black Colleges and Uni
versities. On these various campuses, directors can influence (1) the
scope and direction of Black Theatre; (2) the credibility of Black Theatre;
and (3) the development of Black playwrights, actors, directors, techni
cians and audiences.
Directors are integral to the scope of Black Theatre on these
campuses. They have the opportunity to determine that production programs remain free from censorship that may be arbitrary and irresponsible. In his book, The Black Teacher and the Dramatic Arts, William Reardon observed
that "growing out of the basically conservative, traditional, and even
reactionary attitudes on many campuses was the spector of censorship.
Educational directors are influential in the development of trends in Black
Theatre in that they "work out an idea of a theatre appropriate for our time—should be the supreme concern of educational theatre.
Directors can keep the Black theatrical experience from becoming locked into the naturalistic/realistic mode. The educational Black director, particularly, may prevent this limitation and avoid projecting only those theatrical experiences in the realistic context born out of a vacuum struggling for identity without roots. As Paul C. Harrison has suggested, 19
It is one thing to report with naturalistic/realistic details our struggle for existence as a people, but it’s quite another matter to inform the images with the cosmic potency of Race Memory necessary to spiritually impart the wisdom of our ancestors so that we might learn, via the theatricalized event, how to deal with struggle.6
Hence, to insure an unlimited direction for Black Theatre directors may need to employ "dramaturgical modes that would liberate the creative expression from the grips of sociology and project theatrical experience beyond the descriptive sociogrammatic character of oppression."? Directors unquestion ably have the opportunity to make sure that Black Theatre productions are creatively experimental. We are reminded by Harold Cruse that "the Black
Theatre must experiment in order to live and never cease to experiment. This is the only way Black Theatre can maintain a high level of creativity and a g promising future."
I Directors affect the credibility of Black Theatre, and Theatre is an important factor in the educational process. In some quarters, however, Black
Theatre has been limited as extra-curricular, tolerated as window dressing for the yearbook and as low priority in funding and upgrading. Where these atti tudes and practices prevail the director can use charisma and competent pro ductions to reorient those with negative attitudes toward the arts in general and Black Theatre in particular.
Directors are crucial to the development of future Black playwrights, technicians, and audiences. Historically, the greatness of any dramatic period was linked to its great playwrights. The directors in education can sense those students who show some promise in playwriting and provide oppor tunities for their growth through courses, workshops, professional organi zations, contests, and—more important—by producing their new scripts. 20
Similarly, the development of students with special talents in directing,
acting, design, costuming, and lighting is vital. Finally, through their
choices and practices, directors are potent forces in the growth and develop
ment of Black audiences, for without their support there cannot be an authen
tic Black Theatre.
Because the director on the educational scene generally remains on
one campus long enough to have an influence on that Black Theatre, it seemed
vital to examine the personal profiles, philosophies and practices of those
directors. Following are those profiles.
Demographic Data on Representative Directors
It was important to examine the demographic data of the directors
included in this study because of their influence and because of past and
present attitudes concerning the quality of faculties at historically Black
Colleges and Universities. Fredrick Chambers notes that "historically the
Black College and University in the United States has been both the subject
of a continuing controversy concerning the quality of its collegiate 9 education." A controversial Jencks and Riesman study in 1963 declared
Black Colleges and Universities as "academically inferior and academic
disaster areas.This article created quite a fervor among Black College presidents and several replied to those conclusions reached by Jencks and
Riesman as "generalizations that were not substantiated; the resurrection of ancient moribund stereotypes; and not reasoned judgements based on actual findings."11 In addition, there has been some concern over the effect of the "Brain Drain" on Black Colleges and Universities as a result of the scramble by White Colleges and Universities to recruit Black doc
torates . Throughout these charges and countercharges and the alleged 21
"Brain Drain," Black Colleges and Universities and their faculties have
served and continue to serve students in higher education.
When one looks at the education and experience of these directors
(Table 1) there is a balanced mixture of graduate degrees and experience.
Of the respondents to the questionnaire, twelve (50%) held the M.A. degree,
eleven (46%) held the Ph.D. degree, and one (4%) held the M.F.A. degree.
Seventeen (71%) had experience in theatre between eleven and twenty-four
years.
TABLE 1
Education and Teaching Experience of Representative Directors 1978
Degree Number Percentage Years of Teaching Number Percentage Experience
M.A. 12 50 1-5 3 12
Ph.D. 11 46 6-10 3 12
M.F.A. 1 4 11-15 6 26
16-24 11 46
25- + 1 4
Total 24 100 Total 24 100
N = 24
Of the twenty-four respondents, twenty-one (88%) were Black Americans
and three (12%) were Caucasians. There were no Hispanic, Native American,
nor Asian American directors on these faculties. The directors' gender was male-dominant and age variant. However, the greatest concentration (Table 2) between the ages of 30 and 44 (59%). 22
TABLE 2
Sex and Age of Representative Directors
Sex Number Percentage Age Number Percentage
Male 21 88 20-24 1 4
Female 3 12 25-29 4 17
30-34 2 8
35-39 6 25
40-44 8 34
45-49 2 8
50-59 1 4
Total 24 100 Total 24 100
N = 24
These academically trained, considerably experienced, varied aged, and male preponderant group of director’s definitions of Black Theatre and production philosophies follow.
Definitions of Black Theatre
People have defined theatre in many ways, regarding tangible and intangible events, people, places, and times. jjThus, Black Theatre, too, has been affected by not only what is defined, but how it is defined and, importantly, who is defining. Whether one's own or someone else’s, the definition ,often becomes the hinge on which minds turn, open, or close; thereby, a definition of Black Theatre is both legitimate and variable.
Generally, people ascribe legitimacy and credibility to definitions made by 23
someone of their own reference group: someone with needs, interests, goals,
and backgrounds similar to their own,
| The directors interviewed at the 43rd National Association of
Dramatic and Speech Arts (NADSA) Convention in Chicago during April 5-7,
1979, were asked to define Black Theatre from their own individual per
spectives. This discussion points out some of the similarities, differences,
and dimensions in their definitions.. Many directors agreed that Black
Theatre is about Black people, written by and for Black people. For
example, Ethel Pitts defined Black Theatre as "that theatre which gears
itself toward the Black perspective and involves topics that deal with the
Black experience and Black people."12 Similarly, Phil Williams expressed
that "Black Theatre should be, and is to me, a theatre that is produced, directed, and written by Blacks—>the theme is focused on Black culture and
life styles with the artistic production deriving from the Black concept."13
However, there was some disagreement with this concept. For example, Joseph
Atkins expressed:
Black Theatre? Define? Definition? Why 1 say that is because we are working and living in a culture that is not Black. What I mean by that 1 don't exactly know. Except that this country is a melting pot as far as the races are living in and working together are concerned. So we do a play, say Macbeth, and it is done by all Black actors and Black directors in a Black Theatre. Now, do you have Black Theatre? Because Shakespeare was not Black. Now let's turn it around, let's take a Black play by a Black writer, about Black people, done by Black actors and Black directors and we do it on a white man's stage. Is it Black Theatre? I mean we are never alone as far as theatre is con cerned. So it is difficult to say what Black Theatre really is.l^
W. D. Cox stated that "there is no such thing as Black Theatre but theatre about Black people."^ Similarly, Charles Thomas perceived that "Black
Theatre was established for Afro-Americans—their plays, playwrights, and technicians, in order to promote and preserve Black culture. For some, 24
Black Theatre possessed other dimensions and qualities such as being in
digenous and ritualistic, reflective—a theatre of commitment, distinction
and opportunity. Horace P. Caple stated that "Black Theatre has its own
indigenous traits—meshed in the concept of ritual. There is more of a
we than us and them in Black Theatre.On the reflective quality of
Black Theatre, Maisha Hazzard expressed that "Black Theatre is a reflection
of Black life. Hopefully, a positive view. xo Dr. Robert L. Steven further
observed that "Black Theatre reflects all strata of Black life. Hence, I
am not willing to place it in one pigeon hole. Any Black play that re- 19 fleets some segment of Black life, as I view it, is Black Theatre."
"Black Theatre is committed to the showcasing of Black Theatre to the
world," according to Dr. John M. Kilimajoro, "and we must be committed to
doing plays by Black playwrights. "zu^Dr^ Patricia Caple, a past president
of NADSA, declared that "there must be a distinction between theatre by
Black people; theatre about Black people; and theatre of ’Negro partici
pation’ to arrive at a true Black TheatreF?^'33- Regarding the opportunity
that Black Theatre affords, Dr. Allen Williams expressed that, "I see Black
Theatre as an opportunity for many of our Black students to get involved in works that are written by Black playwrights and to point out some historical and economic aspects of the Black man."22
^Finally, Joe Stevens’ comments synthesizes a prevailing definition of the dimensions of Black Theatre:
Simply, I see it as being theatre of, by, and for Black people. Black people in this country, people all over the world Black, white, yellow, red, are different, We have a different ancestral line. We know now that we come from different parts of the globe and that we react to certain things differently, we have a different aesthetic, For someone to say that Black 25
Theatre is a waste of time or that it does not exist is to say then Black people do not exist. . . . You have to say that Black Theatre exists and it is important in that it is the Theatre of a group of people who occupy this earth.23
Production Philosophies and Perceptions
Production philosophies give theatre programs scope and direction.
A director's philosophy may serve to measure whether the production program is relevant to the needs and potential of its constituents. Moreover, one may be able to perceive the scope and direction of Black Theatre by examining the philosophies of educational play directors. The objective here was to describe any major differences and similarities of the philosophies of representative directors at historically Black educational institutions.
Reflected in the questionnaire responses, the general trend in production philosophy was that productions should be educational and entertaining.
For example, one director stated that his production philosophy was
"to offer the kind of theatre that would provide an educational experience 24 as well as an entertaining one."
However, there were two constrasting production philosophies that presented other dimensions. One director stated that his production philosophy was:
to do good plays; to offer students in plays and in audiences a meaningful theatrical experience; to present good drama; and to give them a broad and a beneficial ex perience, I do not, and most students care not, to lock them in just a black theatrical experience. It is too limiting and it is not life—the thing that drama is about.25 26
Another director expressed his philosophy thus.:
I believe in doing plays which instruct and entertain, particularly in regard to raising Black consciousness, I also believe in doing works by Black playwrights because pre dominantly Black Colleges are their chief source of exposure. Though 1 believe in exposing our audiences to a variety of plays, 1 do not believe plays by white playwrights are necessary to achieve this variety. Black playwrights write on a variety of subjects. Matters being what they are, I feel a duty and a need to promote Black playwrights.26
Moreover, a unique philosophy that focused on professional preparation was stated by another director:
To do plays which will give our Theatre/Cinema students the best experiences—the most useful experiences for them as potential professional performers/directors/writers—or as teachers of theatre. In the current stage of development of our theatre, it is more useful to all concerned for us to do contemporary Black plays than it is to do "The Classics."27
General production philosophies, then, in the main seemed to have a commitment to produce black plays well. One director expressed a philosophy that was at once nationalistic and traditional,
We are an educational theatre institution. We are, therefore, committed to exposing our students to all types of theatre in its historical development. We are, however, aware of the lack of attention and support given to the black playwright, in the past. In selecting our seasons, we make a special effort to produce the works of new and old black playwrights along with more traditional American and European plays.28
Perceptions of the theatrical experience. Since directors are at the center of the theatrical experience, they are in a position to control information and determine the style in which that information will be projected. Director’s perceptions of the ’’theatrical experience" can also 27
decide approaches to working with actors, technicians and the relationship
of the audience to the "event.” As Harrison observes, the event as opposed
to the play, is the thing, the total impact of environmental rhythms that
massage our sensitivities and rouse the spirit by utilizing those power
ful Kunta forces—Song-Dance-Drum—to capture the rhythms of that life,
committing the community to a form of total engagement,29 Consequently,
there was significance in describing how these directors in this study
perceived the theatrical experience. Their ranked perceptions (Table 3)
were that the theatrical experience was: a social activity; an emotional
and intellectual motivator of behavior; formed an effective aesthetic and
collective catharsis; and provided a meaningful and vibrant experience.
Lowest ranked was the theatrical experience as a producer of collective
catharsis.
TABLE 3
Rank Order of the Directors' Perceptions of the Theatrical Experience
Percentage Perceptions Rank Responses of Responses
Social Activity 1st 16 66
An Emotional and Intellectual Motivator of Behavior 2nd 21 87
Forms an Effective Aesthetic Catharsis 3rd 23 95
Is Vibrant and Meaningful 4 th 24 100
Producer of a Collective Catharsis 5 th 22 91
N = 24 * Table 3 and others similarly designed, the variance of percentage of re sponses occurs because either directors did not respond to all items or because more choices were available than the top five ranked responses. 28
The distance between one’s philosophies and directing practices has
sometimes been revealing. The description of selected directorial practices
is next.
Directorial Practices
The roads to success and failure have been numerous in the field of directing and have been travelled by many diverse personalities, using a wide assortment of methods. However, there are some directorial practices that can be viewed, described and included by the production strategist in preparation for mounting and presenting a production. In this study the factors considered were play selection, play analysis, and the directors' relationship with the technical staff.
Play Selection. When asking numbers of people to contribute their energies and irretrievable time toward making and seeing a play, the director has an ethical obligation to select something that will be exciting to him, challenging to the actors and potential audience—worth doing and worth viewing. In addition, selection often involves questions of theatre policy, continuity, production personnel, and budget. Therefore, the director needs an intrinsic approach to aid him in selecting a play. This approach uses the script as a basis for play selection. The directors' ranked the intrinsic values (Table 4—Appendix C, page 12i) as: dramatic possibilities; plot or story; language; theme or meaning; personal vibrations; and characters.
Another means of selecting the script is by considering extrinsic concerns which focus on the script and its relationship to external causes.
A summary of those considerations by directors that may exist outside the text and may be useful in script selection is summarized (Table 5—Appendix 29
C, page 121). Their ranked considerations were: an appeal to self, actors, and productions staff; scenic requirements; appropriateness to audience; play’s adaptability; and casting and budget limitations.
Historically, social problems have represented the fabric of many plays. With its creative thrust a play may provide social solutions and alternatives to an audience and thereby enrich their human relationships.
Accordingly, social elements have been used as a means for selecting a script. Ranked responses from these representative directors regarding their social concerns in selecting a script is presented (Table 6—Appendix
C, page 122). They were: teaching that the individual has control over his/her own life; expressing the social concerns for the real needs of the
Black community; moving people toward solutions; supporting Black conscious ness; and raising social awareness.
Play Analysis. Before the director begins to work with a cast and production staff, there is a need to objectify an interpretation of the script. Table 7 (Appendix C, page 122) illustrates responses on consider ations by directors when analyzing a script and the rank order of those accounts. The respondents ranked considerations were: the definition of the play's theme; definition of the emphasis, point of view, or approach the director wishes to present; analysis of characters and their motives; pre paration of the text for production; and to study critical appraisals of the
Play.
Directors’ relationships with staff. The director as an effective stra tegist is able to get along with all sorts of people and will possess an apti tude for flexibility in order to see another’s point-of-view as well as his own. The effective director does everything possible to cultivate the group spirit among co-workers on the production. Table 8 (Appendix C, page 123) 30
shows the perceptions of the directors' ideas regarding their relationships to the technical staff. These representative directors ranked in importance their roles as: co-ordinator; chief executive; receptive to each individual’s area of expertise; part of a problem-solving team; and as an administrator.
Four directors (16%) perceived their role to be that of final authority.
Student production training and participation. A survey made by the
American Educational Theatre Association showed that each year fifteen thou sand students were enrolled in theatre courses and one-hundred thousand under graduates were involved in play production.30 The enrollment of Speech and
Drama/Theatre or Communications majors in this study ranged from one-hundred and fifty to twelve, a total of one-thousand and thirty-seven students. The average enrollment of theatre student majors was forty-three. Therefore, it is useful to know how directors view the training of these students. Their views on the production training of students and the rank order of those perceptions is illustrated (Table 9—Appendix D, page 125). The repliers ranked the training of students for productions purposes as: a primary focus; necessary for the continuance and expansion of the program; and part of the survival of Black Theatre.
While Broadway productions have steadily declined, colleges and uni versities have been engaged in building large supporting audiences by pro ducing repertories of worthwhile plays. "There were some seventy playhouses in New York in 1920"31 and "there are less than thirty today [1972] and many of these are being threatened with being torn down."32 Vital to the interest of Black Educational theatre’s growth and development is student involvement in decision-making in college production programs. Additionally, there is the importance of adequate training to meet the demands of diminishing commercial 31
theatre opportunities. Table 10 (Appendix D, page 125) reveals the re sponses of directors concerning skills emphasized in the production training of students. These ranked selected skills were: role analysis, ensemble playing, characterization, concentration, and voice.
Revealed (Table 11—Appendix D, page 126) is the level of adjunct student training and support indicated by the representative directors.
Twenty-three (96%) encouraged students to join professional organizations.
Seventeen (70%) offered workshops for students outside their regular curri culum. However, only nine 0-5%) indicated that their departments offered scholarships to outstanding theatre students.
Trends and practices in theatre arts are constantly changing. There are changes in directing, acting, dramatic literature, criticism, design, and technical materials. One way to keep abreast of those changes is through affiliation with professional organizations. Thus, it was important to per ceive how these directors supplemented their students’ training to meet the demands of the growth and development of the theatrical arts. These directors indicated that their students were encouraged to join the following organi zations: (1) The National Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts; (2) Ameri can Theatre Association; (3) Speech Communications Association; and (4) Theta
Alpha Phi. Students were encouraged to take part in regional or state organi zations such as the Ohio, Texas, and Georgia Theatre Associations. Students were also encouraged to join the National Dramatic Fraternity, Alpha Psi
Omega. A total of one-hundred and nineteen scholarships were awarded to theatre students from nine Colleges and Universities, represented by these directors.
There is no substitute for students’ actual involvement in all phases of the theatrical arts. Because there is great reward in learning by doing, 32
there is a need for students to be involved in directing, acting, play
writing—all aspects of theatre. Table 12 (Appendix D, page 12.6), illustrates
what opportunities were available to students through participation. All
twenty-four (100%) of the respondents provided opportunities for students to
direct plays for public viewing. Nineteen (79%) produced student written
plays as a part of their regular season. Also, nineteen (79%) encouraged
students to participate in literary and dramatic competitions.
Students entered such competitions as: auditions for summer stock
companies, playwriting, acting, interpretive readings, dramatic monologues,
extemporaneous speaking, debate, and one-act play festivals.
Summary
A review of the directors’ profiles, philosophies, and practices re
veals that these representative directors were substantially academically
trained, were of varied ages and experience and were Black male dominant.
The respondents, in the main, defined Black Theatre as written, acted, pro
duced by Black people and thematically centered around Black history and
culture. Additionally, Black Theatre was regarded as: indigenous, ritual
istic, reflective, distinctive—a theatre of opportunity and commitment.
The general trend in the production philosophies of these directors was that the production should be educational and entertaining and perceived
the theatrical experience as a social activity. Further, these directors believed a production should be an emotional and intellectual motivator, form
an aesthetic and collective catharsis and be vibrant and meaningful.
The directors' ranked intrinsic considerations in selecting a script were: the dramatic possibilities; the plot or story; language; the theme or meaning; personal vibrations and character. Extrinsically they ranked: 33
appeal to self actors and staff; scenic requirements; appropriateness to an audience; a play’s adaptability; casting, and budget limitations. The directors’ ranked social concerns in selecting a script were: teaching that the individual has control over his/her own life; expressing social concerns for the real need of the Black community; moving people toward solutions; supporting Black consciousness; and raising social awareness. Their ranked considerations in analyzing the script were: definition of the play’s theme and the emphasis; point of view or approach they wished to present; analysis of characters and their motives; preparation of the text for production; and the study of critical appraisals of the plays.
In their relationship to their technical staffs, they ranked their roles to be that of: co-ordinator; chief executive; receptive to each indi vidual’s area of expertise; part of a problem-solving team; and as an ad ministrator. Additionally, these directors ranked the importance of their students production training as: a primary focus; necessary to the conti nuance and expansion of their programs; and ultimately, part of the survival of Black Theatre. They thought that, by importance, the students should have training in role analysis, ensemble playing, characterization, concentration, and voice. These directors encouraged their students to join professional organizations, provided workshops outside the student’s regular curriculum but could not adequately provide scholarships for them. All directors in cluded in this study provided opportunities for their students to direct plays for public viewing. Student written plays were presented as a part of the regular season and students were encouraged to enter literary and dramatic competitions. A profile of Black plays produced follows in Chapter III. 34
CHAPTER II — FOOTNOTES
^Selected Poems Langston Hughes, (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), P. 291. 2 Ruth Klein, The Art and Technique of Play Directing, (New York: Rinehart and Company, 1953), p. 3. 3 John E. Dietrich, Play Direction, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1953), p. 56. 4 William R. Reardon and Thomas D. Pawley, eds., The Black Teacher and the Dramatic Arts, (Connecticut: Negro Universities Press, 1970), p. 36
^George H. Henry, "Toward a Theatre of Our Time," Educational Theatre Journal, X (March, 1958): 9. 6 Paul C. Harrison, "Black Theatre and the African Continuum," Black World, August, 1972, 43. 7Ibid. g Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, (New York: William Morrow Company, 1967), p. 529. 9 Fredrick Chambers, "Histories of Black Colleges and Universities," Journal of Negro Education LVII (July, 1972), 270. ■^Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, "The American Negro College," Harvard Educational Review XXXIII (Winter, 1967), 4. 11 "The American Negro College: Four Responses and a Reply," Harvard Educational Review XXXIII (Winter, 1967), 451-468. 12 An Interview with Ethel Pitts, Director, Lincoln University, NADSA Convention, 7 April 1979. 13 An Interview with Phil Williams, Director, Kennedy-King College, NADSA Convention, 5 April 1979. l^An Interview with Joseph Atkins, Associate Professor of English, Fort Valley State College, (Retired), NADSA Convention, 6 April 1979.
An Interview with W. D. Cox, Technical Director, Tennessee State University, NADSA Convention, 6 April 1979. l^An Interview with Charles Thomas, Director, Black Theatre Workshop, College of Staten Island, NADSA Convention, 6 April 1979. 35
l?An Interview with Horace P. Caple, Editor of Encore, NADSA Con vention, 7 April 1979. 18 An Interview with Maisha Hazzard, Director, Philander Smith College, NADSA Convention, 6 April 1979. 19 An Interview with Dr. Robert L. Stevenson, Professor of Theatre, Savannah State College, NADSA Convention, 7 April 1979. 20 An Interview with Dr. John Kilimajaro, Professor of Theatre, North Carolina A & T State University, NADSA Convention, 7 April 1979. 21 An Interview with Dr. Patricia Caple, President of NADSA, 7 April 1979. 22 An Interview with Dr. Allen Williams, Professor of Speech and Drama, Grambling State University, NADSA Convention, 8 April 1979. 23 An Interview with Joe Stevens, Technical Director, Hampton In stitute, NADSA Convention, 5 April 1979. 24 An Interview with I. D. Thompson, Director, Le Moyne-Owen College, NADSA Convention, 6 April 1979. 25 An Interview with Dr. Fred Hall, Chair of the Division of Fine Arts, Spelman College, Atlanta, Georgia, 18 July 1979. 26 An Interview with Dr. Curtis L. Williams, Associate Professor of Speech/Theatre, Albany State College, Albany, Georgia, 6 November 1979. 27 An Interview with Dr. Harry L. Garr, Area Coordinator, Theatre/ Cinema, Texas Southern University, Houston, Texas, 2 March 1979. 28 An Interview with Linda Kerr Norflett, Chairperson, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina, 6 March 1979. 29 Paul C. Harrison, ed., Kunta Drama: Plays of the Africa Continuum, (New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1974), p. 7. 30 Kenneth Graham, ed., "Relationships Between Educational Theatre and Professional Theatre," Educational Theatre Journal, XVIII (November, 1966), 319. 31 John Mason Brown, Dramatis Personae, (New York: The Viking Press, 1963), p. 4. 32 Hardie Albright, Stage Direction in Transition, (California: Dicker- son Publishing Company, 1972), p. xi. CHAPTER III
PROFILE OF BLACK PLAYS PRODUCED 1968-1978
The night is beautiful, So are the faces of my people. The stars are beautiful, So are the eyes of my people. Beautiful, also, is the sun. Beautiful, also, are the souls of my people.—Langston Hughes^-
This chapter focuses on plays written about the "souls of Black people." It is divided into six sections: (1) Introduction; (2) Chronology of Black Plays and Playwrights; (3) Types of Black Plays Produced; (4) Fre quency of Black Plays and Playwrights; (5) Touring of Productions; and
(6) Summary.
Introduction
The production of plays is a vital element in educational theatre.
A play is written to be acted and is not complete until it unfolds on stage before an audience. Randolph Edmonds observes:
The procedure in some colleges to read plays, note the historical background and sources, and apply to them a few rules of criticism is not enough. However, to see an idea projected on the stage and by successive steps of action and dialogue run the gamut of human emotions is to get a better appreciation of and insight into the medium as an art form.2
Not only do productions serve an educational purpose by increasing the appre ciation of literature, but they also may stimulate the theatrical imagi 37
nation of students so that they may read other dramas with more understanding.
A production has a special significance for its participants because when a student accepts a role in a production and must undergo what the part requires, he "brings himself to the part, the part brings something to him; the edu cation lies in his evaluation of this interaction, which results in a gener alization about the experience."3 Productions are vital to the college com munity by enhancing their appreciation and understanding of theatre. In many localities the educational institution's productions are the only contact community people have with living theatre. Kenneth MacGowan supported this point of view when he stated that "the heart of the living stage of today is 4 the educational theatre." Consequently, it was important to examine the number and types of productions performed on the campuses of these histori cally Black Institutions.
During the 1968-1978 period, there were a total of seven-hundred sixty- two plays produced. Two hundred and ninety three Black plays were produced which constituted 38% of the total productions and the greater portion of plays produced. The remaining 62% covered a variety of types which exposed the college students and communities to varied theatrical experiences
(Table 13). 38
TABLE 13
Rank Order, Number, and Percentage of Plays Produced 1968-1978
Type Rank Number Percentage
Black Plays 1st 293 38
Modern American 2nd 178 23
Original Plays (New) 3rd 88 12
Classics 4 th 82 11
Recent Broadway Shows 5th 73 9
Modern European Classics 6 th 15 7
Total 762 100
N = 24
Additionally, there were fifty plays of other types produced and classified as operas and Oriental Musicals, Variety Shows, Poetry Ensembles,
Dance Dramas, Children’s Plays, and African Dramas. Notably, African Drama was a specialty at Spelman College in Atlanta. Now retired, Dr. Baldwin
Burroughs has done extensive research, published articles, and compiled a script collection of African plays.
Previously noted, the representative directors in this study were predominately male, with varied educational experience and training. Also, these directors agreed, in the main, that Black Theatre should be educational, entertaining, written by Black playwrights primarily for the Black audience.
Still further, the greater percentage of plays produced during the 1968-1978 period were Black plays. Following is a chronology of those Black plays and playwrights produced during that ten year period. 39
Chronology of Black Plays and Playwrights
The definition of Black plays for this investigation, is "written by
Black authors who understand from birth and continual association of what it means to be Black and through their plots reveal the essence and beauty of Black life.Thematically, the plays reflect the Black experience centered on Black history, culture, life, styles, language, problems, and aspirations of Black people. A chronology of the Black plays and playwrights produced is represented (Table 14—Appendix E, page 128). The quantity of productions varied from year to year. The peak years for the production of
Black plays were 1971 and 197.6 when twenty-one and twfenty plays respectively were produced in contrast to 1968 when only six Black plays were produced.
Table 15 graphically shows how the number of productions varied from year to year during the ten year period.
A description of the perceptions of representative directors on the purposes of the Black Theatre production follows:
Purposes of the Black Theatre Productions. After viewing the number of Black plays and playwrights produced, one can now look at how the re presentative directors perceived the purposes of those productions. Realizing that these preferences may vary from play to play, Table 16 indicates that the general preferences of the directors regarding the purposes of Black theatre productions were to: first, to entertain; second, to instruct and increase feelings of community; third, to inform; fourth, to define a problem; and fifth, to give direction. Purposes to induce action and offer solutions had very low ratings. The greater percentage of the responses were on the purposes to entertain, increase feelings of community, and give direction. TABLE 15
Chronology of the Number of Black Plays Produced 1968-1978
Number
Year 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978
4> O 41
TABLE 16
Purposes of the Black Theatre Productions
Percentage Purposes Rank Responses of Responses
To entertain 1st 23 95
To instruct 2nd 20 83
To increase feelings of community 2nd 13 54
To inform 3rd 19 79
To define a problem 4 th 14 58
To give direction 5th 18 75
N = 24
Following is an examination of the types of Black plays produced
1968-1978.
Types of Black Plays Produced
There has been and still exists the argument that the classification of plays according to type "is purely an academic matter and of little im- 6 portance in the realm of appreciation." Moreover, in some current drama the lines of differentiation have become so varied that it is difficult for many to agree on how these plays should be labeled. However, "it is these broad lines of distinction of purpose and function that are useful as an aid to the penetration of meaning in the experience of plays."*7 86 Usefulness can be grasped by Kenneth Rowe’s argument that "the different modes of drama, esp ecially modern drama, are often mingled in one play and by recognition of the 8 several traditions at work the total complex meaning becomes more clear." 42
Within this context, the attempt was made to classify the Black plays pro duced in the scope of this study. They are divided into four major cate gories: (1) serious dramas which "are primarily emotional both in their 9 intent and principal effect" ; (2) comedies—designed to induce laughter; and (3) original or new plays—which are produced for the first time, written generally, by faculty and students in the educational theatre; and
(4) musicals—"a story with spoken dialogue interspersed with music and dances."10 These categories are not by any means absolute because such classifications as serious drama, comedies, original plays, and musicals
"change with the temper of the times and vary according to the individual and the temperament of the playwright. "H The findings (Table 17) reveal that forty-three (52%) of the Black plays produced were serious dramas, twenty-three (27%) were original plays, twelve (14%) were comedies and six (7%) were musicals. A number of the original plays were described as variety shows, show cases, or poetry shows. Most of these latter types of productions consisted of excerpts from plays, novels, short stories, poetry, and folk material linked together with dance and music and were usually message oriented. Most of the Black plays produced can be described as realistic. The notable exceptions were Amiri Baraka's The Slaves and Douglas
Turner Ward's Day of Absence. Also, there were fewer musicals produced than one might expect, given the importance of music to the religious and popular direction of Black Institutions and personal behavior.
A review of the most frequently produced Black plays and playwrights is next. 43
TABLE 17
Types of Plays Produced 1968-1978
Serious Dramas (43-52%) Comedies (12-14%)
Amen Corner Contribution Black Cycle Day of Absence Black Girl Five on the Black Hand Side Black Woman in White Ghetto Vampire Blues for Mister Charlie Livin’ Fat Booji The Prayer Meeting The Brass Medallion Purlie Victorious Campaign RosaLee Pritchett Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Sho Is Hot in the Cotton Patch Crispus Simply Heaven Curtain Call, Mr. Aldridge Tamborines to Glory Divine Comedy Wine in the Wilderness Do You Want to be Free? Eden El Hajj Malik The Escape, or Leap to Freedom First Breeze of Summer Freeman God’s Trombones Happy Birthday Daddy In Splendid Error In the Wine Time Karma’s Kail Ladies in Waiting Land Beyond the River Maiden Voyage Medal for Willie Middleman Mother and Child Mulatto No Place to be Somebody Raisin in the Sun Single Indemnity The Slave Soul Gone Home Star Ain’t Nothin but a Hole in Heaven Sty of the Blind Pig Tell Pharoah To Be Young, Gifted, and Black Toe Jam The Toilet The Warning—A Theme for Linda What the Wine Sellers Buy 44
TABLE 17 - Continued
Original or New Plays (23-27%) Musicals (6-7%)
Ain’t Got No Teeth Ain't Suppose to die a Natural Aka Deadwood Dick Death Black Snow Bubbling Brown Sugar Development of the Blackman Dr. B. S. Black Evidence Fly Blackbirds Isabel's Fortune Purlie Montage of a Dream Deferred Tamborines to Glory The Mother-in-law Mrs. Patterson New Wine in a New Bowl Paul Lawrence Dunbar Promise Say Grace Showcase '71, ’73, '74 The Stage Thank God It's Leap Year Unrehearsed Emotion Watermelon Seed We Have to Change Sometimes We Keep Coming Where is the Blood of our Fathers 45
Previously, the demographic data revealed that the respondents were male dominant and there is also male dominance in the production of the works of Black playwrights during 1968-1978. A total of forty-three Black playwrights' works were produced on the campuses of historically Black
Institutions. Thirty-eight (81%) of the plays produced during this ten year period were written by Black male playwrights and nine (19%) were the works of Black female playwrights. Table 18 is an alphabetical listing of the
Black male and female playwrights.
A commentary on the most frequently produced Black plays and play wrights follows.
Frequency of Plays and Playwrights
Previously indicated was that forty-three serious dramas, twenty-three new plays, sixteen comedies, and six musicals were produced during the 1968-
1978 period; additionally, Table 19 illustrates the popularity of certain plays and playwrights for the same period. The most frequently produced full length plays and playwrights were: First, Ceremonies in Dark Old Men—
Lonne Elder III; Second, Raisin in the Sun—Loraine Hansberry; Third, Sty of the Blind Pig—Phillip H. Dean; Fourth, The Amen Corner—James Baldwin; and
Fifth, The River Niger—Joseph A. Walker. All of these plays are serious and realistic dramas. 46
TABLE 18
Black Male and Female Black Playwrights Produced 1968-1978
Male Playwrights (38-81%) Female Playwrights (9-19%)
James Baldwin Vinetta Boyd Amiri Baraka Alice Childress William Branch J. E. Franklin William M. Brown Loraine Hansberry Ed Bullins Elaine Jackson Ben Caldwell Judi Ann Mason Steve Carter Jo-Ann McKnight Martie Charles Barbara Mollette Robert Crawford Sonia Sanchez N. R. Davidson Ozzie Davis Phillip H. Dean Peter DeAnda Owen Dodson Lonne Elder III Charles Gordone Abram Hill Langston Hughes Bernard C. Jackson James W. Johnson T. Marshall Jones Clifton A. Lamb Leslie Lee Ed McCoo Roy Meriwether Ron Milner Lofton Mitchell Carlton Mollette Charlie Russell John Scott Ted Shine Melvin Van Peebles Joseph A. Walker Douglas T. Ward Harmon Watson Richard Wesley Curtis L. Williams Eldwoodson Williams 47
TABLE 19
Most Frequently Produced Full-Length Plays and Playwrights 1968-1978
Titles Playwrights Rank Frequency Percentage
Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III 1st 12 25
Raisin in the Sun Loraine Hansberry 2nd 11 23
Sty of the Blind Pig Phillip H. Dean 3rd 10 21
The Amen Corner James Baldwin 4th 8 17
The River Niger Joseph A. Walker 5 th 7 14
Total 48 100
N = 24
Douglas T. Ward* s Day of Absence and Happy Ending were the one--act plays most frequently performed, followed by Ted Shine’s Contribution and
Leroi Jones’ The Dutchman. Conversely, comic plays were most popular among the one-acts recurrently produced. (Table 20)
TABLE 20
Most Frequently Produced One Acts and Playwrights 1968-1978
Titles Playwrights Rank Frequency Percentage
Day of Absence Douglas T. Ward 1st 7 28 Happy Ending Douglas T. Ward 1st 7 28 Contribution Ted Shine 1st 7 28 The Dutchman Leroi Jones 2nd 4 16
Total 25 100 48
The most frequently produced musicals (Table 21) were the popular
Ozzie Davis' Purlie followed by Langston Hughes' vintage Tamborines to Glory and Bernard C. Jackson's little known Fly Blackbirds.
TABLE 21
Most Frequently Produced Musicals and Playwrights 1968-1978
Title Playwright Rank Frequency Percentage
Purlie Ozzie Davis 1st 8 44 Tamborines to Glory Langston Hughes 2nd 6 34 Fly Blackbirds Bernard C. Jackson 3rd 4 22
Total 18 100
Following is a presentation of the practices in the touring of productions.
Touring of Productions
The presentation of dramas, musicals, staged readings, and dance on tour ranged from neighboring theatres to nearby cities. Tours, whether local or remote, provide the student and faculty production staff valuable experiences. Learning to adapt a production to many types of audiences and stages is an important lesson for theatre practitioners. Learning to work and live together in a co-ordinated group is also an advantageous experience.
Exchange of productions among Colleges and Universities can mean a great deal in the exchanging of ideas, developing a kind of theatrical fellowship, and extending one's cultural experiences. 49
Two of the aims of the National Association of Dramatic and Speech
Arts (NADSA) , formerly known as the Southern Association of Dramatic and
Speech Arts, were to exchange play productions and to culturally serve the
Black communities. The description of cultural service here "is not to
bring culture to the Black community but the affirmation of the viable cul
ture that already exists in the Black community in the forms of idioms, 12 history, the church, music, and dance." Those objectives formed by NADSA,
of which a number of the historically Black Colleges and Universities are
members, have been accomplished through the touring of productions. There
fore, it was important to review the practices of touring productions.
Table 22 (Appendix F, page 13'4 ) presents the year and titles of productions
toured in 1968-1978. During this period forty-four productions toured.
Twenty-three (52%) were published works based upon the Black experience.
Seventeen (38%) of the productions toured were original or new plays. Two
(5%) were non-Black plays and two (5%) were children’s plays. The peak year for touring was 1977 where eight plays toured. (Table 23—Appendix F, page 136).
Most of the productions travelled within a hundred miles; however, ten pro ductions toured outside a two-hundred fifty mile radius. (Table 24—Appendix
F, page 137).
The data on touring revealed that there were a total of forty-four productions toured with the greatest number based upon the Black experience; distances travelled varied. How the tours were funded and the purposes for touring follow.
Most of the financial support for touring was from regular departmental budgets with additional special funding from the Institutions, Funding from outside sources was received from sponsoring organizations such as host 50
schools, fraternities, or sororities who generally defrayed expenses and gave honorariums to the producing organizations. Table 25 (Appendix F, page 138) illustrates how these touring productions were funded. The purposes for touring were varied: student recruitment as their first choice; theatrical experience for the company—second; publicity—third; and audience development—fourth. Table 26 (Appendix F, page 138) shows that on all items the respondents participation was 100 percent.
Summary
This chapter has described the productions and practices of repre sentative directors. The examination revealed that: (1) there were a total of seven-hundred and sixty-two with two-hundred and ninety-three (38%) being
Black plays; (2) the peak years for the production of Black plays were 1971 and 1976; (3) the directors' perceptions on the purpose of Black Theatre productions were, in the main, to entertain and to increase feelings of community; (4) the type "of play most frequently produced was the serious drama; (5) the majority of the Black playwrights were male; (6) the most frequently produced full-length play was Ceremonies in Dark Old Men by Lonnie
Elder; the most frequently produced one-act plays were Day of Absence and
Happy Ending by Douglas T. Ward and Contribution by Ted Shine; the most fre quently produced musical was Purlie by Ozzie Davis; (7) there were forty-four touring productions with the peak year being 1976; the distances travelled were inside one-hundred or outside the two-hundred and fifty mile radius; the main source of funding was from the regular departmental budget and special funding from the Institutions; and the primary purpose for touring was for recruitment. Following, Chapter Four describes theatre production and management practices. 51
CHAPTER III — FOOTNOTES
^Selected Poems Langston Hughes, (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), p. 13. 2 Randolph Edmonds, "Some Whys and Wherefores of College Dramatics," Crisis XXXVII (March, 1930),92. 3 George Henry, "Toward a Theatre of Our Time," Educational Theatre Journal X (March, 1958), 6. 4 Kenneth McGowan, "The Educational Theatre of Tomorrow," Educational Theatre Journal IX (May, 1957)> 87. ^W.E.B. DuBois, "Krigwa Players Little Negro Theatre," Crisis XXXII (July, 1926), 134. ^Edward A. Wright, A Primer for Playgoers, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958), p. 61.
^Kenneth Rowe, A Theatre in Your Head, (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1960), p. 176.
8Ibid.
^Ibid., p. 136.
^Wright, op. cit., p. 256.
'■''■'Rowe, op. cit., p. 136.
12 Tom C. Dent, Richard Schechner and Gilbert Moses, The Free Southern Theatre by the Free Southern Theatre (New York: Bobbs-MerrillCompany, 1969), p. 232. CHAPTER IV
THEATRE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
What happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun? Or does it fester like a sore—And then run? Does it stink like rotten meat? Or crust and sugar over—like a syrupy sweet? Maybe it just sags like a heavy load. Or does it explode?—Langston Hughes!
Chapter IV is divided into six sections: (1) Introduction;
(2) Funding for Productions and Related Research; (3) Promotion and Publi city; (4) Special Projects; (5) Audience Analysis and Development; and
(6) Summary.
Introduction
Every educational director has posed one or more of the following questions at one time or another during his career. What can be done to stimulate greater interest in theatre? Why is the theatre program not adequately supported by the college administration and faculty? Why are the seats empty or why are more people not coming to the theatre? What was wrong with the promotion and publicity or the way they were managed?
"Theatre management" has come to mean many things to many people.
"To some it is the front-of-the-house operations. To others it means the control of the total theatre operations by a producing director of a theatre organization, while even others confuse the term with 'stage management'."3 "Theatre management" as used in this descriptive study is 53
the practices involved in securing funds for productions and research, promotion and publicity, and practices involved in attracting the audience as customers of the theatre. Generally, the directors at these historically
Black Colleges and Universities have the responsibility of theatre management in addition to other duties. Of the twenty-four respondents in this investi gation only two institutions had full-time theatre managers. Theatre manage ment is an important factor in the production program, because the production of plays costs money. Royalties, scenery, costumes, publicity, research, and the maintenance of the College and University theatres are all items of expense. Consequently, there was a necessity to view how the productions and related research projects were funded at these Institutions.
Funding for Productions and Related Research
According to the 1976 Willie and MacLeish study "Priorities of Black
College Presidents," "the total budget for Black Colleges and Universities 3 ranged from $1.8 million to $26.6 million with an average $9.9 million."
The historically Black Institutions in this investigation were considered in the Willie and MacLeish report. Of the twenty-four Colleges and Universities in this study, eighteen (75%) were public and six (25%) were private four year Institutions of higher learning. Generally, the sources of income for these Colleges and Universities come from state and federal governments, tuition and fees paid by students, grants, foundations, alumni and individual contributions, private funds, and endowment income. However, the private
Colleges and Universities "have a higher priority on private funds, since . . 4 . - public institutions have tax funds as their basic resource." In addition,
Willie and MacLeish pointed out that these private schools rely heavily on 54
endowment income, the United Negro College Fund and recurring grants from
supporting church boards.
After viewing the general funding of these schools, attention was
turned to how the productions and research activities were funded. On an
average, about five productions were presented a year. As projected in
Table 27 the primary sources of funding were from: the University or College
Administration by twenty-four (100%) of the respondents; eighteen (75%) in
dicated that funds for production purposes came from school organizations
such as Student Governments and Cultural Boards; seventeen (70%) pointed out
that funds from the box office were used to augment production cost; and
fifteen (62%) solicited government grants from organizations such as National
Endowment of the Humanities, National Endowment of the Arts, Office of
Education and Community Service, Continuing Education Program and CETA.
Fourteen (58%) of the repliers disclosed that private funds were used to meet some of the demands of their production programs. Twelve (50%) of the
respondents indicated that fees or honorariums from sponsoring organizations
for touring productions were used as a source of funding. The major source
for financing the production program among the twenty-four respondents was
from the school's administration. 55
TABLE 27
Primary Sources of Funding for Productions
Sources Rank Responses Percentage
Administration 1st 24 100 School organizations 2nd 18 75 Box office 3rd 17 70 Government grants 4th 15 62 Private funds 5 th 14 58
N = 24
As in most academie disciplines, research is fundamental also to the growth and development of educational theatre. "Research has made signifi cant contributions related to curriculum, instruction, instructional mat erials, design, measurement, and analysis.More importantly, "the impli cations for theatre research are profound: for playwrights and theorists in the areas of form and style, for actors in the areas of emotional ex pression, and, of course for determining audience reactions to a wide variety g of performance variables." In reference to the general funding of Black
Colleges and Universities there were allocations for sponsored research re ceived from the federal government. Therefore, it was vital to review and describe funding for research of production activities. The question was posed to the directors: does your department have funding specifically set aside for research and documentation of production activities? Of the twenty-four repliers four (16%) said yes and twenty (84%) replied no. When asked: do you video tape your productions? Eight (33%) answered yes and sixteen (67%) replied no. Three respondents disclosed that no funds were set aside specifically for research of production activities, though funding 56
for this purpose was received from departmental budgets. Clearly, this exami
nation revealed that there was very little funding allocated specifically for
research of production activities as a general practice. Purposes for pro
duction research by the few who were able and did, are illustrated in Table 28
TABLE 28
Purposes for Researching Production Activities
Purposes Rank Number of Percentage Responses
University accountability 1st 7 29 Increasing credibility 2nd 5 21 Documenting needs 3rd 4 16 Improving directorial techniques 3rd 4 16 Improving acting techniques 3rd 4 16 Improving audience attendance 4th 3 12 Improving quality of productions 4 th 3 12 Increasing funding opportunities 5th 1 4
N = 24
A description of promotion and publicity practices used in conjunction with
productions follows.
Promotion and Publicity
The enrollment of the Colleges and Universities in this study ranged
from seven-hundred and thirty-five (735) to eight-thousand three-hundred and seventy-six (8,376). The total number of students estimated to be enrolled in all twenty-four Institutions was eighty-two thousand and five (82,005) students with an average of three-thousand four hundred and sixteen (3,416).
Promoting and publicizing theatre participation for a student body and the surrounding college community is a major challenge to these directors 57
and theatre departments. This investigation focused on those schools where
theatre productions are a part of or related to the curriculum. Typically,
courses were offered to interest prospective theatre participants and, in
some cases, required a certain number of hours of practical theatre ex
perience. Usually there were open auditions and newsletter information.
Clubs and organizations were a part of the theatre program where points
earned by the amount and quality of participation were required to join.
A few of these College and Universities offered scholarships and work-study
programs that enabled students to work in various phases of theatre.
For production programs "promotion takes in the whole philosophy and
image of the organization and the people involved tending toward year round
legitimization of the theatre.Some promotional techniques used in
building and projecting the image of departmental productions were: visi
bility in the community (twenty—83%); informal communication channels with
production participants (seventeen—70%); viability in the community through
participation in outside activities (seventeen—70%); touring (sixteen—66%);
and the use of brochures and mailing lists (one—4%). Predictably, seventeen
(70%) of the directors expressed that "word-of-mouth" was an effective method
to publicize productions.
Directors were asked how they would characterize their relationship with the media (local newspapers, radio and television). Ten of the respon dents (42%) rated their relationship as good, seven (29%) as excellent, six
(25%) as fair and one (4%) as poor. When asked to characterize the media’s responses to their productions, ten (42%) replied "well received"; ten (42%) replied "indifferent"; and four (16%) characterized media response as "well received with increased interest in future productions," Refreshingly, not 58
one director characterized the media’s response to their productions as
antagonistic or detrimental. Responses in this area paralleled characteri
zations of the directors’ relationships with the media.
Publicity here referred to "the immediate selling of a specific pro- g duct," the current play, to include "advertising which is paid promotion. .
important in one’s aim to achieve ’saturation coverate.’"^ The directors were asked what means they used to publicize and advertise a production.
Twenty-two (92%) used the newspaper and posters; twenty (83%) used press releases; eighteen (75%) used radio advertising; sixteen (66%) used radio talk-shows; twelve (50%) used television advertising and talk shows; and ten
(41%) used reviews. Apparently, substantial amounts of production budgets were used to publicize and advertise. A review and account of special projects follows.
Special Projects
Special projects here referred to theatre workshops and the use of professional theatre artists. The workshop is a traditionally expedient way to acquire supplementary training for college and high school students, teachers, and members of the community. Ron Argelander contends that the workshop "is the only effective way apart from apprenticing in a company, of receiving training in acting skills and production techniques. . . a ’secure workplace’ where one can explore new techniques and exchange skills.
Descriptions of theatre workshops were divided into three areas: the special skills workshop "designed to meet the needs of developing specific skills in directing, acting, design, and theatre management''^; the production-oriented workshop which "involves putting a production together within the workshop or 59
working with specific exercises that demonstrate specific techniques for
developing a structural piece or composition"^; and the self-exploration workshop "not based upon 'self-help’ techniques but rather on personal
exploration of human values within a small group structure."13 The work
shops described as having been conducted between the period 1968-1978 at
historically Black Colleges and Universities were classified according to
their purposes and their relationships to the above mentioned categories.
Nineteen (79%) of the respondents had conducted workshops while five
(21%) had not. Table 29 illustrates a synthesis of the cited descriptions by the directors regarding the types, purposes and intentions of their workshops. No data was asked for nor reported regarding frequency of or participants in the workshops.
Generally, Colleges and Universities have welcomed guest artist programs, recognizing that a student's opportunity to work with professionals is invaluable. Such opportunities have seemed limited at historically Black
Institutions. To determine the extent of this practice between 1968-1978 the question was posed: does your department bring in professional theatre people? Surprisingly, nineteen (79%) replied yes and five (21%) said no.
The capacities varied in which these theatre professionals served. Forty-seven professional artists had been invited by these directors: eighteen were guest lecturers, thirteen conducted workshops; ten led seminars and served as guest performers; five were artists-in-residence; and in one instance the artist was a technical advisor. Roughly, there'were two guest artists per institution during the ten year period; one visitor every five years. Following, audience analysis and development is characterized. 60
TABLE 29
Types and Purposes of Workshops
Special Skills Workshops
a. To develop skills in movement, dance, role playing, voice, and technical theatre;
b. To teach students to work with non-theatre-skilled persons inter ested in theatre in the areas of acting, directing, and forensics;
c. To supplement curriculum experiences not addressed in the present program such as playwriting.
Production-Oriented Workshops
a. To aid community workers in organizing and presenting pageants, one-act plays, and full length plays, and creative dramatic activities;
b. To develop the know how and practical application of low budget productions techniques;
c. To supplement performance experiences not addressed in the present program.
Self-Exploration Workshops
a. To facilitate an awareness of the total theatre and its functions;
b. To enhance attitudinal and conceptual development of theatre students;
c. To increase one's knowledge and appreciation of Black Theatre;
d. To develop self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-image among participants.
N = 24 61
Audience Analysis and Development
An audience makes the theatrical experience become a reality and
"the noblest drama can have little import without an audience to receive 14 it." The audience in educational theatre is unique. As expressed by
Lee Mitchell, "it is a kind of audience belonging to a particular kind of
theatre rather than to a particular production, performer, or playwright.
Consequently, how this educational Black Theatre audience was perceived by the directors has some influence on the mounting and projection of the theatrical production and concomitantly, the directors perceptions affect the growth and development of Black audiences. These directors ranked the role of the audience, reflected in Table 30 (Appendix G, page 140): as a participating agent; as an interaction between actor and audience; as having no psychological separation between actor and audience; as separate from the theatrical experience; and as a passive agent. The highest ranking on the role of the audience were as a participating agent. The lowest ranking was the perception of the audience as a passive agent.
Regularly heard is the challenge for educational theatre "to create its own audience and in the process of creating, analyze and develop the audience."
This may be accomplished through demographic analysis of age, sex, income, occupation, education, religion, place of residence, and marital status.
"Demographic information about an audience may suggest specific content, treatment or approach"'’’*’ to audience analysis and development. Also, purpose- oriented analysis is an approach "that begins with what the director needs to know about the audience in the context of the given production situation."'’’^
Both of these approaches can be important tools in determining the interest and needs of the audience. 62
The examination and description of practices by directors in the development and analysis of the audience illustrated that only nine directors had demographically profiled their audiences. The other dir ectors engaged in some form of purpose-oriented analysis. An unclear question made it difficult to differentiate between practices which were intended to be analytical and developmental. Table 31 (Appendix G, page 141) reveals the practices by these directors. Fifteen (75%) used audience analysis as an attempt to meet the rising expectations of the audience while five (25%) did not. Fifteen (71%) employed instruments to analyze audience behavior during performances and six (29%) did not. Sixteen (67%) analyzed the audiences' patterns of attendance while eight (33%) failed to do so.
Ten (53%) analyzed the audience's response to their productions and nine
(47%) did not perceive the need. Eight (38%) respondents used audience surveys as a means to analyze and develop audiences and thirteen (62%) did not. Nine (37%) of the directors used the profile of past audiences to aid in audience analysis and fifteen (63%) did not use this approach.
Summary
Here "theatre management" was defined as practices involved in funding for productions and performance research, promotion and publicity, and con cern for the audience through analysis and development. Primary funding for theatre productions were received, by importance, from the administration, school organizations, the box office, government grants, and private funds.
Though research is regarded as fundamental to the growth and develop ment of theatre programs and has made significant contributions in instruction, design, measurement and analysis, this inquiry indicated that only four (16%) 63
of the respondents had funds allocated specifically for research of pro
duction activities while twenty (84%) indicated that no funds were allocated
for production research. Three respondents used departmental funds for
research purposes. The objectives of research for productions activities
were: enhancing university accountability; increasing credibility; docu
menting needs; improving directorial techniques; improving the quality of
productions; increasing funding opportunities; and improving acting techni
ques. Additionally, eight (33%) of the repliers had video-taped productions.
Promoting and publicizing theatre participation for an entire student
body and college community is a major challenge to directors and theatre
departments . Promotion takes in the whole philosophy and image of the
organization and people involved, leading to year-round legitimization of the
theatre. The responses illustrated that preferred promotional practices were: visibility in the community; informal communication with production
participants; viability in the community through participation in outside
activities; past reputation; and touring. The representative directors
characterized relationships with the local media as follows: ten (42%) as
good, seven (29%) as excellent; six (25%) as fair and one (4%) as poor.
Also, responses indicated that media reaction to productions were well received (ten—42%), indifferent (ten—42%), and well received with an
increased interest in future productions (four—16%).
Publicity in this study referred to the immediate selling of the
current play including advertising which was paid promotion. Of the twenty-
four respondents: twenty-two (92%) used the newspaper and posters; eighteen
(83%) used press releases; eighteen (75%) used radio advertising; sixteen
(66%) used radio talk shows; twelve (50%) used television advertising and
talk shows, and ten (41%) used reviews. 64
Special projects on these campuses included theatre workshops and
the use of professional theatre artists. The workshop was a simple and
effective way of giving supplementary training to college students and members of the community. The theatre workshops were divided into three
categories: (1) special-skills workshops designed to develop skills in
acting, directing, design and theatre management; (2) production oriented workshops involving putting a production together within the workshop; and
(3) self-exploration workshop focusing on personal exploration. The work
shops conducted by these respondents used all three types, according to the described objectives of workshops.
Generally, Colleges and Universities have taken advantage of using theatre professionals in their educational theatre program. Accordingly, nineteen (79%) of the respondents used professional theatre artists in conjunction with their production programs. Eighteen directors (75%) used guest-lecturers; thirteen (54%) engaged workshop consultants; ten (41%) invited guest-performers who also conducted special seminars; and five
(20%) engaged artists-in-residence.
The audience makes the theatrical experience become a reality and the educational theatre audience is unique to a particular kind of theatre.
The directors in this investigation rank perceived their audiences: as a participating agent; as an interacting agent with the actor; as separate from the theatrical experience; and as a passive agent, depending on the nature of the theatrical experience. One objective of educational theatre is to create apd develop its own audience. Some practices in audience analysis and development reflected in this study were surveys, which were used to aid in meeting rising expectations;to analyze audience behavior 65
during performances; to analyze audiences; patterns of attendance; to analyze audiences’ responses to productions and to use profiles of past audiences.
A summary and some implications of this study will be presented in
Chapter Five. 66
CHAPTER IV — FOOTNOTES
'■'Selected Poems of Langston Hughes. (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), p. 268. 2 Robert L. Richey, "Theatre Management Practices," Educational Theatre Journal IV (December, 1956): 311. 3 Charles V. Willie and Marlene Y. MacLeish, "Priorities of Black Col lege Presidents," Educational Record LVII (Spring, 1976): 94. A William J. Trent, Jr., "The Future Role of the Negro College and Its Financing." Duedolus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences C (Summer, 1971): 653.
^L. R. Gay, Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application. (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1976), p. 6.
David W. Addington, "Varieties of Audience Research: Some Prospects for the Future," Educational Theatre Journal XXVI (December, 1974): 485. 7Jim Cavanaugh, The Theatre Student: Organization and Management of Non-Professional Theatre, (New York: Richard Rosen Press, Inc., 1973), p. 41. 8Ibid.
9 Stephen Langley, Theatre Management in America: Principle and Practice, Drama Book Specialists (Publishers), 1974, p. 315. l^Ron Angelander, Workshops: Three Types, Drama Review XXII (Dec ember, 1978): 8. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. ^George H. Henry, "Toward a Theatre for Our Time," Educational Theatre Journal X (March, 1958): 1. l^Lee Mitchell, "The Ideal Audience," Educational Theatre Journal, IV (March, 1952): 1. 1 £ DClevenger, Theodore, Sr. Audience Analysis. (New York: Bobbs- Merrill Company, 1966), p. 44. l^Ibid. , p. 45. CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS
Hold fast to dreams for if dreams die, life is a broken winged bird that cannot fly.—Langston Hughes
This chapter is divided into the following sections: (1) Overview
of the Research Problem; (2) Directors’ Profile, Philosophies, and
Practices; (3) Black Plays Produced 1968-1978; (4) Selected Theatre
Management Practices; and (5) Conclusion.
Overview of the Research Problem
Because there has been debate regarding Black Colleges and Uni
versities providing opportunities for the growth and development of Black
Theatre, it was important and necessary to examine and begin to describe
some dimensions of the present status of productions and practices at these
selected four year Institutions with degree programs in Speech and Drama.
To this end, the specific objectives of this investigation were: (1) to
profile the representative directors, including some of their production
philosophies and practices; (2) to characterize the Black plays produced
during 1968-1978; (3) to review some selected practices in theatre manage ment; and (4) to draw some implications from the data collected.
Because summaries have been done for each chapter, the emphasis of this final summary has been focused to show trends and patterns of the data.
Implications have been made to suggest some of the interpretive meanings of 68
the results of this study of Black Theatre directors, productions, and
practices at historically Black Colleges and Universities from 1968-1978.
Research methodology. Primary data for this study was obtained from
questionnaires and audio-recorded interviews with theatre practitioners at
the 1979 National Association of Dramatic and Speech Arts (NADSA) Convention
in Chicago, Illinois, on April 4-7, 1979. The mailed questionnaire was a most effective means to obtain information from a small number of subjects.
Likewise, the questionnaire required a small work force to administer and
tabulate the data. Before the questionnaires were mailed to the total popu lation for this study, they were sent to five colleagues to pre-test. They were asked to fill out the questionnaires and then comment on whether the questions could be easily completed, whether any questions were confusing, and suggest any deletions/or additions. As a result of their reactions, the questionnaire was reduced from ten to seven pages. Though the questionnaire was long, the high number of respondents was predictable because the target organization, NADSA, stimulated cooperation from its membership to respond to the questionnaire. As a result, thirty directors (83%) responded and twenty-four (66%) of the returned questionnaires were usable. Some of the questionnaire’s limitations were: some questions were difficult to uniformly tabulate or synthesize responses; and some questions may have been leading, to suggest or limit responses.
The recorded interviews were convenience, inexpensive, prevented the necessity of writing during the interview, and can be useful for additional analysis and future study. Thirty theatre practitioners were interviewed at the 43rd Annual Conference of the National Association of Dramatic and
Speech Arts, at Kennedy-King College, Chicago, Illinois, April 4-7, 1979, 69
augmented by several personal visitations at other times to obtain inter views. The directors were asked the following questions: (1) What is the present condition of Black Theatre on your campus? (2) What is Black
Theatre? (3) What is your area of expertise and how do you find fulfillment?
The information gathered from the interviews was used to assist in profiling the production philosophies and practices of the directors. The researcher was able to apply his personal touch during the interview to clarify questions asked; explore significant areas indirectly related to the investigation; and to stimulate and sustain dialogue. An effective rapport developed between the interviewer and the directors which could not have been achieved through the use of the questionnaire alone. However, the use of recorded inter viewing as a data gathering devise was time consuming and did increase the possibility of interviewer bias.
Review of literature. Through nearly fifty years of American scholar ship about Black Drama/Theatre, only seventy dissertations and theses have been written and recorded in either Dissertation Abstracts International;
Doctoral Research on the Negro: 1933-1966; or Black Higher Education and
Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Doctoral Dissertations 1916-
1976. Clearly, there exists a great void in and many opportune areas for research on Black Drama/Theatre. Among the over one-hundred traditionally
Black Colleges and Universities, only Tennessee State University, Howard
University, and Texas Southern University offer a Master's degree in the field of Speech and Drama, or Speech and Theatre, or Communications. And none of these schools offer a Doctoral degree in theatre. Black students preparing to teach or do research in theatre must inevitably, with the exceptions noted, attend predominantly white institutions. The number of 70
dissertations and theses over the years suggests that these institutions
have not substantially encouraged or prepared Black or other students to
research topics related to Black drama.
Of the dissertations and theses reviewed, only four were creative
works related to playwriting and the production and direction of plays.
The scope, direction, and credibility of Black Theatre can be enhanced by
future research focused on the arts of directing and playwriting.
Directors* Profiles, Philosophies and Practices
Play directing is a recognized art and the director is placed in a
unique position to bring about the effective fusion of the visual, aural,
and emotional elements of a production. Consequently, the director can be
a very influential figure. These directors were profiled to assess their
influence on: (1) the scope and direction of Black Theatre; (2) the credi bility of Black Theatre; and (3) the development of Black playwrights, actors, directors, technicians and audiences. These directors provided an excellent sample of educational Black Theatre because they had been on the various campuses long enough to have developed and exercised their perspectives on
Black Theatre.
Demographic data of directors. The populace for this study can be described as academically trained, experienced, of varying ages, Black and male dominated and dedicated. As a group, they possess the credentials to indicate an expertise to influence the scope, direction, credibility, and development of Black Theatre on their various campuses.
Notwithstanding, six (50%) directors had for some time been at the
"all but dissertation" stage of academic development, presenting an area 71
for future investigation to determine the possible causes of this dilemma.
Eleven (46%) of the respondents have earned doctorates which suggests that
the small theatre faculties have not been devastated by the "brain drain"
to white schools, but remain where they can provide quality education, training, and models for identification for Black young people. However,
the absence of women as theatre directors suggests another area for study to clarify the reasons for this situation.
Directors' definitions of Black Theatre. The respondents, generally, defined Black Theatre as written, acted and produced by Black people and thematically centered around Black history and culture. Additionally,
Black Theatre was regarded as indigenous, ritualistic, reflective, dis tinctive—a theatre of opportunity and commitment. However, there was some disagreement with these general concepts. A few directors expressed that
Black Theatre was not ethnically exclusive but inclusive of all aspects of
American theatre. Because these definitions were not rigid there exists flexibility for experimentation. Clearly, experimentation is vital to the growth, development, and survival of Black Theatre. It seems promising that these directors who are defining Black Theatre are on campuses where experi mentation with different modes may take place in a laboratory setting and where economic concessions do not unreasonably impose on their aesthetic judgments.
Consequently, an examination of trends in the progressive definitions of Black Theatre, studies of Black Theatre as ritual in form, intent, con tent or performance theory suggests consequential research topics.
Directors' production philosophies. Production philosophies give theatre programs scope and direction. The general trend in these directors' 72
philosophies was that productions should be educational and entertaining.
Only one director’s philosophy focused on professional preparation of the
students. Another director expressed a philosophy in transition to produce
works of new Black playwrights along with more traditional American and
European plays. These directors’ production philosophy suggests that theatre
is to be learned by doing and students practice and learn as many components
of theatre as possible through participation. Yet, these respondents believed
that Black Theatre productions should be primarily entertaining, suggests their
having traditional responses to the function of art—a view that has been
assailed by proponents of the Black Arts Movement who call for art as a
political entity. Further investigation of this potential area of artistic
political conflict may be explored in a comparative study of philosophy and what is practiced; the relevance of production philosophies to the times; and
what influences College and University based philosophies have on Black
Theatre at other levels.
Directors* perceptions of the theatrical experience. These directors
believed that a production should be: first, a social activity; second, an
emotional and intellectual motivator of behavior; third, an effective aesthetic
catharsis; fourth, vibrant and meaningful; and fifth, a producer of a collec
tive catharsis. These preferences seem appropriate to some of the character
istics of a Black audience’s spontaneous, exuberant, and enthusiastic re
sponses to the theatrical event, where that audience can develop and sustain
a sense of community. Furthermore, the respondents' choices suggest an atmos
phere where modes of communication between the audience and the performers
can be freely exercised. Some of the beginning results from this study suggest the opportunity for future studies to more effectively clarify these directors' strategies to deal with the Black audience; to establish acting 73
techniques for the actors to utilize the audience's energy; in addition,
to study audience behavior at Black and non-ethnic theatrical events.
Directorial practices. Though these directors used a wide assortment
of methods, there were some selected directorial practices that could be described in their preparation for mounting a production. These practices were: play selection, play analysis, the director's relationship with the
technical staff, and student production training and participation.
Play selection. The directors ranked their intrinsic considerations in play selection in the following order: dramatic possibilities; plot or story; theme and meaning; personal vibrations; and the characters. These particular choices were not of equal importance nor did these choices have the same emphasis in all plays. While literary merit has been one of the elements generally described as making an excellent play, these directors' first choice of dramatic possibilities indicated that the drama must have act ion in the form of conflict as an overriding consideration. This choice suggests a positive concern with the "Kuntu force" (modality of image—the context from which an image is borne) and not preoccupation with language.
A low ranking of "personal vibrations" as an intrinsic choice suggests that the respondents may miss some valuable first impressions when reading a script for the first time, since the general impressions of feeling, mood, sound, meaning, and emotion can serve as a foundation for the production concept and process. An investigation of the degree to which these intrinsic considerations vary from play to play by these directors or others would seem valuable.
Other means of selecting the script was to consider extrinsic factors which focus on the script and its relationship to external causes. The rank 74
order of the directors' preferences were: an appeal to self, actors, and production staff; scenic requirements; appropriateness to an audience; the play's adaptability; and casting and budget limitations. The high ranking of "scenic requirement" seemed linked to budgetary limitations. Conversely, the low ranking of "play's adaptability" may signify that the directors think that "the classics" must be produced and performed in the original style and, likewise, some modern plays must be performed as produced on
Broadway. Of the plays produced at these Institutions, one-hundred and seventy-eight (178) were modern American plays, eighty-two (11%) were Classics and seventy-three (9%) were recent Broadway shows. An area of possible in quiry could be an attempt to determine the attitudes of these directors toward the adaptation of a play.
Historically, social problems have been represented in many plays.
These directors' ranked their social concerns in play selecting as: teaching that the individual has control over his/her own life; expressing social concerns for the real needs of the Black community; moving people toward solutions; supporting Black consciousness; and raising social awareness.
Employing these social concerns in play selection would seem to induce the presentation of socially relevant theatre to assist in the construction of social attitudes that are authentic to Black people and a theatre that has a genuine interest in the problems that affect the welfare and happiness of
Black people. One may desire to examine the effects of social and socio dramas on the attitude, and behavior of Black Theatre audiences.
Play analysis. The rank order of these directors' responses to con siderations in analyzing the script were: definition of the play's theme; definition of the emphasis and point of view or approach they wished to 75
present; analysis of characters and their motives; preparation of the text
for production; and a study of critical appraisals of the play. Though
not all these directors perceived the same values in a play or stated their
interpretations in the same manner, they generally seemed to have an orderly
process of play analysis. There is reason and opportunity for experimental
studies to discover other methods of analyzing a script.
Directors' relationships with staff. The representative directors
ranked their perceived roles with their technical staffs as: a coordinator;
chief executive; receptive to each individual's area of expertise; part of a
problem-solving team; and as an administrator. Creditably, these directors
see themselves as collective personalities who are many things toward the production as a whole. Their group personalities may cause the creation of a group spirit of co-workers on productions who thereby make dynamic con
tributions to the unity of artistic expression in the process and production.
Only four (16%) of the respondents perceived their role as one of "final authority." This strategy may interfere with production unity which is gen erally more difficult to achieve by committee. Examination of their staff's view of the directors may provide a timely comparison to how the directors see their roles with their production staffs.
Student training and participation. That there is no substitute for students' actual involvement in all phases of the theatrical arts is gen erally accepted. Student experiences in directing, playwriting, and parti cipation in literary competitions at these Institutions were diverse and vast. All of the respondents provided opportunities for their students to direct plays for public viewing, and many (79%) of the directors produced student-written works as a part of the regular season and encouraged students 76
to participate in literary and dramatic competition. Similarly, all dir
ectors in this study perceived the role of the students as the primary
focus of their production programs, necessary to the continuance and ex
pansion of their program and, ultimately, as a part of the survival of
Black Theatre. Yet, there was a lack of departmental scholarships at
these Institutions, with only nine (38%) awarding scholarships to theatre
students. An inquiry to determine the reasons why so few of these Colleges
and Universities award theatre scholarships would seem an expedient venture.
Black Plays Produced 1968-1978
In many localities these educational Institution's productions were
the only contact that community people had with live theatre. Additionally,
the production of Black plays has provided ethnic experiences important to
the development of the whole individual. Thematically, these plays center
around Black history, culture, life-styles, language, problems and aspira
tions of Black people. There was a total of seven-hundred and sixty-two
(762) Black plays produced during 1968-1978. The preponderance of Black
plays seems to be a confirmation of these Colleges and Universities pro
minent role in the dissemination of Black drama. The abundance of Black
productions on these campuses provides an excellent opportunity to study,
create and develop performance theories, criteria for the evaluation of
Black productions and inquiry into Black playwrights and their audience.
Types and purposes of Black Theatre productions. The Black plays
performed were divided into four major categories: serious dramas, comedies, original or new plays, and musicals. The classification of these plays are not rigid because the temper of the times and the temperament of playwrights 77
change. However, the majority of the works produced were serious dramas;
the least produced were musicals. The emphasis on serious drama to enter
tain first and then to instruct mirrors a "Broadway" production approach to
Black plays. Given the importance of music to the religious and popular
activities of students at Black Institutions, an examination of the low
frequency of musical productions may prove beneficial to understanding
commerical Black Theatre trends.
Frequency of Black playwrights. The works of forty-six Black play
wrights were produced during 1968 to 1978. Thirty (81%) were written by
Black men playwrights while only nine (19%) were scripts written by Black
women playwrights. The prominence of male works produced affirms a chall
enge to search for and develop the writing talents of Black women, and to
produce more works by Black women playwrights.
Frequency of full length and one-act plays. The most frequently
produced full length plays and playwrights were: Lonne Elder’s Ceremonies
in Dark Old Men with twelve productions; Loraine Hansberry’s Raisin in the Sun with eleven productions; Philip Hayes Dean's Sty of the Blind Pig with ten productions; James Baldwin's Amen Corner with eight productions and Joseph
Walker's The River Niger with seven productions. All of these plays are
serious dramas and focus on dimensions of Black family life. These "family plays" seem to mirror the general composition of the college students who still have close family ties and therefore could easily relate to experiences projected by these dramas. These choices apparently reflected what the directors thought best demonstrated an important component of the Black experience: the family. Critical and comparative studies of those plays' and playwrights' treatment of the Black family could be a significant contri bution to Black Theatre scholarship. 78
Touring practices. The presentation of dramas, musicals, staged
readings and dances on tour ranged from neighboring theatres to nearby
cities. During the 1968-1978 period twenty-four productions travelled within a hundred mile radius while other productions toured outside a two- hundred-and-fifty mile radius of these Colleges and Universities. Most of
the financial support for touring was from regular departmental budgets, host schools, alumni, and fraternities or sororities who often defrayed expenses and gave honorariums to the producing organizations. Generally, the purposes of these organizations were to bring cultural events to the community and, at the same time, raise funds for scholarships or other worthy causes. Further study of these practices may reveal the effectiveness of touring plays to stimulate student recruitment and audience development, issues vital to these Black Institutions.
Selected Theatre Management Practices
The term theatre management for this descriptive study was defined as the process or practices involved in funding for productions and related research, promotion and publicity, and concern for the audience as customers of the theatre. Generally, the directors at these historically Black
Colleges and Universities had the responsibility of theatre management in addition to their other duties. Of the twenty-four respondents in this in vestigation only two Institutions had full-time theatre managers.
Funding for productions and related research. Primary sources of funding for productions were from the University or College Administrations.
Nonetheless, the efforts by these directors to secure funds from the private sector, tours, government grants and student organizations, suggests that funding by the administrations was inadequate and that these directors di 79
verted energies for fund raising to maintain their production programs.
Encouragingly, student governments and Cultural Boards did support Black
Theatre by providing funds for productions. In some cases, funds for travel to conventions were provided by student organizations. An examination of
the extent of financial aid to theatre productions by student and other organizations may reveal reasons for production patterns.
Research is fundamental to the growth and development of educational theatre. However, this study revealed that there was very little funding allocated for research of production activities.
In those instances where there was some research activity, the focus was not related to production theory and practice. Significantly, no re- search was directed to the ethnicity of Black Theatre. Examination to as certain why there is so little funding for production-related research re garding Black Theatre at these Institutions seems vital to continued Black
Theatre activity there and elsewhere.
Promotional Practices. That "visibility in the community" and
"gaining viability in the community through participation in outside activities" were the two most often used promotional rationales and techni ques suggests the recongition by these directors of the need and "good sense" of theatre as a communal activity. There is a need to develop an instrument to assess the preferences of types of Black Theatre among students, faculties, administrations, and college communities. An effort to document the nature and effectiveness of existing promotional techniques would seem profitable.
Theatre workshops. In this study theatre workshops were divided into three areas: special skills workshops, production-oriented workshops, and self-exploration workshops. The involvement of most of the directors in workshop activity suggests that they recognized that their students’ needs 80
could not be met through classroom experiences alone. A study into how the
workshops were conducted and their success or failure to meet their objectives
would be very beneficial to theatre practitioners.
Visiting artists. Generally, these Colleges and Universities had taken
advantage of Guest Artist Programs and recognized that students’ opportunities
to work with professionals was invaluable. Black professionals can and need
to be more accessible to these Colleges and Universities. Moreover, investi
gations to reflect the use of professional theatre personalities on these
campuses, to demonstrate the development, growth or decline of theatre activity between the professional and educational theatres, and a presentation of a
composite history of Black professionals who have done work in connection with
Black educational theatre and their evaluation of those experiences would be advantageous to these and other areas of Black Theatre activity.
Audience Analysis and Development Practices. The audience's role "as a participating agent" and as "interaction between actor and audience" im plies that these directors carry some components of ritual, sense of community, and collective catharsis with them in their regard for the audience. More importantly, these directors seemed to recognize and respond to the great potential of the Black audience as an important entity in the presentation of the theatrical event as a holistic experience. Some practices in audience analysis and development reflected in this study were: to aid in meeting rising expectations; to analyze audience behavior during performances; to analyze audiences' patterns of attendance; to analyze audiences' responses to productions and to use profiles of past audiences. Further study could be done with community profiles to ascertain attenders as well as non-attenders, and other competitive activities within the community. 81
Conclusion
Assuming that historically Black Colleges and Universities continue to
be important preservers of Black heritage and that Black Theatre on these
campuses continues as an important part of their educational structure, some
prescriptions regarding these roles may be useful. Following are some sug
gestions for improving the status of Black Theatre on these campuses.
The development and support of potential and accomplished Black play
wrights can be expanded through increased productions and touring. Such
growth can serve as cultural advertisement for the Institutions and will
increase the dissemination of Black Theatre into Black and non-Black communi
ties. Additionally, the writing and producing of plays emphasizing Black
history and contributions made by Blacks will heighten both the self-esteem
of Black people and improve the political and social consciousness of all people who, unavoidably, must grapple with the reality of racial coexistence.
Productions that encourage and inspire forthright, clear-thinking and coura
geous behaviour should be the objectives of the theatre production programs at these Institutions.
There needs to be closer cooperation between these Institutions and practicing Black Theatre professionals. Administrators and faculties must realize that Black professional artists, with or without academic degrees, have knowledge, skills, dedication and experience vital to improving theatre programs on these campuses. It is important that directors at these histori cally Black Institutions develop closer rapport with Black professional theatre companies and training organizations to better prepare and train students and to meet the rising expectations of their growing audiences.
Research can become more vital by focusing inquiry into areas of production theory and practices and on dimensions of ethnicity in Black 82
Theatre. Institutions must offer incentives to faculty to pursue and finish graduate education in theatre and to do their research in these vital areas of Black Theatre.
From the outset, this study was intended to present general descrip tions where few or none existed. It has become clearer that what is really needed is a veritable production and research renaissance about Black
Theatre at these historically Black Colleges and Universities. Whether or not they realize it, Black Colleges and Universities have been and will likely continue to be the most effective guardians of Black Theatre in this country. If this investigation, with its generalizations and probes, can stimulate the need for and offer some directions toward such a renaissance, then the years of benigh neglect of both Black Theatre and Historically
Black Colleges and Universities can be stopped.
A more clarion call to practitioneers and scholars cannot be made: the survival and growth of Black Theatre and of these Institutions that sustain it, is both an investment and a treasure. 83
CHAPTER V — FOOTNOTES
'’'Selected Poems: Längston Hughes (New York: Random House, Inc. , 1974), p. 265. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS
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Albright, H. D., William P. Halstead, and Lee Mitchell. Principles of Theatre Art. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968.
Aptheker, Herbert. The Education Of Black People: Ten Critiques 1906- 1960 by W.E.B. Dubois. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1973.
Arata, Ester Spring and Nicholas. Black American Playwrights, 1800-to- Present: A Bibliography. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1976.
______. More Black American Playwrights: A Bibliography. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1978.
Black Higher Education and Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Doctoral Dissertations 1918-1976. Fredrich Chambers, comp., Westport: Greenwood Press, 1978.
Brasmer, William and Dominick Consolo, eds., Black Drama: An Anthology. Columbia: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1970.
Brown, John Mason. Dramatis Personae. New York: The Viking Press, 1963.
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Cavanaugh, Jim. Organization and Management of Non-Professional Theatre. New York: Richard Rosen Press, Inc., 1973.
Chapman, Abraham, ed., Black Voices: An Anthology of Afro-American Liter ature. New York: New American Library, 1968.
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Clevenger, Theodore, Jr. Audience Analysis. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1966.
Clifford, John E. Educational Theatre Management. Skokie, Illinois: National Textbook Company, 1972.
Cohen, Lillian. Statistical Methods for Social Scientists. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1954.
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Couch, William, Jr., ed., New Black Playwrights. New York: Avon Books, 1970.
Courtney, Richard. Play Drama and Thought. New York: Drama Book Spec- ialists/Publishers, 1964.
Cruse, Harold. The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual. New York: William Morrow Company, 1967.
Dennis, Lawrence and Jacobs Renate, eds., The Arts in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Ross, 1968.
Dent, Tom C., Richard Schechner, and Gilbert Moses. The Free Southern Theatre by the Free Southern Theatre. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1969.
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Dissertation Abstracts. Sec. A., Vol. 13, No. 1-3, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Xerox University Microfilms, 1953.
Dissertation Abstracts International: The Humanities and Social Sciences. Patricia Colling, ed., Sec. A., Col. 33, No. 9-10, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Xerox University Microfilms, 1972.
Dodd, Nigel and Winifred Hickson. Drama and Theatre in Education. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1971.
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Gay, L. R. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Appli cation. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1976.
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Hatch, James V. and Omanii Abdullah. Black Playwrights, 1823-1977: An Annotated Bibliography óf Plays. New York: R. R. Bowker Company, 1977.
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Index to Periodical Articles By and About Negroes. Hattie Brown Memorial Library Central State University and The Schomburg Collection-New York Library Boston: G. K. Hall and Company, 1971.
Isaacs, Edith J. R. The Negro in the American Theatre. New York: Theatre Arts, Inc., 1947.
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McMullan, Frank Alonzo. The Directorial Image: The Play and the Director. Connecticut: Shoe String Press, 1962.
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Sievers, David W., Harry E. Stivers, Jr. and Stanley Kahan. Directing for the Theatre. Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1974.
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B. PERIODICALS
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______"The Black in the American Theatre, 1700-1969," Pan African Journal, VII (Winter, 1974), 297-322.
. "The Negro Little Theatre Movement," The Negro History Bulletin, XII (February, 1949), 82-94. 89
. "What Good are College Dramatics," Crisis, XLI (August, 1934), 232-234.
Graham, Kenneth, ed., "Relationships Between Educational Theatre and Pro fessional Theatre," Educational Theatre Journal, XVIII (November, 1966), 311-359.
Harper, Conrad K. "The Legal Status of the Black College," Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, C (Summer, 1971), 772-781.
Harrison, Paul C. "Black Theatre and the African Continuum," Black World, August, 1972, 43-48.
Hill, Radford S. "Black Theatre and Audience Development," Freedomways, (Spring, 1978), 39-41.
Henry, George H. "Toward a Theatre of Our Time," Educational Theatre Journal, X (March, 1958), 1-10.
Hughes, Langston, "The Need for Heroes," Crisis, June 1941, 184-185 and 206.
Jencks, Christopher and David Riesman. "The American Negro College," Harvard Educational Review, XXXIII (Winter, 1967), 3-60.
Johnson, Clayton 0. "The Importance of Black Colleges," Educational Record, LII (Spring, 1971), 165-170.
Johnson, H. A. "Playwrights, Audience and Critics," Negro Digest, April, 1970, 17-24.
King, Woodie, "Educational Theatre and the Black Community," Negro Digest, April, 1969, 37-44.
Larrabee, H. A. "Varieties in the Black Experience," New England Quarterly, XLIII (December, 1970), 638-645.
Leslie, Larry L. "Increasing Response Rates to Long Questionnaires," Journal of Educational Research, LXIII (April, 1970), 317-350.
Lippman, Monroe. "Education and Free Theatre," Educational Theatre Journal, III (March, 1951), 95-98.
Locke, Alaine. "Steps Toward the Negro Theatre," Crisis, December, 1922, 66-68.
Loney, G. "The Negro and the Theatre," Educational Theatre/Drama, May, 1968, 231-233.
Long, Richard A. "Genesis of Locke's the New Negro," Black World, February, 1976, 14-20. 90
Lyon, Milton. "The Professional Actor at the University," Performing Arts Review, L (November, 1969), 219-222.
Mays, Benjamin E. "Black Colleges, Past, Present, and Future, The Black Scholar, VI (September, 1974), 32-37.
McGowan, Kenneth. "The Educational Theatre of Tomorrow," Educational Theatre Journal, X (March, 1957), 85-95.
Mitchell, Lofton. "Harlem Has Broadway on its Mind," Theatre Arts, XXXVII (June, 1953), 351-358.
Mitchell, Lee. "The Ideal Audience," Educational Theatre Journal, IV (March, 1952), 1.
Mollette, Carlton W. "The Way to a Viable Theatre: Afro-American Ritual Drama," Black World, April, 1973, 5-13.
Mommsen, Kent G. "Professionalism and the Racial Context of Career Patterns Among Black American Doctorates: A Note on the Brain Drain Hypothesis," Journal of Negro Education, XLII (Spring, 1973), 191-204.
Morris, Eddie W. "The Contemporary Negro College and the Brain Drain," Journal of Negro Education, XLI (Fall, 1972), 309-319.
Moss, Arnold. "Will You See the Players Well Bestowed. The Guest Artist Program in American Colleges and Universities," Educational Theatre Journal, XXVI (May, 1973), 231-241.
Murray, J. J. "Black Movies/Theatre," Drama Review, XVI (December, 1972), 39-45.
Nabrit, S. M. "Reflections on the Future of Black Colleges," Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, C (Summer, 1971), 660-667.
Randolph, James B. "What is Black Theatre?" Dramatics, XLII (March, 1971), 12-14.
Richey, Robert L. "Theatre Management Practices," Educational Theatre Journal, VII (December, 1956), 311-315.
Sanders, Charles. "Reflections on the Black Experience," Black World, August, 1971, 75-79.
Salacrow, Armand. "A Message to the American Educational Theatre," Educational Theatre Journal, III (March, 1951), 94.
"The American Negro College: Four Responses and a Reply," Harvard Edu- cational Review, XXXIII (Winter, 1967), 451-468. 91
Trent, William J. "The Future Role of the Negro College and Its Financing," Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, C (Summer, 1971), 647-660.
Wickham, DeWayne. "Redefining the Public Black College," Black Interprise, (May, 1979), 34-38.
Willie, Charles V. and Marlene Y. MacLeish. "Priorities of Black College Presidents," Educational Record, LVII (Spring, 1976), 92-100.
Williams, Dallas. "The Need for Production Organization," Educational Theatre Journal, II (May, 1950), 159-162.
Woolbert, Charles H. "The Audience," Psychological Monographs, (June, 1916), 37-54.
Wright, W. D. "The Cultural Thought and Leadership of Alaine Locke," Freedomways, First Quarter, 1974, 35-45.
C. UNPUBLISHED SOURCES
Carpenter, Dana. "A Study of the Selected Ethnic Theatrical Experience Incorporated in thé Theatre Programs of American Colleges and Universities." Ph.D. Dissertation, Kansas State University, 1977.
Hill, Pamela L. "Audience Development and Promotional Techniques in the Educational Theatre: A Case Study." M.A. Thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1976.
Ruble, Ronald M. "A Profile of Student Attenders of University Threatre Productions, Bowling Green State University, 1965-66." M.A. Thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1966. APPENDIX A
(Study Questionnaire) 93
Code Number ______
QUESTIONNAIRE
DEPARTMENTAL INFORMATION: .
Name of School or Institution ______
Department ______or Program ______
Present Enrollment ______Year Department or Program Established ____
Please indicate the NUMBER and TYPE of plays produced by your department or program in the past TEN (1968-1978) academic years:
______Classics ______Black Plays ______Modern American Plays ______Original Plays ______Recent Broadway Shows ______Total Number of Plays ______Modern European Classics ______Other (Please specify)
DIRECTING STRATEGIES :
1. What criteria do you use in selecting a script for production? (Please rank in order of importance. Use 1 to indicate most important)
Plot or Story Visual Stimuli Language Auditory Stimuli Dramatic Possibilities Characters Dialogue Theme or Meaning Personal Vibrations Other (Please specify)
2 What outside of the script itself do you consider when selecting a script for pro duction? (Please rank in order of importance.)
______Casting Limitations _____ Appropriateness for Audience ______Scenic Requirements ______Appropriateness for Participants ■_____ Budget Limitations ______Play’s Adaptibility to your own ______Play Availability concepts or approach to production ______Appeal to yourself, the ______Continuity with rest-of the theatre actors and production staff season's plays ______Other (Please specify)
3. What political or social concerns, if any, are related to your script selections? (Please rank in order of importance. Use .1 to indicate the most important.)
______Raising social awareness Moving people toward solutions ______Raising political awareness Protesting injustices to Black people ______Increasing Black pride Expression of social concern for real ______Supporting Black needs of the Black community consciousness Teaching the individual has control ______Other (Please specify) over his/her own life
4. What do you use to analyze a script? (Please rank in order of importance. Use j. to indicate the most important.)
Definition of the play's theme 94
2
______Study of critical appraisals of the play ______Study of critical appraisals of the author ______Research of the play's background ______Analysis of characters and their motives ______Division of the play into actions and beats ______Definition of the emphasis, point of view or approach you wish to present Preparation of the text for production ______Choice of style for production
5. As a director, how do you perceive yourself In relation to your technical staff? (Please rank the following in order of their appropriateness and importance to you.)
______Chief Executive ______Final Authority ______Coordinator ______Receptive to each individual's area ______Part of a problem-solving team of expertise ______Other (Please specify) ______Insist upon pre-conceived ideas ______Administer ______Ashamed to admit you don't know ,______Interpreter ______Business like manner ______An attitude of resilience
TRAINING OF STUDENTS:
6. Do students have input in establishing the production season? Yes No
7. In preparation as performers, our program offers out students training in: (Please rank in order of importance.)
Movement Characterization Role Analysis Dance Concentration Voice Other (Please specify) Confidence Ensemble Playing Relaxation
8. I see the training of students in the theatrical arts as: (Please rank in order of importance.)
______A primary focus ______Necessary to the continuance of the program ______Necessary to the expansion of the program ______Part of the survival of Black theatre ______Other (Please specify)
9. Do students have the opportunity to direct plays for public viewing? Yes No
10. Have ever produced student-written plays as part of your regular season? _____ Yes _____ No If so, how many?
11. Does your program encourage students to enter competitions? ___ Yes ___ No
12. If yes, which competitions? 95
3
13. Does your program encourage students to join professional organizations? ___ Yes ___ No
14. If yes, which organizations? (Please check those you encourage.)
______American Theatre Association ______National Association of Dramatic and ______Speech Communication Association Speech Arts ______Other (Please specify) ______Theta Alpha Phi
15. Does your program encourage students to participate in community theatre productions? _____ Yes _____ No
16. Does your department or program offer workshops outside your regular curriculum offerings? _____ Yes _____ No
17. If yes, how often?
______One per year ______More than one per year ______Less than one per year
18. What were the purposes of the workshop?
19. Does your department or program offer scholarships to outstanding students? _____ Yes _____ No •
20. If yes, how many scholarships are awarded in an academic year? ______
TOURING OF PRODUCTIONS:
21. Has your department or program ever toured a production? _____ Yes _____ No
22. If yes, how many productions have you toured? ______
23. If yes, where have you toured?
______Within a 25-mile radius . ______Within a 50-mile radius ______Within a 100-mile radius ______Within a 250-mile radius ______Outside a 259-mile radius
24. If yes, what productions have you toured? (Please list year of tour with play title)
PRODUCTION YEAR 96
4
25. If yes, what was (were) your source (s) of funding for the tour(s)?
______Regular departmental budget ______Special departmental budget ______Special funding from the institution ______Funding from outside sources (Please specify source.)
26. If no, what are the three (3) primary reasons your department has not toured a pro duction? Please list in order of importance.
1. :______
2.______
.. -3. ______;______
27. What benefits for your program do you see in touring productions? (Please rank.)
______Student recruitment______Theatrical experience for tour pro ______Audience development duction staff ______Publicity ______Other (Please specify)
FUNDING :
28. What is your primary source of funding? (Please rank according to importance.)
______University or college administration ______Private funds ______Government grants ______Box Office ' ______School organizations
29. Is there no funding whatsoever for productions? Explain.
DOCUMENTATION:
36. Does your department or program have funding specifically set aside for the research and documentation of production activities?
______Yes ______No
37. What percentage of your budget is allocated for these purposes? ,______
38. For what purpose is the research used? (Please check those which apply.)
______University accountability ______Increasing credibility ______Documenting need ______Improving directoral techniques 97
5 ______Other (Please specify) ______Audience Attendance ______Improving Quality of Productions ______Increasing funding opportunities ______Improving acting techniques
39. Do you video tape your productions? ___ Yes ___ No If yes, how are they used? If no, explain.
OUTSIDE RESOURCES:
40. Does your department or program bring In professional theatre people during the year? ______Yes ______No
41. If yes, In what capacity? (Please check those which apply.)
______Guest lecturer ______Workshop ______Guest performer ______Technical Advisor ______Special seminar Artist-in-residence ______Other (Please specify)
BLACK THEATRE PRODUCTIONS: (Play dealing with or adapted to the Black experience.)
42. How many Black plays has your department or program produced between 1968 and 1978? ______'
43. What were these productions and what year was each produced? PRODUCTION YEAR PRODUCED
Please write additional information on the back of this sheet.
44. Were the productions designed primarily to: (Please rank in order of importance.)
______Entertain ______Give direction , ______Instruct ______Induce action ______Inform ______Offer solutions ______Define problem ______Increase feelings of community ______Other (Please specify)
45. In order to develop more audience response to productions do you or does your department or program: Yes No Obtain a profile of your past audiences? ___ __ Analyze audience patterns of attendance? ___ 98
6 Yes No
Use audience surveys? Analyze audience response to your productions? Analyze audience behavior during a performance? Attempt to meet the rising expectations of the audience? Other (Please specify)
46. What means do you use to publicize a production? ______Newspaper ______Television advertising ______Press releases ______Radio advertising ______Reviews ______Po s t e r s ______Radio talk shows (local) ______Television talk shows (local) ______Other (Please specify)
47. How would you characterize your relationships with the media (local newspapers, and radio and television stations)?
______Excellent ______Good ______Fair ______Poor
48. How would you characterize the media’s response to your productions?
_____ Well received with increased interest in future productions ______Well received ______Indifferent ______Antagonistic ______Detrimental
49. In building your department's or program's image, what techniques or means of pro jection have been used? (Please check those which apply.)
______Touring • ______Visibility in the community ______Informal communication channels of production participants ______Viability in the community through participation in outside activities ______Past reputation ______Other (Please specify)
50. Do you view the audience as: (Please rank according to importance.)
a passive agent ______separate from the threatrical experience ______participating agent ______no psychological separation between actor and audience ______interaction between actor and audience
51. How do you view the theatrical experience? (Please rank according to importance.)
a. social activity ______as an emotional and intellectual motivator of behavior ______vibrant and meaningful ______producer of a collective catharsis ______forms an effective aesthetic unity edifying 99
7
52. What is your production philosophy?
53. Does it differ from the departmental production philosophy? ___ Yes ___ No If yes, explain the difference and how it is/was resolved.
54. What is the name of your production organization?
NAME (For questionnaire identification only) ______
PERSONAL INFORMATION: Your position or title ______
SEX: ____ M RACE: Black American AGE: ______20-29 F Hispanic American ____ _30-34 Native American ______35-39 Asian American ______40-44 Caucasian ______45-49 Other (Please specify) ______50-59 ______60 and over
EDUCATION: ___ Bachelor of Arts EXPERIENCE ______16-25 years Master of Arts ______11-15 Doctorate ______6-10 ___ Other (Please specify) ______1-5 Other (Please specify) APPENDIX B
Review of Literature Related to Black Theatre/Drama) 101
"We Wear the Mask: The Use of Negro and Character in American Drama.'
Edward G. Linnehan Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania, 1948, presented the
dramatic development of the Negro character from Ridely Torrence's Three
Plays for a Negro Theatre (1917) to Richard Wright's Native Son (1941).
Linnehan concluded, "the Negro in American Drama matured and subscribed to
new visions of opportunity, of social and economic freedom, of a spirit to seize a chance for the improvement of his conditions."’’’
"The Rise, Development, Decline and Influence of the American Min
strel Show." Frank Davidson, Ph.D., New York University, 1952. The purpose
of this investigation was to determine the backgrounds of the American
Minstrel show; to delineate its growth and development; to discover the
causes of its decline; and to trace its influences on other dramatic forms.
Davidson drew this conclusion, "the Minstrel show is the only indigenous
American contribution to the drama and that the melodies of the Negro Min- 2 strel inspired are America's only approach to national music." The study
proposed that the decline of the minstrel show was due to the competition
of the managers to outdo one another with elaborate presentations and the
failure of the minstrel show to represent the Negro accurately on stage.
"The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and
the American Theatre: A Study of Relationships and Influences (Volumes I
and II)." Leonard Archer, Ph.D., Ohio State University, 1955. The problem
for this study was to determine the effects of the Associations protests upon
performers and theatrical productions. The conclusions reached in this
treatise were: (1) the NAACP's protest campaigns against racial stereotypes
in theatrical productions succeeded in helping Black performers to get better parts but failed in helping to provide more jobs for Black performers; 102.
(2) protest against segregation and discrimination succeeded in helping to
change the admission policies which barred Blacks from the theatre; and
(3) the relationships of the NAACP with the non-commercial theatre were
not direct and enduring enough to be significant. The expressed opinion of
Archer was "that the NAACP should refrain from theatrical censorship and
protest against stereotypes because this action reduced the economic oppor- 3 tunities for Black performers."
"A History of the Karamu Theatre of Karamu House, 1915-1960." Reuben
Silver, Ph.D., Ohio State University, 1961. The principal sources for this work were Black and White newspapers, Karamu files, interviews, and
questionnaires directed to past and present personnel and observers. This
investigation recorded the history of Karamu Theatre, an interracial ama
teur community theatre. However, this theatre group was originally the
Gilpin Players which was a Black performing group whose performances were directed to Black audiences. According to Silver, this study "demonstrated the firm philosophy of education and human development through the arts and the conviction that a racially integrated program can serve best the arts 4 in a democratic society."
"American Drama in Antislavery Agitation, 1792-1861," John Collins,
Ph.D., State University of Iowa, 1963. This dissertation examined the re lation of those plays that addressed themselves to the anti-slavery debate and the effect they had on the anti-slavery movement as purveyors of anti slavery argument and sentiments. The analysis suggested that abolition playwrights were generally successful in adapting formal elements of the drama to persuasive ends. Collins stated that this inquiry "confirmed the idea that an important function of American drama has been actively to engage in major national debates."^ 103
"The Diversity of Treatment of the Negro Character in American
Drama Prior to 1860." Alfonso Sherman, Ph.D., Indiana University, 1964.
This document described the historical background of the Black man in
America and that relationship to the theatre during the Colonial period.
Sherman concluded "that the Negro stage characters during this era was
far from being stereotyped and presented a wide range of cultural and social
ranks, attitudes, linguistic idiosyncrasies, and personal relationships."
"An Interpretative Study of the Effects of Some Upper Mid-West
Productions of Urtcle Tom's Cabin as Reflected in Local Newspapers Between
1852 and 1860." Harold R. Oaks, Ph.D., University of Minnesota, 1964.
The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that dramatizations of
Uncle Tom’s Cabin influenced the abolitionist movement and/or the insti
gation of the Civil War. Information for this project was gathered from
daily newspapers, editorials, copied articles, comments, local news re
ports and specific reaction to the play, slavery, the abolitionist movement,
and race relations. The towns used were located in Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Minnesota. One important generalization was that the closer the production was to the original publication of the book, the more likely it was regarded as propaganda. Oaks also concluded "that the play and book alone did not instigate direct political action."?
"The American Negro Playwright, 1920-1964," Fannie E. F. Hicklin,
Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, 1965. The purpose of this examination was to ascertain the quantitative and qualitative contribution of Black play wrights by scrutinizing plays published and produced 1920-1964. The re search methodology was the collection of data from books, newspapers, jour nals, theatre collections, interviews, and correspondence with playwrights. 104
The titles of some of the chapters gave a historical description of the
periods discussed such as "The Literary Boom of the Twenties," "The g Promising Thirties," "The Lean Forties," and "A Second Renaissance."
"The Negro on Broadway: The Transition Years, 1920-1930." Porter
S. Woods, D.F.A., Yale University, 1965. This dissertation had a two-fold purpose: to examine the original productions of three famous plays:
Emperor Jones, Porgy, and Green Pastures and to evaluate the critical reaction to them. The use of prompt books, production photographs, first hand comments, contemporary newspapers and magazines were used in re- 9 searching this topic.
"Samuel S. Sanford and Negro Minstrelsy." Jimmy D. Baines, Ph.D.,
Tulane University, 1967. The goal of this study was to trace the career of
Samuel S. Sanford both as a manager and performer in Negro minstrelsy. The basic reference used was Sanford’s manuscript Personal Reminiscences (1885) and information obtained primarily from newspapers. Baines concluded that
"Sanford greatly contributed to the development of the early minstrel show by participation and his innovations as a manager."^
"The Negro Image in Representative American Dramas." Theodore E.
Gilliam, Ph.D., Tulane University, 1967. This survey was designed to eval uate the realistic image of the Negro in "representative" American dramas.
The primary sources of material for this investigation were printed plays and critical appraisals in the period and contemporary ones, the plays and productions. Gilliam observed that the most important awakening of this decade "was the appearance of several Black playwrights who brought the
’inside’ perspective to fruition in credible plays which seemed to culmi nate in the accomplishments of Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the Sun."'’''’' 105
"The Nature of the Negro Hero in Serious American Drama, 1910-
1965." Mary R. Hardwick, Ph.D., Michigan State University, 1968. The
objective of this thesis was to examine the nature of the Negro male hero
in serious Twentieth century American drama. A critical methodology was employed focusing on textual analysis, the conditions under which the material was written, the intended audience, and reviews by critics.
This dissertation verified: (1) that Black writers did not evade reality in the projection of Black heroes; (2) that the desire for Blacks to retaliate was not a new disposition; and (3) that at the most fundamental level, certain psychological obsessions were repeated in Black written literature. Hardwick asserted,that the results of her inquiry demonstrated
"that the Black man's dreams and desires in plays written by Whites are not indicative of the Black race."12
"A Study of the Attitudes of the Writers of the Negro Press Toward
the Depiction of the Negro in Plays and Films: 1930-1965." Singer A.
Buchanan, Ph.D., University of Michigan, 1968. This dissertation assembled
the comments of Black newspaper writers on theatre and motion pictures by
the Chicago Defender and the Pittsburgh Courier. The study attempted to
collect and analyze comments on theatre and cinema. The general trend in comments was "a consistent attack upon the perpetuation of stereotypes through the forties and abandonment of stereotypes in the early sixties."13
"West African Drama: Folk, Popular, and Literary." Anthony Graham-
White, Ph.D., Stanford University, 1969. This study surveyed the different forms of drama to be found in West Africa with frequent comparisons drawn from elsewhere in Africa. This investigation on the development of liter ary and folk drama was followed by a critical discussion of plays of two 10.6
leading African dramatists John P. Clark and Wole Soyinka. There was also
a discussion of the complex relationship between ritual and drama.14
"The Treatment of Selected Themes in Recent American Dramas about
Negroes; 1959-1967." Celia M. Schall, Ph.D., University of Kansas, 1969.
This treatise examined selected themes in recent American dramatic liter
ature about Negroes, including plays by both Black and White authors.
Schall observed that "while the plays included in the study offered in
sight into the black experience, they did not project a single view of
Black life but presented diversity and individuality.
"Folklore and the Rise of Theatre Among the Yoruba." Oyekan Owo- moyela, Ph.D., University of California, Los Angeles, 1970. The tradi
tional structure of Yoruba society and its institutions of family and general entertainment were examined and compared with present day Yoruba
theatre. Owomoyela concluded "that the Yoruba theatre reflected Yoruba society at large, from its traditional state in the pre-European period to the present Western-adulterated state.
"Paul Robeson: His Career in the Theatre, in Motion Pictures, and
on the Concert Stage." Antol I. Schlosser, Ph.D., New York University,
1970. The work chronicled thirty-years of a performer whose achievements
in theatre have been unequalled. The data for this study was made
available by the Robeson family, files, personal and business corres pondence, legal and financial documents, published and unpublished writings of Robeson, scripts, scores, scenarios, programs, scrap books, reviews, interviews, and criticism of his theatrical, cinematic and concert performances. Schlosser reported that "Robeson in theatre and motion pictures fought the forces of prejudice, always trying to obtain roles which portrayed the Black man with dignity."1? 1C 7
"An Investigation of Selected American-Negro Philosophies of Art:
A Basis for Formulating Negro Literary Aesthetic Thought Within the
American Aesthetic Syndrome." John C. Moore, Ph.D., Syracuse University,
1970. This dissertation examined the pronouncements of particular artists
(Countee Cullen, Richard Wright, and Ralph Ellison) upon their work, and
concentrated on the aesthetic meanings implicit in those statements. The
objective was to show tendencies, relationships and meanings through an
analytical approach. The organization of the text was the artist himself,
the work of art, and the artist’s creative process.18
"Militating for Change: The Black Revolutionary Theatre Movement
in the United States." Clyde G. Sumpter, Ph.D., University of Kansas,
1970. The objective of this thesis was to examine the Black Revolutionary
Theatre—one of the tools of the Black Revolution. Sumpter concluded that
"the foundation of Black Theatres in Black communities had provided Black
cultural houses for the presentation of revolutionary plays as well as
cultural centers for other forms.
"The Black Revolutionary Theatre: LeRoi Jones, Ed Bullins, and
Minor Playwrights." Elsie G. Galbreath, Ph.D., University of Denver,
1971. This work was concerned with the development of the Black Theatre
Movement from 1964 to 1970. Although the study focused primarily on
this period, information on pertinent events outside those dates were ?0 considered.
"The Image of the Black Man as Projected by Representative White
American Dramatists, 1900-1963." Samuel A. Hay, Ph.D., Cornell University,
1971. The general objectives of this study were to discover what some representative American dramatists had allowed (or persuaded) the mass- mind to believe about the Black man and to investigate and evaluate the 108
image-making process used to lead the mass-mind to believe what it be
lieved. Hay perceived "that the Black image projected during the dif
ferent periods examined generally reflected the racial ideas, beliefs,
and practices that prevailed at that time."21
"Characterization of Blacks in the Theatre of the Sixties." Rosa
L. Nash, Ph.D., Yeshiva University, 1971. The characterization of the
Blacks and the theatre of the sixties had been different than the
characterization of Blacks in the theatre prior to the sixties and this
change in characterization was a reflection of the changes in the social
trends, was the hypothesis for this study. Nash concluded that "charac
terization of Blacks in the theatre of the sixties was an organic growth
from the growth of the statue of the Black person."22
"Langston Hughes: As American Dramatist." Edwin L. Coleman, dr.,
Ph.D., University of Oregon, 1971. This study examined the theatrical
contributions of Langston Hughes as a playwright. The purpose was to
identify and evaluate the contributions made by Hughes to the theatre in a forty year period. Coleman reported that the depiction of racial pride and awakening the awareness of Black people to their human dignity emer ged in the works of Hughes.33
"The Lafayette Players: 1915-1932." Sister Mary J. Thompson,
Ph.D., University of Michigan, 1972. The seventeen year history of the
Lafayette Players was traced from the accounts given by its founder^,
Anita Bush, Clarence Muse and Edna Thomas, interviews, articles, books, scrapbooks, and weekly Black newspapers. Criticism was gathered from the noted Black critics—Lester Walton of The New York Age, Salem T.
Whitney of The Chicago Defender, and R. W. Thompson of The Indianapolis 109
Freeman. Sister Thompson ascertained that "the great financial depression was one of the reasons that led to the demise of the Lafayette Players."24
The group disbanded in 1932.
"The Black Spirit: A Trilogy of Original Plays and a Treatise on
Dramatic Theory in Contemporary Black Drama." John S. Scott, Ph.D.,
Bowling Green State University, 1972. This investigation creatively and theoretically explored the import of Black aesthetics and the intent of
Black playwrights' dramatic language and structure. Scott prescribed
"that Black drama does clarify and elevate to noble dimensions of the
Black Spirit when it reinforces and informs Black people that they are needed by one another and demonstrates to Black people how to reach out to one another across that need."23
"The Development and Treatment of the Negro Character as Presented in American Musical Theatre 1927-1968." Stephen R. Alkire, Ph.D.,
Michigan State University, 1972. This work chronicled the manner in which
Black characters had been presented to the public and examined the drama tic situation in which they had been placed on the American musical stage.
The critical method was employed with emphasis on textual analysis.
Twenty-five musical plays were examined. "The import of the thesis was to be realized in the development toward greater diversity and maturity of the Black image as present on the American musical stage largely by White authors to White audiences."26
"Form and Meaning in Some Plays by Imamu Amiri Baraka (Leroi Jones)."
Roland L. Reed, Ph.D., University of Nebraska, 1972. The study was limited to Baraka's dramatic writings arid analyzed his plays: The Toilet, The
Baptism, Dutchman, The Slave, Experimental Death #1, A Black Mass, and 110
Slave Ship. Each play was treated from two perspectives: the nature of
the social-revolutionary meaning and the use and adaptation of traditional
dramatic forms. Reed concluded that, "there were definable principles
beyond character functions alone which can serve as criteria for deter- 27 mining the revolutionary character of plays."
"An Overview of Miss Anne: White Women as Seen by Black Play
wrights." Marjorie Ann Thomas, Ph.D., Florida State University, 1975.
This dissertation was a historical analysis of selected produced plays
written by Black playwrights from 1925 to the present. Also, the survey
examined the history of the Black Theatre Movement with emphasis on plays
by both White and Black dramatists. Thomas perceived that "because of
the strong sexual/social taboos operative, the stage picture of Black-
White relationships had been distorted, especially by the Black authored , „28 plays.
"Lonne Elder’s Ceremonies in Dark Old Men: A Production Thesis."
Carroll J. Schempp, M.S., University of Louisville, 1973. This paper was
a comprehensive study of all the elements contained in a production thesis
It involved both sociological and literary values. Critical evaluations 29 of the production were included.
"The Emperor Jones in Reading Theatre Style." Diana C. Goodell,
M.A., California State University, Fullerton, 1973. The purpose of this presentation was to determine whether The Emperor Jones could be pre
sented by lower division students without losing O'Neill's symbolic . . 30 ' expressionism.
"The White Image as Second Persona in Black Drama 1955-1970."
John L. Tedesco, Ph.D., University of Iowa, 1974. The purpose of this Ill
discourse was: to discover what images of White people emerged from Afro-
American drama produced on the New York stage between 1955 and 1970; and
to speculate about the potential impact of those images on the White
audience. The five images were: the White man as a controller, enforcer,
poor White, liberal, or bystander. Tedesco reached the conclusion that
"the second personae were all negative and their impact suggested that
the white audience changed its attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior
relative to the Black community."3!
"The Black Theatre Alliance: A History of its Founding Members."
Robert J. Wilson, Ph.D., New York University, 1974. This compilation was
a history of the Black Theatre Alliance. The researcher analyzed the
techniques used by the Alliance to develop audiences, identified audience
composition, and examined their responses to the Alliance and its work.
Data was gathered from company members, directors, playwrights, and news
paper files.33
"Modern Drama of Africa: Form and Content, A Study of Four Play wrights." Marianne Fearn, Ph.D., Northwestern University, 1974. This study focused on the works of Tegaye Medhin, Athol Fugard, J. P. Clark,
and Wole Soyinka. Discussion of the plays included the playwrights use of dramatic form and the identification'of images and ideas they had
taken from their cultures and societies. "One accomplishment of the four playwrights was the opening of doors between the dramatic traditions of their societies and the rest of the world."33
"The Black Theatre Movement." Gerald T. Goodmas, Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania, 1974. This dissertation traced the background of the
Black Theatre Movement by investigating the dilemma of earlier Black 112
authors who were forced to appeal to predominantly White audiences.
Goodman declared "despite the claims of Black Arts advocates, the Black
Theatre Movement is a vital force within the American theatre and Black
American playwrights cannot fully shed the Western influences."34
"The Evolution of Black Drama." Gloria P. Yancey, M.S., Uni
versity of Louisville, 1974. This thesis was an overview of the develop
ment of Black Drama from its inception to the sixties. The discussion
was focused on the plays and the treatment of Black characters.35
"Black Theatre as Cultural Communication: An Educative Process."
Carole Waters, Ph.D., University of Maryland, 1975. This work presented
a critical analysis of the educative role of Black Theatre as cultural
communication and attempted to determine the extent of its impact on
American society. To this end, "Black Theatre communicates certain cul
tural concepts and educates its audience through the projection of posi-
five images of the contemporary Black American.
"The Theatre of the Black Diaspora: A Comparative Study of Black
Drama in Brazil, Cuba and the United States." Flora M. Edwards, Ph.D.,
New York University, 1975. The study considered three philosophical ap
proaches in the development of the Black Theatre Movement, shaped by
social and political conditions which created the very need for its
existence. "The Black Theatre Movement of Brazil, Cuba, and the United
States are essentially one in Spirit and is an expression of total
commitment, dedicated to the social and cultural liberation in its
people."37
"Paul Green: Folk-Dramatist, Social Critic." Fred A. Eady, Ph.D.,
Michigan State University, 1974. The primary purpose of this study was 113
to determine the extent and significance of Paul Green’s social conscious ness in his concern for the plight of the Black man as revealed in his
"Negro" plays. Eady stated that "Green’s folk dramas served their purpose well as a means toward social commentary.”33
"The American Negro Theatre: 1940-1949." Ethel L. Pitts, Ph.D.,
University of Missouri-Columbia, 1975. This dissertation was a nine year history of a Black community theatre located in Harlem which provided a place to train aspiring Black artists and present theatre to the Black audience. According to Abram Hill, one of the founders, the Studio
Theatre became the first Black Theatre organization to be incorporated by the New York Board of Education. "Controversy and dissention among
ANT members, problems arising from commercial success of Anna Lucasta, high production costs, and 'rumors of misappropriation of funds," led to the decline of the organization in the fifties."39
"Theatre and Drama and the Black Physical and Cultural Presence in America: Essays in Interpretation." Biodun Jeyifous, Ph.D., New
York University, 1975. This study was a critical reinterpretation of significant stage images and dramatic representations of Black people in the American theatre from the early nineteenth century to the present.
Also, the work entailed criticism of theatrical expressions, existing 40 histories and critical works on Black theatre.
"A Thematic Study of Selected Plays Produced by the Negro Ensemble
Company," Edward Hill, Ph.D., Bowling Green State University, 1975. This investigation provided an examination of selected themes in recent Afro-
American literature produced by the Negro Ensemble Company and written by affiliated playwrights. The themes selected for this study were: familial 114
and interpersonal relationships, Black ghetto life-styles, and the search for Black identity. The method employed was thematic analysis. Hill perceived that "such a thematic analysis provided for potential directors' insight into the Black experience which may prove helpful in interpreting 41 the Black dramas in this study."
"Image of the White Man as Projected in the Published Plays of
Black Americans, 1847-1973." Robert L. Stevenson, Ph.D., Indiana University,
1976. Numerous studies of the Black drama have shown interest either in contemporary or the professionally produced plays. Stevenson stated "that virtually no scholar had written about the White iamges in those plays and 42 as a result a serious gap existed in the criticism of Black dramaturgy."
"An Analysis of Ikpelokwooka—Inquest forms of Nigefian Idoma—
Otukpo Rituals as a Playwriting Model." Samson 0. Amali, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1976. This thesis sought to analyze the ritual, theatrical, and dramatic forms of the Idoma Inquest system as a source for the composition of an original play based xipon that form. According to
Amali, "an inquest is held each time a member of the kingdom dies to deter mine the cause of death and may be considered an indigenous ritual drama.
The inquest performance affirms the society's solidarity and is presumed to restore order.
"The Idea of Tragic Form in Nigerian Drama Written in English."
Atiboroko Uydvbukerhi, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1976. This dissertation emerged out of the need for interpreting meaning and assigning value to those "modern forms, as well as to antecedent modes of theatre, because many critics used Western concepts of dramatic form to interpret 44 African drama." 115
"New Black Playwrights in America (1960-1975): Essays in Theatri cal Criticism." Yemi Ogunbiyi, Ph.D., New York University, 1976. This work attempted to evaluate and understand the works of the following major playwrights: Amiri Baraka, Ed Bullins, Paul C. Harrison, Adrienne
Kennedy, Phillip Dean, and Richard Wesley.45
"The Acting of James Earl Jones." Edward Setrakian, Ph.D.,
New York University, 1976. This dissertation focused on the professional career of James Earl Jones a well-known major Black American actor.
Documentation of his acting consisted of extensive taped interviews with Jones and taped interviews and phone conversations with his theatre colleagues. Included in this study was an examination of Jones’ per formance in six roles: Othello, Dr. D., Jack Jefferson, Claudius, King
Lear, and Hicky. "Emphasis emerged on Jones’ personal use of the "Method" approaches to character work including his continuing concern with voice and gestural components.
"An Analysis of the Language in Five Plays by Ed Bullins," Elton
Wolfe, Ph.D., Stanford University, 1977. The objective of this study was to provide a guide for actors and directors who desire to perform the plays of Ed Bullins. This investigation examined representative sample of his approach to communication in the theatre in the following plays:
A Son, Come Home, In the Wine Time, New England Winter, The Duplex, and
Goin' A Buffalo. "The study revealed the playwright to be moving in creasingly away from verbal language as a means of revealing the truth ■.47 about his characters.
"Two Plays on the Black Experience: From Conception to Production."
Curtis Williams, Ph.D., University of Austin, 1977. This work traced the 116
playwright's process of composing two plays, Ghetto Vampire—a comedy with music, about Blacks trying to join a vampire union to improve their status in society and Crispus a fictionalized account of the last evening in the life of Crispus Attucks, the Black martyr of the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770. These plays were designed for predominantly Black 48 casts and audiences.
"The Concept and Practice of Traditional African Festival Theatre."
James Amaukylor, Ph.D., University of California, Los Angeles, 1977. This study was to provide some insights into the traditional African theatre as an artistic and cultural phenomenon which was guided by a mixture of the individual's creativity and other socio-cultural conventions. Aman- kulor concluded that "the use of traditional conventions or material in theatre practice can only be valid if the original imagery or symbolism is transmuted in such a way that the meaning is not destroyed but extended."49 HZ
APPENDIX B — FOOTNOTES
^Dissertation Abstracts, (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro films Inc., Sec. A., Vol. 13., No. 1-2, 1953), p. 451. o Dissertation Abstracts International: The Humanities and Social Sciences. Patricia Colling, ed., (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Xerox University Microfilms. Sec. A., Vol. 33., No. 9-10, 1972), p. 268.
Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. 20, No. 1-2, p. 795.
^Ibid., Vol. 22, March-April, 1962, p. 3778.
5Ibid., Vol. 24, August, 1963, p. 890-891.
6Ibid., Vol. 29, March, No. 9, 1966, p. 5598.
^Ibid., March, 1965, p. 5448-5449.
8Ibid., Vol. 26, July, 1965, p. 542.
9Ibid., Vol. 35, No. 5-6, 1970, p. 3083-A.
l0Ibid., Vol. 28, 1968, p. 4302-A.
Ulbid.
12Ibid., Vol. 29, 1968, p. 1978-A.
13Ibid., Vol. 28, No. 3-4, p. 985-A.
14Ibid., Vol. 30, 1970, p. 3573-A.
15Ibid., Vol. 30, No. 11-12!, 1970, p. 5559-A.
^Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 31, No. 10, 1971, p. 5568-A.
^Dissertation Abstracts, Col. 31, No. 5-6, 1970, p. 2539-A.
•^Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 31, No. 11, 1971, p. 6114-A.
^Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. 31, No. 11, 1971, p. 6210-A.
^Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 32, No. 8, 1972, p. 4757-A.
21Ibid., Vol. 32, No. 11, 1972, p. 6597-A. 118
22t. . , Ibid., Vol. 32, No. 10, 1972 , p. 5931-A.
23Ibid., Vol. 36, No. 10, 1972 , p. 5926-A.
24Ibid., Vol. 34, No. 34, 1973 , p. 6496-A.
23Ibid., Vol. 33, No. 1, 1972, p. 438-A.
26Ibid., Vol. 33, No. 9, 1973, p. 5334-A.
27Ibid., Vol. 33, No. 7, 1973, p. 3838-A.
28Ibid., Vol. 34, No. 8, 1973, p. 3605-A.
29Masters Abstracts: A Catalog of Selected Master Theses on Microfilm (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Xerox University Microfilms, 1973).
30Ibid.
^Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 35, No. 7, 1975, p. 4742-A.
32lbid.
33Ibid., Vol. 35, No. 6, 1974, pp. 3929-A-3930-A.
34Ibid., Vol. 36, No. 1, 1975, p. 34-A.
33Masters Abstracts: A Catalog of Selected Master Theses on Microfilm,1974.
36pissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 36, No. 6, p. 3217-A
37Ibid., Vol. 36, No. 6, P- 3222-A.
38Ibid., Vol. 36, No. 1, P. 32-A.
39Ibid., Vol. 36, No. 10, P- 6373-A.
40Ibid., Vol. 36, No. 4, P- 1905-A.
41Ibid., Vol. 36, No. 8, P- 4861-A.
42Ibid., Vol. 37, No. 4, P- 1881-A.
43Ibid., Vol. 37, No. 11, P- 6844-A.
44Ibid., Vol. 37, No. 11, P- 6848-A.
45Ibid., Vol. 37, P- 1299'-A. 119
46Ibld., Vol. 37, p. 1229-1300-A.
47Ibid., Vol. 38, No. 6, p. 3148-A.
48Ibid., Vol. 38, No. 5, p. 2426-A.
49Ibid., p. 2421-A. APPENDIX C
(Directorial Practices) 121
TABLE 4
Rank Order of Directors' Intrinsic Considerations in Selecting a Script
Considerations Rank Responses Percentage of Responses
Dramatic possibilities 1st 23 95
Plot or story 2nd 22 91
Language 3rd 11 45
Theme or meaning 3rd 21 87
Personal vibrations 4 th 10 41
Characters 5 th 16 66
N = 24
TABLE 5
Rank Order of Directors' Extrinsic Considerations in Selecting a Script
Percentage Considerations Rank Responses of Responses
Appeal to self, actors and produc tion staff 1st 12 50
Scenic requirements 2nd 13 54
Appropriateness to audience 3rd 17 70
Plays adaptability 4 th 11 45
Casting limitations 5 th 20 83
Budget limitations 5 th 17 70
N = 24 12 2
TABLE 6
Rank Order of Directors' Social Concerns in Selecting a Script
Percentage Concerns Rank Responses of Responses
Teaching the individual control over his/her own life 1st 15 62
Expressing social concerns for the real needs of the Black community 2nd 12 50
Moving people toward solutions 3rd 16 66
Supporting Black consciousness 4th 18 75
Raising social awareness 5 th 18 79
N = 24
TABLE 7
Rank Order of Directors' Considerations in Analyzing the Script
Percentage Rank Responses Considerations of Responses
Definition of the play's theme 1st 22 70
Definition of the emphasis, point of view or approach you wish to present 2nd 13 66
Analysis of characters and their motives 3rd 17 75
Preparation of text for production 4 th 20 50
Study of critical appraisals of the play 5 th 11 50
N = 24 123
TABLE 8
Rank Order of Directors’ Perceptions of Their Relationship with Technical Staffs
Percentage Perceptions Rank Responses of Responses
Co-ordinator 1st 22 91
Chief Executive 2nd • 13 54
Receptive to each individual’s area of expertise 3rd 17 70
Part of a problem-solving team 4 th 20 83
Administrator 5th 11 45
N = 24 APPENDIX D
(Student Production Training and Participation) 125
TABLE 9
Rank Order of the Directors’ Perceptions Concerning Production Training of Students
Percentage Perceptions Rank Responses of Responses
A primary focus 1st 24 100
Necessary to the continuance of the program 2nd 24 100
Necessary to the expansion of the program 3rd 24 100
Part of the survival of Black Theatre 4th 24 100
N = 24
TABLE 10
Rank Order of Directors’ Perceptions of the Training of Students’ Preparation as Performers
Preparations Rank Responses Percentage of Responses
Role analysis 1st 18 75
Ensemble playing ’ 2nd 16 66
Characterization 3rd 19 79
Concentration 4th 16 66
Voice 5 th 13 54
N = 24 126
TABLE 11
Responses of Representative Directors on Adjunct Production Training of Students
Responses Percentage Questions Yes No . Yes No
Does your program encourage students to join professional organizations? 23 1 (96) (4)
Does your department offer work shops outside your regular curriculum? 17 7 (70) (30)
Does your department offer scholarships to outstanding theatre students? 9 15 (37) (63)
N = 24
TABLE 12
Responses of Representative Directors on the Participation of Students in the Production Activities
Questions Responses Percentage Yes No Yes No
Do students have an opportunity 24 — (100) (—) to direct plays for public viewing?
Have you produced student written 19 5 (79) (21) plays as a part of your regular season?
Does your program encourage 19 5 (79) (21) students to enter competitions?
N = 24 APPENDIX E
(Chronology of Black Plays Produced) 128'
TABLE 14
Chronology of Black Plays and Playwrights Produced 1968-1978
Year Title Playwright
1968 Contribution Ted Shine Morning Noon and Night Ted Shine Purlie Victorious Ozzie Davis Raisin in the Sun Loraine Hansberry Tambourines to Glory Langston Hughes The Toilet Amiri Baraka
1969 Amen Corner James Baldwin Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III Contribution Ted Shine Day of Absence Douglas T. Ward Dr. B. S. Black Carlton Mollette The Dutchman Amiri Baraka Fly Blackbirds Bernard C. Jackson God’s Tromb ones James W. Johnson Happy Ending Douglas T. Ward In The Wine Time Ed Bullins Land Beyond the River Loften Mitchell Raisin in the Sun Loraine Hansberry RosaLee Pritchett Barbara and Carlton Mollette Shoes Ted Shine The Slave Amiri Baraka
1970 The Auction Curtis Williams The Brass Medallion Robert Crawford Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III Contribution Ted Shine Day of Absence Douglas T. Ward The Dutchman Amiri Baraka Freeman Phillip H. Dean The Prayer Meeting Ben Caldwell Purlie Victorious Ozzie Davis Raisin in the Sun Loraine Hansberry Simply Heavenly Langston Hughes Sister Son/Ji Sonia Sanchez Tamborines to Glory Langston Hughes The Warning—A Theme for Linda Ron Milner 129;
TABLE 14 — Continued
1971 Amen Corner James Baldwin Black Mass Amiri Baraka Black Woman in White Clifton A. Lamb Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III Curtain Call, Mr. Aldridge, Sir Ozzie Davis Day of Absence Douglas T. Ward Divine Comedy Owen Dodson The Dutchmen Amiri Baraka El Hajj Malik N. R. Davidson Happy Ending Douglas T. Ward The King of Soul, or the Devil and Otis Redding Ben Caldwell Middleman Harmon Watson New Wine in a New Bowl Harmon Watson Raisin in the Sun Loraine Hansberry Slave Amiri Baraka Striver’s Row Abram Hill Sty of the Blind Pig Phillip H. Dean Tell Pharoah Loften Mitchell The Warning—A Theme for Linda Ron Milner
1972 Amen Corner James Baldwin Baptism Amiri Baraka Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III The Dutchman Amiri Baraka Five on the Black Hand Side Charlie Russell Fly Blackbird Bernard C. Jackson Gentleman Caller Ed Bullins God's Trombones James W. Johnson Happy Ending Douglas T. Ward Single Indemnity Curtis Williams Soul Gone Home Langston Hughes Tell Pharoah Loften Mitchell To Be Young, Gifted, and Black Loraine Hansberry Wine in the Wilderness Alice Childress
1973 Black Cycle Marite Charles Black Girl. J. E. Franklin Blues for Mister Charlie James Baldwin Booji Barbara and Carlton Mollette Curtain Call—Ira Aldridge Ozzie Davis Day of Absence Douglas T. Ward Ghetto Vampire T. Marshall Jones and Curtis L. Williams 13.0
TABLE 14 — Continued
Happy Ending Douglas T. Ward Ladies in Waiting Peter DeAnda The Last Days Jo-Anne McKnight A Medal for Willie William Branch Morning, Noon, and Night Ted Shine Sty of the Blind Pig Phillip H. Dean Tell Pharoah Lofton Mitchell Toe Jam Elaine Jackson The Tragedy of Martin Luther King Ellwoodson Williams
Amen Corner James Baldwin Black Girl J. E. Franklin Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III Contribution Ted Shine Fire on the Black Hand Side Charles Russell Freeman Phillip H. Dean God's Trombones James W. Johnson No Place to be Somebody Charles Gordone Purlie Victorious Ozzie Davis The River Niger Joseph A. Walker Shoes Ted Shine Sho is Hot in the Cotton Patch Ted Shine Sty of the Blind Pig Phillip H. Dean Tell Pharoah Lofton Mitchell
Ain’t Suppose to Die a Natural Death Melvin Van Peebles Amen Corner James Baldwin Black Girl J. E. Franklin Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III Contribution Ted Shine First Breeze of Summer Leslie Lee Five on the Black Hand Side Charles Russell Freeman Phillip H. Dean Livin' Fat Judi Ann Mason Livin’ Fat Judi Ann Mason Mulatto Langston Hughes No Place to be Somebody Charles Gordone Raisin in the Sun Loraine Hansberry Sister Son/Ji Sonia Sanchez Sty of the Blind Pig Phillip H. Dean Tamborines to Glory Langston Hughes 131
TABLE 14 — Continued
1976 The Black Terror Richard Wesley Campaign Vinetta Boyd Chrispus Curtis L. Williams Dr. B. S. Black Carlton Mollette El Hajj Malik N. R. Davidson The Escape, or A Leap to Freedom William W. Brown Ethiopia at the Bar of Justice Ed McCoo The First Breeze of Summer Leslie Lee God's Trombones James W. Johnson In Place, In Step, and Right on Time Harmon Watson In Splendid Error William Branch Livin' Fat Judi Ann Mason Mother and Child Langston Hughes The Phonograph Lofton Mitchell Owl Killer Phillip H. Dean Purlie Ozzie Davis Purlie Victorious Ozzie Davis Raisin in the Sun Loraine Hansberry The River Niger Joseph A. Walker
1977 Bubbling Brown Sugar Lofton Mitchell Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III Contribution Ted Shine Don't You Want to be Free? Langston Hughes Eden Steve Carter The Escape, or Leap to Freedom William W. Brown First Breeze of Summer Leslie Lee Happy Birthday Daddy Judi Ann Mason Karma's Kail John Scott A Star Ain't Nothin but a Hole in Heaven Judi Ann Mason Livin' Fat Judi Ann Mason Morning, Noon, and Night Ted Shine Purlie Ozzie Davis The River Niger Joseph A. Walker The Sty of a Blind Pig Phillip H. Dean Tell Pharoah Lofton Mitchell What the Wine Sellers Buy Ron Milner 132
TABLE 14 — Continued
1978 Amen Corner James Baldwin Black Girl J. E. Franklin Booji Barbara and Carlton Mollette Brass Medallion Robert Crawford Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Lonne Elder III Day of Absence Douglas T. Ward First Breeze of Summer Leslie Lee God’s Trombones James W. Johnson Livin' Fat Judi Ann Mason Purlie Ozzie Davis Sty of the Blind Pig Phillip H. Dean Tamborines to Glory Langston Hughes APPENDIX F
(Touring Productions) 134
TABLE 22
Years, Titles, and Types of Productions Toured 1968-1978
Year Title Type
1968 Creole Varieties (new) Variety show
1969 Land Beyond the River Serious drama Show Case *69 (new) Variety show
1970 Black Images (new) Serious drama Raisin in the Sun Serious drama Rhythm Time (new) Revue
1971 No Place to be Somebody Serious drama Single Indemnity Serious drama
1972 Changes (new) Serious drama Five on the Black Hand Side Comedy Fly Blackbirds Musical
1973 Butterflies are Free God’s Trombones Poetic drama Tell Pharoah Serious drama Two Pails of Water (new) Serious drama
1974 Androcles and the Lion Children's play Purlie Victorious Comedy Spider Woman Comedy Tamborines to Glory Comedy
1975 Aesop’s Fable Children's play Freeman Serious drama Livin’ Fat Comedy River Niger Serious drama Stagolee (new) Serious drama Young Lane (new) Serious drama
1976 Brass Medallion Serious drama Campaign Serious drama Ceremonies in Dark Old Men Serious drama In Place, In Step, and Right on Time (new) Revue Morning, Noon, and Night Serious drama Reflections (new) Serious drama 13 5
TABLE 22 — Continued
Amahl (new) Serious drama Celebration Serious drama Charles Gilpin Serious drama Don’t Bother Me I Can't Cope Musical Don't You Want to be Free? Serious drama Expressions Revue No Exit Serious drama
Black Tales (new) Serious drama Come Laugh with Langston Hughes Revue Contributions Comedy Incense Burners Serious drama Paul Robeson (new) Serious drama Sound of Soul (new) Revue TABLE 23
Chronology of the Number of Productions Toured
Number
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Year
N = 24
& 137
TABLE 24
Number and Radii of Distances Travelled of Touring Productions 1968-1978
Numb er 25 mile 50 mile 100 mile 250 mile Outside a 250 Toured radius radius radius radius mile radius
44 8 8 10 8 10
N = 24 138
TABLE 25
Sources of Funding for Touring Productions
Source Rank Responses Percentage of Responses
Regular Departmental budget 1st 11 46
Special funding from institution 2nd 8 33
Special departmental budget 3rd 3 , 13
Funding from outside sources 4 th 2 8
Total 24 100
N = 24
TABLE 26
Rank Order of Purposes for Touring Productions
Purposes Rank Responses Percentage of Responses
Student recruitment 1st 24 100
Theatrical experience for touring company 2nd 24 100
Publicity 3rd 24 100
Audience development 4 th 24 100
N = 24 APPENDIX G
(Audience Analysis) 140
TABLE 30
The Perceptions of the Audience’s Role by Twenty-four Representative Directors ......
Audience's Relationship Rank Responses Percentage
Participating agent 1st 24 100
Interaction between actor and audience 2nd 24 100
No psychological separation between actor and audience 3rd 24 100
Separate from the theatrical experience 4th 24 100
Passive agent 5 th 23 95
N = 24 TABLE 31
Responses to Audience Analysis and Development Practices
Practices Responses Yes Percentage No Percentage
Attempt to meet the rising expectations of the audience 20 15 (75) 5 (25)
Analyze audience behavior during performances 21 15 (71) 6 (21)
Analyze audience's pat terns of attendance 24 16 (67) 8 (33)
Analyze audience's re sponse to your pro ductions 19 10 (53) 9 (47)
Use of audience surveys 21 8 (38) 13 (62)
A profile of past audiences 24 9 (37) 15 (63)
N = 24