Blood in the Water

tracing an interspecies alliance between at-risk humans and jellyfish in the mediterranean Blood in the Water: tracing an interspecies alliance between at-risk humansBlood in and the jellyfishWater: in the mediterranean Blood in the Water: an interspecies alliance between human an interspecies alliance between human migrants and jellyﬁsh in the mediterranean migrants and jellyﬁsh in the mediterranean By Ala Tannir - 2017 By Ala Tannir - 2017 By Ala Tannir - 2017

A thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MasterA thesis of presented Industrial in Design partial infulfillment the Department of the requirements of Industrial forDesign the degreeof the Rhode IslandMasterA thesis School of presented Industrial of Design, in Design partial Providence, infulfillment the Department Rhode of the Island. requirements of Industrial forDesign the degreeof the Rhode IslandMaster School of Industrial of Design, Design Providence, in the Department Rhode Island. of Industrial Design of the Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, Rhode Island.

Approved by Master’s Examination Committee: Approved by Master’s Examination Committee: Approved by Master’s Examination Committee: Ingrid Burrington Ingrid Burrington IngridRhode Island Burrington School of Design IndustrialRhode Island Design School of Design IndustrialRhode Island Design School of Design Industrial Design Paolo Cardini Paolo Cardini PaoloRhode Island Cardini School of Design IndustrialRhode Island Design School of Design IndustrialRhode Island Design School of Design Industrial Design Lorenzo Pezzani Lorenzo Pezzani LorenzoGoldsmiths, Pezzani University of London ForensicGoldsmiths, Architecture University of London ForensicGoldsmiths, Architecture University of London Forensic Architecture Acknowledgements

I would like to extend special thanks to my advisory committee at RISD and beyond, Paolo, Ingrid, and Lorenzo for their insightful critique, and for making sure I remain on the right track at different stages throughout the process of bringing this project to life. As well as to all those who participated in overseeing it, Tim Maly, Ayako Takase, Tom Weis, Jennifer Liese, Andy Law, Scott Geiger, and Emily Rothschild.

For generously providing a shoulder, a continuous amount of hot meals, and for uninterrupted love and support I owe my thanks to the beautiful Khadija Mneimne, Aya Tannir and the little baby boy in her belly, Karim Hamade, and Amin, Maya, Haya and Thalia Tannir.

At RISD, I am very lucky to be surrounded by Atulya Chaganti, Lokesh Zope, Jonathan Meléndez Davidson, and Biniam Kebede.

For always believing in and passionately following the progress of this project since its inception during that very first fall conversation at 6i in Harlem, I am © 2017 by Ala Tannir grateful to Khaled Malas. I am also forever indebted to Garine Boghossian in Cambridge, Kat Pongrace in Providence, and Salim Al-Kadi and Alfred Tarazi in All rights reserved. Please contact author Beirut. Different discussions, and extended Skype and phone sessions with all of for more information and requests. you have helped enrich this thesis beyond imagination.

Printed in Providence, RI, 2017 We will perpetually make the revolution irresistible.

5 Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 3 Abstract 5

1. Illegalized Migrants Crossing The Mediterranean Sea 7 1.1. Europe: An Ever Harder To Reach ‘Utopia’ 1.2. Sea Arrivals And Main Routes Abstract Migrant Jellyfish Species in the Mediterranean This thesis seeks to examine the Mediterranean Sea as a space of simultaneous 2. Precarious Journeys: 13 ecological and political resistance to human-induced violence articulated by the 2.1. Dynamics Of Migrant Smuggling concept of the Anthropocene. In one capacity, the Mediterranean Sea is the space 2.2. Hazardous Conditions At Sea: The Boat Experience that connects the extracting impulses of European States to the raw materials and Life Jacket: Enhancing Chances Of Survival And Visibility At Sea resources of their ‘former’ colonies in Africa and the Middle East. Despite being divided in relation to national interests, the Sea defies the easy legibility of such 3. Mare Liberum? Questions Of Sovereignty In The Mediterranean 21 bordering practices, and exemplifies a “vast, complex expanse” that contains many 3.1. The Mediterranean Sea: A Militarized Border of the contradictions of national and regional interests that are pursued in isolation 3.2. Remote Sensing: “Pre-Frontier Detection” from broader ecological and political considerations. Aquatic Invasive Species Satellite Views Of Phytoplankton Blooms In his seminal work on the Mediterranean, Fernand Braudel defines three coexisting 3.3. Complex Jurisdictions And Overlapping Maritime Borders i Artificial Coastal Constructions And Overfishing: Encouraging temporalities to read the landscape of the sea. The first and slowest is environmental Jellyfish Blooms and geographical time pertaining to repetitive and almost imperceptible change. The second comprises long-term social and economic changes, spanning centuries. As for the third and shortest one, “the time of surfaces,” it is that of “events, politics, 4. Loss Of Life At Sea 33 4.1. Mediterranean Deaths Soaring To An All-Time High and people.” Increases In The Population Density of Phytoplankton In The Mediterranean Sea Despite never being addressed synchronously, recent reports from the Mediterranean 4.2. Abdication Of Responsibility, A Case Study: The “Left-To-Die Boat” region suggest a sharp increase in jellyfish population in the water and the migration An Interspecies Alliance: A Satellite Memorial For Bodies Lost At of humans across its surface. In this context, new narrative forms are required to Sea And A Jellyfish Takeover recast dominant ones, and to expose and connect these types of ecological “slow violence”ii with ones that are more immediately and visibly occurring within the same space. Through the use and appropriation of information, text, images, Postface 43 and representation, and towards the pursuit of justice and dignity for all species Endnotes and Image Sources 44 involved, this project proposes the possibility of an interspecies alliance between Bibliography 48 at-risk humans and jellyfish in the Mediterranean Sea.

6 7 1. Illegalized Migrants Crossing The Mediterranean Sea 1.1. Europe: An Ever displaced people in the world. This Harder To Reach 'Utopia' has lead to remarkable increases in the number of people crossing the sea Since the early 1990s and with the towards Italian islands and Malta on the progressive enlargement of the one hand, and towards Greece on the European Union, citizens of its Member other. States have enjoyed the abolition of nearly all internal borders within Europe.iii This freedom of movement 1.2. Sea Arrivals And on the inside has been simultaneously Main Routes coordinated with the adoption of policies of closure and impermeability Crossings towards Europe occur of external borders.iv Unified and along three main routes: (1) Western increasingly prohibitive visa processes Mediterranean, namely from Morocco have rendered legal access to EU to the southern coast of Spain through territory ever more difficult for non- the straight of Gibraltar, or via the European migrants, pushing them to enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta; (2) resort to more clandestine methods of Central Mediterranean, typically from reaching Europe, namely by sea. With Libya and Tunisia towards Sicily, or declining means to enter the European mainland Italy, via the small Italian Union regularly, everyday hundreds island of Lampedusa, and Malta; and (3) of migrants fleeing countries in crisis Eastern Mediterranean, from Turkey via or conflict embark on long perilous the Dodecanese towards Greece, Sicily, journeys towards European shores. or mainland Italy.1

Geopolitical changes in North Africa The United Nation High Commissioner fewer people using the Eastern increased resettlement by the EU of and the Eastern Mediterranean have for Refugees (UNHCR) has reported Mediterranean Route after the EU- Syrian refugees already present in since 2011 significantly intensified that in 2015 the number of arrivals by Turkey deal in March 2016.vii This Turkey.viii migration patterns to Europe. Tunisian sea reached a record high that exceeded agreement aims to reduce the number and Libyan regimes—in cooperation a million migrants in total on European of people crossing Aegean Sea from However, such intensified efforts to with European States—are no longer shores. Of these, over 800,000 Turkey and entering Greek islands exercise control over these movements able to regulate the emigration of their migrants arrived in Greece from irregularly, by allowing Greece to return have failed to put a definitive end citizens following their respective Turkey and were from the Arab Syrian migrants back to Turkey. In exchange, to surreptitious flows of migration. collapses,v and the Syrian conflict Republic. In 2016 the total number Turkey receives political and financial Instead, they resulted in the has resulted in the largest number of dropped significantly to 363, 348 due to concessions from the EU, as well as fragmentation and diversification of

Total Irregular Migration Land | Sea Migration 1 It is worth noting that humans are not the only species using strategic maritime passages 1, 800, 000 900, 000 in the Mediterranean to migrate. In fact, at least twelve recorded species of jellyfish—none 1, 400, 000 700, 000 considered native to the basin—have invaded the Mediterranean Sea in search of better liv- 1, 000, 000 500, 000 ing conditions. These invasions usually occur through irregular migration from the Atlantic 600, 000 300, 000 Ocean via the straight of Gibraltar, and from the Indian Ocean as well as the Red Sea, via the 200, 000 100, 000 Suez Canal.vi 2011 2011 2013 2013 2015 2015 2012 2012 2014 2014 2010 2010 2016 2016 2009 2009

10 11 main maritime migration routes to find new ways into the EU, and encouraged a surge in smuggling activities, often boarding people onto unseaworthy vessels, and across dangerous paths throughout the Mediterranean basin.

1 Western Mediterranean Migration Route

2 Central Mediterranean Migration Route 3 Eastern Mediterranean Migration Route

12 13 2. Precarious Journeys 2.1. Dynamics Of webs, often times those providing Migrants Smuggling services to migrants are independent local freelancers, such as fishermen According to reports by Europol, the acting as drivers for example.x EU’s law enforcement agency, the overwhelming majority of irregular sea Nonetheless, given the massive migration across the Mediterranean numbers of people desperately trying to is facilitated by smuggling networks.ix cross the Mediterranean, in 2015 alone, Before they arrive to a port of departure the estimated yearly turnover related towards European coasts, typically, to the migrant smuggling business migrants’ journeys will take them was estimated at $5-6 billion USD, a through a number of transit countries. profit margin which shows no sign of Smugglers assuming different roles as subsiding as the displacement crisis recruiters, intermediaries, or facilitators, intensifies.xi come together to form networks in strategically located hubs along these 2.2. Hazardous routes. While some of them promote Conditions At Sea: The their services by word of mouth, many Boat Experience others develop presence on social media platforms where they operate similarly Smugglers often embark migrants on to travel agencies – advertising their rickety vessels – typically low quality trips while also exchanging information inflatable rubber dinghies or flimsy regarding law enforcement activities little wooden fishing boats that normally and shifting asylum seeking procedures. range from ten to twenty meters in Smugglers usually provide an array length.xii These are unable to withstand of different services that range from long journeys on the water, especially number that triples for a twenty-meter is also not uncommon for smugglers supplying means of transportation in bad weather. Extreme overcrowding long boat.xiii Smugglers, however, to abandon ship at sea midway through and in some cases accommodation, to also adds to the dangers of boarding are squeezing hundreds of migrants the crossing, leaving migrants with no distributing fraudulent documents such hulls in poor physical condition. In aboard these ships, with only a loose navigation experience to finish the trip as passports, and birth certificates, in some cases, paying the smugglers set of instructions to establish stability on their own, and increasing the risks of exchange for money. higher fees can secure migrants a and balance at sea. They ask them getting lost or capsizing.3 place on the top deck of the boat, and/ to remain fully stationary during the Although the general inclination is or give them access to a life jacket.2 A whole journey for example, or, for those to understand smuggling activities ten-meter long boat is usually able to sitting on the edges of the vessel, to in terms of organized interconnected hold about ten passengers on board, a stretch out one leg into the water—fully aware that the slightest movement 2 Although difficult to imagine for some, people making the decision to cross the Mediterra- could result in the boat overturning. It nean towards Europe are generally well aware of the dangers they are putting themselves in by taking to sea. Often times they have no other choice. Of all the items they carry with them 3 In the event of a boat capsizing, several people wearing life jackets in the water must huddle on these trips, little says as much about their knowledge of the risks of drowning, as does together to keep balance. They must also do so to prevent the loss of body heat in order to the life jacket. By wearing one, migrants usually hope to increase their chances of survival avoid fatal consequences of hypothermia, and to make it easier for rescuers to spot a group of vi should they find themselves falling into the water. people adrift in the water.

16 17 Field of the invention: This invention relates generally to rescue devices, and more specifically to life jackets.

Summary of the invention: In one capacity of the present invention, the life jacket comprises a vest with a manually operated multi-person attaching mechanism, which (1) makes it easier for people to hold on to each other, form- FIG. 2 is a sectional view of the invention. ing larger and henceforth more visible ployable hood for sun protection. 5a. View agglomerations in the water; (2) makes of a zipped hood for full-face covering. it easier for rescuers to spot them in the 6. Front pockets filled with glow-in-the- open seas. dark fluid rich in trisodium phosphate. In another capacity, the life jacket is a 6a. Water dissolvable film that takes up vest with front pockets made from slowly to a few days to start dissolving. 8. An dissolvable material, and filled with a fluid arm connector for better grip and balance rich in trisodium phosphate allowing it to between attached people. 9. An arm sleeve glow at night. Reference Numerals: the wearer’s waist. 3. Male buckle member to aid in preserving body heat. 10. Buoyant Finally, the life jacket includes a manually 1. A brightly colored life jacket that is easy of a buckle structure allowing the life material to allow the people to float on the deployable hood with a fully sealable front, for rescuers to identify in the water. 2. An jacket to attach to other life jackets. . 4. surface of the water. to protect people from harsh sunrays. adjustable belt securing the life jacket to Female buckle member. 5. A manually de-

FIG. 1 is a front view depicting a demonstrative use of the invention. FIG. 3 is a back view depicting a demonstrative use of the invention. 19 20 21 3. Mare Liberum? Questions Of Sovereignty In The Mediterranean

“What men, what monsters, what inhuman race, What laws, what barbarous customs of the place, Shut up a desert shore to drowning men, And drive us to the cruel seas again?”

– Virgil 3.1. The Mediterranean and Operation Poseidon in the Eastern Sea: A Militarized Mediterranean. Most recently, and in Border an effort to disrupt smuggling networks and business models, the EU put European States bordering the forth Operation Sophia in the Central Mediterranean have collectively Mediterranean. It covers a large area instated policies and practices aimed at stretching from the coast of Libya all suppressing and pushing back waves of the way towards Italy, and assumes illegalized migration, with the support additional assignments like destroying of regional international organizations boats used by smugglers. As part of its such as the EU and the North Atlantic Operation Active Endeavour, launched Treaty Organization (NATO). These after 9/11 (and active until October measures include border patrolling 2016) to deter and disrupt the “threat by sea, air, and land, intercepting of terrorist activities,” NATO has also incoming smuggling vessels, and participated in tracking and controlling implementing joint law enforcement migration towards European coasts.xv operations on the high seas that deploy further resources and personnel. Such procedures are chiefly organized by 3.2 Remote Sensing: Frontex, the European Agency for the "pre-frontier detection" Management of External Borders of the Member States of the EU. It has been In partial reaction to Arab uprisings, active since 2006, and is tasked with and aiming at consolidating surveillance managing border control cooperation efforts amongst themselves, EU between different European States, and Member States have also instituted the providing EU countries facing increased European External Border Surveillance migratory pressure with additional System. EUROSUR is intended to satellite monitoring systems,5 offshore report to the European Parliament technical equipment and border enhance control over the EU’s external sensors, and sea, air, and land operated on the functioning of EUROSUR – guards.xiv In recent years, Frontex has land and sea borders by promoting radars, among others. While official seem keen on portraying EUROSUR lead several missions intended to gather co-operation between European narratives – as stated by the Frontex as a major effort that helps improve intelligence, control vessels attempting border agencies, and deploying a wide to make the crossing, and rescue variety of state-of-the-art surveillance Jellyfish in particular, being opportunistic species that have mastered the art of survival, are migrants in distress on the water. They technologies. These include unmanned usually able to adapt fairly easily to almost any new environment they find themselves in. include examples such as Operation aerial vehicles (UAVs), automated Such is the case of a highly invasive species of comb jellies called the Mnemiopsis leidyi that Triton in the Central Mediterranean vessel-tracking systems (AIS),4 found its way into the Mediterranean – via the Black Sea where it was first introduced by U.S ships – and appears to be thriving in areas including the Eastern Mediterranean near the Syr- 4 AIS here stands for Automatic Identification System, and is not to be confused with the ian coast, in the Aegean Sea between Turkey and Greece, and in the Central Mediterranean more common Aquatic Invasive Species that are usually transported in vessels’ ballast water in the Adriatic Sea near the eastern and southern coasts of Italy.xvii tanks. Sometimes, vessels take up or release seawater in ports for added stability at the bottom of the ship. In the process, they also inadvertently take in organisms that are present in 5 It is important to point out that Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and optical satellite imag- the ports’ water. In some instances, when a ship loaded with ballast water from one location ery of the Mediterranean Sea is gathered on a regular basis, and is not limited to monitoring xvi dumps it in another, species present in the ballast are introduced into nonnative habitats. migration activities. Optical remote sensing for instance – which produces photograph-like

24 25 locating people in distress and in need reach European shores. By upgrading of assistance on the high seas, therefore the EU’s border protection policies decreasing the rates of loss of life in this way, and operating advanced the Mediterranean;xx in reality it is surveillance technology, EUROSUR an information-exchange framework hopes to support Member States in designed to increase the success of push creating a condition of sustained back missions.xxi It is aimed at detecting situational awareness,xxii therefore irregular migration vessels and rendering Europe an electro-magnetic intercepting them before they can even fortress.

images by detecting solar radiation scattered or reflected by the earth’s surface – is a mul- tidisciplinary field, providing data for ocean, land, and cloud research. In fact, specific -ap plications for sensors such as the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi NPP satellite include acquiring views of harmful phytoplankton or algal blooms by measuring water clarity, and pigment concentration.xviii Harmful algal blooms are an aquatic ecosystem’s response to excess nutrients in the water, namely overloads of phosphorus and nitrogen from agricultural fertilizers, and urban effluent highly rich in phosphate flowing into coastal waters. xix

26 27 Exclusive Economic Zone (continued) High Seas

(b) jurisdiction as provided for in the The high seas shall be reserved for peaceful relevant provisions of this Convention with purposes. Internal Waters and Territorial Waters: 3.3. Complex regard to: Jurisdictions And – (UNCLOS, Art. 88) The sovereignty of a coastal State extends, Overlapping Maritime (i) the establishment and use of artificial beyond its land territory and internal Borders islands, installations and structures; 6 No State may validly purport to subject waters […] to an adjacent belt of sea, any part of the high seas to its sovereignty. described as the territorial sea. The dream of sailing into the horizon to (ii) marine scientific research; – (UNCLOS, Art. 89) find ultimate freedom at sea is radically – (UNCLOS, Art. 2) contradicted in the Mediterranean (iii) the protection and preservation of the Every State, whether coastal or land-locked, basin. International treaties, such as the marine environment; 7 has the right to sail ships flying its flag on Every State has the right to establish the 1982 United Nations Convention on the the high seas. breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit Law of the Sea, UNCLOS, and the 1979 – (UNCLOS, Art. 57) not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured International Convention on Maritime – (UNCLOS, Art. 90) from baselines determined in accordance Search and Rescue (SAR) define rights 2. The exclusive economic zone shall not with this Convention. and responsibilities at sea, regulating extend beyond 200 nautical miles from Ships shall sail under the flag of one State and structuring maritime territory to the baselines from which the breadth of only and […] shall be subject to its exclusive – (UNCLOS, Art. 3) better navigate and exercise control over territorial sea is measured. jurisdiction on the high seas bodies of water and maritime resources, and to provide assistance to people – (UNCLOS, Art. 57) – (UNCLOS, Art. 92) in distress. Oceans and seas follow a codified set of borders that delineate 6 i.e. buildings, oil and gas platforms, offshore wind farms, aquaculture facilities, ports and Contiguous Zone state sovereignty to varying degrees marinas, underwater pipelines and cables, piers, wave breakers, etc… In environmental throughout different areas on the water. terms the colonization of coastal Mediterranean waters by humans with the erection of 1. In a zone contiguous to its territorial artificial structures encourages in return marine species that colonize fastest. Indeed, the sea, described as the contiguous zone, proliferation of man-made constructions associated with coastal industries provides an the coastal State may exercise the control abundance of new surfaces for jellyfish species to settle onto. Certain jellyfish species spawn necessary to: openly in the water, and the resulting embryos develop into free-swimming larvae that then require a hard surface to attach themselves to in order to grow. Some polyps actually prefer (a) prevent infringement of its customs, Exclusive Economic Zone artificial substrates to natural ones in order to continue their life cycle, bud, and bloom into fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and colonies of medusae. xxiii regulations within its territory or territorial 1. In the exclusive economic zone, the sea; coastal State has: 7 It must be clarified here that while laws regulating fishing practices and managing fisheries are well meaning in terms of protecting the marine environment, many times even catches (b) punish infringement of the above laws (a) sovereign rights for the purpose of made within legal limits still contribute to the gradual decline of certain populations. Deep and regulations committed within its exploring and exploiting, conserving sea trawling for example – a practice characterized by dragging a large open net gathering territory or territorial sea. and managing the natural resources, everything in its path, and often crushing non-target creatures – greatly disturbs the physi- whether living or non-living, of the waters cal fabric of underwater marine environments, and tips the scale in favor of opportunistic 2. The contiguous zone may not extend superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed species like jellyfish. The Mediterranean Sea has a long history of overfishing associated beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines and its subsoil, and with regard to other with great threats to certain marine species being replaced by others. Perhaps quite obvious, from which the breadth of the territorial activities for the economic exploitation but overfishing also essentially removes jellyfish predators and competitors, and as such sea is measured. and exploration of the zone, such as the produces an abundance of food sources for jellyfish who eat both phytoplankton that fish production of energy from the water, larvae rely on, and fish eggs and larvae themselves. This double impact of competition and – (UNCLOS, Art. 33) currents and winds; predation swings the balance of an ecosystem from fish to jellyfish, an equation astoundingly resilient to change. xxiv

28 29 The high seas represent a convoluted defined their SAR zones, or when field of loosely organized governance the SAR zone of one state overlaps mechanisms, and overlapping and often with that of another, as is the case for conflicting maritime legal regimes, Italy and Malta.xxvi Here, the increase providing states with ample opportunity in maritime jurisdictions ironically to successfully evade and disclaim provides states with enough legal duties and liability in the context of loopholes to deconstruct responsibilities human rights and maritime law.xxv The and displace rescuing duties, or reject sea is divided into SAR zones, drawn by the disembarkation of rescued migrants the 1979 International Convention on onto their territory. Rather than a Maritime Search and Rescue, according space of no-sovereignty, the high seas to which different states are to organize turn into a complex game of law and operations to assist people in distress politics—especially around search and on the high seas. This gets complicated, rescue missions in the Mediterranean however, by instances where states, like context.xxvii Tunisia and Libya for example, haven’t

30 31 32 33 4. Loss Of Life At Sea

“If our hard fortune no compassion draws, Nor hospitable rights, nor human laws, The gods are just, and will revenge our cause.”

– Virgil 4.1. Mediterranean One case in particular – the “Left-to- according to international maritime law This, and probably many other Deaths Soaring To An die boat” – surged in international as provided by UNCLOS. 9 unrecorded instances raise concerning All-Time High news outlets, when in late March questions regarding laws and politics 2011, a boat carrying 72 migrants from The “left-to-die boat” is one of several in the encounters between migrants While the number of people seeking Libya’s Tripoli towards the island of cases where States have intentionally and search and rescue missions in the to cross the Mediterranean in 2016 Lampedusa ran into trouble and was failed to fulfill their responsibilities Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean Sea. declined significantly compared to 2015, left to drift with the currents for two towards people in need at sea. the death toll peaked to an all time high, weeks, before it washed back ashore with 5,096 recorded dead or on the Libyan coast. After a few hours missing.xxviii According to UNHCR at sea, the small vessel began losing reports, one in 88 people have lost their fuel; despite sounding alarms with the lives at sea, a dramatic rise from the Italian coastguard, emitting signals of 9 one for every 269 arrivals in 2015. With distress, and coming into contact with In accordance with the previous footnote, large agglomerations of human corpses less than five months into 2017, this various military forces, no rescue efforts connected together and forgotten in the sea for an extended period of time encourage greater likelihood of dying is increasing even were attempted to save the lives of concentrations of dinoflagellates, triggering spontaneous blooms. For the past few years, further with an estimated rate of one these migrants. All but nine people on scientists at NASA’s National Ocean Service have been closely following this phenomenon mortality for every 41 migrants.8 board died, including women and two globally, and trying to determine new ways to detect it and forecast its locations, using xxxii children.xxx satellite imagery. By diminishing light reflection on the surface of the water, these harmful algal blooms form an imprint on optical satellite images. As such, striking red swirls 4.2. Abdication Of Several initiatives by NGOs and become easily distinguishable amongst a sea of blue. Responsibility, A Case journalists were launched to Study: The "Left-To-Die investigate the fatal event and Ecologically, this action on the surface of the water yields a case of eutrophication in the Boat" demand accountability for those lives water column. That is: the overabundance of phytoplankton exceeds by far the abilities of lost. A group of spatial researchers aquatic organisms to consume it. Often times, phytoplankton blooms also prevent their The numbers above indicate that loss of began the Forensic Oceanography copepod predators’ growth, and hinder their egg-production rates, resulting in large amounts life in the Mediterranean still occurs at project to develop visualizations to of uneaten algae that then die and sink to the bottom of the sea in the form of waste. It is also increasingly alarming rates, despite it supplement NGO reports and precisely worth noting that most herbivorous aquatic organisms will only eat larger algae like diatoms, being one of the most militarized spaces reconstruct fatal events.xxxi They also rather than smaller ones like dinoflagellates. This condition further intensifies the density in the world, and with a high-volume of demonstrate how the complex and of decaying phytoplankton in these blooms, and in turn leads to increasing bacterial activity naval and aerial traffic. These deaths, overlapping jurisdictions in the Central tasked with decomposing this waste. This phenomenon results in the depletion of oxygen in usually covered by the media especially Mediterranean were used to abdicate these areas, creating hypoxic or anoxic zones. These are also often called dead zones, since when happening at larger scales, often responsibility for rescuing migrants in low concentrations of oxygen turn them into areas of mass mortality. While most species provoke public outrage. distress, despite that being a legal duty are not able to survive these harsh conditions, which pave the way for more opportunistic species like jellyfish to proliferate. Jellyfish are in fact among the organisms least likely to 8 According to drowning forensics, dead bodies in seawater instigate a surge in concentra- surrender to the propagation of dead zones. One reason for their resilience is that, jellyfish tions of phytoplankton around them, particularly diatoms and dinoflaggelates. In fact, the polyps tolerate lower oxygen levels better than other species with high respiratory demands. longer and the more bodies are present in the water affect the presence of phytoplankton Another remarkable reason is that in contrast to visual predators, tactile ones like jellyfish exponentially. These will overgrow with time, moisture, warmth and sunlight.xxix are able to feed on smaller copepods that flourish in the presence of dinoflagellates. It is They can form dense, visible populations near the water surface. If found in high concen- also believed that hypoxic conditions in fact improve their predation abilities as they profit trations, dinoflagellates in particular are responsible for what is commonly known as “red from eating weakened prey. An ecosystem shifting towards harmful algal blooms therefore tides.” This represents a condition where the number of certain types of phytoplankton dictates a food chain that favors medusae, encourages their reproduction, and leads to severe xxxiii becomes so numerous that it causes harmful algal blooms that lead to a discoloration of the and frequent outbreaks of jellyfish. water and turn it red.

36 37 But what does a jellyfish take over of the marine environment mean? How does it affect an aquatic ecosystem, and what tangible repercussions does it entail?

A jellyfish take over is characterized by; (1) interfering with human coastal and offshore infrastructure by clogging underwater pipes. In recent years, the Orot Rabin nuclear power plant in Hadera–one of Israel’s largest power plants–has been repeatedly forced to shut down when large swarms of jellyfish had to be taken out of its cooling pool and seawater intake pipes, causing tens of thousands of dollars in losses each time; xxxiv (2) changing marine ecologies by tipping the food chain in their favor. In an ecosystem dominated by jellyfish, they consume more food, and therefore make it harder for other fish to find sources to feed on, which establishes a positive feedback loop that then results in reducing the populations of jellyfish predators. In normal circumstances jellyfish also eat the eggs and larvae of fish that grow to become their predators, yet with an overabundance of medusae, this occurrence is disrupted, and leads instead to shifting the scale from fish to jellyfish;xxxv

(3) obliterating aquaculture by wiping out cases have even compelled the closure of fish farms. Driven by the current, jellyfish beaches like on the southern French coast; populations are able to penetrate net cages (5) and in this fashion interfering with in the open sea, and cause physical harm state economies by disrupting previously to caged fish. In some cases, jellyfish considered reliable flows of capital. ingress has resulted in mass mortalities Jellyfish overpopulation and subsequent of farmed finfish due to envenomation. obstruction to human industries and Even when fish are able to survive the capital accumulation bares immense stings, their growth is reduced, and political significance, as a nation is only their metabolic performance hindered. politically stable as it is economically Aquaculture is an essential source of solvent. food production in the Mediterranean, and jellyfish invasions inflict extremely worrying economic consequences for the facilities. In 2009, mass mortality caused by jellyfish swarms entering a fish farm in Tunisia drove the managing company to near bankruptcy, and in 2011, a similar event cost a Spanish company tens of thousands of dollars in losses; (4) intruding on coastal tourism by utilizing their stinging abilities. Blooms of dangerous jellyfish that deter beachgoers, which in turn gravely affects tourism and maritime leisure activities, in certain

42 43 Postface

As a method to rethink the relations between the realities we live in, this thesis concocts unusual narratives to understand the landscape of the Mediterranean Sea today. It tries to reconnect different types of violence that tie displacement together with ecological degradation in the context of rising global bordering practices. The moment migrants fall overboard and are intentionally abandoned at sea; the underwater world emerges to the surface, and comes into attention. It becomes an enabling agent for an interspecies alliance against the same forces of neocolonial extraction that have dispossessed people and rendered them invisible in the water, while irrevocably disturbing maritime ecosystems by exploiting natural resources. This alliance is envisaged as an act of creative resistance that appropriates modes of representation that are currently deployed to exercise holistic control over the sea. As such, dissolving the boundaries between human and natural forces extends the scale of the alliance to the heavens, where satellites record images of the quasi-cosmic sight of red swirls forming around purposely forgotten migrant bodies on the surface of the sea. By occupying apparatuses of control and turning them on their head, this thesis imagines alternative ways to produce counter-images to bring to vision unjust realities inflicted by global capitalism on people and nature. By doing so, it also dissolves the borders between representation and resistance, where the former becomes an act of the latter. The image of a satellite “memorial” to abandoned lives at sea coupled with that of a forecasted jellyfish take over of the basin, creates a world perpetually oscillating between dystopia and a future filled with hope.

45 Chapter 03: Mare Liberum? Questions Of Endnotes vii xxi International Organization for Migration, Sovereignty In The Mediterranean Ben Hayes and Mathias Vermeulen, Abstract "Mediterranean Migrant Arrivals Top 363,348 Borderline The EU 's New Border i Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and in 2016; Deaths at Sea: 5,079," news release, xiv House of Lords, Frontex: the EU external Surveillance Initiatives Assessing the Costs the mediterranean world in the age of Philip January 06, 2017, https://www.iom.int/ border agency, 7. and Fundamental Rights Implications II, trans. Sian Reynolds, 2nd ed., vol. 2 news/mediterranean-migrant-arrivals-top- of EUROSUR and the "Smart Borders" (California: Univerity of California Press, 363348-2016-deaths-sea-5079. xv NATO, "Operation Active Endeavour Proposals, technical paper, Heinrich Böll 1996), 17. (Archived)," NATO, http://www.nato.int/cps/ Foundation, June 2012, 4-12, http://www. viii Elizabeth Collett, "The Paradox of the EU- eu/natohq/topics_7932.html statewatch.org/news/2012/jun/borderline. ii Rob Nixon, Slow violence and the Turkey Refugee Deal," April 27, 2016, pdf. environmentalism of the poor (Cambridge, MA: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/news/ xvi M. Otero et al., Monitoring Marine Invasive Harvard University Press, 2013), 11. paradox-eu-turkey-refugee-deal Species in Mediterranean Marine Protected xxii "Eurosur," FRONTEX, , http://frontex. Areas (MPAs) A strategy and practical guide europa.eu/intelligence/eurosur/. Chapter 01: Illegalized Migrants Crossing Chapter 02: Precarious Journeys for managers , technical paper, IUCN Centre the Mediterranean Sea for Mediterranean Cooperation, International xxiii Lisa-ann Gershwin, Jellyfish: a natural iii Chronologie Critique des Politiques ix Migrant Smuggling Networks, report, Union for Conservation of Nature, 2013, 8, history (Chicago: The University of Chicago Migratoires Européennes, CNRS-Universite Europol-Interpol, May 2016, 4, https:// https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/guide_ Press, 2016), 176-177, 190-191. Paris-Diderot, (Paris: Universite Paris- www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/.../ep- on_monitoring_invasive_species_in_amp. Diderot, 2014), http://www.migreurop.org/ ip_report_executive_summary.pdf. pdf. xxiv Gershwin, Jellyfish: a natural history, 176- IMG/pdf/chrono_pol_mig_fr_10022014.pdf 179. x Leila Fadel, "The Business Of Smuggling xvii Brotz and Pauly, Jellyfish populations in the iv Frontex: the EU external border agency, Migrants Across The Mediterranean," NPR, Mediterranean Sea, 218-220 xxv Tanja E. Aalberts and Thomas publication no. 9th report of session 2007- June 19, 2015, http://www.npr.org/sections/ Gammeltoft-Hansen, "Sovereignty at 08, European Union Committee, House of parallels/2015/06/19/415203706/the- xviii "VIIRS and Ocean Science," NASA, sea: the law and politics of saving lives in Lords (London: Authority of the House of business-of-smuggling-migrants-across-the- https://jointmission.gsfc.nasa.gov/viirs.html. mare liberum," Journal of International Lords, 2008), 7, https://www.publications. mediterranean. Relations and Development 17, no. 4 (2014): , parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldselect/ xix Lisa-ann Gershwin, Stung!: on jellyfish doi:10.1057/jird.2014.12. ldeucom/60/60.pdf. xi Europol-Interpol, Migrant Smuggling blooms and the future of the ocean (Chicago: Networks. The University of Chicago Press, 2014), xxvi "Watch the Med," The Sea as Frontier | v Charles Heller and Lorenzo Pezzani, Report 168-170. Watch the Med, , http://watchthemed.net/ on the left to die boat, Centre for Research xii Watch the Med, Risks, Rights, and Safety index.php/page/index/1. Architecture, Goldsmiths, University of at Sea - Aegean Sea: Greece/Turkey (Watch xx Frontex, Report to the European Parliament London (London: Forensic Architecture, the Med), 4, http://www.watchthemed. and the Council on Art 22(2) of Regulation xxvii Aalberts and Gammeltoft-Hansen, 2011), 14. net/media/uploads/page/10/Safetyatsea- (EU) No 1052/2013 - The functioning of "Sovereignty at sea: the law and politics of AegeanSea-English.pdf Eurosur, report no. 20.580/2015, Frontex, saving lives in mare liberum." vi Lucas Brotz and Daniel Pauly, Jellyfish December 1, 2015, http://statewatch.org/ populations in the Mediterranean Sea, technical xiii Watch the Med, Risks, Rights, and Safety at news/2016/mar/eu-frontex-report-on- paper, Fisheries Centre, University of British Sea - Aegean Sea: Greece/Turkey eurosur-functioning-12-2015.pdf. Columbia, 2012, 219, http://jadran.izor.hr/ acta/pdf/53_2_pdf/53_2_4.pdf.

46 47 Chapter 04: Loss of Life At Sea Image Sources Chapter 03: Mare Liberum? Questions Of Sovereignty In The Mediterranean — Hundreds of jellyfish cleared from Chapter 01: Illegalized Migrants Crossing the the power station in Hadera, north of Tel Mediterranean Sea xxviii "Mediterranean," Missing Migrants by the author of the thesis Aviv after they blocked its water supply in Project | Mediterranean, https:// by the author of the thesis: 2011. (Copyright: Getty Images), accessible missingmigrants.iom.int/mediterranean. — Map showing maritime borders and online at http://www.bbc.com/future/ — Map of Mediterranean migration routes patrolling missions in the Mediterranean story/20120405-blooming-jellyfish-problems xxix Kevin Gannon, D. Lee Gilbertson, and Anthony Duarte, Case studies in drowning — Infographics on irregular migration in the — AIS vessel tracking technlogy at the — The creature that's hacked evolution. forensics (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor Mediterranean straight of Gibraltar (Flickr user Robin Hughes), accessible & Francis Group, 2014), 96-99. online at https://qz.com/290657/jellyfish- — Close-up of map of Mediterranean — Jellyfish carried by ship's ballast water are-stepping-up-their-ocean-invasions-and- xxx Jack Shenker, "Migrants left to die after migration routes tanks. humans-are-helping-them/ catalogue of failures, says report into boat tragedy," The Guardian, March 28, 2012, — Illustrations showing nonnative jellyfish — Satellite image depicting red tides off the — Jellyfish known as "sea tomatoes," washed https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/ species in the Mediterranean coast of Tunisia ashore, (Copyright: James Brown), accessible mar/28/left-to-die-migrants-boat-inquiry. online at https://phys.org/news/2013-01- — Jellyfish blooms at oil and gas platforms, jellyfish-blooms-wax-wane-natural.html xxxi Heller and Pezzani, Report on the left to Chapter 02: Precarious Journeys and where overfishing proliferates. die boat by the author of the thesis: — Teaming up to take over the world. (Flickr — Map of SAR zones in the Mediterranean users Steve and Sara Emry (image has xxxii US Department of Commerce, National — Map showing smuggling hubs and been cropped), accessible online at https:// Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, networks in the Mediterranean Sea — Overlapping of Italian and Maltese SAR qz.com/290657/jellyfish-are-stepping-up- "What is a red tide?," NOAA's National zones in the Mediterranean their-ocean-invasions-and-humans-are- Ocean Service, June 01, 2013, , http:// — Technical drawings of a life jacket with an helping-them/ oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/redtide.html. multi-person attaching mechanism — Migrants purposely left at sea by European States — Representative drawing of "Blood in xxxiii Gershwin, Stung!: on jellyfish blooms and — Technical drawings of a life jacket with an the Water: tracing an interspecies alliance the future of the ocean, 168-180 multi-person attaching mechanism depicting — Satellite memorial to lives lost at sea between at-risk humans and jellyfish in the front, back, and sectional views. mediterranean, by the author of this thesis xxxiv Gershwin, Stung!: on jellyfish blooms and — Eutrophication, hypoxia and jellyfish the future of the ocean, 350-358 — Collage depicting migrants drowning at proliferation in the dead zones sea xxxv Gershwin, Jellyfish: a natural history, 178- 179. — Collage showing the formation of human Chapter 04: Loss of Life At Sea agglomerations on the surface of the water — Workers at the Hadera power station — Mediterranean Sea / Italy: Italian navy resort to sweeping measures to remove rescues asylum seekers traveling by boat the jellyfish infestation. (Copyright: Getty off the coast of Africa (Copyright: Massimo Images), accessible online at http://www. Sestini/Polaris), June 7, 2014 bbc.com/future/story/20120405-blooming- jellyfish-problems

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