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Exploiting the Bilingual's Psycho-Social International Journal of Arts & Sciences, CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934 :: 09(02):551–564 (2016) EXPLOITING THE BILINGUAL’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS TO ENHANCE VOCABULARY ACQUISITION Enoka Makulloluwa Brock University, Canada This paper is a literature review exploring to what extent translation from the second language (L2) to first language (L1) and the construction of mnemonics based on culturally relevant imagery facilitate the encoding and retrieval of new vocabulary words in English as a Second Language (ESL) undergraduates. The study is mainly informed by the Bilingual Dual Coding Theory (BDCT), which assumes that cognitive activity of a bilingual is mediated by the two verbal systems in his/her language repertoire and the image system representing his/her knowledge of the world. Based on the literature, I propose that the use of L1 and culturally relelvant imagery together provide a potential vocabulary learning strategy to ESL learners as they acknowledge the learners psycho-social characterisitcs into consideration. Keywords: L1, Imagery mnemonics, BDCT, Vocabualry. Introduction Research suggests that there exist an achievement gap in terms of academic performance between English as a Second Language (ESL) learners with Limited English Proficiency (LEP) and their native English- speaking counterparts (Bibian, 2006; Hakuta, Butler, & Witt, 2000; Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Gu, 2013). This is due to their inadequate skills in the medium of classroom instruction. In particular, one of the literacy skills that causes learners insurmountable difficulties is vocabulary. It is identified as one of the main explanations for the achievement gap between ESL learners with LEP and their native English-speaking peers (August & Shanahan, 2006; Giridharan, 2012; Ramachandran & Rahim, 2004). Since this poses great difficulty and challenges to students, vocabulary related issues have drawn a significant amount of attention from researchers. However, the issue still persists as no definite solution has been found to remedy it. Although there is ample research exploring the impact of didactic instruction on vocabulary learning strategies (VLS), so far there has been only a handful of studies discussing how a ESL learner’s cognitive architecture (i.e. the two verbal systems, the image system and his/her prior knowledge) can be utilized to enhance their academic vocabularies. Hence, in this paper, through a review of literature, I try to prove the argument that the ESL learner’s first language (L1) and culturally relevant imagery together facilitate academic vocabulary acquisition in a second language (L2) as they are strategies that are congruent with the ESL learner’s cognitive architecture and their socio-cultural identity. 551 552 Exploiting the Bilingual’s Psycho-Social Characteristics to Enhance Vocabulary Acquisition Impact of Learner’s Linguistic and Cultural Identity on His/Her Second Language Arabski (2006) quoting Lado (1957) suggests that individuals are inclined to transfer the forms and meanings of their L1 and culture when attempting to receive and produce a second or a foreign language. This is mainly due to the fact that one’s knowledge of L1 and culture are intricately intertwined with one’s identity. Thus, it is preposterous to ignore this knowledge in L2 acquisition since previous knowledge plays a pivotal role in learning. Also, an individual’s L1 is a part of his/her essence and is connected with his/her emotions, dreaming, world concepts and group identity (Hopkins, 1988) and a significant part of his/her (multiple) identity (Norton, 1997). Therefore, ignoring or not acknowledging an individual’s linguistic and cultural background is disrespectful and can have a negative influence on the learning process. Although almost all current English language teaching practices are built on pedagogical philosophies and traditions of the western world, the application of those practices to teach students who are from periphery contexts is highly questionable (Canagarajah, 1999). These Anglo-American pedagogical practices are built based on the faulty assumptions that learning in general and learning languages are primarily value free cognitive activities isolated from the environment and that all cognitive strategies are universal. They fail to acknowledge the pivotal role culture plays in learning and the fact that socio-cultural differences interfere with learners’ comprehension and interpretation of the world. Leoni et al (2011) also wonder whether the mainstream pedagogy “acknowledge and build on the cultural and linguistic knowledge (social capital) of students and communities” (p.56). According to Canagarajah, (1999), the values represented in western pedagogical practices and the culture of the ESL student can create a dissonance with possible detrimental effects on the learning process. Thus, the imposition of western pedagogical practices without considering the culture and identity of the learner is highly questionable, and as such, there is a need to re-evaluate the existing learner strategies based on the mainstream pedagogy for second language acquisition. Significance of Academic Vocabulary to ESL learners in Higher Educational Institutions Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed” states Wilkins (1972, as cited in Milton, 2009, p.3) commenting on the importance of vocabulary. Lexical competence is identified as a major component of knowing a language as it enables the learner to understand and produce texts (Schmitt, 2008; Mehrpour, Rasmjoo & Kian, 2011; Haynes & Baker, 1993). For instance, unless the reader comprehends at least 95% of the vocabulary in a text, his/her ability to guess the meanings of other unknown words is severely reduced (Laufer, 1989; Liu & Nation 1985, as cited in Nation & Waring, 2004). It is also a predictor of one’s reading ability (Stahl &Nagy, 2006), and “a critical factor in the advancement of powerful reading and critical thinking abilities among adolescents, young adults, and adults” (Fastrup & Samuels, 2008, p.1). In addition to that, lack of lexical competence contributes to poor writing especially in relation to ESL students with LEP (Astika, 1993). Underscoring the significance of vocabulary for academic success, the lexical threshold hypothesis purports that adequate reading comprehension depends on a reader’s prior knowledge of 90-95% of the words in a text (Laufer, 1989). The connection between word knowledge and reading comprehension is such that the slow growth in a student’s vocabulary knowledge directly affects his/her reading comprehension (Chall & Jacobs, 2003). Where the impact of vocabulary on writing is concerned, lexical density (the proportion of content words i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs to the total number of words) is identified as an important criterion for assessing writing performance of students (Nadarajan, 2007). ESL students with LEP in higher academic institutions require advanced language skills to perform their daily academic activities. Where vocabulary is concerned, they have to learn academic words (words which are common across academic disciplines i.e. words such as analyse, conclude), technical words (words unique to a particular discipline i.e. words such as asymptote, biosphere) (Nation, 2001), and other high frequency words (in, the) as they are imperative to text comprehension and production. Also, the Enoka Makulloluwa 553 correct usage of academic vocabulary is considered a mark of intelligence (Corson, 1997, as cited in Gu, 2013). In sum, vocabulary can be considered one of the biggest obstacles preventing students from achieving academic success (Arechiga, 2013). Lexical ignorance is a major barrier to advancement for ESL learners despite having mastered the phonological code and the grammatical structures of the language of instruction (Coady, 1993, Laufer, 1997; Yang & Dai, 2011). In light of this, it is inevitable that a student with a smaller vocabulary lags behind their peers who own larger vocabularies. In schools, the former are also at the risk of being diagnosed either learning disabled (August, Carlo, Dressler & Snow., 2005) or of having shorter attention spans (Ariza, Morales-Jones, Yahya, & Zainuddin, 2002). Also, an inadequate vocabulary thwarts students’ ability to freely express themselves in academic discourse. Due to the critical nature of this, there is a dire need to devise strategies to ensure vocabulary development in learners so that they reach the expected academic standards in the classroom (Nation, 1990; August et al., 2005; Stahl & Nagy, 2006). Thus, in summary, it can be stated that vocabulary knowledge directly correlates with academic literacy, and that steps should be taken to enhance the vocabulary levels, specially of ESL students with LEP to improve their academic performance. Otherwise undergraduates with LEP who lack proper skills in the language of instruction may face problems, as unlike in schools, university course instructors may not have the time to identify students’ language problems and recommend solutions. Overcoming Challenges - Vocabulary Learning Strategies ESL students use a variety of language learning strategies (LLS) to overcome the barriers they encounter while acquiring a new language (Oxford, 1990). LLS are “steps taken by learners to enhance their own learning” (Oxford, 1990, p.1).These strategies ‘aid acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information (p.8). They also make learning “easier, faster, more enjoyable, more
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