Nevada Archaeologist Volume 15 1997
NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION NEVADA Nevada and has no paid employees. The purpose of ARCHAEOLOGICAL NAA is to preserve Nevada's antiquities, encourage the ASSOCIATION study of archaeology, and to educate the public to the aims of archaeological research. Membership is open to any person signing the NAA Code of Ethics who is The design for the NAA logo was interested in archaeology and its allied sciences, and in adapted by Robert Elston from a the conservation of archaeological resources, Garfield Flat petroglyph. particularly in Nevada. Requests for membership and dues should be sent to the Executive Secretary at the address provided below. Make all checks and/or NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OFFICERS money orders payable to the Nevada Archaeological Association. Membership cards will be issued on the PRESIDENT BILL JOHNSON ...... 566-4390 payment of dues and the receipt of a signed Code of HENDERSON, NEVADA Ethics. Active members receive issues of the Association's newsletter, In Situ, and one copy of the SECRETARY PAT HICKS ...... 565-1709 annual publication, Nevada Archaeologist. Members HENDERSON, NEVADA also meet once a year for paper presentations and the annual banquet at various locations throughout Nevada. TREASURER QYVIND FROCK ...... 826-8779 RENO,NEVADA DUES
EDITOR, VOLUME 15 WILLIAM WHITE STUDENT ...... $5.00 HENDERSON,NEVADA ACTIVE ...... $12.00 ACTIVE FAMILY ...... $15.00 1997 BOARD OF DIRECTORS SUPPORTING ...... $25.00 SPONSOR ...... $50.00 The Board of Directors of the Nevada Archaeological PATRON ...... $100.00 Association is elected annually by the membership. Board members serve one year terms. Directors elect FuTURE ISSUES OF THE NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST the Association's officers from those members elected to the Board. The Board also appoints the Editor of the Manuscripts submitted for publication in the Nevada Nevada Archaeologist for a term not to exceed three Archaeologist should follow the style guide of years. Board of Directors meet five times a year, once American Antiquity, January, 1979 issue. Manuscripts in the fall, winter, summer, and twice in the spring should be typed and double spaced throughout, immediately prior to, and immediately following, the including notes and bibliography, and illustrations annual meeting. Board meetings are held at various should be camera-ready with a caption typed on a locations throughout Nevada. separate sheet of paper, also double spaced. Submissions from avocational as well as professionals MEMBER GRETCHIN BURRIS ...... ELY, NV. are encouraged. Manuscripts for the 1998 issue should MEMBER ANNE DuBARTON ...... LAS VEGAS, NV. be submitted to: % Bill Johnson, 622 St. Andrews Rd., MEMBER MARK HENDERSON ...... ELY, NV. Henderson, NV., 89015. MEMBER PEGGY MCGUCKIAN .... WINNEMUCCA, NV. MEMBER SUSAN MURPHY ...... LAS VEGAS, NV. GENERAL CORRESPONDENCE MEMBER SKIP SCROGGINS ...... LAS VEGAS, NV. EX-OFFICIO ALICE BALDRICA ...... RENO, NV. Inquiries and general correspondence with the Nevada EX-OFFICIO COLLEEN BECK ...... LAS VEGAS, NV. Archaeological Association should be directed as EX-OFFICIO WALLYCUCHINE ...... EUREKA, NV. follows:
MEMBERSHIP NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIA nON % SUSAN MURPHY, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY Nevada Archaeological Association is an incorporated, 9785 TROPICAL PARKWAY non-profit organization registered in the State of LAS VEGAS, NEVADA 89129
© COPYRIGHT, NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, NOVEMBER 1997 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
EDITOR'S CORNER
Featured within are four of fourteen papers delivered at the 26th Annual Conference of the Nevada Archaeological Association held at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, on March 14-15, 1997. The thematic context for the conference was Seventy Something, Archaeology ofSouthern Nevada: Past, Present, and Future in recognition of the role that archaeology has played over the last seventy years in the understanding of cultural development and history of southern Nevada. Although all of the conference papers dealt with either past history or current research projects, no presenter ventured to advocate the future course of archaeology in southern Nevada. Over the past seventy years, particularly the last thirty, much has been accomplished. Enormous quantities of data have been accumulated, much of it fragmented in isolation from a larger game plan. Much, however, remains to be accomplished and comprehended. As we prepare to bid farewell to this century and welcome the 21 st century, it is time that we take stock of the past and present to address future archaeological interests in Nevada. Perhaps the new century will bring a synthesis of what we do know so that we as avocationalists, professionals, cultural resource managers, and interested parties can focus on what remains to be learned about our common cultural heritage. Far from addressing the future or representing a synthesis, the following papers do, however, discuss the past as well as present research, taking stock as noted above. As much as some of us may disdain the topic, archaeopolitics has certainly played and continues to playa manifest role in archaeology in general. Our first paper discusses the political career of a Nevada politician, James Scrugham, who promoted and encouraged Raymond Harrington's "efforts to recover the past" in the 1920s. Also reviewing the history of Nevada archaeology, much has recently been compiled about the career of Sidney Wheeler, which is communicated in the second paper. This is followed by a current analysis of the formation and use of the Buena Vista # 1 site, a Moapa Valley lithic-source site utilized over a long period of time. Finally, insight into the poorly understood Fremont frontier, specifically "fringe" Fremont settlements, in eastern Nevada is advanced in the concluding contribution. I would like to thank the authors who shared their works in this volume. As always, the final responsibility of compiling and editing of the volume rests with the editor and not with the authors. So with this as an introduction to Volume 15, please enjoy and support Nevada archaeology.
William G. White Senior Historical Archaeologist Harry Reid Center for Environmental Studies University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
Cover: "Hallelujah Man" - a petroglyph at Ash Springs Archaeological Complex (26LN215), Nevada, illustrated by David Smee, 1997 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
CONTENTS
Editor's Corner William G. White
A Forgotten Forefather: A Political Biography of James G. Scrugham Michael S. Green
Who Came First, Harrington or Wheeler: Moapa Valley Revisted 8 Jeffrey R. Wedding and Diane Lynne Winslow
Formation and Use of the Buena Vista #1 Site, Clark County, Nevada 22 Moody F. Smith and William A. Pond
"Connections" and "Meaning" of the Swallow Fremont Site (Eastern Nevada) Artifact Assemblage 31 Shela A. McFarlin and John K. Zancanella
11 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
A Forgotten Forefather: A Political Biography of James G. Scrugham
Michael S. Green
Community College of Southern Nevada
Abstract irrigation and dams that have helped make possible the Sunbelt's growth. From 1913 to A study of the role of archaeology in southern 1940, Key Pittman fought for silver, while Nevada over the past 70 years cannot be completed wielding influence chairing the Senate Foreign without attention to James G. Scrugham. Mark Relations Committee late in his tenure. From Harrington is deservedly considered the father of Nevada archaeology, but he had a little help from his the 1930s to the 1950s, Pat McCarran built a boss, the governor - Scrugham. dominant political machine by pumping In Nevada's history, Scrugham was much federal money into Nevada while pursuing more than a governor - as if that were not a big enough political enemies at home and alleged role. He served as state engineer, a newspaper communists in Washington. In recent publisher, a five-term member of the House of Representative, and a United States senator. He also decades, Alan Bible fathered the Southern edited a three-volume history of Nevada that is still Nevada Water Project, making water available useful to historians. Had he done no more than support and modem Las Vegas possible; Howard Harrington's effort to recover the past from "Lost Cannon passed numerous bills in behalf of City," he would be important to Nevada's history. defense and tourism; and Harry Reid pushed However, he is important in other ways, and deserves attention for them. This paper attempts to survey the through the creation of the state's only life of an important politician of twentieth-century national park, helped negotiate the settlement Nevada. of controversial water issues in northern Nevada, and moved into the U.S. Senate Presentation Democratic leadership. All were senators, who figured: for a Since becoming a state in 1864, small state like Nevada, accumulated seniority Nevada has produced and profited from a in the upper house is its most likely route to series of political figures whose primary national influence. Few of its representatives contribution, at home or in Washington, was gained power, given the size ofthe House and to aid Nevada's economic development by Nevada's small populace. Some of its enhancing their power or that of the bosses governors have enjoyed long-term importance: they served. In the nineteenth century, Republicans Charles Russell and Paul Laxalt William M. Stewart was, as biographer and, especially, Democrats Grant Sawyer and Russell Elliott described him, a "servant of Mike O'Callaghan did much to modernize power" who wrote the laws that govern Nevada in the post-World War II years, and mineral production and benefit larger Sawyer and Bob Miller have chaired the corporations to this day. In the 1900s and National Governor's Association. 1910s, Francis Newlands became a leader of Amid all of these names, James the national progressive movement and wrote Graves Scrugham is little-remembered legislation that used western lands for unfortunately. Scrugham contributed to the NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
development of the West through his support the American Legion. for the damming of the Colorado River. He is More important for Nevada's future, in the only person in Nevada's history to serve as September 1920, Boyle named Scrugham to a governor, representative, and senator. And, commission whose members, including ironically, he contributed mightily to Nevada's pioneer Las Vegas businessmen Charles P. history, not only editing and writing for a Squires, Ed W. Clark, and Harley Harmon, massive three-volume history of the state, but were to study the possibilities of reclamation also acting as the guiding force behind the and electricity on the Colorado River. excavation and preservation of the Lost City Eventually, Scrugham would become part of (Pueblo Grande de Nevada) and thereby the Colorado River Commission, with aiding in the growth of archaeology in Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover trying Nevada. Yet, he has only been the subject of to broker an agreement between its members, a master's thesis, and brief references in representing the seven western states seeking several scholarly publications. Scrugham water from the river. Scrugham insisted to deserves better from scholars of the Nevada Hoover, and anyone else who would listen, expenence. that there should be a dam on the Colorado Scrugham was born in Lexington, River, and that private industry, not the federal Kentucky, on January 19, 1880, and earned a government, should build it. He helped degree in mechanical engineering from the negotiate the Colorado River Compact, the University of Kentucky in 1900. After plan to divide the waters; he also signed it in working on engineering projects in Cincinnati, behalf of Nevada, and lobbied for its Chicago, and San Francisco for the next three acceptance at home and elsewhere. years, he moved to Reno as an assistant Amid these varied actiVItIes, professor in the University of Nevada's Scrugham decided to run for governor in engineering college. By the time he left the 1922. The incumbent, Boyle, had served two university in 1917, Scrugham had received an terms, and encouraged his fellow Democrat to advanced degree and had been promoted to seek the job. Not only did Scrugham receive dean. He contributed to the growth of the widespread support from the party, his former engineering department, acquiring buildings students, and the American Legion, but he and equipment and building a strong program also benefitted from running on a Democratic with help from graduates whom he had helped ticket headed by Key Pittman, an incumbent to obtain jobs. U.S. senator popular with his constituents and Scrugham's departure from the even with many of his Republican opponents. university marked his entry into politics. Scrugham won by more than 2,000 votes out Governor Emmet D. Boyle, a leading mining of more than 28,000 cast-a good showing for engineer active both in the public eye and an electoral newcomer, but behind Pittman behind the scenes in Nevada's Democratic and most of the rest of the party ticket. While party, named him state engineer in 191 7. As every major statewide officeholder was a engineer, Scrugham settled disputes over Democrat, the legislature was Republican. So water rights, and served on the state Public was Nevada's dominant political personage: Service Commission. During W orId War I, he George Wingfield, who owned several interrupted his tenure to serve in the army, productive mines and most of the state's rising to lieutenant colonel and helping to start major banks, and evinced little interest in the
2 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 kind of holdover progressive refonn and technology, and commercial economy. Thus, expertise that Scrugham represented and a significant portion of the Anasazi (Virgin advocated. Branch) past was reconstructed by historians As governor, Scrugham enjoyed and archaeologists, a process that continues considerable success. He became known as today. the "Governor on Wheels" and "Gasoline Scrugham encouraged the state to Jim" in recognition of how often he drove celebrate and capitalize on the discovery. The around Nevada, meeting voters and seeking 1925 legislature went beyond his requested their views. To aid those activities, and to $200,000 and tacked on another $50,000 to build up his state, he succeeded in winning an build and equip a state museum. On May 23, expanded budget for highway-building: 1925, with considerable ceremony, Scrugham between federal legislation and matching formally opened the Lost City area as a state funds, Nevada gained almost 1,000 miles of park. The Union Pacific Railroad received highways in four years. He aided federal pennission to display various artifacts at its officials seeking a location for a naval ticket offices throughout the nation, further ammunition depot; they needed space, and promoting the find in Nevada, which became nearby water and transportation, and his even better known when the building of efforts helped lead to Hawthorne's selection Hoover Dam created Lake Mead and led to the as the site. When the state legislature agreed creation of the Lost City Museum in Overton. to his request for the power to set aside land as Thus, Scrugham contributed to the idea, if not recreational areas, Scrugham designated the fact, that tourism should be part of fifteen of them, including the Valley of Fire, Nevada's economy by adding attractions to and thus created the Nevada State Park the list of reasons to visit the state. He also system. acted for scholars: on November 1, 1926, the Indeed, Scrugham's commitment to state turned over the entire Lost City complex and interest in historic preservation and to the Heye Foundation to continue its archaeology would have lasting effects on research and study. "If I may be allowed to Nevada's future and past. When he learned say so," George Heye wrote -to Scrugham, from archaeologists that what became known "this is the first time in the many years that I as the Lost City might exist, he infonned have followed the science of anthropology that others throughout the West that pending I have come into contact with anyone discoveries in Nevada might rival those in occupying a high political position like yours Arizona and New Mexico, and alerted who has really grasped the importance of the prospectors and other southern Nevadans to work we are trying to do and actually given watch for caves and ruins. In 1924, he invited time to it." Dr. Mark Harrington of the Southwest But Scrugham's time as governor, and Museum in Los Angeles and New York's infl uencing the state's interest in the Lost Heye Foundation, underwriter of the Museum City, was running out. In 1926, he faced a of the American Indian, to visit Moapa Valley. tough re-election campaign. The death of Harrington and his colleagues found the Scrugham's predecessor, Boyle, removed his remains of Pueblo Grande de Nevada. It was powerful backroom backer. This time, the a major find: Anasazi buildings revealed incumbent senator up for re-election was not evidence of how they lived, their salt mining Pittman, but a Republican, Tasker Oddie,
3 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 meaning that Scrugham himself would head intentionally or otherwise, with Wingfield: the ticket. Scrugham's opponent was Fred Scrugham owed the bank a $60,000 note that Balzar, a former state legislator who was able, kept the State Journal from making much well-known, and personally popular-and noise about the machine's dominance; when enjoyed strong support from Wingfield's the state treasurer and controller, both part of machine, although it was nothing personal, Wingfield's machine and elected at the same since Wingfield liked Scrugham and time as Governor Scrugham, went to prison appreciated his efforts in his behalf. for embezzling $500,000 from state coffers, Scrugham also had problems of his the Reno daily was editorially silent. own. When his organ, the Nevada State In 1928, Scrugham became chairman Journal, quoted Hoover's comment that of the state Democratic party-a difficult "Governor Scrugham is the outstanding position, given the Republican party's national governor of the West," Republicans quickly and state pre-eminence at the time. And he pressed the secretary of commerce to deny decided to run for Congress in 1932. Rather endorsing the Democrat. Republicans charged than battle Senator Oddie, a two-term Scrugham with accepting help from California incumbent and friend from whom he rented interests-then a useful weapon in a state his Reno home, Scrugham ran for the House whose citizens well knew how often they had of Representatives against Samuel Arentz, a contributed to the wealth of investors who popular five-term Republican congressman. took their money to San Francisco. Scrugham With the Depression increasingly affecting feuded with several party leaders who Nevada and bringing down Wingfield's believed that he ignored the rest of the ticket. banking empire, Scrugham boarded Franklin Balzar won by 1,800 votes and, as biographer Roosevelt's bandwagon, and joined the Elizabeth Raymond wrote of Wingfield, "For Democratic ticket that swept to victory, albeit the first time, at all levels of government, with nearly 4,000 fewer votes than Roosevelt. there were men in office who shared the By the time he sought his fifth term in 1940, cardinal precepts of his particular political Scrugham actually ran ahead of the president creed: economic diversification and social in Nevada's voting. toleration," including gambling and easy Indeed, Scrugham proved successful as divorce. a congressman. He fell into line behind However, Scrugham's political career Roosevelt's New Deal, but with the was far from over. Almost at once upon predictable and popular western mutterings losing, he bought the Nevada State Journal about the "growing bureaucracy." He worked from the Boyle family, and as Reno's tirelessly in behalf of silver: while his efforts Democratic daily it remained the party's de to repeal the Mint Act of 1873, which had facto organ (he proved less successful when demonetized the metal, failed, he sponsored he began a newspaper of the same name in the House version of the Pittman Silver Las Vegas, where he hoped to take advantage Purchase Act of 1934, a federal buying plan of the growth that would result from the that would help to nearly triple Nevada's construction of the dam that he had advocated; mineral production in two years. As a he wound up selling the Journal to the owners member and later chairman of the of the established Democratic paper, the Appropriations subcommittee on the navy, Review). The purchase also allied him, Scrugham pushed through increased purchases
4 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 and storage of strategic minerals like chrome, conclusion that he hasn't much to think with, tin, and tungsten. He worked in the House to so he shouldn't be blamed too much." Yet help create the Basic Magnesium plant, which McCarran and Scrugham were no more would prove to be a short-term boon to compatible. McCarran knew that Scrugham Nevada's mining and the nation's defense, and had allied with Wingfield and later Pittman a long-term contributor to southern Nevada's against him, especially over patronage economic development. A protectionist, he appointments. As the responsible House opposed American purchase of foreign food or member, Scrugham resented Senator clothing and explained, "1 come from a district McCarran for taking all of the credit for the dependent almost entirely on beef and wool. approval of Stead Army Air Field near Reno. I am sent here to protect the interests of these At a 1941 W ashington party, they shoved and growers." cursed at each other: Scrugham called him a However, serving as Nevada's lone "fat four flushing faker" and "told him that 1 representative limited Scrugham's influence. would smash him in the jaw .... This seems to The Senate might be another matter, but just be the only way to deal with the man, as he as the Wingfield machine blocked his re has become almost unbearable in his election as governor, one of its remnants and arrogance. " one of its enemies blocked his ascent to the While the senator and the governor Senate. The senior senator, elected in 1912, announced their neutrality in the primary, was Pittman, whom Wingfield had liked McCarran clearly preferred Scrugham. So did personally and tolerated-if not supported most of the newspapers that took a position on politically. The junior senator was Pat the race. Eventually, Bunker's charges that McCarran, a longtime foe of Wingfield who the management at Basic Magnesium engaged profited, as Scrugham had, from the in profiteering prompted Carville to praise the Democratic sweep of 1932, and was war plant, and built upon Scrugham's frequent determined to supplant Pittman as the state's reminders to his constituents that war policy dominant presence in Washington. When was too important to be entrusted to the Pittman died in 1940, Governor E.P. Carville younger, less experienced Bunker. Scrugham not only declined to consult McCarran, won, but by little more than 1,000 votes out of making the new senior senator irate, but nearly 22,000 cast, before cruising to victory bypassed Scrugham and other senior in the general election. Democrats to appoint Berkeley Bunker, a 34- As a senator, Scrugham worked for the year-old assemblyman who could appeal to same interests as he did in the House, but two growing constituencies: his fellow illness reduced his effectiveness so much that Mormons and his fellow Las Vegans. Jerome Edwards, McCarran's biographer When Bunker ran for full term in wrote, "In effect for two years McCarran was 1942, Scrugham declared against him. Why the only senator Nevada had, an arrangement Scrugham sacrificed a sure House seat and which he doubtless found rather comfortable." accumulated seniority is debatable, but Still, Scrugham planned ahead politically, McCarran certainly had no use for Bunker, causing despair among some of his closest writing, "I often wonder what that bird thinks friends when he reconciled with McCarran by about. 1 have come to the conclusion that he supporting his re-election in 1944 against Vail hasn't much to think about, I have come to the Pittman, the late senator's younger brother. In
5 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 return, Scrugham hoped for McCarran's benefit. Indeed, writing to Scrugham, George support when he ran again in 1946. But Heye of the Heye Foundation and the Museum Scrugham died of heart problems, complicated of the American Indian proposed an by a long bout with influenza, on June 23, appropriate epitaph: "I assure you that future 1945. generations of Nevada will look back upon the In a sense, Scrugham's death so early pioneer work you are doing in this matter with in his Senate career exemplifies why he is not deep gratitude and appreciation." better-remembered. While he was an Undoubtedly, the Nevada Archaeological exceedingly able governor, he won the job Association feels that way. So should all thanks to support from other politicians, owed Nevadans. his greatest accomplishment-highway development-to federal aid, and proved unable to win re-election against the Bibliography Wingfield machine, which he never criticized. While Scrugham enjoyed influence in the Bowers, Michael W., The Sagebrush State: Nevada's House, the sparseness of his constituency History, Politics. and Government (Reno and Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press, meant that he remained outside the leadership. 1966). Ambition-his own, but perhaps more Doyle, Sister Marie Olive, "The Political Career of important, McCarran's-prompted him to James Graves Scrugham, 1923-1945." surrender his seniority to run for the Senate. Master's Thesis, Catholic University of There, McCarran's presence and power, and America, Pacific Coast Branch, 1956. Scrugham's junior status and ill health, meant Driggs, Don W., and Leonard E. Goodall, Nevada that he could and did accomplish little. Politics and Government: Conservatism in But if James G. Scrugham was a an Open Society (Lincoln: University of second-rate leader, he was, by Nevada Nebraska Press, 1996). standards, a first-rate thinker-as McCarran Edwards, Jerome E., Pat McCarran: Political Boss of eulogized him, a "great progressive." That Nevada (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1982). commitment enabled him to influence life in ___, "Wingfield and Nevada: Some Nevada and the West, through the Colorado Observations," Nevada Historical Society River Compact and his political offices, in his Quarterly, 32:3 (Summer 1989), 126-39. time and long afterward-and, in a sense, long Elliott, Gary E., Senator Alan Bible and the Politics before. His efforts in behalf of the state park of the New West (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1994). system and the building of Hoover Dam Elliott, Russell R., Nevada's Twentieth-Century suggest an embryonic vision of a tourist-based Mining Boom: Tonopah-Goldfield-Ely future for Nevada. Amid his political (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1966, activities, he found time-and help-to edit 1989). and publish the first major history of Nevada ___, Servant of Power: A Political Biography of Senator William M. Stewart (Reno: to appear in twenty years, and the crowning University of Nevada Press, 1984). glory of his tenure as governor was his Elliott, Russell R., and William D. Rowley, History preservation of a past that Nevada, then and of Nevada (Second edition, Lincoln: now, often seems determined to destroy and University of Nebraska Press, 1987). forget. For him to do so certainly was a labor Glad, Betty, Key Pittman: The Tragedy of a Senate Insider (New York: Columbia University of love; clearly, it was of little political
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Press, 1986). Roske, Ralph 1., Las Vegas: A Desert Paradise Hulse, James W., The Silver State: Nevada's (Tulsa: Continental Heritage Press, 1986). Heritage Reinterpreted (Reno and Las Rowley, William D., Reclaiming the Arid West: The Vegas: University of Nevada Press, 1991). Career of Francis G. Newlands Miller, Thomas Woodnutt, "Memoirs of Thomas (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Woodnutt Miller, a Public Spirited Citizen 1996). of Delaware and Nevada," Reno: University Sawyer, Grant, Gary E. Elliott, and R.T. King, Hang of Nevada Oral History Project, 1966. Tough! Grant Sawyer: An Activist in the Moehring, Eugene P., Resort City in the Sunbelt: Las Governor's Mansion (Reno: University of Vegas, 1930-1970 (Second edition, Reno Nevada Oral History Project, 1993). and Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press, Scrugham, James G., ed., Nevada: A Narrative of the 1995). Conquest of a Frontier Land. 3 vols., Raymond, C. Elizabeth, George Wingfield: Owner Chicago: American Historical Society, and Operator of Nevada (Reno and Las 1935. Vegas: University of Nevada Press, 1992). Titus, Dina, ed., Battle Born: Federal-State Conflict ___, "George Wingfield's Political Machine: A in Nevada During the Twentieth Century Study in Historical Reputation," Nevada (Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt, 1989). Historical Society Quarterly, 32:2 (Summer 1989),95-110.
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Who Came First, Harrington or Wheeler: Moapa Valley Revisited
Jeffrey R. Wedding and Diane Lynne Winslow
Desert Research Institute - Quaternary Sciences Center, Las Vegas
Abstract First Arrivals
The thematic context for the 26th Annual As the story is already written meeting of the Nevada Archaeological Association was (Harrington 1953), it was in 1924 that brothers the recognition of the role played by archaeology in John and Fay Perkins reported to then Nevada understanding cultural development and history in southern Nevada. Researching the careers of Sidney Governor James G. Scrugham their discovery Merrick Wheeler and his wife, Georgia, has revealed a of pueblo ruins along the Muddy River near tremendous amount of new information regarding early Overton, Nevada (Figure 1). Harrington, Nevada archaeology. This paper focuses specifically conducting excavations in Nevada at Lovelock on research conducted by both the Wheelers and Mark Cave under the auspices of the Museum of the Raymond Harrington in the Moapa Valley. Such prominent sites as Pueblo Grande de Nevada (Lost American Indian, Heye Foundation, was City), Granary Cave and Black Dog Cave will be contacted. Scrugham, an archaeological highlighted. enthusiast, had been following Harrington's highly publicized career and contacted him in Introduction hope of setting a date for an expedition into the Moapa Valley. Harrington, enticed by the Many refer to Mark Raymond discovery (due to the then established western Harrington as the father of Nevada boundary for Pueblo Culture as being east of Archaeology. His endeavors at such notable the Colorado River), agreed and a date was Great Basin sites as Lovelock Cave (Loud and set. The expedition led by the Perkins Harrington 1929), Pueblo Grande de Nevada brothers proved extremely successful in that (Harrington 1925a, 1925b, 1926, 1927, 1930, pueblo ruins were found to stretch some six 1937; Shutler 1961), and Gypsum Cave miles from Overton to St. Thomas, Nevada (Harrington 1933) set the stage for the (Figure 2). development of archaeology in Nevada. One site, however, Black Dog Cave, should Let's climb up on the ridge, rightfully be associated with the name S.M. Governor Scrugham suggested. We Wheeler (Wheeler 1942c; Winslow 1996). were naturally excited because a few minutes before we had found some Harrington is typically credited as excavating bits of black-on-white pottery in the the site (Harrington 1942), however, lowlands along the Muddy River, Wheeler's involvement began some six years pottery which I knew must be of before Harrington's. In order to finally get Early Pueblo make and more than a those history of archaeology books straight, thousand years old (Harrington 1953:203). the intertwined events that brought these two researchers together must be outlined. On the east side of the Muddy River
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Ind/an Spring
LAS VEGA5
Figure 1. Map of southern Nevada showing extent of Pueblo Grande de Nevada, taken from Harrington 1930.
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(between what once was St. Thomas, Kaolin Mead (Figure 4). The ruins having personal and the eastern edge of Overton) were the meaning to Scrugham, now a u.s. scattered pueblo ruins of Pueblo Grande de Congressman, arranged in the fall of 1933 for Nevada (which became popularly known the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) to through the press as the "Lost City")(Figure establish a work project. A three cornered 3). Harrington (1925a:74) writes: arrangement between the National Park Service, the CCC, and the Southwest Museum Walls were made mostly of adobe was entered. Harrington, now curator for the bricks, or rather lumps, about the Southwest Museum (Figure 5) was again shape and size of ordinary loaves of asked to direct the excavations (1933 through bread, sometimes showing imprints of grass and tules; these were laid up 1935) and ultimately assume the role of with adobe mortar and sometimes consultant as salvage work continued against interspersed with slabs of stone. the rising waters of Lake Mead. Fay Perkins They were plastered with adobe. (Figure 6) would eventually supervise the Floors were usuaJly adobe, but salvage work and the recovery of valuable sometimes were paved with flat sandstone fragments. Slabs were archaeological data (McBride 1995:34-38). sometimes set on edge around the The CCC's largest contribution to the wall inside the room. project was manpower. The men provided a valuable labor source for excavation and Ultimately the hilltop find gave rise to a survey work (Figures 7 and 8). In addition, number of expeditions over the following two they constructed two museums in which to years sponsored primarily by the Museum of archive the artifacts recovered. The first the American Indian, Heye Foundation. museum constructed in St. Thomas, close to During the course of the excavations more the Lost City site (Figure 9), was consumed by than ninety separate houses, most of them Lake Mead. The second, larger, permanent early pueblos, were uncovered. Harrington museum (Figure 10) was constructed on stayed until 1926, excavating and restoring higher ground in Overton. Highlighted at portions of the ruins. each of the museums was a reconstructed adobe pueblo utilizing pueblo construction [A] II because the Perkins brothers technologies and materials (Figure 11). had thoughtfully reported to the Governor the finding of 'painted This CCC work project brought S.M. pottery' across the Muddy River Wheeler to the Moapa Valley. A West Point from Overton, and had invited me graduate and U.S. Army Lieutenant during the down from my 'dig' (Harrington 1920s, Wheeler (1942a: 1) states: 1953:203). In September 1933, I was ordered to The Civilian Conservation Corps March Field, California for duty and Wheeler with the newly-formed Civilian Conservation Corps, and, on The Hoover Dam project (Department reporting, was assigned to the 974th of the Interior 1976) would eventually result Company then stationed at Charleston Mountain near Las in the irreparable loss of the pueblo ruins Vegas, Nevada. under the encroaching dam waters of Lake
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Not long after arriving, the 974th was Wheeler was quick to give credit to this early transferred to Kaolin (three miles south of influence. In 1942 he wrote: Overton), to aid Harrington with the excavation of the Lost City (Figure 12). With [My] introduction to archaeology the arrival of the 974th and other CCC was mainly through association with Companies, Harrington's salvage project Mr. Harrington. Under his guidance my wife and I came to realize the began to take form (Figure 13). On November value of the research, and gradually 14,1933, Harrington (1985:184) wrote to his acquired, through suggested reading colleague George Heye: and discussion, a foundation for future work (Wheeler I 942a: 1). I'll bet you can't guess what I am doing now' Yesterday I began the Wheeler's work at Pueblo Grande de excavation of the Lost City at the Nevada would be short as the 974th was again very point I left in 1926. The transferred in May of 1934 to Panaca, Nevada. Government borrowed my services Prior to departure Wheeler stated, "Mr. for the purpose and I shall probably work until May. I have a staff 0[30 Harrington suggested that we explore the new including two foreman, a sergeant area and report to him any evidence of and four corporals; the other are cultures that might be found" (Wheeler enlisted CCC men and most of them 1942a: 1). With several months of practical are interested and will make good field experience under his belt, Wheeler and workers, I think. his wife set off to central Nevada in hopes of Although little is known about locating Indian relics and conducting Wheeler's actual duties during the excavation, excavations. Heeding the advice of his it is known that he was a member of the mentor, his first project would be the Company's staff. His wife remembers "[he] excavation of Etna Cave which he and his supervised the work and he was interested in wife conducted with some CCC assistance. the excavations that were being done, he Harrington visited the site once during worked out the grid system ... " (Felts 1996:5). excavations to observe and secure artifacts for Wheeler was interested in archaeology the Southwest Museum. Following Etna before his army career, an interest further Cave, Harrington and Wheeler would work confirmed after a post-graduation trip overseas together at numerous sites throughout Nevada, which included a viewing of the Egyptian California and Utah. For a few years pyramids (Winslow and Wedding 1997). In Harrington even employed Wheeler on the fact, his interest brought Wheeler to the Southwest Museum's archaeological staff. Southwest Museum during the late 1920s where he was introduced to Harrington. Back to Moapa Valley, Black Dog Wheeler and his wife visiting a relative in Cave is Discovered California decided that they would call upon the museum as they were displaying a special It was not until 1942 that Wheeler and exhibit (Felts 1996). After speaking at great Harrington would return to the Moapa Valley length at the museum about their interest in (Winslow 1996:28-29). Harrington still prehistory, Harrington invited them to join curator at the Southwest Museum and him and his wife that evening for dinner. Wheeler now employed by the Nevada State
11 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
Parks Commission as staff archaeologist, 1942c:1XFigure 14). would both be notified of new discoveries in the Moapa VaHey. However, this time Returning to the cave with Stuart, "[I took] Wheeler was notified first. It was the middle one look and 1 realized that here was the of December, 1941, that Bradley R. Stuart (a missing cave" (Wheeler 1942c: 1). Union Pacific Railroad employee) contacted Wheeler agreed that Stuart had a Wheeler about some archaeological significant find but there was only a remote discoveries. As the story goes, Stuart was possibility that the state would be able to excavating a number of pit houses on the point excavate the site due to funding restrictions. of a mesa to the south of a pumping station. It was suggested that Stuart contact Stuart's two dogs usually accompanied him, Harrington. Wheeler records that it was one named "Lassie" pursued a rabbit into a "about the middle of May, [when] I received hole. Hearing his dog barking "underground," word that [Harrington] would visit the site th Stuart investigated and found the hole to be about the 19 and we arranged to meet here" the collapsed entrance to a cave. This cave (Wheeler 1942c:7). After viewing the cave, and another nearby were the subjects of Harrington was enthusiastic over the Stuart's report to Wheeler. possibilities of data and specimens for the The Wheelers conducted Southwest Museum. Wheeler promptly went archaeological assessment of the discoveries to work. in February, 1942. Limited test excavations Mr. Harrington thought he might be were done in one of the caves. This cave was able to secure funds for a partial later named Granary Cave (Wheeler 1942b), excavation. As this would result in due to the large number of stone lined storage all the material going to California pits found within. The other cave was named and being permanently lost to the Black Dog Cave after Stuart's dog, Lassie. State of Nevada, I secured a half After viewing Black Dog Cave, Wheeler interest in the site from Mr. Stuart. With this, I was able to make a realized he had been there before. In his tentative arrangement whereby, report he writes: without extra cost, the State would receive copies of all data and one Black Dog Cave was fIrst brought to half of the archaeological specimens my attention early in the spring of (Wheeler 1942c:7). 1936 when some of the Civilian Conservation Corps men from Camp The agreement stipulated that Nevada would Muddy River, near Moapa, Clark furnish such equipment as it had available and County, Nevada reported the fInding the Southwest Museum would furnish the of a basket in the rear of a deep cave about a mile up the river and on the additional funding for extra equipment and south side of the valley. Being supplies. Wheeler supervised the excavation stationed at the camp at the time, I and did all the mapping. Georgia worked was able to accompany them to the along side of Harrington with a few others cave but made no test excavation. In from the museum at the actual excavation of 1939, I attempted to re-Iocate the site for the benefit of the Nevada State the cave. Park Commission but was unable to Harrington wrote a two-page article fmd the small entrance (Wheeler (Harrington 1942), reporting his activities to
12 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 the museum's supporters. After to dig a little deeper. The work of the reconstructing the story of Stuart and his dog, avocationalists, and regional archaeologists Harrington gave basic interpretations of the need also to be examined and utilized. cultural evidence, a review of the materials Although they might not be the movers and acquired for the museum, and the Southwest shakers in the discipline, it might be worth the Museum associates who participated in the time to take a look as one never knows just project. Wheeler was not mentioned. This is what might be found in the archives. most likely because he was no longer affiliated with the museum while Harrington Acknowledgments was focusing on the museum's role in the excavation. The authors would like to thank the Wheeler, however, also wrote a report. following institutions and people for all their Written and submitted to the Nevada State help and support with this research: The Parks Commission, the report included a Desert Research Institute - Quaternary sixteen-page site record and approximately Sciences Center, Las Vegas, the Nevada State fifty pages of field notes (Wheeler 1942c). Museum, Carson City, the Lost City Museum, This report, archived at the Nevada State Overton, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas Museum, Carson City, has apparently been Special Collections and Archives, Dr. Colleen overlooked by scholars conducting research in M. Beck, Dr. Claude N. Warren, Donald R. the Moapa Valley and was lost in obscurity Tuohy, and lastly but most certainly never until only recently. least Mrs. Georgia Wheeler Felts.
Conclusions References Cited
It is not uncommon in archaeology or Felts, Georgia Wheeler any scientific endeavor, etc. for that matter, 1996 Oral History Tapes, Recorded in June 1996 Nashville Tennessee. Tapes on file with for the prominent researchers to overshadow Diane Lynne Winslow, Desert Research the work of others. Thus, it is easily noted Institute, Quaternary Sciences Center, Las that M.R. Harrington was actually the first Vegas. archaeologist to break ground in the Moapa Valley, however, there were others who Department of the Interior contributed greatly to Nevada Archaeology. 1976 Construction of Hoover Dam. KC Publications, Las Vegas, Nevada. Sidney Merrick Wheeler and his wife Georgia are one such team of archaeologists. Beyond Harrington, Marie working with Harrington in the Moapa Valley, 1985 On the Trail of Forgotten People. A they took the next step, they took the Personal Account of the Life and Career of teachings of their mentor and applied them. Mark Raymond Harrington. Great Basin Press, Reno. Unfortunately their work has been lost to all but a few who have found their manuscripts in Harrington, Mark Raymond the archives of the Nevada State Museum. 1925a A Pueblo Site Near St. Thomas. Indian Background research is a very Notes 2(1). Museum of the American important aspect of any archaeological Indian, Heye Foundation, New York. investigation and researchers sometimes need
13 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
1925b Archaeological Research in Nevada. Indian Shutler, Robert Jr. Notes 2(2):125-127. Museum of the 1961 Lost City, Pueblo Grande de Nevada. American Indian, Heye Foundation, New Nevada State Museum Papers No.5, Carson York. City.
1926 A Pre-Pueblo Site on the Colorado River. Wheeler, Sidney Merrick Indian Notes 3(4). Museum of the American 1938 Recording Cave Data. American Antiquity Indian, New York. 4( 1):48-51.
1927 A Primitive Pueblo City in Nevada. 1942a Archaeology of Etna Cave Lincoln County, American Anthropologist 29(3):262-77, Nevada. Nevada State Parks Commission. Menasha. Manuscript on file at Nevada State Museum, Carson City. 1930 Archaeological Explorations in Southern Nevada Report of the First Sessions 1942b Report on Granary Cave Moapa, Nevada. Expedition 1929, Introduction. Southwest Nevada State Parks Commission. Museum Papers 4:1-25, Los Angeles. Manuscript on file at Nevada State Museum, Carson City. 1933 Gypsum Cave. Southwest Museum Papers No.8, Los A:lgeles. 1942c Black Dog Cave Moapa, Nevada. Nevada State Parks Commission. Manuscript on file 1937 Excavation of Pueblo Grande de Nevada. at Nevada State Museum, Carson City. Bulletin Texas Archaeological and Paleontological Society Vol. 9, Lubbuck. Winslow, Diane Lynne 1996 Restricted Reconnaissance: The History and 1942 Black Dog Cave. The Masterkey 16(5), Los Archaeology ofS. M Wheeler in Nye Angeles. County, Nevada. Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Nevada, Las Vegas. 1953 Early Pueblo Houses in Southern Nevada. The Masterkey 27(6): 203-209, Southwest Winslow, Diane Lynne, and Jeffrey R. Wedding Museum, Los Angeles. 1997 Georgia Wheeler is Still Alive (And We Have Her Voice on Tape). Nevada Loud, Llewellyn L. and Mark R. Harrington Historical Society Quarterly 40(1): 140-150. 1929 Lovelock Cave. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 25( 1), University of California Press, Berkeley.
McBride, Dennis 1995 Hard Work and Far From Home, The Civilian Conservation Corps at Lake Mead, Nevada. Boulder Images, Boulder City, Nevada.
14 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
Figure 2. Overview of Moapa Valley showing approximate location of Pueblo Grande de Nevada, March 1997.
Figure 3. Ruins of adobe houses. Wilson Collection. Photo courtesy of University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), Library, Special Collections (SC).
15 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
- Of • . .
Figure 4. Lake Mead rising on Lost City. This is a portion of first house restored. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC.
Figure 5. Mark R. Harrington on horse in front of temporary museum at Lost City, 1920s - 1930s. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC.
16 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
Figure 6. Fay Perkins examining specimen, Pueblo Grande de Nevada. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC.
17 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
Figure?. Small pot in place with finder (Hightlinger), 1933. Harrington Photograph. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC.
Figure 8. Lost City Detail, CCC Co. 934 with truck at Archaeological Headquarters, 1934. Harrington Collection. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC.
18 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997
•> :t ;i. a • ~s?:- -"•.. 4^-:--».-><*•<•-'-•.: •,?.-._.•-, .'..'- » >. ^:^^^.;v• i;:-"'---" . .¥*•.' : > T* - ^-^^^^&^v*^.*W;2*#fc£fe3 - '••' ' ^ '•'« ' *> ^ Figure 9. Restored pueblo at original Lost City Museum now under waters of Lake Mead, 1934. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC. Figure 10. Lost City Museum Overton, Nevada. March 1997. 19 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Figure 11. Reconstructed pueblo behind Lost City Museum Overton, Nevada. March 1997. j^SwR^S?-1^:-11'''" ••KP^--" Figure 12. CCC Co. 974 at Camp SP-1, Overton, Nevada. Note: S.M. Wheeler is one of officers in front row. Pueblo Grande de Nevada Collection. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC. 20 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Figure 13. Ruins of Lost City, now covered by waters of Lake Mead. Photo courtesy of UNLV, SC. ; A, Figure 14. Rockshelter #2 where a woven bag and many other articles were found. September 1936, near Overton, Nevada. Harrington Collection. Photo Courtesy of UNVL, SC. NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Formation and Use of the Buena Vista #1 Site, Clark County, Nevada Moody F. Smith and William A. Pond Abstract the strike direction while the east block simply tilted upward with a steep dip north (Figure A unique combination of faulting, ground 2). A wash along the south side of the site is movement, and erosion produced a deposit of quartzite in the east/west fault; it turns sharply north boulders lying on a gentle surface near a spring. The site is in a large area that is virtually devoid of good and narrows considerably in the trace of the tool-stone, with none on such a favorable surface. The branch fault. Following the branch fault trace deposit was exploited by the so-called Malpais culture. is a road immediately east of the site. Varying degrees of varnish on the broken stones Crushing action on the west block's indicates utilization of the site over a very long time upper portion as the block rotated may have period. The site has been known for decades, and it facilitated the removal of all the Baseline has been heavily collected, partially due to concern that it might be annihilated by mining activity. Sandstone material above the contact with the Willow Tank formation. The lowest Baseline Site Location and Geology Sandstone layer contained quartzite inclusions, now scattered like raisins in a Located southwest of Overton, pUdding. These inclusions probably resulted Nevada, the Buena Vista #1 site is at an from vug-filling by silica-rich water, thereby approximate elevation 1,750 feet (350 m) producing very fine-grained quartzite. above mean sea level and covers an area Erosion deposited the inclusions, in the form approximately 50 feet (15 m) north/south and of various boulder sizes, on the resistant 400 feet (122 m) east/west in dimension; less cemented sands of the uppermost layer of the than one-half acre in size. The site is on a Willow Tank formation (Figure 3). geological contact between the lower The resistant Willow Tank layer Cretaceous Willow Tank and Baseline provides the spine for the east block. Sandstone formations (Longwell et al. 1965: Boulders weathering out from the Baseline Plate 1)(Figure 1). A unique combination of Sandstone are scattered randomly across the faulting, ground movement, and erosion has east block's steep north slope (Figure 4). produced a deposit of quartzite boulders lying Presumably, the resistant layer acts as a stop on a gentle surface near a spring. The site is for groundwater flowing down from higher in a large area that is virtually devoid of good country to the south. This allows the water to tool-stone, with none on such a favorable emerge as a natural spring in the branch surface. fault's trace. We have seen water seeping An east/west trending fault with a there in the middle of summer, providing perpendicular branch fault trending north water for wild burros that frequent the area. allowed the block containing the site and its neighboring block to the east to move Prehistoric Use and Discussion independently. Both blocks moved upward; the west block slightly rotated clockwise so Buena Vista #1 site appears to have that it struck east/northeast with a gentle dip in been used by what Rogers (1939:20) 22 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 - - -, - - '? - "\..- ? - ? ? ."1 '- Poot<..L~ - . '. - - II - ,/ - - C e: M &. ,.J. "'t" t!J:) - M _ ..... r - - - S~~o ~ Z .( )- "3 C E; M E..~ T6. D o G-~"'E.I....S J J ------?--- '7--- 7-- 7--7------.--- .. ----.------ Figure I, Portion of Willow Tank and Baseline Sandstone stratigraphic column under consideration. 23 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 t N e EA.ST ~\ WE.. 5T BLOCK ll. l BLOCK a.. a ,-Ov-4 IU 'Z \.U '1 ~ 0 ~ If) a t o~ B J RO,I'"{\ ~j N MovE:..ME..~ '\ Figure 2. Faulting and movement at Buena Vista #1 site area. 24 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 ------.------.------ SEC \' \ON A..-;:"" BE:.'FoRE. e:ROS\ON Figure 3. West fault block before and after erosion. 25 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 -' - /' - '. ... L...... _ '- . \ .:. :- '- - , . --, ...... 'IIio •• -_ .. -: "-•••- <"', - ----....,,>,..--..:.. - (. • '/ .. - - .!." "'- ""- ..... ~... ~ "- ... - , .. ~- "... .~.=-~._.. ~e' .. ~': :-:~~.. ~.- ~:.. :.~~:~ ~~~~-. ------ ~\ IE. ------.------~------ Figure 4. East fault block before and after erosion. 26 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 originally called an aberrant form of the near the Buena Vista recreation grounds. Malpais culture. As initially defined by "Chick" Perkins, long-time curator of the Lost Rogers, the Malpais culture was based on City Museum, Overton, and principal collector smooth rounded cobbles found embedded in at the site, told the authors that he had not the surface of what was interpreted as extinct seen any stone points nor any WST tools at river terraces high above and quite a distance the site. trom the present-day Colorado River. (We Buena Vista #1 site possessed much of note here that in parts of eastern Imperial what we assume the intermontane Malpais County, California, where Rogers performed people were looking for when selecting a much of his research, cobbles existed before living area. These variables include an the present-day mountains were uplifted and abundance of good tool-stone, a gentle well provided the only good tool-stone in the debris defined surface, and a sufficient water supply. washed off the mountains.) An architectural Although first used very long-ago, there are feature of the cobble-based Malpais aspect indications that it was inhabited only was "sleeping circles." intermittently over a long period of time by a When Rodgers expanded his study into small number of individuals. the intermontane region, he continued to find Varnish on the broken stone artifacts sites littered with crudely fashioned artifacts remaining on the site varies from very dark to which he recognized as Malpais. The virtually non-existent. If it is assumed that intermontane Malpais sites differed from variations in trace elements from boulder to those closer to the river in several "aberrant" boulder affected only the quartzites' color and respects: they had no sleeping circles, and did not affect the stone's ability to host contained artifacts not usually found in varnish growth, then the very dark varnish cobble-based sites. These artifacts include bespeaks great antiquity while the gradation in ovate bifaces, disk choppers, large scraper varnish darkness speaks for a long period of planes, and retouched flake scrapers. With the time. The site has been so disturbed that we possible exception of the flake scraper, do not feel that any stone there is a candidate cobbles were seldom large enough to permit for the somewhat reliable cation-ratio varnish production of these aberrant artifact forms. dating technique, because of the critical Although the Buena Vista # 1 site is only importance of microenvironmental approximately five miles (8 km) from the bed measurements that must be made before the of the Muddy River, the industry there was material is ever processed (Dorn 1985:56). based on boulders and the site fully qualifies Site boulders were reduced by a as intermontane Malpais. combination of the bipolar and unipolar Neither the cobble-base nor boulder breakage techniques. Bipolar breakage, in based Malpais aspects produced stone which the workpiece is placed on a hard anvil projectile points, nor any of the finely crafted so that force of the hammer blow rebounds tools in the toolkit of the Western Stemmed into the workpiece from the anvil (having the Tradition (WST). Davis (1969:70) decried the practical effect of simultaneously striking the absence of points and finely crafted tools at workpiece top and bottom), was used to shear the Buena Vista # 1 site, and guessed that it the boulder into manageable units of was the result of constant vandalizing production. In the main, the chunks were facilitated by the site's being beside a road and further reduced by the unipolar technique, in 27 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 which the workpiece is usually held in one it was knapped. Most of the unipolar cores hand and struck by a hammer held in the other produced at the Buena Vista #1 site, used and hand. Sometimes, however, the chunks were unused, have been carried away into various further reduced by the bipolar technique. collections. Stone fragments produced by the There are two styles of bipolar unipolar technique exhibit attributes that are breakage, neither of which yields the pressure easily recognized as the result of deliberate bulbs, bulb scars, and concentric pressure human effort (Patterson 1983). Deliberate ripples produced by unipolar breakage and human effort is not so obvious when neither of which requires the acute striking fragments are produced by the bipolar angle necessary for successful unipolar technique. Fragments produced by both breakage. In one style, the workpiece is techniques, exhibiting retouch flaking and/or rotated horizontally on the anvil, and use wear, were used as tools at the Buena occasionally turned over like a pancake. The Vista # 1 site (Williams and Johnson 1967, knapper works his way around the gradually 1980). diminishing perimeter toward the center of the The intermontane Malpais knapper, workpiece. This style produces the triangular regardless of the technique used, appears to prismatic blades. When this style of breakage have only rarely been concerned with is performed by a master knapper, the depleted producing a particular shape. His primary core is a four-sided prism, sometimes with the goal appears to have been reducing a boulder sides no wider than 314-inch (2 cm). There to a pile of sharp-edged fragments from which are still triangular blades on the site. Four he and the other members of the group could sided depleted cores, however, have not been pick and choose for use as tools. We did, observed by the authors. however, observe two examples of three-sided In the second style, the initial choppers, which we have also seen at other workpiece is sheared into smaller worked intermontane Malpais sites, that could only pieces. Smaller worked pieces are have been deliberately produced by bipolar successively rotated through ninety degrees breakage. horizontally or vertically between strikes. The A hand-held workpiece subjected to fragments thus produced are multi-faceted, unipolar breakage while the workpiece is with each facet being virtually flat. This type being turned in all directions to present an of fragment has often been interpreted as the appropriate striking angle to the hammer will product of natural breakage. This style of inevitably result in an ovate biface as the breakage does not produce recognizable depleted core. Frequently referred to as a depleted cores. "handaxe," the ovate biface, because of its Not a single boulder remains on the ubiquitousness, has sometimes been site surface. After all of the west block's considered the definitive artifact of cultures deposit was exhausted, boulders were that produced crudely fashioned tools. Often, scavenged from the western end of the east the depleted unipolar core, because of its block and carried to the site for breakage. The sharp edges, was put to use as a tool. Just as scavenging activity did not extend very far often, however, the ovate biface remained eastward, however, not because the effort where the knapper had discarded it on the involved became too great but probably fragment pile; its edge still as sharp as the day because the site was abandoned for reasons 28 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 unknown by us. concern was voiced in the 1960s, it was well Rogers (1958:3) later professed to see founded. The site is on land leased by a the Malpais culture and the WST culture company which mines silica sand, and a (which Rogers (1939:27-46) had originally bulldozed road had been built just north of the labeled "Playa") as simply different site. In subsequent years, however, the manifestations of a single culture. We, like directions of the sand pit development and the Warren (1966: 171), have failed to see, with placement of its spoil dumps have taken it one exception, an interrelationship between westward, away from the site. The effect of the cultures. The possible exception is simply mining activity on the site itself has been nil; an implement shape that we have seen at both peripheral environs were affected in ways not intermontane Malpais sites and WST sites; detrimental to the site. The wash immediately this implement is often referred to in the south of the site has been cut off from much of ethnographic literature as a "broken knife," its originally small watershed by an earthen but which we believe to have been a hafted dam constructed to retain a large settling cleaver for harvesting mescal (Smith and Pond pond. The pond, in turn, has inundated part of 1994). the former Buena Vista Road, the road Davis Buena Vista # 1 site has been known to was concerned with. A combination of dam archaeologists for decades. Although he was and pond has rendered that road impassable understandably reluctant to publish site west of the site. locations, Rogers (1939:6,20) was apparently If the site was inhabited only familiar with the site sixty years ago. Davis intermittently over a long period of time, as collected the site in the 1960s while she was we suspect, then we must wonder where the formulating the abortive "Western Lithic Co people spent the majority of their time. Our tradition" theory (Davis et al. 1969). This guess is that they usually could have been idea was driven by her experience in the found exploiting the west shore of the Muddy Panamint Valley in California, where she River, five miles (8 km) to the east and found an extensive intermontane Malpais site approximately 600 feet (185 m) lower in low on the western slope of the Panamint elevation. As previously stated, the Buena Range relatively near a small WST site, on the Vista #1 site provided the only good tool valley floor, that had served as a base camp stone within a large area. The valley slope for exploitation of the marshes along the between the river and the site is covered with northern shore of Lake Panamint. Artifacts at Cenozoic Muddy Creek formation material. both sites were of the same locally available The Muddy Creek formation is basalt. Davis went Rogers one better: she sedimentary till created before there was any tried to establish an almost statistical through-cutting water courses in the area. Fill interrelationship between the artifacts of the material grades from coarse at the former two cultures. In her paper, Davis notes the basin's perimeter to bedded fine-grained site number of the Buena Vista #1 site as Cla- sands, silts, and clays at maximum distance 1, while the Lost City has it on record as from the perimeter (Longwell et al. 1965 :48- 26CK359. 49, Plate 1). South of Overton, the Muddy Buena Vista # 1 site has been heavily Creek formation is visually quite noticeable as collected, partially out of fear that it would be eroded badlands. Especially in the area we are annihilated by mining activity. When that considering, the formation provided no tool- 29 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 stone. Longwell, C.R., E.H. Pampeyan, Ben Bowyer, and People who made their living with RJ. Roberts 1965 Geology and Mineral Deposits ofClark stone tools had to have tool-stone, even if they County, Nevada. Nevada Bureau of Mines had to make a ten-mile (16 km) round trip to and Geology Bulletin 62. Mackay School of obtain it. We suggest that much of the Mines, University of Nevada, Reno. stonework produced at the Buena Vista # 1 site now lies beneath the water of the Overton Paterson, Malcolm 1. Arm of Lake Mead. 1983 Criteria for Determining the Attributes of Man-Made Lithics. Journal ofField Archaeology, Vol. 10. pp 297-307. Acknowledgments Rogers, Malcolm J. We thank Pat Olson and Ken Lang, 1939 Early Lithic Industries of the Lower Basin Lost City Museum, for their cheerful ofthe Colorado River and Adjacent Desert Areas. San Diego Museum Papers, No.3. assistance while providing us with site reports San Diego. and access to the museum's collections and for their animated interest in what we were 1958 San Dieguito Implements from the Terraces attempting. of the Rincon-Pantano and Rillito Drainage System. Kiva 24(1): 1-23. Tucson. Dedication Smith, Moody F., and William A. Pond 1994 Broken Knives: Complete Implements in the We dedicate this effort to the Lake Mohave Tool Kit. Nevada memories of "Chick" and lola Perkins. They Archaeologist Vol. 12. pp 11-17. were good people who always seemed glad to Warren, Claude N. see us whenever we showed up at their back 1966 The San Dieguito Complex: A Review and door. Hypothesis. American Antiquity 32( 2): 168- 185. References Cited Williams, Pete, and D.S. Johnson 1967 Site Survey Record, 26CK359. Lost City Davis, E.L., C.W. Brott, and D.L. Weide Museum, Overton. 1969 The Western Lithic C 0-Tradition San Diego Museum Papers, No.6. San Diego. J 980 Site Survey Record, 26CK359. Lost City Museum, Overton. Dorn, Ronald I. 1985 Cation-Ratio Dating: A New Rock Varnish Age-Determination Technique. Quaternary Research, 20. pp 49-73. 30 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 "Connections" and "Meaning" of the Swallow Fremont Site (Eastern Nevada) Artifact Assemblage 2 Shela A. McFarlin I and John K. ZancanelIa IBureau of Land Management, Arizona and 2Bureau of Land Management, Oregon Abstract including a clay figurine, incised stone tablet, additional Anasazi pottery and shell beads. Non-architectural Fremont sites have been For some time, archaeologists have reported from a number of eastern Nevada localities. While this "fringe" Fremont settlement is not fully known about the Fremont presence in eastern understood from the scattered survey reports, questions Nevada from sites recorded in the Spring and have been raised about the relationship of these sites to Snake Valley areas. Earlier and more recent western Utah Fremont regional variants and important excavations at the Garrison and Baker Village sites such as the Baker and Garrison Sites and to sites (Taylor 1954; Wilde and Soper 1993) possible southern spheres. The Swallow Fremont Site and survey descriptions of numerous tasks and was tested in 1984 and subsequently revisited on other occasions. The artifact assemblage, while exhibiting small camp sites (James 1981, 1986; James Fremont ceramics and projectile points, has provided and Zeier 1981; Zancanella, 1989, 1990) have an unexpected richness in exotic artifacts including begun to define what has been called a Anasazi pottery, a gaming piece blank, clay figurine, "fringe" or "frontier" edge of Fremont incised stone and olivella beads. The assemblage is settlement. The results of limited work at the interpreted first in terms of explaining the site presence and significance in understanding the eastern Nevada Swallow Site, carried out due to possible Fremont and secondly, in terms of interpreting wider threats from adjacent land use, made the social dynamics. authors rethink the nature of Fremont settlement in Spring Valley and adjacent Introduction areas. The Swallow Site appears to be neither The Swallow Site is a Late Fremont a village nor a task site. Site setting and site situated along the eastern edge of Spring artifact assemblage suggest the key Valley in eastern Nevada. Like many others, characteristics that define the Fremont this site was located during a cultural adaptation elsewhere are also present in resources survey for a Bureau of Land eastern Nevada. In this paper, we describe the Management project (McFarlin 1984). To the site setting and assemblage. We explore professional, student and amateur crew that possible explanations for how this site relates recorded and tested the site, it provided to other Fremont sites and to social and surprises because of its Kayenta Anasazi economic dynamics that, in our understanding, sherds, an abundance of Fremont pottery, and characterize the region during this period. We site dimensions that exceeded the pre-survey also test some current thinking about the notion of a typical artifact scatter. The Fremont adaptive strategy applied to eastern intrigue continued when subsequent visits to Nevada. the site revealed other unexpected artifacts 31 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Part I: Describing the Environmental Environmental Setting Setting and Artifact Assemblage Given what is known about the Archaeological Site Work Fremont adaptation elsewhere, the environmental setting IS significant In The Swallow Site is located on a west understanding why the site may have been facing alluvial slope of the Snake Range at an established and how its inhabitants may have elevation of 5,880 ft. (Figure 1). At this related to other Fremont sites. Within a short location, the rock alluvium (toe slope of the distance of the site, a range of topographic and fan) grades into finer soils on the valley edge. vegetational settings are compressed along the These soils provide arable land which is eastern Spring Valley edge. The valley, a farmed today. The site surface is rather north-south trending ancient bolson along the featureless with only a small rock mound and western flanks of the Snake Range, is wash channels. composed of a northern and southern Basin. Little archaeological work has actually The Swallow Site is located in the southern occurred on the site; therefore, current Spring Valley basin. Just five miles east of interpretations might change if more were to the site, stretch the high peaks of the Snake be learned about its depositional history, if Range. From these peaks, alluvial fans spread additional datable materials were recovered, out defining slopes between 5,800 and 7,000 and especially if architectural features were f1. The fans are cut by drainages, most notably uncovered. The Swallow Site has not been Spring Creek flowing west just a mile south of excavated or subjected to a rigorous testing the Swallow Site. Springs occur along the program. Site boundaries have been located, mountain edge at Raised Spring, Hub Mine but no formal mapping has occurred. About Basin and in relation to Willard, Pine and 25 percent of the site surface has been Ridge Creeks. At some springs, rock art collected. Within this collection area, five test indicates human use for some time. units were excavated to sterile levels. Just Gravelly surfaces at higher elevations under 1000 items were recovered. give way to fine silt and sand areas in lower No architectural structures or remnants washes where wind and water have of houses, firepits or storage areas were noted redeposited soils further downslope. Just two although the area most likely to contain miles west of the site, where the alluvial fans structures or depth has not been tested. In a hit the valley edge, springs, marshlands and road cut profile along the site edge. cultural artesian wells evidence the riparian areas that materials. possibly ash and midden materials, stretch along the eastern side of the southern can be seen. Structures may be hidden below Spring Valley basin. Today, agriculture the surface. Certainly Baker Village, which occurs mostly on the well-watered eastern side recently proved to have formal and planned stretching west for several miles. On the structures (Wilde 1996; Wilde and Soper valley floor, seasonal water in low areas, seeps 1993), did not appear to have architectural and sand dunes punctuate the fairly flat floor remains from the surface appearance. Wells (elevation 5,760 ft.). The soils become (1993) reported that numerous subsurface alkaline and saline in portions of the valley features were revealed in her testing of sites bottom where vegetation is sparse. near Baker, Nevada. The variation of topography within a 32 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Figure 1. Site vicinity map. 33 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 short distance of the site is paralleled by the in Spring Valley including the Swallow Site vegetation community. Thompson (1985) has vicinity also offer arable soils. Agricultural suggested that major vegetational changes success was probably limited, however, due to have not occurred since the time the Fremont a short growing season of 100 days (Rush and would have occupied the area. A cross Kazmi 1965:7). Agriculture was risky, but the section of the major ecosystem includes: the Fremont inhabitants may have attempted valley edge desert community with seasonal, random gardens. greasewood, shadscale and shrubs and grasses The primary draw for Fremont including sedges, rushes, western wheat grass, habitation to the eastern part of Spring Valley saltgrass, cord grass, alkali sacatone and may have been the availability of a varied but horsetail (McFarlin and Lindsey 1984). generalized resource base which was Pockets of particularly dense vegetation, compressed within a narrow range. The especially including Great Basin Rye, occur at intensified collection of wild plants may have lower elevations. Sagebrush and rabbit brush been combined with horticulture with risks. covered slopes give way to the dry coniferous An abundance of grasses, pinyon pine and woodland, pinyon and juniper species with other plants and small mammals, birds and serviceberry, chokecherry, and to mountain larger mammals are available on a seasonal mahogany, other pine and fir at the higher basis within a short distance from the site. elevations. The proximity to local foragers and the Animal life is plentiful in Spring potential for exchanging plant and animal Valley with antelope, deer and coyote resources may also have attracted Fremont common large game. Both elk and bison families or small groups to the area. bones were reported from Baker Village in low numbers (Hockett 1996) and from Swallow Site Assemblage Garrison (Taylor 1954). Bighorn sheep and mountain lion are frequently seen in the J anetski (1 994) has noted that marine mountains. Smaller mammals include rabbit, shell, turquoise, exotic Anasazi material and badger and small rodents. Bostick (1975) non-local Fremont ceramics frequently occur notes that because it is cooler and better in Fremont assemblages. The Swallow watered, Spring Valley has a denser bird Fremont Site fits this description although population than usual for Great Basin valleys. turquoise items were not recovered. The The species summering or wintering in Spring presence of these artifacts and the non-local Valley range all the way from dickey birds to obsidian toolstone reveal that the site golden eagles (Bostick 1975:442). inhabitants were part of a dynamic, regional Fremont subsistence involved a socioeconomic system. The archaeological strategy of hunting and gathering wild food assemblage, added to the site environmental mixed with agricultural products, primarily setting, provide strong clues to the site com. East of the Swallow Site in Snake function and its relationship to other sites in Valley, Fremont village sites such as Baker the Spring and Snake Valley areas. Village and Garrison are situated near At the onset of artifacts analysis, permanent water sources along alluvial several items were labeled as "exotic" finds, benches between 5,250 and 5,289 ft. in but as the authors became more familiar with elevation (refer to Figure 1). Some locations the Swallow and other Fremont sites, it was 34 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 clear that "exotic" or non-locally produced gray (12.4%), with less than 5% of Snake artifacts and non-local raw materials are Valley Corrugated, Great Salt Lake Gray, an hallmarks of many Fremont sites. While undefined utilitarian ware, Ivie Creek Black Fremont task sites in eastern Nevada are on-Gray, North Creek, Citadel Polychrome, numerous, these often consist only of scatters and Shoshone pottery. James (1986: 109) of Fremont ceramics and lithics. Viewed from notes that in the western periphery, the the Spring Valley context, the Swallow Site is majority of ceramic finds consist of Snake unusual for its array of artifact types and Valley Gray; Snake Valley Black-on-gray materials; however, viewed from the wider followed closely by Great Salt Lake Gray; Fremont context, the assemblage is less smaller amounts of Snake Valley Corrugated, exceptional. The more unusual finds include Sevier Gray and minor amounts of other types. an incised stone tablet, gaming piece blank of In this regard, the Swallow Site is "over shaped bone, unfired clay figurine, shell beads represented" by Sevier Gray which may be (probably olivella) and Kayenta Anasazi tied to the site function or the origin of its sherds (Figure 2 and 3). Non-local artifacts inhabi tants. would have to include, however, Fremont Collected Fremont pottery from the ceramics (Figure 3) and toolstone obsidian. site appears dominated by utilitarian wares The figurine, a headless, upper female probably in use for the preparing, cooking, torso with clearly formed breasts and a and storage of food. Vessels were not neckline formed from punctate designs, is of reconstructed, but jars, bowls, and perhaps the "handle terminus" type as defined by pitchers were possibly present. Bowls may Morss (1954). It was found with brownware have been used for food service but may also (possibly Shoshone) sherds. Elsewhere this indicate prestigious items. Bowls would have type of figurine is commonly seen throughout required additional production time in Fremont/Sevier Culture areas, but rarely decoration and may represent long-distance reported along the western frontier. A similar trade. clay, "handle terminus" type was found to the Only a small number of sherds have south at Spring Creek. A shaped schist, been classified as Shoshone, but until a better ocher-stained figurine was also collected from understanding is gained for Fremont utilitarian the Garrison Site area during the Snake Valley wares and local production, this analysis is desert land entry survey (Zancanella 1989). subject to review. Small amounts of An incised stone tablet (broken) Shoshone pottery, including vessels and pot exhibits one face with linear, slanted cross drops have been found in Spring Valley hatched lines, about a dozen lines in each (James and Zeier 1981 :33, 77; McFarlin 1983; direction. These lines were then further Zancanella 1990). Zancanella (1989:39) incised by 8 oblique lines. The distribution of noted for Snake and Spring Valley that incised stones or tablets is wide Shoshone ceramics are associated with geographically and temporally and In Fremont sites perhaps representing trade associated site types (Tuohy, 1986; during a 100 to 200 year overlap of both Klimowicz 1988). populations. Recovered ceramic assemblage is Four sherds of Citadel Polychrome represented by: Sevier Gray (38.7%), Snake were recovered including one rim from a Valley Gray (35.4%), Snake Valley Black-on- medium to large bowl with a rectilinear design 35 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Clay Figurine ( I I " , ,~> Incised Tablet Possible Gaming Blank Scale: Actual Size Figure 2. Clay figurine, incised tablet, and gaming blank recovered from Swallow Site. 36 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Citadel Polychrome rim sherd Citadel Polychrome body sherd Sevier jar rim (Applique) Snake Valley Black-on-Grey rim sherd Scale: Actual Size Figure 3. Examples of ceramic types recovered from the Swallow Site. 37 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 fonn. The Sosi type design can only be seen by Taylor (1954:43) as "unclassified." on the rim sherd which also exhibits two Zancanella (1989) believes this fonn of drilled holes (refer to Figure 3). Occurrence ceramic represents a "utilitarian" ware of Anasazi Citadel Polychrome pottery (dated produced on site from alluvial clays. Vessel by Breternitz 1966 and by Colton 1953 :75 as fonns identified include a dish or plate and A.D. 1075-1175) suggest a relationship with wide-mouth jars. They do not resemble later the Virgin Kayenta through trade, perhaps up brown wares associated with Shoshone or the Muddy River/Meadow Valley Wash; or, of Paiute groups (Zancanella 1989:35). more extended trade links through the The Swallow Site lithic assemblage is Parowan area. lanetski (1996) noted that really unexceptional and fits what others Anasazi ceramics, especially Tusayan, occur (Zancanella 1989:35; Kodak 1993, 1996; in low numbers (typically less than one Wilde and Soper 1993;) have observed about percent ofthe ceramic assemblage) throughout lithic materials in the area: obsidian is a the Fremont area. preferred material (83.5%). As a toolstone, Madsen (1979) and Marwitt (1970) obsidian appears to have been reused and found it likely that Fremont ceramics were conserved. Lithic reduction is absent from the produced in the ~ubregional core areas and site but implement resharpening or finishing traded to the peripheries. Simms and Isgreen occurred. Only 22 tools were recovered (1984) suggest that although styles and including projectile points and point techniques of manufacture are fairly unifonn fragments, bifaces or blanks, and utilized over large areas, temper variation is a product pieces. While obsidian dominates the waste of the use of locally available materials. material, most of the finished tools (72.7%) Baker Village and Garrison may represent a were flaked from other materials, "core ceramic area" from which vessels were predominately chalcedony and cherts-locally distributed to smaller sites such as the available toolstones. Swallow Site. From his refiring study, While no source studies have been Richens (1986) found that the refired colors done on the Swallow Site obsidian, no local from the Swallow Site are identical to those sources are known to occur. Several studies refired from other Utah sites supporting the (Kodak 1993:56, 62; 1996:308-314) have assumption that Fremont sherds found in concluded that obsidian sources utilized by the Nevada are trade wares from Utah. The Fremont were no closer than 100 km and as refiring test suggest that most of the sherds far as 300 km from the Snake Range. Several could have been from the Parowan Valley; sources seem to be used for both village and unless similar clays are found in the study non-village sites (Wells 1993: 131; Kodak area. Local clay sources are as yet unknown. 1996:344). The Swallow Fremont inhabitants Presence of a possible subtype, an may have acquired obsidian directly by undefined utilitarian brownware, might be a expedition, indirectly through embedded locally produced ware. No sherds of this type procurement activities (Kodak 1996) or were refired. Zancanella (1989:35) in his through an exchange network. Snake Valley survey reported a ceramic type F our projectile points recovered which was recognized on almost all sites that generally fit the post-Archaic time period. doesn't conform to currently described types. Three fonns were represented: a corner This type may correlate with those described notched Rose SpringiEastgate series, a basal- 38 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 notched point, and one similar to a and side-notched forms similar to Uinta and Cottonwood triangular. This latter also Nawthis types suggest A.D. 800-1300 resembles the residual types identified for [Holmer and Weder 1980]). The triangular Median Village (Adovasio, in Marwitt and lozenge styles elsewhere may date post 1970:75-81). All points fit within the range of A.D. 1300 (Thomas 1981). points illustrated for Baker Village (Wilde and Soper 1993:31-42) and Garrison (Taylor Part II: Explaining the Swallow Site, 1954:45-46). Economic and Social Perspectives Two complete manos and five mano fragments were collected from the surface and While the knowledge base for from the top levels of two test units. Material interpreting the Swallow Site is limited, used appears to be local cobbles (rounded or admittedly, we would nonetheless like to tabular) which are frequently found in the explore some of the economic and social washes today. The absence of basal grinding implic?tions of the Swallow Site archaeology. stones could be more apparent than real, but In particular, we address three areas: the also could indicate curation of grinding application of Simms' (1986) economic stones. strategy models, boundary concepts applied to Recovered faunal bone material is eastern Nevada, and implications for Fremont small, fragmentary, and exhibits weathering. social interactions. A few examples of burning occur in the collection. An analysis of the faunal remains Applying the Simms Strategic Models is underway by Steve James. Generally, the artifact assemblage In a discussion of Fremont adaptive provides a chronological framework for diversity, Simms (1986) proposed three interpreting the site. The site dates to the Late different economic strategy models for the Fremont as established through Fremont and western frontier in western Utah. His models Anasazi ceramics and projectile point are based on settlement information from typologies. More likely, it dates to the mid- excavated and recorded sites along the 12th to mid-13 th century, possibly mid-14th Wasatch front and the western desert of Utah. century, based on the presence of dated Other models, such as offered by James (1981 pottery types including the Citadel 1986), have also been proposed for eastern Polychrome sherds. Ceramic and projectile Nevada, but we chose to apply Simms' points correlate with those excavated at Baker models and to offer modifications based on Village which is well-dated using radiocarbon our own observations of the Swallow Site assessments to the late 12th and early 13 th material and other relevant archaeology. century although high quality dates from com Each of the three models proposed by suggest occupancy into the 14th century (Wilde Simms suggest differential settlement patterns 1992). and implicit archaeological expectations. We The Swallow Site projectile point have attempted to make more explicit the styles are less useful for bracketing the site. archaeological observations expected for each Only a small sample of points was found. strategy in order to make the model more Styles include the Rose Spring/Eastgate types operational. Our observations are based on (estimated dates elsewhere of A.D. 300-900 current archaeological thinking on the subjects 39 ------NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 of settlement patterns and archaeological ticed horticulture, as in Strategies 1 or 2, in correlates. the same area occupied by "full-time" Strategy 1: From a central agricultural collecting and hunting groups. There would base, small groups would have made logistical be a variety of site types and locations, forays to gather local resources with the representing both seasonal and temporary majority of the goods returning to the base. occupation. The regional material culture This would have produced many smaller task! would reflect this coexistence by exhibiting special use sites located in the surrounding great diversity. Ceramic production should areas. These latter sites would be indicate more expedient use of local clays. characterized by morphologically identical The material culture and geographic ceramics to those found at nearby agricultural setting of the Swallow Site most resembles bases, but with fewer types and in lower that described in Strategy 2, especially the frequencies. The variety of stone and bone more mobile horticulturalists. Occupation at tool types also would be low, consisting of no the site seems to be oriented towards more than one or two specialized functional horticulture and broad-based resource types. exploitation. This pattern is consistent with Strategy 2: This is a variable approach the view of others who have worked in eastern in which groups from larger communities Nevada and western Utah (Fowler, Madsen experiencing shortfalls would switch back and and Hattori 1979; lames 1981, 1986; Madsen forth between horticulture and hunting and 1982; lanetski 1994) who see eastern Great collecting, depending on environmental Basin Fremont economic strategies as variable conditions. Rather than a main horticultural and adaptive to local conditions. Simms base, many smaller sites would be established (1986) proposes that this strategy, however, on a temporary or seasonal basis indicating a may have been due to population dispersal residential mobility pattern. Sometimes these from local farming communities brought on sites would be focused on agricultural pursuits by temporary or persistent shortfalls in at locations near washes, springs or streams. horticultural crops. We suggest that the Evidence would be sparse, consisting of possibilities that may have lead to the pursuit possibly temporary structural remains, no or of Strategy 2 at the Swallow Site need to be thin midden deposits, pottery scatters considered more carefully. indicating storing, cooking and serving, and a Material remains from the Swallow variety of stone, bone and ceramic tools and Site are locally unique and suggest that the paraphernalia. At other times, the orientation occupants were not just local hunters and would be on local resources. Sites should be gatherers who had acquired Fremont goods found in a wider variety of environmental nor were they local Sevier Fremont groups zones with differential ceramic, stone, and exploiting the valley temporarily. We believe bone tool type expectations based on the the inhabitants represent the first reported resources being exploited and/or processed. occupation in southern Spring Valley by a Ceramics would be similar to those found at group (or groups) participating full-time in the horticultural sites, though more expedient Fremont cultural system. This recognition is types produced from local clays should also be consistent with Simms' expectation for present. Strategy 2 or 3, and suggest a relationship Strategy 3: Groups would have prac- with the sites in the Baker/Garrison area or 40 ? r n lBl NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 areas further east. suggests extensive interaction between Sevier Fremont and Late Archaic and/or Numic Fremont Frontier Boundary Relations populations (James 1981; Zancanella 1990), presumably amicable. Many sites exhibit Occupants of the Swallow Site appear mixing of cultural elements. The Swallow to have been actively involved in local and Site, however, is archaeologically distinct extraregional exchange systems. The exact from any known sites in the area. We might mechanisms operating in these systems is not conclude from this that the occupants were not well understood. But, by looking at the local participating in local interaction systems, as archaeology and at assumptions behind might be expected with local Fremont groups. frontier and boundary situations, we may This is an important observation when better understand why Strategy 2 is considered combined with the chronological data. adaptive in this case. Along the western frontier, the Sevier Social Dimensions and Site Relations Fremont of the Baker/Garrison area would have interacted with mobile Great Basin Chronologically, the Swallow Site hunting and gathering groups to the west dates roughly between A.D. 1150 to 1250. (James 1986; Simms 1986; Janetski 1994). This period corresponds with reported Spring Valley has long been noted as one of occupations at the Baker Village, Garrison and the richer lowland basins of eastern Nevada. Silver Creek sites (Wilde and Soper 1993) as Steward (1938) described the area as being well as other sites in Spring Valley based on well-watered with seasonally abundant marsh the presence of painted and corrugated gray and grass resources, as well as having one of ware pottery (Zancanella 1990; BLM Ely the higher popUlation densities in the Great District Site Files). This apparent high density Basin for later Numic populations. It also has of Late Fremont sites corresponds to the been recognized as a boundary between the unexplained abandonment of similar farming eastern and western Great Basin as far back as communities to the east along the Wasatch 8,000 years ago (James 1981; Holmer 1986). Front between AD. 1150 to 1200 (Wilde and At least for the Fremont period, this apparent Soper 1993 :9). Wilde and Soper indicate that long-term, resource rich boundary can be the Baker/Garrison area exhibits relative described as an "open static" frontier (Dennell occupational stability during the later part of 1985), or one with a fixed boundary between the Late Fremont period. Given the presumed horticulturalists and hunters and gathers. exchange networks and social relations Interaction along an "open static" frontier is connecting these areas, it is not unreasonable usually considered mutually beneficial, to assume that some of the perceived consisting of the exchange of useful population increases in Spring and Snake commodities. For example, hunters and Valley at this time are the product of gatherers exchanging food stuff, skins and migration. The migration theory may provide marriage partners to farmers for obsidian, some insights into the relationship between processed domesticates and/or prestige items the Baker/Garrison area and communities such as pottery (Lyneis 1984; Dennell 1985; further east. It might also enlighten us about Moore 1985; Janetski 1994). the subsequent social complexity developed at The archaeology of Spring Valley Baker Village (Wilde and Soper 1993; Barker 41 NEV ADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 1994). social networks which characterize the 1anetski (1994: 173) notes that the Fremont. While this site appears somewhat movement of materials among the Fremont unique in its occurrence in Spring Valley, the argues for a relatively high level of individual inhabitants were not isolated. and group interaction. Lineage or clan-based systems allow for such interaction and are References Cited typically associated with agricultural economies (Cordell 1984; Lyneis 1984; Adovasio. J. 1970 Chipped Stone Artifacts. In Median lanetski 1994). These systems would allow Village, John P. Marwitt. University of for residential reciprocity during hard times. Utah Anthropological Papers No 95:75-87, Groups migrating to the Baker/Garrison area Salt Lake City. would have initially put a strain on limited resources in that valley, but they may have Barker, J.P. found refuge in Spring Valley where resources 1994 Sequential Hierarchy and Political Evolution Along the Western Fremont Frontier. Paper were more extensive. Out of necessity, their presented at the 24th Great Basin strategy would have been one of seasonal, Anthropological Conference, Elko, Nevada. residential mobility. Bostick, V.B. and others Summary 1975 Inventory of Natural Landmarks of the Great Basin. Compiled for the National Park Service. University of Nevada, Las The authors believe that seasonal Vegas. residential mobility may best explain the distinctiveness of the Swallow Site in Spring Bretemitz, D.A. Valley. An alternative explanation might 1966 An Appraisal of Tree-Ring Dated Pottery in the Southwest. University ofArizona include fissioning from the larger settlements Anthropological Papers No. 10. Tucson. at Baker/Garrison area due to natural population increase. Viewed from the Colton, H.S. prespective of Simms' models, the Swallow 1953 Potsherds. Northern Arizona Society of Site meets the economic criteria set forth for Science and Art. Flagstaff, Arizona. Strategy 2 and is another example of adaptive Cordell. L. diversity on the western Fremont frontier. 1984 Prehistory olthe Southwest. Academic While the nature of the site may be understood Press, New York. by applying Strategy 2. the social dimensions can only be understood by looking at broader Dennel!, R. 1985 The Hunter-Gatherer/Agricultural Frontier. social and chronological context. This is In The Archaeology olFrontiers and especially true in relation to exchange Boundaries, edited by S.W. Green and S.M. networks. group movements and interactions Periman, pp. 113-140. Academic Press, between villages and other sites. New York. In summary, the Swallow Site lacks Fowler, D., D.B. Madsen and E.H. Hattori extensive archaeological work, but its 1979 Prehistory of Southeastern Nevada. Desert assemblage and setting indicate the site Research Institute Publications in the Social inhabitants were participants in the highly Sciences No.6. Reno. adaptive economic strategy and dynamic 42 NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 15 1997 Hockett, B. Movement and the Expansion ofthe Numa, 1996 Political Hierarchy in the Western Fremont: edited by D.B. Madsen and D. Rhodes, 157- Social Theory and Faunal Patterning at 178. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake Baker Village. Paper presented at the 25th City. Great Basin Anthropological Conference, Kings Beac~ California. 1996 Social Mechanisms for Fremont Exchange. Paper presented at the 25th Great Basin Holmer, R.N. Anthropological Conference, Kings Beach, 1986 Common Projectile Points of the California. Intermountain West. In Anthropology ofthe Desert West, Essays in Honor ofJesse D. Klimowicz, J. Jennings, edited by C.l. Condie and D. 1988 Incised Stones from the Great Basin: A Fowler, pp. 89-116. University of Utah Comparison of Sites. Nevada Archaeologist Anthropological Papers No.1 10. Salt Lake 6(2):28-39. Carson City. City. Kodak, M. Holmer, R.N., and D.G. Weder 1993 Altitudinal Variability and the Organization 1980 Common Post-Archaic Projectile Points of Fremont in Eastern Nevada, A Summary from the Fremont Area. In Fremont of the 1992 Field Season Data. St. Louis, Perspectives, edited by David B. Madsen. Missouri. Utah Division of State History, Antiquities Section, Selected Papers 7 (16):55-68. Salt 1996 Environmental Structure and its Effect on Lake City. Hunter-Gatherer Organizational Strategies in Eastern Nevada. 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