Mark’s Gospel
by Daniel J. Lewis
© Copyright 1991 by Diakonos, Inc Troy, Michigan United States of America 2
Preface The Second Gospel is at once the shortest and, at least in the majority opinion of scholars, the earliest. The general concensus is that Mark was written in about 65 A.D., probably in Rome. Even the casual reader is bound to notice that the four gospels are each distinct. Though one early attempt was made to merge the four into a single synthetic account, the Diatessaron by Tatian in about 170 A.D., it has been the practice of the church to keep them separate. Each gospel was composed by selecting narratives, parables, miracles and so forth from the traditions about Jesus. We may assume that inasmuch as they were each written within and for specific communities, the selection of the material in each gospel reflects to some degree the situation of the church in which it was written. In other words, the elements which were selected by the evangelists with which to compose the gospels were chosen because they addressed a need in the community of faith. The selections were intentional, not haphazard. Each evangelist had at his disposal various resources, including the OT in Hebrew and Greek, the oral traditions which had been preserved about Jesus, the written traditions, if any, which had already preceded him, and the eyewitness accounts of those who had personally witnessed events in the life of Jesus. Whether or not there were any written materials at Mark's disposal is debated. Many scholars have conjectured for years that there was a "sayings" source underlying some of the gospels, though usually this source is thought to have been incorporated into Matthew and Luke rather than in Mark. In any case, each gospel presents a unique portrait of Jesus, somewhat different than a biography, at least in the modern sense, and certainly different than a diary or an epic. Instead, each gospel is a literary form that is unique in the history of sacred literature, and each one essentially seeks to answer a single question, "Who is Jesus?" Mark is no exception. His portrait of Jesus begins with the lines, "The beginning of the gospel about Jesus Christ, the Son of God" (1:1), and near the end, he climaxes his account with the exclamation of the soldier at the foot of the cross, "Surely this man was the Son of God" (15:39)!
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Preface...... 2 Introduction...... 7 Who is "Mark"? ...... 7 John Mark as a Person ...... 7 John Mark as an Evangelist and Theologian ...... 7 The Origin of Mark's Gospel ...... 8 Canonization of Mark's Gospel...... 9 Characteristics of Mark's Gospel ...... 9 The General Content of Mark's Gospel ...... 11
The Prelude (1:1-13) ...... 11 The Opening (1:1-3) ...... 11 The Gospel (euangelion = good news) ...... 11 The Christ...... 12 The Son of God...... 12 The Prophetic Base (1:2-3) ...... 12 John's Manner and Message (1:4-8) ...... 12 John's Baptism ...... 12 John's Manner ...... 13 John's Message...... 13 Jesus' Baptism (1:9-11)...... 13 Why was Jesus Baptized? ...... 13 Jesus, the Servant-Messiah ...... 14 Jesus' Temptation (1:12-13)...... 14
The Great Galilean Ministry (1:14--9:1) ...... 15 The Good News of the Kingdom (1:14-15)...... 15 A Busy Day in Capernaum (1:16-34)...... 15 The Calling of Four Disciples (1:16-20) ...... 15 Jesus' Authority (1:21-28)...... 16 Jesus' Power (1:29-34) ...... 16 The Galilean Mission (1:35-39)...... 17 Jesus' Growing Popularity (1:40-45) ...... 17 The Rise of Opposition (2:1--3:35) ...... 18 The Forgiveness Controversy (2:1-12)...... 18 The Worldly Christ (2:13-22)...... 19 4
The Liberal Christ--the First Sabbath Controversy (2:23-27):...... 20 The Irreligious Christ--the Second Sabbath Controversy (3:1-6) ...... 21 Jesus' Popularity Expands Even More (3:7-12)...... 22 The Appointment of the Twelve (3:13-19)...... 22 The Beelzebul Controversy (3:20-30) ...... 23 The Family Tension (3:31-35)...... 24 The First Great Group of Parables (4:1-34)...... 25 The Parables of Jesus (4:1-2)...... 25 The Sower (4:3-20)...... 25 The Lamp (4:21-23)...... 26 The Measure (4:24-25) ...... 26 The Growing Seed (4:26-29) ...... 26 The Mustard Seed (4:30-32) ...... 27 The Summary (4:33-34)...... 27 Four Miracles (4:35--5:43) ...... 27 The Calming of the Storm (4:35-41) ...... 27 The Healing of Legion (5:1-20)...... 28 The Healing of a Hemorrhage and a Dead Girl (5:21-43)...... 28 Significant Points in the Four Miracles ...... 29 Ministry in and Around Galilee (6:1--9:1) ...... 29 The Rejection at Nazareth (6:1-6)...... 29 The Mission of the Twelve Apostles (6:7-13)...... 30 The Death of the Baptist (6:14-29)...... 30 The Feeding of the Five Thousand (6:30-44)...... 30 Jesus Walks on the Water (6:45-56)...... 31 Teaching Concerning Defilement (7:1-23)...... 31 The Syrian Phoenician Woman's Faith (7:24-30)...... 32 The Cure of a Deaf Mute in the Decapolis (7:31-37)...... 33 The Feeding of the Four Thousand (8:1-13)...... 33 The Saying About Yeast (8:14-21)...... 33 The Healing of a Blind Man at Bethsaida (8:22-26) ...... 34 The Confession of Peter (8:27-30)...... 34 Jesus Predicts His Death (8:31-9:1)...... 34 The Last Journey to Jerusalem (9:2--15:47)...... 37 The Close of the Northern Ministry (9:2-50) ...... 37 The Transfiguration (9:2-13) ...... 37 The Healing of a Demoniac Boy (9:14-32) ...... 38 The Paradox of Greatness (9:33-37)...... 39 The Exorcist Who Was Not in the Group (9:38-41)...... 39 5
Warning Against Stumbling Blocks (9:42-50)...... 39 On the Way to Jerusalem (10:1-52)...... 40 Jesus Leaves Northern Palestine (10:1)...... 40 The Question on Divorce (10:2-12)...... 40 Jesus and the Children (10:13-16) ...... 42 The Rich Young Man (10:17-31) ...... 42 Another Prediction of Death (10:32-34)...... 43 A Teaching on Authority and Ministry (10:35-45) ...... 44 Jesus Arrives in Jerusalem (11:1-26)...... 45 The Triumphant Entry (11:1-11) ...... 45 The Cursing of the Fig Tree (11:12-14) ...... 46 The Cleansing of the Temple (11:15-19)...... 46 The Withered Fig Tree (11:20-26)...... 46 The Final Days of Controversy (11:27-12:44) ...... 47 The Challenge Over Authority (11:27-33) ...... 47 The Parable of the Wicked Tenants (12:1-12)...... 48 The Question About Taxes (12:13-17) ...... 49 The Question About Marriage in the Resurrection (12:18-27) ...... 49 The Greatest Commandment (12:28-34) ...... 50 How Is David's Son Also David's Lord (12:35-40)? ...... 50 The Widow's Offering (12:41-44) ...... 51 The Olivet Discourse (13:1-37) ...... 51 The Setting (13:1-4)...... 52 The Course of the Present Age (13:5-13) ...... 53 Persecution (13:9-13)...... 54 Great Distress(13:14-23)...... 55 The Coming of the Son of Man (13:24-27)...... 58 The Lesson of the Fig Tree (13:28-31)...... 58 The Parable of the Owner (13:32-37)...... 59 The Passion Preparation (14:1-42) ...... 59 The Setting (14:1-2)...... 60 The Anointing at Bethany (14:3-11)...... 60 The Lord's Supper (14:12-26)...... 61 Jesus Predicts His Disciples' Dissertion (14:27-31) ...... 62 Gethsemane (14:32-42)...... 63 The Arrest and Trial (14:43--15:20)...... 64 The Arrest (14:43-52) ...... 64 Before the Sanhedrin (14:53-65) ...... 65 Peter's Denial (14:66-72) ...... 66 6
Jesus Before Pilate (15:1-20)...... 66 The Death of Jesus (15:21-47)...... 67 Jesus' Crucifixion (15:21-32)...... 68 Jesus' Death (15:33-41)...... 69 Jesus' Burial (15:42-47) ...... 70 The Empty Tomb (16:1-20)...... 70 The Empty Tomb (16:1-8)...... 71 The Text of Mark 16:9-20 ...... 71 The Short Ending ...... 71 The Intermediate Ending...... 72 The Long Ending ...... 72 The Expanded Long Ending ...... 72 The Long Ending (16:9-20) ...... 73
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Introduction Since the mid-1800's, Mark's Gospel has occupied center stage in NT studies after a long residence in the shadows of the other synoptics. Generally conceded to be the earliest gospel, the Book of Mark is also probably the simplest for the average reader. A great deal of scholarly study and debate has surrounded this book in recent years, though the emphasis in this study will be primarily exegetical. By way of introduction, some of the more significant background points are worth consideration.
Who is "Mark"? The Book of Mark is formally anonymous, that is, the author nowhere explicitly names himself. However, there is good reason to accept the early Christian tradition that the author was the John Mark mentioned in the NT.
John Mark as a Person John Mark's home was in Jerusalem and was a chief meeting place for Christians (Ac. 12:12). We know nothing of his conversion except that it seems likely that he was led to Christ by Simon Peter (1 Pe. 5:13). He emerges during a relief mission sent by the church in Antioch to the Jerusalem church (Ac. 11:27-30; 12:25). Shortly thereafter, he accompanied Barnabas, his first cousin (Col. 4:10), and Paul to Asia Minor (Ac.13:2-5). Unfortunately, John Mark did not stay with them long; he returned home for reasons unknown (Ac. 13:13). We do know that whatever his reasons, Paul certainly took a dim view of them (Ac. 15:36-41). However, eventually the rift between Paul and John Mark was healed (Col. 4:10; Phlm. 24; 2 Ti. 4:11). Certain legends have been handed down about John Mark, though they are of uncertain value. Epiphanius (4th century) said Mark was one who later rejected Jesus (Jn. 6:66). Theodosius (6th century) said that the home of Mary, Mark's mother, was used for the last supper and also contained the upper room mentioned in Acts 1 and 2. Alexander (6th century Cypriot) said that Mark was the man anticipated by Jesus who would be found carrying the pitcher of water (Mk. 14:13). A long-standing tradition says that Mark established the church in Alexandria, Egypt (reported by both Eusebius and Jerome in the 4th century). Nicephorus Callistus (14 century) said Mark was martyred in Alexandria by a mob who dragged him to death. One tradition says that Mark was missing a thumb which he had cut off so as to avoid being eligible for the priesthood (cf. Ac. 4:36; Lv. 21:16-20).
John Mark as an Evangelist and Theologian The uniform and widespread testimony of the early church is that John Mark 8
composed his gospel on the basis of Simon Peter's witness. Papias (circa 70-150 A.D.) says: "Mark, having become Peter's interpreter, wrote accurately as many things as he remembered." Irenaeus (circa 140-203 A.D.) says: "Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, himself also transmitted to us in writing the things preached by Peter." Clement of Alexandria (circa 195 A.D.) says: "When Peter had publicly preached the word in Rome....those present besought Mark....to record his words." These testimonies are further supported by Justin Martyr (circa 150 A.D.), Origen (circa 200 A.D.), Tertullian (circa 200 A.D.), Eusebius (circa 326 A.D.) and Jerome (circa 400 A.D.). Different theories exist as to how this record was composed, such as, the theory that Mark could have compiled and translated records written in Aramaic by Peter himself. Also, it has been suggested that Mark could have recorded things he had heard orally from Peter, either in Peter's preaching, his teaching or in private instruction. In the witness of Papias, the earliest testimony to John Mark as the interpreter of Peter, it says: "Mark, who was Peter's interpreter, wrote down accurately though not in order all that he remembered of what Christ had said or done. He followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to meet the needs of his hearers, but not as if he was giving a systematic compilation of the Lord's oracles. Mark, therefore, made no mistake, but he wrote down some things as he remembered them, for he had one purpose in mind, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to falsify anything in it." This statement seems to indicate that though one may see a general chronology in Mark's gospel, he/she should not look for a strictness of chronology. Mark's purpose was not chronology per se but accuracy in reporting the acts and words of Jesus.
The Origin of Mark's Gospel
Place With one exception, all early witnesses agree that Mark's Gospel originated in Rome, the exception being Chrysostom (347-407 A.D.), who thought it originated in Alexandria, Egypt. 1 Peter 5:13 seems to correlate well with Rome as the place of origin, that is, if the term "Babylon" is taken as a cryptogram for Rome, a position generally shared by scholars (cf. Rv. 17:3, 5, 9a). Also, Mark alone identifies Simon the Cyrene as being the father of a Roman church member (Mk. 15:21; Ro. 16:13).
Date The date for Mark's Gospel has a fairly wide range of possibilities. Peter's Roman martyrdom occurred in 64 A.D., and if the gospel was not published until after Peter's death, than we may not date it earlier than that. 9
Readers A variety of evidences in Mark's Gospel seem to point to non-Jewish readers, such as, the fact that Mark does not give nearly as many details of Jewish interest as does Matthew and that he translates Aramaic words, suggesting that his readers were non-Jewish (3:17; 5:41; 7:11, 34; 14:36; 15:22, 34). If Mark wrote his gospel in Rome, it would not be unlikely to assume that he did so for the benefit of the Roman Christians.
Purpose Because Mark does not specifically explain it, the purpose of his gospel has long been debated. Granted, we know that his obvious purpose is to tell the story of Jesus. However, the way he selects and presents his material as distinct from the other Gospels suggests an underlying purpose beyond the obvious. Without going into the various academic theories, one may safely say that Mark's gospel was designed to persuade and give confirmation to his readers that Jesus of Nazareth, a lowly Jewish carpentar who was convicted of treason and executed on a Roman cross, was the Messiah, the Son of God.
Canonization of Mark's Gospel The books of the NT canon were accepted as Scripture on the grounds of inspiration and apostolicity. Mark's gospel, as the record of Peter's witness of Christ, was so accepted from the very first.
Characteristics of Mark's Gospel
His Literary Style Mark's gospel is written in the colloquial Greek of the common person. The narrative moves quickly and vividly. Mark uses the word eutheos (= immediately) some forty-two times, and he tells the story of Jesus in much less space than either Matthew or Luke. Furthermore, he either eliminates the long discourses of Jesus or presents them in a shorter form than do the other synoptics.
His Portrait of Jesus Mark portrays Jesus as a man of action, sometimes even too busy to eat (3:20; 6:31). The humanity of Jesus is realistically painted as Mark shows him "angry" (3:5), "sighing" with dejection (7:34; 8:12), "filled with compassion" (1:41; 6:34), and stricken with deadly sorrow so that he cries, "My heart is ready to break with grief" (14:34, NEB). At the same time, Jesus is shown to be the divine Son of God, authenticated by a heavenly voice (1:11; 9:7), recognized by demons (3:11; 5:7), and discerned by a Roman centurion (15:39). In Mark's Gospel, Jesus' self-understanding 10
as the Son of God is clear (13:32; 14:61-62). His divine mission is exemplified in his power to forgive sin (2:5) and his self-sacrifice in yielding up his life as a ransom (10:45). In fact, Mark explicitly points out that Jesus' death was the result of his own self-chosen action. There was no circumstantial necessity that Jesus go to Jerusalem, humanly speaking, except that it was an integral part of the divine purpose (8:31; 9:31; 10:32-34; 14:21a).
The Messianic Secret Mark stresses Jesus' insistence that his messianic identity be kept secret. Demons were forbidden to reveal his identity (1:25, 34; 3:12) as well as those whom Jesus healed (1:44; 5:43; 7:36; 8:26). Jesus charged his own disciples to keep the secret until after the resurrection (9:9). The reason for this strange request is not obvious, but it was probably due to the prevalence of inadequate and misleading views about the messiah among the Jews. In non-Jewish locations, Jesus was not so reluctant to be recognized (5:19).
Relationship of Mark's Gospel to the other Synoptics It is obvious to the careful reader, particularly for those who can read the Greek text, that there is a literary dependency between the three synoptic Gospels. They are similar in structure, chronology and content, and in a number of places in the Greek text, they are virtually identical. Of the 661 verses in Mark's Gospel, some 600 of them are reproduced in Matthew and some 300 of them in Luke. Furthermore, Matthew and Luke never agree with each other when they diverge from Mark's wording. The Fourth Gospel, by contrast, is markedly different than any of the synoptics. Several theories of composition have been put forward by biblical scholars.
1) There may have been a common source available to all three synoptic evangelists. 2) One gospel may have been composed first while the other two were composed by using the first one as a primary source (this is the theory most widely accepted). Here, if Mark was written first, Matthew and Luke used Mark's basic text but expanded it. On the other hand, if Matthew or Luke were written first, Mark is an abridgement. 3) Each synoptic gospel was originally quite different, but they were partially harmonized by a later hand. 4) All three synoptics were written by authors who collaborated. 5) Divine inspiration accounts for the common ground between them. 11
The most commonly accepted theory, but by no means the only one, is that Mark is the first gospel to be written and that Matthew and Luke used Mark as the basic structure for the writing of their own gospels.
The General Content of Mark's Gospel Mark's Gospel is somewhat like a drama in four acts which can be divided as follows: Act I (1:1-13) This is the prelude which describes Jesus' preparation for and dedication to his divine mission. Act II (1:14-9:1) This section describes the ministry of Jesus in Galilee and his periodic withdrawals from Galilee. Act III (9:2-15:47) Here, Mark describes the last journey of Jesus to Jerusalem and the passion. Act IV (16:1-20) Finally, Mark points his readers toward the enigma of the empty tomb. The Prelude (1:1-13) This initial short section to Mark's Gospel describes Jesus' preparation for and commitment to his divine mission.
The Opening (1:1-3) The very first statement in Mark's Gospel is loaded with significant theological concepts.
The Gospel (euangelion = good news) Mark introduces his readers to a new literary genre which, unlike Paul's letters for instance, was not patterned after a style already existing in the Greco-Roman world.
What a "Gospel" is not It is Not a Biography Biographical writing was quite well-known in the ancient world, but Mark does not give standard biographical information, such as, Jesus' antecedents, culture, national milieu, environment and so forth. Also, Mark does not attempt to analyze Jesus to see what forces may have influenced his behavior, as would most biographers. It is Not An Epic: Epic writing was also familiar to the ancient world, that is, a narrative of heroic deeds. However, Jesus' condemnation and execution was 12
hardly the material for an epic, and many of his deeds would not be thought of as heroic. It is Not a Memoirs: A memoirs is a collection of anecdotes or sayings about a famous figure, but Mark's Gospel does not seem to fit here either. A gospel is certainly more than a set of reminiscences.
What a Gospel Is A gospel is a unique style of writing which tells the story of God's saving action in the life, ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus. These books called gospels are the preaching materials of the early church. They are called gospels because they give the substance of the gospel--the good news of what God did in Christ so that people could be saved (cf. Ro. 1:16).
The Christ The word christos (= anointed one or messiah) has its origin in the Jewish hope for the future, as exemplified in Psalm 2. Though there were many late Jewish conceptions of the role of messiah as primarily an eschatological king of David's line who would restore the Jewish monarchy and establish Jewish world supremacy, Mark sets out to prove first that Jesus was indeed the Messiah, but second, that his messiahship was something quite different from the popular notions.
The Son of God Huios tou Theou (= Son of God) is a phrase directly intended to describe the divine nature of Jesus. It suggests his divine origin and his unique relationship with God, the Father.
The Prophetic Base (1:2-3) In describing the ministry of the Baptist, Mark recalls prophecies from Malachi 3:1 and Isaiah 40:3. Both of these passages herald the eschatological advent of Yahweh. They are admirably suited to introduce John as the messianic forerunner and Jesus as the incarnation of Yahweh. The desert, the scene of John's ministry, is the wilderness area around the Jordan, just north of the Dead Sea.
John's Manner and Message (1:4-8) The good news about Jesus properly begins with the ministry of John the Baptist, Jesus' forerunner and herald.
John's Baptism Several words are critical for understanding the significance of John's ministry. 13
Baptism: to dip or plunge. Repentance: a change of mind; a reorientation of the personality; conversion or life transformation; this word captures the idea of "turning" as found in the prophets (cf. Je. 4:28; Eze. 18:27; Jon. 3:9; etc.). Forgiveness: translated as either forgiveness or remission. Confession: to openly or publicly admit or to declare John's baptism was a public declaration symbolic of three things. First, it signified the candidate's admission of his/her sinfulness before God. Second, it expressed the intention to turn from sin and to live in dedication to God's will. Third, it expressed cleansing--the fact that God's gracious mercy was extended to wash away guilt and iniquity. The outward expression of baptism represented the inward transformation.
John's Manner John's coarse clothing and food mark his lifestyle as that of a desert nomad--a manner reminiscent of Elijah.
John's Message John's preaching anticipated the coming of Jesus. He carefully established the priorty of Jesus over himself and contrasted his own simple baptism in water with that of his successor, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit. With the death of the last of the writing prophets, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, the Holy Spirit was believed to have been quenched. However, the idea that in the end God would pour out the Spirit at the dawn of the time of salvation was an important OT prediction (Is. 32:14-17; 44:1-3; Eze. 37:11-14; Joel 2:28-32). John's message was that this glorious era was about to begin. To be "baptized" with the Holy Spirit is to be given the long-awaited gift of salvation.
Jesus' Baptism (1:9-11) The fact that Jesus was baptized by John in the Jordan River is significant, not only as a verification of the legitimacy of John's preaching, but also as a demarcation between Jesus' life in Nazareth and his public ministry.
Why was Jesus Baptized? This question immediately arises because Jesus is uniformly declared in the NT to be sinless. Only Matthew addresses this problem (3:15), but his phrase "to fulfill all righteous" remains ambiguous. Several interpretations have been offered: A Vicarious Act: This idea suggests that Jesus was baptized for the sins of the 14
world as a substitution. However, there is no evidence that the primitive church considered proxy baptism to be valid. A Pattern: This view sees Jesus as simply providing an example, so that as he himself was baptized, others should be baptized also. A Self-Commitment: This line of thought views Jesus' action as his dedication to the divine mission, based on the fact that Jesus deliberately made the trip from Nazareth to the Jordan to commence his ministry.
Jesus, the Servant-Messiah Whether or not the dove and the voice were seen and/or heard by anyone other than Jesus and John is not certain (cf. Jn. 1:32-34; 5:37). What is certain is that the phenomenon of the dove and the voice bring together two extremely significant strands of OT prophecy. The Servant: In the later chapters of Isaiah there appears a series of predictions about a "servant of Yahweh" who would be a light to the nations (49:6), who would be severely abused (50:6; 52:14), who would bear the sins of humans (53:4-6), and who would ultimately liberate the oppressed (61:1-3). This servant is described as one upon whom God would put his Holy Spirit (42:1; 61:1). The descent of the Spirit, embodied as a dove at Jesus' baptism, reveals Jesus to be this promised suffering servant (cf. Lk.4:16-21). The Messiah: The other strand of prophecy that is captured here is built upon Psalm 2, where the messiah (2:1-2) is described as God's Son (2:7, 12). Other psalms further describe this messianic Son of God from David's line (cf. Ps. 89:20-27; 132:11-18). The voice from heaven which declared, "You are my Son, whom I love," directly identifies Jesus as the promised messiah. The phenomena of the dove and the voice bring together two streams of prophecy in the person of Jesus--a union that the Jews and even Jesus' disciples had difficulty understanding. Jesus was both the kingly messiah as well as the suffering servant of Yahweh.
Jesus' Temptation (1:12-13) No sooner had Jesus dedicated himself to his mission than he confronted his arch enemy, Satan, in the Judean desert. The fact that the Holy Spirit with angels superintended this confrontation has long been a comfort to Christians in their struggles against evil. God does not tempt his people (cf. Ja. 1:13), but he does permit them to be tempted (1 Co. 10:13). The mention of wild animals could be either an attempt to emphasize the desolation of Christ's circumstances or perhaps his lordship over nature. 15
The Great Galilean Ministry (1:14--9:1) The bulk of Jesus' ministry was not in urban Jerusalem but in rural Galilee, a small region in northern Palestine which was also the area of Jesus' upbringing and early life. At the time of Jesus' ministry, Galilee and Perea were under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas, one of Herod the Great's sons. Life in Galilee was largely determined by the mountains and the Lake of Gennesaret. Terraced farming, which included crops of olives, grapes, and grain, as well as fishing were the major occupations. Generally speaking, Galilean Jews were far less sophisticated than their Judean counterparts, and their allegiance to the temple and its rituals less intense.
The Good News of the Kingdom (1:14-15) Jesus' public preaching in Galilee dates from about the time of John's arrest (the actual account of John's imprisonment and execution will be detailed by Mark later, cf. 6:17-29). The heart of his message was about the "gospel of God," that is, the good news from God about the nearness of his kingdom. The idea of the kingdom of God is an extremely important one and could hardly have been more arousing. Since the fall and captivity of OT Israel and the interpretation of this event by the prophets, it had become increasingly clear to the Jews that the ancient kingdom of Israel did not fit God's ideal. Though God had created the world, it had departed radically from his purpose and was opposed to him. Israel, also, had failed and had been judged by Yahweh for this failure. During the inter-testamental period, the idea that God would break into human history and overthrow the forces of evil became strong. This idea finds its roots in the OT (especially Da. 2:44-45; 7:27) as well as in a special body of Jewish intertestamental literature called Apocalyptic. The phrase kingdom of God, as used by John and Jesus, did not so much denote a realm (as of land) as it did the sovereign rule of God by which he would assert his authority and bring a rebelling world into conformity with his intended purpose. This assertion of God's authority could not be expected to occur without a battle, but nevertheless, God would win the bitter struggle. Thus, when Jesus began preaching about the nearness of the kingdom and the arrival of the time of fulfillment, it is small wonder that his message caused a stir. The response for which Jesus called was simply, "Repent and believe the good news."
A Busy Day in Capernaum (1:16-34) The next several scenarios seem to be crowded into the span of a single day.
The Calling of Four Disciples (1:16-20) Jesus' first disciples were called from a small Galilean fishing enterprise. It is 16
possible that Jesus already knew at least Andrew and Peter (cf. Jn.1:35-42), while James and John were possibly his cousins (cf. Mt. 27:55-56; Mk. 15:40-41; Jn. 19:25). These very first followers exemplified the demands of discipleship in their immediate willingness to forsake family and possessions to go with Jesus.
Jesus' Authority (1:21-28) Early in his ministry Jesus made Capernaum, a fishing village on the northwest coast of Gennesaret, the home base for his Galilean mission (cf. Mt. 4:12-13).
Synagogue Teaching Like any adult Jewish male, Jesus was eligible to teach in the synagogue, and here he exercised his privilege to do so. However, unlike the scribes who were lay copyists and interpreters of the Scripture and who generally commented on the OT by repeating the opinions of their predecessors, Jesus taught with personal authority. Such a method caused amazement in his audience.
The Expulsion of the Evil Spirit The authority of Jesus was not only evident in his teachings but in his power over evil. A widely held belief in the first century was that a person could gain magical power over another if he could utter his name and his true identity. During the synagogue service, a demon-possessed man attempted to do this to Jesus, but Jesus commanded silence and expelled the unclean spirit. Four things are important in this incident. First, Jesus refused to allow his messianic identity to be heralded by satanic forces. Second, the authority of Jesus over the evil spirit pointed to the coming downfall of God's enemies and the reality of the kingdom of God in Jesus' ministry and person (cf. Lk. 11:20). Third, Jesus' personal authority over evil caused amazement in the onlookers. Exorcism of demons was a known practice among certain Jewish sects (cf. Lk. 11:19), but such exorcists claimed power only by their identification with some higher deity or power who was invoked through a spell or magical action. Jesus did nothing like this; his authority was in his own person. Fourth, Jesus' fame began to spread throughout Galilee.
Jesus' Power (1:29-34) After the synagogue service, Jesus and his newfound disciples went to Simon's home. Again, Jesus' power was manifested as, without ceremony, he healed Simon's mother-in-law. Sundown marked the end of the sabbath, when people would have been free to carry their afflicted folks to Jesus without infringing on the commandment to refrain from working. Whether diseased or demon possessed, Jesus healed and delivered, seemingly without effort. Here, as earlier, Jesus refused to be openly recognized as messiah. 17
In the above descriptions of Jesus' activities, it is important to note that Jesus consistently showed his authority and messiahship in verifiable miracles rather than merely talking about it. Mark takes pains to point out that Jesus did not try to persuade the crowds of his identity. Rather, Jesus' identity was implicit in his actions. Furthermore, the evidence for Jesus' identity was not just one or two successful cures, but an abundance of supernatural power wielded without apparent effort.
The Galilean Mission (1:35-39) Two things are noteworthy in this passage. First, Jesus knew the necessity of private prayer, and apparently, the cool and quiet early morning hours were best for him, given the intensity of his daily ministry. Second, the nature of Jesus' mission is here clarified. Though Simon and the others were eager to repeat another exciting day in Capernaum, Jesus broadened the horizon of his mission to all the villages in Galilee. Furthermore, he emphasized the message of his mission. Though Jesus consistently healed people, this action in itself was secondary to his preaching of the gospel.
Jesus' Growing Popularity (1:40-45) The word leprosy, as used in the New Testament, is a broad term which may describe any of several skin diseases, such as ring worm and psoriasis as well as the more well-known form of Hansen's Disease.1 Leprosy, in its more severe manifestation, was loathsome, disfiguring and incurable. The law could not help the leper; it could only protect the healthy and so demanded complete segregation (Lv. 13:45-46). The fact that Jesus did not want to be known as just a local wonder-worker is further underscored in the healing of the leper. The leper's approach to Jesus broke all customary regulations. Yet in pity, Jesus did the unthinkable--he touched him (usually considered to be a sure method of contamination) and instructed him to go for an examination by the priests, who alone could declare him to be clean and fit for society (Lv. 13:2-32). Jesus prefaced his instructions with a stern warning for the man not to spread the news of the healing. Two things are significant. First, Jesus discouraged the used of miracles simply to attract people, even though his miracles inevitably did attract people. In fact, by disobeying Jesus' injunction, the former leper forced Jesus to stay outside the villages in the open countryside to accommodate the crowds. Still, Jesus performed miracles from the motive of compassion, not popularity. Second, Jesus was not a revolutionary against the law of Moses, per se. In light of the sabbath controversies
1For an extended discussion of skins diseases in the Bible, see K. and C. Mull, "Biblical Leprosy--Is It Really?" BR (April 1992/Vol. VIII No. 2) 32ff. 18
to come, the fact that Jesus here conformed to Mosaic law is instructive.
The Rise of Opposition (2:1--3:35) Now that Mark has introduced his readers to the beginning and character of Jesus' mission, he describes the mounting tension that arose between Jesus and the religious structure of Judaism. In many ways, though Jesus' was conscientious about observing the law of Moses, he cut directly across the oral tradition of the religious leaders. The Jews believed that beside the Torah there was an Oral Law or Mishnah handed down from Moses through succeeding generations. However, as the Oral Law was continually expanded, it became so bulky as to prohibit memorization, and thus was eventually compiled and written down. This written record of oral tradition is known as the Talmud, and it reached its final form in about the 5th century A.D. The function of the Mishnah was twofold: it interpreted Torah, and it adapted Torah in accord with social, domestic and economic changes. Often, the Mishnah was enforced directly against common sense, and it was there that Jesus took open exception to it.
The Forgiveness Controversy (2:1-12) The first occasion for dispute arose back at Capernaum, when Jesus confronted a paralyzed man with the words, "Your sins are forgiven." This audacious statement shocked the scribes. First of all, the clear evidence of the OT indicates that God alone can forgive sins (cf. Ex. 34:6). Further, according to some scribes, even God did not forgive sins on the basis of free grace, but required that a sinner achieve merit by works of the Law. Understanding their disapproval, Jesus responded with a conundrum, "Is it easier to say, 'Your sins are forgiven,' or to say, 'Get up and walk?'" Obviously, the former is easiest to say because of the impossibility of verification. To publicly command the paralyzed man to arise immediately would expose Jesus as a fraud if the man was not healed. After declaring his authority to forgive sins, to everyone's amazement and praise, Jesus also healed the paralytic. Besides the tension between Jesus and the scribes, two things are especially significant in this account:
Authority Again, Mark shows how Jesus asserted his authority. This assertion, which began in his verbal teaching, continued in his power over sickness and demons. It was further evidenced in his forgiveness of sin as an implicit testimony to his role as the Servant-Messiah. 19
Suggestion of Deity In forgiving sin, Jesus stepped well beyond the miracles of the OT prophets. He assumed divine prerogatives, yet did so without being ostentatious. Not only was his heavenly origin implicit in his authority, as evidenced by his words of forgiveness, but it was explicit in the title by which Jesus referred to himself--the Son of Man. This favorite title by which Jesus designated himself, the Son of Man, at first glance might seem to reflect Jesus' humanity. Its significance was much broader, however. The origin of the title is Daniel 7:13-14, where the figure of the Son of Man is directly related to the victory of the kingdom of God. In the intertestamental literature, the term son of man became a messianic title for the coming deliverer who would judge the wicked and save the righteous. In Mark's gospel, the title Son of Man is generally used in three distinct contexts: As a figure of suffering (8:31; 9:12, 31; 10:33, 45; 14:21, 41) As a figure of authority on earth (2:10, 27) As a figure of end-time power (8:38; 14:26, 62) Thus, Jesus' use of this title calls to mind more than just his humanity. He was the Man from heaven who had power on earth (cf. 1 Cor. 15:47-48). He was the messiah, the Christ!
The Worldly Christ (2:13-22) After the calling of Levi (also called Matthew), Jesus attended a banquet given in his honor, where many tax collectors and "sinners" were present. Tax collectors were a most despised class, for they were considered traitors to the Jewish nation. Those whom the religious leaders considered "sinners" were simply the people of the land, who had no special interest in scribal tradition. To eat in such an atmosphere would be to invite defilement of all sorts (i.e., Jesus risked contact with unclean food, unclean garments, unclean dishes, unclean furniture, not to mention unclean people). Much of the criticism against Jesus derived from the Pharisees (lit. "those separated"). They were the largest and most influential sect of Judaism in the synagogues and among the common people. Arising during the period of Jewish independence after 165 B.C., the Pharisees were characterized by a religious zeal that equally embraced the Torah and the Oral Law as binding. They considered the Israelite nation to be far superior to other nations, and thus they saw the Roman occupation as particularly obnoxious. God would show special favor, they believed, to those who were punctiliously devoted to legal observances. They believed in the resurrection of the body, the immortality of the soul and retribution at the end of time. It is within this milieu that Jesus responded to two pointed questions, both of which inferred that he was "worldly" and not properly pious. 20
"Why do you eat with sinners?" This first question presupposed the Pharisaical attitude that respectable rabbis should maintain a measured social distance from the common person. Jesus answered them with an irony. He did not come to heal the healthy (that is, those who considered themselves without need) nor to call the righteous (that is, those who thought they were righteous already). He came to minister to the sick and the sinners- -those who knew all too well their desperate need.
"Why do not your disciples fast?" The origin of fasting is obscure. Israel participated in an annual fast on the Day of Atonement (Lv. 16:29, 31), and various occasions of fasting may be found in the OT, though one can find no descriptive theology to regulate it. It was often an expression of grief, penitence and/or self-abasement. In later times in the history of Israel, fasting apparently was thought to be an aid for gaining God's attention, but the prophets declared that without right conduct, fasting is worthless (Is. 58:5-12; Je. 14:11-12). By the time of Jesus, strict Pharisees fasted every Monday and Thursday. The question posed by Pharisees might very well have been intended to drive a wedge between Jesus and John's disciples. Apparently, John's disciples also made much of the practice of fasting and may even have been doing so as an expression of mourning due to John's imprisonment. Jesus answered the question in two ways: The Saying About the Bridegroom: No one goes to a wedding feast expecting to refuse to eat in the presence of the groom. Rather, it is a time for rejoicing and feasting. Not until the bridegroom is gone will the guests fast (a metaphor referring to Jesus' death and/or ascension). Patches and Wineskins: Only a foolish person would attempt to put a new patch on an old garment or new wine into old and brittle skins. The shrinking of the new patch and the vitality of the new wine would be too great a strain! In like manner, the new life of the gospel of the kingdom would not fit into the old religious forms of Judaism.
The Liberal Christ--the First Sabbath Controversy (2:23-27):2 On a Saturday, Jesus' disciples were availing themselves of the opportunity afforded them in the OT of casually picking from the standing grain in the open fields (Dt. 23:24-25). The Pharisees, however, were quick to interpret this action as "reaping," a practice expressly forbidden on the sabbath (Ex. 34:21). Interestingly enough, Jesus did not defend his disciples' actions by pointing out the extremism of the Pharisees' interpretation. Instead, he defended his disciples by a completely
2It should be noted that the sabbath controversy recorded in John 5 may very well be the "first," but the chronology between John and the Synoptics is uncertain at this point. 21
different kind of argument, an argument which pointed out the relative value of needs.
David and the Holy Bread When Jesus recalled to the Pharisees the account of David eating the Bread of the Presence (cf. 1 Sa. 21:1-6), he stressed the fact that David was "hungry and in need." Even the law was not so inflexible that it could not bend to accommodate a desperate situation.
Humans, the Sabbath and the Lord Furthermore, the ultimate goal of the sabbath (and the law as well) was for human good. Human benefit stood above the pettiness of minute restrictions and interpretations. Jesus' final statement was an added assertion of his authority: "So the Son of Man is Lord even of the Sabbath." As the Man from heaven, his lordship extended over even the sabbath instituted by Yahweh under the law. Implied in Jesus' authority over the sabbath is his authority over the law to interpret it as though it was his own.
The Irreligious Christ--the Second Sabbath Controversy (3:1-6) By the time of this second sabbath controversy, the tension between Jesus and the local leaders of Judaism had become so sharp that they were consciously looking for a reason to accuse him. Anticipating that they would seize upon any opportunity for discredit, Jesus instructed a man with a withered hand who was present to stand forth. He then leveled a simple question to the religious critics, "What is lawful--to do good or evil on the sabbath?" The question was double-edged. If the Jewish leaders responded with "evil," they would have condemned themselves. If they responded with "good," they would have destroyed their own argument against Jesus for having compassion on the man. Thus, they answered nothing, and their silence was more eloquent than words. Jesus was angry and deeply grieved at this callous display of religiosity. He healed the man, but did so without touching him. His simple words, "Stretch out your hand," were so ordinary that they could have been spoken to anyone without incurring an accusation of breaking the sabbath. The Pharisees were so incensed by their failure that they began to plot against Jesus' life with the Herodians. The group called the Herodians is more difficult to define than other of the better known sects of the time. Apparently, they were sympathizers and supporters of Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee. Their orientation was probably political rather than religious, but if they thought that Jesus posed any threat of agitation, they might well join the Pharisees in seeking to silence him. At this point it might be well to stress the tension which Mark has been 22
developing along two important lines: Authority: Jesus is now seen to be in direct conflict with the religious leaders over the question of authority. The authority of the scribes and Pharisees rested in their tradition. The authority of Jesus rested in his own person as the Son of Man as well as in the written Scriptures. Religion: Jesus is also now seen to be in direct opposition to the inflexibility of pride in religion for religion's sake. To the Pharisees, Jesus appeared as irreligious, worldly and liberal, and it is well to bear in mind that often the theologian and religious-disciplinarian is more susceptible to hardness of heart than are more common folk.
Jesus' Popularity Expands Even More (3:7-12) Whether due to the breach with the Pharisees or due to the large crowds, Jesus withdrew once again to the beaches of Galilee. Crowds followed him from Jerusalem and Judea, Idumea (southeast of the Dead Sea), the Transjordan (Perea, Decapolis and Gaulanitus), and Phoenicia (Tyre and Sidon). He continued to heal, but as before he refused to allow the demoniacs to identify him (cf. 1:24-25, 34).
The Appointment of the Twelve (3:13-19) The selection of the Apostles3 from among his followers marks an important transition in the ministry of Jesus. Since the Jewish religious community had rejected him, he began to build a new community. In one sense, the calling of the Twelve marks the beginning of the "New Israel." The twelve apostles have a correspondence to the twelve tribes (cf. Mt. 19:28; Lk. 22:28-30). Just as the old Israel had twelve founding fathers, the new Israel did also. The Twelve would form the nucleus of a new community of faith. Jesus' immediate purpose for this select group was two-fold. They were first to be with him, a phrase which encompasses their special training by Christ and which later figured as an important apostolic qualification (Ac. 1:21-26). They were also to have authority over demons, that is, they were to play an important role in the inauguration of the kingdom of God over the forces of evil. Simon (son of John) Renamed Peter or Kephas (= rock) by Jesus. James (son of Zebedee) Boanerges is Aramaic for "sons of thunder," though whether this
3Apostolos (= apostle, one sent forth) means someone on a mission or an ambassador. In the NT, the word may be used in the narrow sense of one of the Twelve initially chosen by Jesus. However, in a broader sense, it is sometimes used of other church leaders (cf. Acts 14:14; Ro. 16:7; 2 Co. 8:23; Phil. 2:25; 1 The. 1:1; 2:6). 23
humorous title is a reference to the temperament of the brothers or their father is not certain. James was the first of the Twelve to be martyred (Ac. 12:2). John (son of Zebedee) In the Fourth Gospel, John is probably the one called "the disciple whom Jesus loved." Andrew (son of John) Initially, he brought his brother Simon to Jesus (Jn. 1:40-42). Philip He brought Nathanael to Christ (Jn. 1:43-51). Philip is not to be confused with the Philip in Acts 6:5; 8:1-40. Bartholomew (lit., son of Talmai) Elsewhere, he is also called Nathanael. Matthew (Levi) Thomas (called Didymas, meaning "the twin," Jn. 11:16) James (son of Alphaeus) He is sometimes referred to as James the Less (15:40), which could refer to either his stature or his age. Thaddaeus (Lebbaeus in some manuscripts; also called Judas, Jn. 14:22; Ac. 1:13) Simon ("Cananaean," or more properly "zealot," is an Aramaic surname meaning a patriotic, radical enthusiast, usually a freedom fighter). Judas (Iscariot probably means "from Kerioth," though it might possibly mean "dagger-man"). Of special note in the list of the Twelve is that the first three, Peter, James and John, form a sort of sub-group within the larger group and were on occasion given special privileges. Also, there are two sets of brothers among the Twelve, two Simons, two Jameses, and two Judases.
The Beelzebul Controversy (3:20-30) The tension between Jesus and Judaism had become so strained by this time that even his immediate family was worried that he was losing his mental grip. His half-brothers, sisters and mother wished to take him home to avoid further embarrassment (cf. 3:31-35; 6:3; Jn. 7:5). To make matters worse, scribes from Jerusalem had become so disturbed that they apparently made the trip all the way to Galilee to hear and condemn him as a demoniac. In answer to this accusation, Jesus spoke in parables. First, it is obvious that a kingdom in perpetual civil war cannot hope to survive. Second, it should have been obvious that if Jesus were able to expel 24
demons, he must possess power and authority higher than that of Satan, which could only be the power of God. In short, the reign of God had begun! The invasion of Satan's kingdom was even then in process! Anyone who would dare to speak against this conquering work of the Holy Spirit could never be forgiven. Regretfully, the topic of the unpardonable sin has received some frightful interpretations. It does not mean that someone who has previously spoken against God cannot turn to him later (cf. Mt. 21:28-32). It does not refer to something done accidently, casually, trivially or unknowingly. Rather, it is a deep and willful rejection of God (Ro. 1:21-32; 2 Th. 2:10-12). It is apparently visible, public and obvious (1 Jn. 5:16-17). We should always remember that where there is an attitude to seek after God, there is hope for forgiveness (Jn. 6:37; 1 Jn. 1:9; Ro. 10:12-13). In the context of Mark's Gospel, Jesus warned the scribes about the eternal sin in view of their accusation that his delivering miracles were of the power of evil. The name Beelzebul can have several connotations, depending on its spelling. The two most important are as follows. Beelzebub, the Philistine god mentioned in 2 Kings 1:2, means "Lord of the (carrion) Flies." Beelzebul means "Lord of the House" or possibly "Lord of Dung." In any case, to identify Jesus by such an epithet was a supreme insult. The term "parable" means to put alongside for the sake of comparison. In the NT, the word typically describes a short, vivid story used by Jesus to illustrate his teaching, especially his teaching concerning the kingdom of God. However, lest one think of his parables as simply self-evident stories, it should be remembered that Jesus used parables to make his teaching obscure to his rejectors and detractors as well as to clarify the nature of the kingdom of God to his disciples (4:10-12). Parables have been aptly described as earthly stories with spiritual meanings. There are several dangers to be avoided in interpreting the parables of Jesus. One is trying to make every detail mean something. Another is ignoring important features. Yet another is stripping the parable of its context, or trying to be overly systematic so that a given feature in one parable is forced to assume an identical role in another parable if it should appear there also.
The Family Tension (3:31-35) During this latest controversy, Jesus' family arrived and sent a messenger to slip through the crowd so as to bring Jesus out where they could restrain him (cf. 3:21). Jesus, however, made clear that his true family was not bound by blood, but by faith. His saying, "Whoever does God's will is my family," is perhaps a further indication of the new community, built not upon the bloodline of Abraham but upon a commonality of faith and obedience to God's will. 25
The First Great Group of Parables (4:1-34)
The Parables of Jesus (4:1-2) More than one-third of Jesus' recorded teaching in the Gospels is parabolic, and there are about forty parables in all. It is generally conceded that the parables have at least three central characteristics: 1. They are examples of popular story-telling drawn from the real world. 2. They arise extemporaneously during Jesus' public encounters. 3. Either implicitly or explicitly, they call for a verdict, "What do you think?" In attempting to understand the parables, it is of prime importance to see them in their true setting, that is, as describing the kingdom of God's invasion of the world through the ministry of Jesus. This is why so many parables begin with the phrase, "The kingdom of God is like...." The kingdom of God was not simply some human moral disposition nor a humanly constructed utopia. It was the decisive intervention of the living God into history for the salvation of humans. God's final purpose for human history was being inaugurated in the person and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth.
The Sower (4:3-20) This parable, probably the most popular of all Jesus' parables, appears in all three synoptics.
The Parable (4:3-9) The modern farmer might well be surprised at the practice of seeding unplowed stubble, but in Palestine, sowing preceded plowing in the late summer. Only after the seed was scattered would the farmer plow the field to cover the seed and wait for the winter rains. Thus, in the scattering, some seeds would doubtless fall to hard-packed earth, other seeds would fall onto shallow soil surrounding the occasional limestone outcroppings, and still others would fight the thorny weeds for survival. A 10% crop was reckoned a good harvest, but 30%, 60%, or 100% was a veritable bumper crop. Jesus concluded his story with a warning about the grave responsibility of the hearers of the gospel.
The Parabolic Paradox (4:10-12) The intention of Jesus' parables was paradoxical, that is, the parables were meant to be both puzzling and clear, a fact that was taxing even to Jesus' closest followers (cf. Jn. 16:29). Parabolic teaching was a sort of spiritual sifting between those who believed the good news of the kingdom and those who did not. Those who rejected Jesus were on the "outside," and no further instruction about the kingdom would be given to them. 26
The parables of Jesus, like the preaching of Isaiah (6:8-10) and the proclamation of the early church (2 Co. 2:15-16), was a strange mixture of both grace and judgment. For those who had "ears to hear," it was good news. For those who had a heart of unbelief, it was a deliberate veiling. In the setting of Jesus' parables, it is necessary to remember that his audience was not neutral. They were already polarized into accepters and rejectors.
The Explanation (4:13-20) There are three distinct emphases in the parable of the Sower. One is on the hearing of the gospel of the kingdom (cf. 4:9; Mt. 13:19). Another is on the diversity of soils which represents the crowds and their responses to the teachings of Jesus. Ultimately, however, the parable stresses the success of the kingdom of God. Though there are rejections, failures, and setbacks, the message of the kingdom will yet triumph bountifully!
The Lamp (4:21-23) This short parable points to the ultimate manifestation of the kingdom. In a bit of dry humor,4 Jesus pointed out that a lamp is not to be put under a meal-tub or a mattress, but on a stand. So also, the kingdom of God which was hidden in the person and the teachings of Jesus would not remain forever obscure. It was ultimately intended to be vividly disclosed and brought into the open. Again, a solemn responsibility is laid upon the hearers.
The Measure (4:24-25) Yet a third time Jesus stressed the cruciality of hearing (cf. Lk. 8:18). This idea of hearing was not just confined to auditory reception. Primarily, Jesus was referring to the perceptiveness and receptiveness of his audience. Those who heard him were to "measure" carefully the word of the kingdom, for their acceptance or rejection of the message would determine their place. If they received the proclamation, they would be given more. If they rejected the message, they would be stripped of everything.
The Growing Seed (4:26-29) Here, in this parable peculiar to Mark's Gospel, Jesus emphasized that the assured growth of the kingdom was under God's care and sovereignty. It could not be humanly manipulated. While the "hiddenness" of the kingdom would surely be exchanged for a glorious "openness," the timing of this transition belonged to God
4For a penetrating look at the humor of Jesus, see E. Trueblood, The Humor of Christ (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1964). 27
alone. The harvest was God's responsibility; the farmer must merely commit the seed to the soil. Immediate or visible results were not necessary to the one who farmed in faith. God, not circumstances, was the guarantor of the kingdom's success!
The Mustard Seed (4:30-32) The point of this parable is one of contrast--the smallness of the mustard seed and the great size to which it grows (to some ten feet in height). The "little flock" of Jesus (cf. Lk. 12:32) must not be dismayed at the small beginning. The weakness and apparent insignificance of the kingdom in its early Galilean stages would ultimately burst forth into a mighty finale!
The Summary (4:33-34) Mark closed his account of this first great group of parables by emphasizing the frequency with which Jesus used them and the private explanations he gave to his disciples.
Four Miracles (4:35--5:43) At this point in the narrative, Mark treats four miracles in detail. To be sure, he has already pointed out the authority and power of Jesus in his miracles, but now he emphasizes them even more. Generally, the miracles of Jesus may be categorized into two groups, healing miracles and nature miracles. The miracle stories usually are recounted in a similar pattern. First, there is a description of the condition followed by a plea for help or some evidence of faith on the part of those in need. Then, there is a description of the miracle followed by a comment on the effect. A pertinent question to be addressed is concerning the purpose of miracles. Why did Jesus perform them? Two primary reasons seem to dominate the miracle accounts. One, emphasized greatly in the synoptics, is the compassion of Jesus toward those in desperate need (Mk. 1:41; 5:19; 8:2; 9:22). The other, emphasized primarily in John's gospel, is the sign value of miracles which pointed to Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God (Jn. 20:30-31; 2:11, 23; 3:2; 4:54; 6:2, 14; 7:31; 9:16; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 14:11).
The Calming of the Storm (4:35-41) Passing over to the eastern side of the lake, Jesus and the disciples were endangered by one of the frequent storms that arise on the Sea of Galilee due to its low elevation (-680 feet below the Mediterranean) and its location among some rather high mountains (Mt. Hermon to the north is some 9200 feet). That Jesus was exhausted is evident both by the fact that the disciples took him "as he was" and that he slept in spite of the heavy seas. In this miracle, Jesus asserted his authority over 28
nature. It may be noted that though faith is often encouraged in the miracles of Jesus (2:5; 5:34; 10:52), here Jesus performed a mighty work in spite of the disciples' weak faith.
The Healing of Legion (5:1-20) The region of the Gerasenes was in the Decapolis (lit., "league of ten cities") to the south and east of the Galilean Lake. In this region, Jesus met a demoniac who was severely afflicted. In the account of the healing, several things should be pointed out: The request of the demons (5:6-10) not to be banished seems to presuppose their knowledge of final judgment at the end of time (cf. Rv. 20:10). A legion in the Roman army (5:9) was 6000 soldiers, though some scholars suggest that perhaps a battalion (2,048 soldiers) was in mind. The drowning of the pigs (5:11-13) points to the destructive forces of Satan. The fact that the demons requested to enter the pigs may suggest that evil spirits seek embodiment (cf. Lk. 11:24-26) or simply that they seek to destroy. Why Jesus allowed the demons this privilege is not clear. One may at least say that the evil purpose of Satan becomes openly apparent in the death of the swine if it was not already so in the affliction of the man. The reluctance of the populace to accept Jesus (5:14-17) was probably due to their fear of his power and their resentment over the loss of the pigs. They could not see beyond these things to the wonder of a man now fully clothed and mentally stable. The commission of Jesus to the former demoniac (5:18-20) is unique in that usually Jesus enjoined silence about his miracles. Here, however, he encouraged the man to proclaim his healing. A reasonable suggestion is that inasmuch as the Decapolis was largely Gentile in population, the risk of a false messianic concept would have been minimal. Also, Jesus' commission may anticipate the Gentile mission of the church to come later.
The Healing of a Hemorrhage and a Dead Girl (5:21-43) The next two miracles are interwoven. After returning to the Jewish side of the lake, Jesus was confronted by Jairus, a prominent member of a synagogue. This supervisor of worship came to Jesus on behalf of his dying daughter. On the way to Jairus' house, another event occurred. A woman in the crowd, by a simple act of faith, reached out to touch the robe of Jesus and was immediately cured of a chronic hemorrhage. A flow of blood such as this woman suffered was more than just a physical problem, for it brought accompanying social distress. Such a hemorrhage would render her ceremonially 29
unclean as well as anyone she contacted (cf. Lv. 12:1-5; 15:19-33). The focus of the story, however, was on more than the miracle. It centered upon both Jesus' awareness that a transmission of power had occurred and upon the woman's great faith. While Jesus was still addressing the woman, word came that Jairus' daughter was dead. Ignoring the report, Jesus told Jairus, "Don't be afraid; just believe!" Upon arriving at the home, they saw that the funeral preparations were already in progress. The Jews did not practice embalming, and consequently, burials were quickly executed. Minstrels and professional mourners were already performing their duties in accordance with social custom. However, the artificiality of this display is sharply pointed up in the change of the doleful antiphony into scornful laughter at Jesus' words, "She is only sleeping." Shutting out these skeptics, Jesus allowed only the parents and the inner circle of his disciples in the room (cf. Lk. 8:51), where he simply spoke, "Talitha cumi" (Aramaic). The girl was immediately brought back to life.
Significant Points in the Four Miracles Two things stand out in the foregoing accounts. Jesus' miracles were performed in the presence of great personal faith as well as in its absence. Inside Jewish culture, Jesus was reluctant to have his miracles broadcasted (5:43), but in Gentile communities he was not (5:19).
Ministry in and Around Galilee (6:1--9:1) The next four chapters in Mark's Gospel continue to develop the three emphases which have already been introduced, that is, the teachings of Jesus, the miracles of Jesus, and the ever-growing tension between the religious leaders of Judaism and Jesus. This section further details the Galilean mission up until the time that Jesus left for Judea to the south.
The Rejection at Nazareth (6:1-6) From the lakeside villages, Jesus moved inland to Nazareth. His own people, though they could not refute his authority, were nevertheless offended by it. Amazed at their unbelief, Jesus did not do many miracles there. The problem was not his lack of power, but their lack of faith (cf. Mt. 13:58). It is Mark's Gospel that describes Jesus as a tekton (= artisan in wood, stone or metal). Inheriting his trade from Joseph (Mt. 13:55), Jesus was either a village builder or a smith, a maker of plows, yokes and furniture. Joseph presumably was dead by the time of Jesus' public ministry, for there is no mention of him beyond the time of Jesus' pre-teen years (Lk. 2:41-52). Some uncertainty exists concerning Jesus' siblings. The more likely view is that they were half-brothers and half-sisters, 30
children born to Joseph and Mary after Jesus' birth. The other views, that the siblings were either children of Joseph by a previous marriage or that they were cousins, seem to have arisen as an attempt to safeguard the Roman Catholic doctrine of Mary's perpetual virginity.
The Mission of the Twelve Apostles (6:7-13) The sending out of the apostles by twos into the Galilean villages was simply a multiplication of Jesus' own ministry. Apparently, their commission was threefold: they were to have authority over evil spirits, they were to heal the sick, and they were to proclaim the advent of God's reign (cf. Mt. 10:8; Lk. 9:2). It seems probable that this Galilean mission was a preparation for and an anticipation of the more extensive mission of the church after Pentecost. Jesus' instructions for the journey demanded that the apostles completely trust God to supply their needs. The authority for miracles which Jesus gave to the Twelve was added to their apostolic qualification of being "with him" (cf. 3:14). Later, Paul was to call signs, wonders and miracles "the things that mark an apostle" (2 Co. 12:12). The phrase "shake the dust off your feet" was a well-known symbol in Judaism of disassociation (cf. Ac. 13:50-51). The practice of "anointing with oil" was common as both medicinal and cosmetic. However, the use here is more likely symbolic, a sort of visible parable of the power of the Holy Spirit (cf. Ja. 5:14).
The Death of the Baptist (6:14-29) This part of the narrative serves as an interlude between the sending out of the Twelve and their return (6:30). Herod, the Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, heard of Jesus' works even in his palace. Though the rumors about Jesus' true identity were mixed, Herod agreed with those who thought that Jesus was John redivivus. At this point, Mark produces a quite complete account of John's death, which is verified, incidentally, by Josephus.5 The story is replete with the intrigue and vindictiveness of royalty. John was executed because of his outspokenness concerning the illicit affair between Herod and Herodias.
The Feeding of the Five Thousand (6:30-44) The feeding of the five thousand is the only miracle Jesus performed that appears in all four gospels. The setting of the miracle occurred just after the Twelve had returned from their preaching tour of Galilee. Apparently, their mission was a huge success. So many people were seeking them that they had no time even to eat.
5Antiquities of the Jews, XVIII, 5, 1-2. 31
Jesus wisely called them aside for rest. The crowds, however, thwarted this intention. After teaching them, Jesus instructed the apostles to feed them. In spite of their protest that two hundred denarii would not be sufficient to buy enough bread, Jesus made preparations for a meal on a grand scale. With only five loaves and two fish, Jesus fed the entire crowd with much food left over!
Jesus Walks on the Water (6:45-56) Many scholars believe that Bethsaida (lit., "House of Fish") was a split village that lay on the east and west banks of the Jordan River, where it emptied into the Sea of Galilee. The western suburb was in Galilee, and the eastern city was in the jurisdiction of Herod Philip. Jesus sent his disciples in that direction while he retired to the hills for prayer. Whether or not the fact that Jesus saw his disciples struggling against a heavy headwind is intended to suggest a supernatural wind, as some have suggested, the fact that Jesus came to them walking on the waves certainly was supernatural enough! Several points should be remarked upon in this story: Fourth Watch: The night was divided into four segments (watches) of three hours each between sundown and sunrise. The fourth watch would have been about 3:00--6:00 A.M. He was about to pass by them: This phrase, describing an action similar to when Jesus was on the road to Emmaus (Lk. 24:28), seems to suggest that Jesus wanted his disciples to confess their need of him. Their hearts were hardened: That the disciples did not understand the miracle of the loaves is a curious comment. Some have thought that the disciples had completely missed the fact that a miracle had happened at all, but this seems hardly likely in view of the fact that they well knew the limited resources of five loaves and two fish. More likely, this statement means that they did not undertand the far-reaching implications of the miracle as a sign which pointed beyond itself. The nature miracle of multiplying bread and fish implied that Jesus was the complete master over nature, that he was divine, and that he would supply their needs if they would trust him. Gennesaret is the fertile plain south of Capernaum and takes its name from the lake itself. From the whole region, people brought their sick, and Jesus healed them. The final passage in 6:56 summarizes Jesus' healing power during the entire Galilean mission.
Teaching Concerning Defilement (7:1-23) The distinction between what was "clean" and "unclean" was a very pervasive 32
teaching among the Jews. The issue at stake in this passage was holiness versus worldliness, not hygiene. In the phrase, "...eating food with unclean....hands," the word unclean quite literally meant "common" or "secular" as opposed to "holy." Kosher regulations had flourished in the Oral Tradition, especially due to the thinking that in order to safeguard the law of God one must go well beyond it in strictness. Their reasoning was very close to modern religious extremists who say, "I would rather be too strict than not strict enough." Such legalism is based on two premises: 1)....that true righteousness is something that one must produce for him/herself before he/she can win God's favor, and 2)....that holiness is primarily an external matter of obeying rules. When the Jerusalem scribes and Pharisees observed Jesus' disciples failing to match up to the traditional holiness standards, they were offended. Jesus' answer was on three levels.
The Accusation of Hypocrisy (7:6-8) Quoting from Isaiah 29:13, Jesus denounced the scribes and Pharisees as hypocrites. Any system of legalism which monitors holiness standards in this way is a false system of worship, a sentiment echoed by the Apostle Paul (cf. Col. 2:20-23). To be too strict is just as much a departure from God's commandment as to be too lax. It is in this vein that Paul later says, "Do no go beyond what is written" (1 Co. 4:6).
The Manipulation of God's Law for Personal Reasons (7:9-13) The word corban (= given to God) refers to something set apart for God. The Torah clearly demanded that children had a solemn duty to honor their parents (a command that implied parental support in their old age). However, by designating as corban the money or property which should have gone to the support of parents, the scribes and Pharisees were able to evade their parental responsibility and satisfy their financial obligations to God at the same time. In short, they were using their own human standards to set aside the commands of God. "And you do many things like that," Jesus said!
The Source of Defilement (7:14-23) Holiness and worldliness are not external matters, Jesus said, but internal matters. To be sure, holiness and worldliness may have external implications, as Jesus points out in 7:22-23, but the real source of defilement is in the thinking, the attitudes and the motives of men and women.
The Syrian Phoenician Woman's Faith (7:24-30) Withdrawing from Galilee to the northwestern Phoenician coast, possibly for a time of rest or perhaps to avoid Herod, Jesus encountered a Gentile woman who begged deliverance for her demon-possessed daughter. The seeming harshness of 33
Jesus' initial refusal must be viewed against the background of the nature of his mission. In keeping with the covenants God established with national Israel (Ro. 9:4- 5; Ep. 2:11-12), Jesus' earthly public ministry had a Jewish priority (cf. Mt. 15:24; 10:5-6; Ro. 1:16; Ac. 1:8; 13:44-48). However, the woman recognized that such a priority did not eliminate her from the blessing of Messiah's mission, and she persisted in her request until Jesus answered her. This account seems to emphasize the importance of Gentile faith.
The Cure of a Deaf Mute in the Decapolis (7:31-37) Still avoiding Galilee, Jesus again journeyed to the eastern side of the Galilean lake, where he was confronted by a deaf mute. After securing privacy, Jesus spoke the Aramaic word Ephphatha (= be unloosed) and healed the man. As was usually the case, Jesus required silence about the miracle, but to no avail (though see the comments on 5:18-20).
The Feeding of the Four Thousand (8:1-13) The feeding of the four thousand was similar to the feeding of the five thousand, though obviously there are differences. This miracle, like many others, was an act of compassion. Still there is a curious selectivity to Jesus' miracles that assumes the sovereignty of God, a selectivity that Jesus himself explained by pointing to the OT (Lk. 4:25-27). Jesus neither healed every sick person in Israel nor fed all the hungry. Often, as in the case of Jairus' daughter and the deaf mute, Jesus performed miracles in semi-privacy. Usually, he required that no one give publicity to his miracles. All this points to the fact that Jesus' miracles were not simply "signs on demand," as 8:11-13 makes clear. At Dalmanutha (back on the west side of the lake), the Pharisees asked for such a staged miracle. Jesus' response was a deep sigh (probably expressive of impatience or aggravation) and a negative question, "Why does this generation look for a sign? No sign will be given!" In comparing several gospel passages (John 4:48; Mt. 16:4; Lk. 11:29), it appears that seeking miracles for their own sake is directly opposed to God's purpose. Though God performs miracles, he does not do so purely on the basis of human volition but also on the basis of his divine sovereignty, as Paul also shows (cf. 1 Co. 12:11).
The Saying About Yeast (8:14-21) Mark has already commented on the spiritual dullness of the disciples (6:52), but here the description is even more pointed. In spite of two stupendous miracles in which Jesus performed creative acts to feed thousands, the disciples were worried because they had no bread. They still had not grasped the fact that if Jesus was with them, they needed never to be anxious. The saying about yeast, as Matthew clarifies 34
(16:12), was a simple metaphor for the mind-set of the Pharisees and Herod (cf. Lk. 12:1).
The Healing of a Blind Man at Bethsaida (8:22-26) Back at the northern tip of the lake in Bethsaida (Peter's home town, cf. Jn. 1:44), Jesus was approached by friends of a blind man who sought healing for their companion. Again securing privacy, Jesus healed the man and gave the usual charge, "Don't go into the village" (i.e., go home and keep the matter to yourself). However, and unusual feature of this account is the man's healing in two stages. As curious as this is, there is nothing in the text to enlighten us as to the factors involved, nor is there any other gospel parallel.
The Confession of Peter (8:27-30) Still moving in and out of Galilee, Jesus traveled north with the Twelve into the jurisdiction of Herod Philip to Caesarea Philippi. Enroute, Jesus asked them about the public's opinion of himself. Though there were several popular ideas (see also 6:14-16), the one common feature was that Jesus was not generally recognized as messiah. If he were John redivivus or Elijah redivivus, he could have been a forerunner of messiah, but as yet the outside world had not guessed his true identity. Even among his followers, Jesus' messianic identity was not always clear (Lk. 24:19). Thus, Peter's confession of faith is all the more remarkable in that he neither received it from popular notions nor even from Jesus himself but, as Matthew records, from God the Father (cf. 16:17). The word "warned" is a strong one, carrying the idea of sternness. That Jesus commanded the Twelve so sharply not to tell anyone that he was the Christ is extremely significant. It was absolutely essential that the disciples not be allowed to fill the content of the word "messiah" with either popular political notions or inventions of their own. Only in the days ahead would Jesus define for them what kind of messiah he really was.
Jesus Predicts His Death (8:31-9:1) Up until this time, references to Jesus' coming passion have been few and largely oblique (cf. Lk. 2:35; Jn. 1:29; 3:14-15). Now, directly on the heels of Peter's messianic confession, Jesus began to speak of his coming death in a clear and direct way (see also: Mt. 16:16-21; Lk. 9:20-21). Apparently, the open recognition of Jesus' messiahship by Peter and the other apostles was a watershed in the ministry of Jesus. From that moment on (cf. Mt. 16:21), Jesus began to prepare the Twelve for the crisis of the cross. This crisis would include: Suffering (in Jerusalem, cf. Mt. 16:21); 35