ANALYSIS OF CURRENT METHODS FOR CONDUCTING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES
23 May 2016
This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by
ANALYSIS OF CURRENT METHODS FOR CONDUCTING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES
Contract No. AID-621-TO-15-00004 Promoting Tanzania’s Environment, Conservation and Tourism (PROTECT)
The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi
ACRONYMS ...... vii
1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 Background...... 1
1.2 Why Review of methods for carrying ecological inventory ...... 2
1.3 The need for standardization of methods ...... 3
1.4 Organization of the report ...... 4
1.5 Limitation of the Study ...... 4
2.0 APPROACHES IN UNDERTAKING THE ASSIGNMENT ...... 6
3.0 ANALYSIS OF METHODS FOR CARRYING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORY...... 7
3.1 Ground survey using systematic sampling methods; ...... 7
3.2 Point transect method ...... 8
3.3 Line transect Method ...... 10
3.4 Variable transect method ...... 11
3.5 Quadrat count...... 12
3.6 Plotless Method ...... 14
3.7 Aerial mapping of vegetation cover ...... 15
3.8 Capture techniques ...... 16
3.9 Herpetology Inventorying using systematic sampling methods ...... 17
3.10 Sound recording ...... 23
3.11 Camera trapping ...... 24
3.14 Animal Census survey ...... 26
3.14.1 Aerial Total Counts (TC) ...... 26
3.14.2 Systematic Reconnaissance Flight (SRF) ...... 27
3.15 Birds and bats ...... 29
3.15.1 Mist netting ...... 29
3.17 Point count methods ...... 31
3.18 Search efforts: in form of timed search, timed species count, timed constrained search ...... 31
3.19 Indirect methods ...... 32
3.19.1 Dung counts ...... 32
3.19.2 Foot counting ...... 33
3.19.3 Territory Marking ...... 33
3.19.4 Collection of animal remains ...... 34
3.20 Identification ...... 34
3.21. Sweep net sampling ...... 34
4.0 IDENTIFIED DISCREPANCY AND GAPS IN INVENTORY METHODS...... 36
4.1 Lesson Learnt From the Assessment ...... 39
5.0 RECOMMENDED METHODS FOR CARRYING OUT ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES .. 41
5.1 Overview ...... 41
5.2 Recommended methods for inventorying vegetation...... 41
5.3 Recommended methods for inventorying herpetology ...... 42
5.3.1 Amphibian and reptile other than snakes ...... 43
5.3.2 Snakes, geckos and other harmful reptile ...... 43
5.4 Recommended methods for inventorying small mammals, rodents and insectivores .. 44
5.5 Recommended methods for inventorying shy, hiding and nocturnal ...... 44
5.6 Recommended methods for inventorying birds and bats ...... 44
5.7 Recommended methods for inventorying large mammals ...... 45
5.8 Triangulation of the inventory methods ...... 47
5.8.1 Opportunistic Survey...... 47
5.8.2 Market survey ...... 47
5.8.3 Key informant interviews ...... 48
5.8.4 Literature review ...... 48
5.9 Operation and need assessment for effective method used ...... 48
5.9.1 Effective operation of the recommended methods ...... 48
5.10 Improvement needed ...... 51
7.0 REFERENCES ...... 54
8.0 APPENDICES ...... 59
Appendix 1 Terms of References and scope of work for carrying out the assignment ...... 59
Appendix 2 Questionnaire for Key Stakeholders ...... 62
Appendix 3 Available Methods/ In Conducting Ecological Inventories ...... 64
Appendix 4 Requirement for field preparation ...... 67
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Sketch of the drift fence and pitfall trap source: (Davies and Hoffmann, (2002) .... 18
Figure 2: Canopy walk trap adopted from Davies and Hoffmann, (2002),...... 20
Figure 3: Snake trap adopted from Davies and Hoffmann, (2002), ...... 21
ACRONYMS AAC Authorized Association Consortium AWKE Amboseli-West Kilimanjaro Ecosystem CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership funds CIMU Conservation Information and Monitoring Unit Dbh Diameter at breast height GPS Global positioning system FSO Front Seat Observer FMNH Field Museum of Natural History IRG International Resources Group NAFORMA National Forestry Resources Monitoring and Assessment NPS National Parks NRM Natural Resources Management PROTECT Promoting Tanzania’s Environment, Conservation, and Tourism Project RBI Rapid Biological Inventories REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation plus the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks RSO Rear Seat Observers TANAPA Tanzania National Parks TAWIRI Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute TC Total count USGS United State Government Services URT United Republic of Tanzania USAID United State of America Aid WD Wildlife division WMA Wildlife Management Areas WWF World Wide Fund for Nat
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background The PROTECT Project is a five-year USAID-funded project implemented by International Resources Group (IRG). The objective of PROTECT is to address dynamics in Tanzania that threaten biodiversity conservation and inhibit private sector-led growth in the natural resources sector. One of the PROTECT assignments is to analyze methods and techniques used in ecological inventories, identify the successful ones and recommend them to the relevant organs which can implement.
In Tanzania’s protected areas ecological inventories haven’t been consistent in terms of techniques applied and their relevancy. The current methods appear not to capture the full potential of existing resources and in most cases the techniques are used in isolation without needed triangulation and verification. The ecological inventories done authentically and through acceptable scientific standards can be used to precisely inform conservation stakeholders including decision makers as well as to effectively monitor the changes occurring in Tanzania’s protected areas wildlife resources.
These inventories are important in natural resource governance e.g. in law enactment and at addressing gaps in wildlife policy, regulations and at different important strategies. The standardized ecological inventories shall be applied by relevant government authorities including various conservation stakeholders who are engaged in conservation at these landscapes. All these initiatives are geared towards improvement of sustainable use of Tanzania’s natural resources.
The purpose of this assignment is to review the current methods for conducting ecological inventories (including wildlife) as well as pointing out any discrepancy or irregularities if any in the methods and way to correct them. The study aims to identify the most useful and feasible ecological inventory’s method for Tanzania’s protected areas. The outcome of this study will be used by key actors such as Authorized Association Consortium (AAC), Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) and Wildlife Division (WD) to make NRM more equitable, effective, and sustainable decision making in WMAs.
ANALYSIS OF CURRENT METHODS FOR CONDUCTING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES 1
1.2 Why Review of methods for carrying ecological inventory
There are many methods used in conducting ecological inventories, each discipline applies different methods in isolation without cross verification with other discipline’s methods. As a result discrepancy of data is inevitable. Similarly, incompatibility of data or set of information that are comprehensive is missing which brings difficulties in harmonizing, complementing and sometimes adoption of available information for new applications in monitoring and management of the protected area. Often baseline data gathered differs in level of details, methods used to inventory, including the means of recording and reporting the basic information that is necessary for determining, with confidence (Finlayson et al, 2001) the status of ecological entity or protected areas in this case.
Many inventories lack basic information, such as the objective or purpose of the inventory, the classification of the inventoried system, and the method of data collection, source data for statistics and name and affiliation of the compiler for individual site data (Finlayson et al, 2001). To obtain the information necessary for managing natural resources and protected areas it is crucial to have standardized means of collecting data, standard formats for sets of information to be collected, and standard recording procedures for handling data (Tuxill and Nabhan, 1998). To reach these standard criteria one needs to understand the meaning of an inventory itself and the level of detail needed for an inventory.
Tuxill and Nabhan (1998) defined inventories broadly as any quantifiable, repeatable collection of key information required to identify, characterize, assess and ascertain the quality, status and state of environmental/ecological entity/variable or ecological area that provide the basis for management and monitoring of the resources. The definition can be operationalized to capture specific ecological discipline and it differs in details depending on scale, the need and the purpose of conducting an inventory (Finlayson et al, 2001). In conducting any inventory, conservationists strive to address the following key questions that were developed by Finlayson et al (2001). These key questions are why do we want an inventory, what information is required, how will it be used, how will it be updated and at what scale.
These questions can be interpreted as seeking to address (i) the need /purpose/aim/goal/objective of inventory, (ii) what methods will be used in gathering the required information, (iii) the use of the information gathered, (iv) are the methods and data /information collected going to provide continuity of data with time will it be relevant in the future and (v) size and magnitude of impact anticipated.
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Similarly, in inventorying individuals or a particular ecological entity, planning of inventory has to consider; and according to Finlayson et al (2001) the planning of ecological inventory has to look at what do we know about an area we plan to inventory, what do we want to know from the planned inventory, how will we do the inventory, how will we report the findings and how the report or findings will be reviewed. Understanding these considerations provide the basis for developing the purpose of the inventory and designing a methodology that can capture all the considerations with precision. All this information emphasizes the need for articulating the methodology of conducting inventories.
1.3 The need for standardization of methods
The importance of developing standardized methods is to provide uniformity of information needed for effective management of protected areas, which takes full account of all resources as a component of large ecosystem biodiversity (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002). Further, standardization aims at encouraging surveyors and researchers to use standardized methods so that survey results can be used to monitor change over time (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002), whether changes are positive as a result of management interventions or negative as a result of unsustainable use or clearance (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002). Long-term monitoring usually involves different surveyors, as people change jobs or move, and each set of new observers/surveyors should use the same methods if the results are to be comparable (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002). While focusing attention on this need for standardized methods, it is understood that methods continue to be improved, and different protected areas/ecosystems, survey team resources, and management questions will all require adaptation of the standard techniques.
The development of standardized and user friendly inventory methods will help stakeholders/users to adopt the methods for application in conservation areas like WMAs and other protected area in Tanzania. This standardization will improve compatibility of data and information not only with individual/ site objectives but also with the inventory of neighboring protected areas and countries as a whole. This would greatly improve the capacity for comprehensive monitoring and management of protected areas in a broad landscape management.
The wildlife policy and forest policy operating in Tanzania today advocates for developing and implementing forest/natural resource management plans through consultation processes, involving civil society (especially local communities), government and the private sector (URT, 2007 and URT, 1998). This approach allows different users’ needs to be taken into account
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(Davies and Hoffmann, 2002). The management plan can then include actions to prevent damage to ecological services, and limit loss of genes, species and forest habitats, while natural resources continue to supply important goods and services. Drawing up multiple-use management plans to address this range of issues requires a number of different types of information that can well be gathered through inventories (Tuxill and Nabhan, 1998). It is the responsibility of those carrying out biodiversity surveys to present their results in a form that can be understood by people interested in managing the forest or the resources (not just technicians and scientists), so that social, economic and biological information can be integrated, and the information understood by local people, government and private enterprise (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002).
Perhaps one of the most important constraints to gathering useful information for multiple-use management is that inter-disciplinary research teams are few, and there has been little investment in developing research or survey methods that integrate biological, social and economic information (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002). This is a key area of research that needs to build upon the foundations laid by ethno-biological and socio-economic studies; so that the interests of different stakeholders can be included in planning processes (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002).
1.4 Organization of the report
The report is organized in five sections; Introduction which talks about what the paper is about, why it is important, need for standardizing ecological methods and how the paper is organized. Second section describes the approach used in undertaking the assignment, third section provide description and analysis of ecological inventory methods (by discipline) analyzing how it can be used, detail advantages and disadvantage and target users. Section four discuss the recommendations/options for ecological inventory methods that should be applied in Tanzania, effective means for achieving it and a needs assessment giving relevant examples where they have been applied by whom in Tanzanian context. The last section covers the summary and conclusion, references used in the assignment and various annexes
1.5 Limitation of the Study
In undertaking the study, a number of limitations emerged, these include financial resources and limited time to cover stakeholders particularly those outside Dar es Salaam. This work according to scope of work required no travel outside Dar es Salaam. Similarly, some stakeholders contacted such as TANAPA did not respond to the request, thus their opinion
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are missing in the report. However, since most of the wildlife census in protected area is conducted by TAWIRI which responded well including availing of their survey manual absence of TANAPA views will not affect the result and the application of the recommendation from this report.
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2.0 APPROACHES IN UNDERTAKING THE ASSIGNMENT
To achieve this assignment, a review of methods for conducting ecological inventories in protected areas in Tanzania was carried out. The study focused on reviewing literature detailing various methods used in carrying out ecological inventory, questionnaires with key groups from various discipline at the University of Dar es Salaam and Wildlife Division, stakeholder consultations with TAWIRI officials, who develop and use the available methods, and the Authorized Association Consortium, an umbrella for WMAs in Tanzania. Also, consultations with stakeholders were carried out to collect opinions and verify the recommended methods with those who will be developing, training and using the methods. TANAPA was contacted and given questionnaires but did not respond at all. Information gathered from this approach was used to prepare the report updating the methods most used in Tanzania and to recommend standard methods to be used in the future by WMAs, TANAPA, TAWIRI and other researchers in Tanzania in order to generate data that are compatible and that can be used for making decision about conservation of protected areas in Tanzania. The reviewed ecological methods were grouped according to study discipline such as plant/vegetation, herpetology and fish, birds/bats, small to medium sized mammals and large mammals. Thus, the discussion of the reviewed methods were centered around these four discipline and the recommendation made are based on methods that are effective in capturing the characteristics of the organism in a particular discipline
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3.0 ANALYSIS OF METHODS FOR CARRYING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORY
According to Tuxill and Nabhan, (1998) an ecological inventory is any quantifiable, repeatable collection of key information required to identify, characterize, assess and ascertain the quality, status and state of environmental/ecological entity/variable or ecological area that provide basis for management and monitoring of the resources. Thus, in quantifying or collecting repetitive data or parameters on ecological attributes, sampling methods are used to gather the individual attributes. Therefore, in actual sense, the sampling methods are the same but only the detail of information and scale of coverage is what differentiates ecological inventory and ecological sampling or surveying. This section analyses and discusses these data collection methods with emphasis on the detail, scale, and use of multiple methods, depending on the goals of the inventory.
3.1 Ground survey using systematic sampling methods;
Ground survey using systematic sampling methods entails collecting inventory data using systematic procedures that detail the type of inventory data to collect at specified uniform interval in a per determined dimension and direction. The method is commonly used in sampling vegetation where it involves collection of vegetation parameter in a defined unit of measurement. Transect methods can also be applied in collecting data on bird, amphibians, reptile, small and large mammals. This include use of transect line where transect of a known dimension (distance and width) is established and samples of vegetation parameters (inventory data) are collected within the transect. Transects can be placed systematically or randomly within the ecological entity sampled. The number of transects within the sampled areas will vary depending on sampling intensity and purpose of the inventory. In sampling vegetation, it is common to combine transect and plots, where quadrats/plots are placed at specific distances along transect for systematic sampling and collect data within each quadrat, the plots can be set as permanent plots for repetitive measurements and can be replicated. The transect method is used primarily to collect data along environmental gradient of some sort (Grieg-Smith, 1983). For example, a line transect may be placed running from the edge of the forest reserve extending into the forest reserve to see changes with distance from the edge. Similarly, a line transect may be placed to run across multiple habitats e.g. from a grassland, freshwater marsh to woodland and to the forest to examine changes throughout multiple systems.
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Transects combined with plots either permanent or temporary plots can collect data on abundance, of species in terms of density, diameter at breast height frequency, and height of the species. These data are important in describing the forest structure, assessing the resource available per height enabling allocation of quarters for forest utilization.
Transect method is easy to use as local community can utilise locally available materials like rope, steps to measure the transect length and take vegetation measurement such as height, cbh/ dbh etc. WWF REDD + involved the communities in surveying coastal forest.
This method is commonly used in Tanzania to study ecological characteristics of plants for example the NAFORMA Project conducted a National Forest Inventory across the Country in 2013 (NAFORMA, 2015). Similarly, WWF REDD+ project applied the method in supplementing NAFORMA study focusing on less covered vegetation types (WWF REDD+, 2015).
Advantages and disadvantages • The method allows for continuous measurement within the same plot for continuity • Easy to monitor changes overtime • Same plot can be used to collect other inventory data apart from vegetation data such as soil, disturbance etc.
3.2 Point transect method
Another form of transect is known as a point transect, where the sampling does not involve establishing plot but rather a point, from which the measurement and observation of ecological parameters are done. It is used for sampling both plants and animals especially birds. In this case, designing a point transect survey so that each habitat type is present in the desired proportion is easy. Once the observer is at the point, s/he can concentrate solely on detecting, locating and identifying individuals without the need to traverse what may be difficult terrain. The method is common for surveying birds, where a combination of point transects and mist netting has been used to document important bird areas in the Nguru Mountains (Doggart and Loserian, 2007) and provide data on important birds of the coastal forest and Eastern Arc Mountains. Similarly, Frontier Tanzania applied this method in assessing the resources in the forgotten forests in Mtwara region and also lesser known forests in the Eastern Arc Mountains, projects funded by CEPF in 2005.
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The point transect method is also used in assessing species composition in grassland and wooded grassland areas, where a quick survey is required. Application of the method does not require complicated instruments, requiring only the observer with a compass to guide the direction and notebook for recording observed parameters. The method can be used to assess birds and vegetation types from same point.
The advantages • The observer can take the easiest route into and away from the point • Patchy habitat can be sampled more easily by this method • Describing the vegetation structure associated with the point is easy • It eliminates much of the bias arising from replicating line transects on rough terrain
The disadvantages • Observer can detect many objects other than the intended set of parameter and waste much time while travelling between points • Objects may be distributed or flushed out by an observer approaching the point • Relatively small area (only a point) is covered in a survey leaving out parameters outside the observer’s point • May be inefficient for objects that occur at low densities • Can be time consuming to find and re-find the point on the ground.
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3.3 Line transect Method
A transect of known distance and direction is designed and ecological parameters encountered within transect are recorded. Line transects can be used to inventory both plants and animals, particularly when a quick survey is desired. Line transects can be modified to be applied in aerial surveys, road counts and sometimes in indirect surveys by observing foot prints or droppings and other signs. In this method, a pre- determined line with a known distance and direction is decided and ecological parameters within the set line are recorded as present or absent. The method is common in animal counting, road counting or via plane in aerial survey. When line transects are used to sample animals it is important to combine line transect estimation with mark-recapture studies so that detectability can be estimated directly and suitable corrections applied to the estimates. With species that can occur in groups rather than as single animals, the detection function may vary with group size, since groups are easier to see.
Line transects are used to supplement or ground truth aerial census surveys of animals in protected areas, particularly where there is a need for quantification in terms of abundance to allocate quarters. The method is commonly used in small areas like WMAs and mountainous areas where aerial census survey is practically impossible. For example, a resources assessment for fauna in IKONA WMA was carried out using this method (Nahonyo et al, 2007).
The advantages • A higher proportion of time is spent surveying • Higher proportion of detections are made while surveying • More ground can be covered in a given time
The disadvantages • The observer must follow routes determined in advance and according to the design, which may lead to missing some objects outside of the line • Designing a line transect survey so that each habitat type is represented in the desired proportion is difficult • Describing the vegetation structure associated with point or line is difficult • Does not work well when the targeted species has a strongly concentrated spatial distribution • Does not work well when plants that are not on the line cannot be easily detected ANALYSIS OF CURRENT METHODS FOR CONDUCTING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES 10
3.4 Variable transect method The variable transect method developed by Rapid Biological Inventories [RBI] (FMNH 2004) is a quick qualitative assessment (snapshot) of the vegetation community that provides rapid compilation of species composition, structure, and abundance. The variable transect is a version of the belt transect, but its dimensions are determined by a predetermined number of individual plants to be counted (Foster, 1998). It is not a standard area based plot method. In habitats and communities that have been identified for inventory and assessment, plant species are divided into classes by size (e.g., >30cm dbh), height (e.g., 8-25m), taxon (e.g., Pinus ponderosa or all adult conifer species), or other ecological and physiological classes that will provide the sought-after data. In forests and other complex communities, canopy trees could be used as a class that defines the ultimate dimensions of the transect (Hunt and Anderson, 2004). The first 50 or 100 individuals of a class that you encounter within a predetermined width would then determine the length. Subdividing the plot into five or ten equal segments can aid in subplot sampling for the other classes, especially for those with more species and more individuals, such as in the shrub or herbaceous class. If you choose to sample 100 shrub individuals, you can divide the center line into ten equidistant points (Hunt and Anderson, 2004). At each point, sampling for five individuals on both sides can be done along a perpendicular line-intercept. Width is a very important decision, and like most of the other decisions made using this method, it relies on the experience and expertise of the investigators and their judgments as naturalists. Their familiarity with at least some of the species and the ecosystem functioning of the site is crucial (Hunt and Anderson, 2004). The transects need not be straight, and they can follow contours of slopes or features in a floodplain. They can be run across more than one habitat or plant community type. They can be as discontinuous as the ecosystems they are measuring. The method is quantitative enough to measure species richness and abundance, determine diversity indices, and conduct diversity comparisons.
Advantages • The variable transect is quicker in collecting qualitative data required in rapid assessment of the vegetation community or ecosystem as compared to other methods, such as belt transect, point-center-quarter plots, and line-intercepts. The later are more thorough, rigorous, and time consuming.
• For the purposes of both Conservation International and the Field Museum teams, the variable transect meets their needs for quick and basic inventory for conservation.
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• It requires less equipment. Using rigorous field methods for simple inventories may run the risk of becoming more of a study of the method itself and less about the plant community being measured (Grieg-Smith 1983).
• The Rapid Assessment Program usually needs inventory data very quickly in the face of an imminent environmental threat to shrinking tropical forest communities. Again, many of these threats arise from land management decisions that are made at the speed of politics and economics, not that of careful scientific evaluation.
Disadvantages • It relies on the experience and expertise of the investigators and their judgments as naturalists.
• It requires familiarity with at least some of the species and the ecosystem functioning of the site
• The method is too qualitative to capture diverse
• No available documentation to indicate that this method has been used in Tanzania although can offer quick survey of vegetation community
• May create bias in statistical analysis due to predetermined width and direction
3.5 Quadrat count It is suitable for sampling plants, slow moving animals (such as millipedes and insects), and some aquatic organisms. Counting is usually done in quadrats placed several times into the community under investigation. The quadrates can be placed systematically or randomly depending on the sampling design and the purpose of the survey or inventory. For the vegetation inventory the standard Nested Quadrat as described by Stohlgren et al., (1995) is adopted. This method entails the use of rectangular quadrats as it combines the advantage of minimizing edge effect as well as increasing the chances of including most species in the study area. Three level sampling was done with trees sampled in 20 x 25 square metre quadrats. Shrubs and saplings were sampled in 5 x 2 square metre quadrats nested in the bigger quadrat and finally grasses and herbs were sampled in smaller quadrats measuring 2 x 0.5 square metres nested in the 5 x 2 square metre quadrats. The information collected included tree identity, diameters at breast height (DBH), and crown cover and heights for trees and shrubs. The method is applicable to all vegetation types including juvenile (trees and shrubs) herbaceous and grass species. All individuals are
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identified, counted and their heights recorded in the nested quadrate. Dominant grasses and herbs were identified and recorded.
Other valuable environmental data collected with the vegetation data included location of the site using GPS coordinates, slope, altitude, aspect and the nature of the soils. Information on the use of plant species by the local people was obtained through interviews and from available literature.
For example, flora characterization of IKONA WMA’s resources was done using these methods (Nahonyo et al, 2007). The quadrate methods can be modified to fit the shape or size desired. For example, NAFORMA’s countrywide vegetation assessment (NAFORMA, 2015) adopted a modified quadrate method. Similarly, the quadrate method can be combined with the transect method to quantify the vegetation parameter in any vegetation type. This method eliminates the weakness of plotless methods and line transect as the details of coverage and parameter included are much more detailed.
The advantages • Counting plants in quadrats is perhaps the easiest analytical concept to grasp • The method can be modified to suit required vegetation form and type • It can be combined with other transect methods to quantify the vegetation parameter • Estimation of density per unit area is easy as the dimension of the plot is known • Can easily be done by anyone including local communities (WMA) using local available materials to establish a quadrate • The method is cheap as it can use local material such as ropes, machete or sometimes even counting steps to establish the dimension of the plot
The disadvantages • It risks human error resulting from judging whether boundary individuals are inside or outside the quadrat. • Time consuming to count grasses, herbaceous and shrubby individuals. Therefore, before investing time in counting, the purpose of the study must be very clear • Difficulties in recognition of individual plants in shrubs, particularly where they are standing close together • The shape of quadrats has an effect on the accuracy of the count. Rectangular shapes are more efficient than square or circular shapes
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3.6 Plotless Method This method is mainly for plants and it does not use a prescribed quadrat, plot or transect. Only distance measures are used. It is more useful in highly sparsely distributed wood species. The most common used plotless method is point centred quadrate (PCQ) applicable in wooded grassland with sparsely distributed wood species. For example, vegetation characterization of the report on the carrying capacity of Saa nane Island proposed National Park (Nahonyo et al, 2008) were done using PCQ.
The advantages • Efficient because the distance between trees are shorter and more easily measured than boundaries • Eliminates human error resulting from judging whether boundary individuals are inside or outside the quadrat. • No plot boundaries required
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Disadvantages • Difficult to locate the distance that gives the best estimate of the square root of the mean area per tree although can be solved by averaging a number of distance measures carried out at certain points in the stand
Application of systematic methods in the field is easy and can involve people with different levels of education. For example, cutting a transect can be done by local community members, where instructions of the required distance and direction are provided. Setting up a plot and counting individual plants or animals within the quadrate is easily done by the community. Similarly, the tool for establishing transects and plots can come from the local community which simplifies the cost of applying the methods. Thus, a combination of technical staff, researchers, and local people can work together with this systematic method.
3.7 Aerial mapping of vegetation cover In this case, vegetation cover is broadly mapped and classified using aerial photos, digital photos, or satellite images. The information gathered is backed up by ground surveys to generate maps classifying vegetation. The photo or satellite images taken are processed and subjected into image/photointerpretation process which proceeds step by step along with the environmental stratification and vegetation sampling. The imagery will be interpreted for patterns of tone, texture, colour, and contrast to identify homogeneous patches of vegetation (USGS/NPS, 1994). These patterns are assigned to a preliminary vegetation type from the land cover based on the preliminary review of the vegetation types in the area or park. To obtain sufficient information to come up with the actual vegetation type a range of photo signatures will need to be represented in the sampling areas to ensure they are fully interpreted in relation to the vegetation types across the park (USGS/NPS, 1994). Where the signatures pose interpretation questions, additional samples will be selected to clarify their biological meaning.
Application of this type of method requires sophisticated technology and expertise in interpreting the satellite images and photo signature of different vegetation types registered on a photo or image. Similarly, the method, though useful in mapping large areas, is expensive to operate, and it is expensive to acquire clear visible images and photos that can provide useful information for vegetation classification. Due to its limitations in terms of cost, expertise and technicalities the method has not been used in Tanzania in recent years. The documentation of vegetation maps prepared during colonial era may have used this method.
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The advantages • Efficient in producing vegetation Maps of the large area such as the country, region. • The broad classification of vegetation can easily be linked with climatic zones and soil of the area.
Disadvantages • It is expensive in terms of equipment, experts and applications • It lacks details of the vegetation characteristics as the classification provide broad grouping of the vegetation types
3.8 Capture techniques
Capture techniques are useful for many species of mobile animals that are elusive or live in an environment that is hard to access (e.g. many marine environments). Capture techniques may include nets, traps, snares, or settlement substrates. When using capture techniques, it is very important to have clearly defined hypotheses that you are testing since many capture techniques have serious biases such as double counting or capturing more than once the same individual organism (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002).
To eliminate bias, the capture-mark-recapture methods is often used, most commonly with birds, bats, and aquatic/marine organisms and with large mammals, using collars. In applying capture-mark-recapture methods various tools are used like mist netting for birds and bats (Howell, 2002), Sherman traps for rodents and squirrels, fisherman nets and electrical gun shockers for fish and other aquatic organisms (Tamatama, 2012).
All these methods have been used to study birds, bats, and small mammals in various forest reserves including the Nguru South Forest Reserves (Doggart and Loserian, 2007), Uluguru North and South Forest Reserves (Frontier, 2005), IKONA WMA resource assessment (Nahonyo et al, 2007), remaining coastal forests of Mtwara region (Frontier, 2005). This method requires skills in handling the captured animal to prevent harm and injury as the animal will later be released back into its environment. Similarly, care must be taken to prevent animal-human disease transmission between while handling the animal.
Advantages • It provides the most reliable and informative data as different measurements can be taken of the captured animal rather than observing from a distance
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• Monitoring the trend of change of the animal, territory range, and distribution abundance is easy • It is the most efficient means of inventorying small mammal species
Disadvantages • Time consuming to capture and handle the species. • Expertise is required to prevent injury to the animal and to prevent human-animal disease transmission.
3.9 Herpetology Inventorying using systematic sampling methods Generally, in Africa most of the herpetology inventory have dealt with forest, leaf-litter-dwelling anurans and reptiles in Cameroon (Scott, 1982), or anurans in open areas such as small seasonal breeding ponds (Bowker and Bowker, 1979). According to Howell (2002) no satisfactory methods have yet been developed to sample the arboreal tree frogs, the fossorial apodans, or canopy-dwelling reptiles. However, there are standard methods that have been used to quantify amphibian and reptile populations particularly in forest reserves of Tanzania (Howell, 2002). The available systematic inventory methods include a number of sampling methods such as drift fence and pitfall traps, canopy walkway traps, snake trappings, forest litter plots, and timed search methods. While details of each of these methods are addressed in Davies and Hoffmann (2002), this section briefly describes the methods, analyses, and usability of each method and efficiency in collecting inventory data for herptile.
3.9.1 Drift fence and pitfall traps This is a method that has been employed recently for sampling small mammals in forests, and has been shown to be especially effective in sampling leaf-litter frogs of the genus Arthroleptis, as well as Bufo toads and forest floor lizards.
The basic principle behind this trapping method is that animals on the forest floor encounter a barrier termed a ‘drift fence’ which causes them to drift into the trap. Rather than cross the fence, burrow under it, or break through it, they take the route of least resistance by moving either right or left and following the fence – which leads them to drop into a pitfall trap.
A variety of patterns of arrangement for the bucket pitfall traps have been used, with varying degrees of success (Bury & Corn, 1987). The simplest arrangement is that a drift fence in a straight line is established by erecting a one-meter tall polythene sheet which is stretched for about 55m, in between pitfalls consisting of 11 buried 20 litters plastic buckets placed 5 m apart. Each bucket is sunk in the ground so that the upper rim is equal to, or slightly below
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the ground-surface level with the bucket rim half separated by standing polythene sheet such that any organism from either side of the fence will be blocked as it drift along the fence and falls into the trap.
Choice of the sites is important in capturing diverse herptile dwelling habitats. Moist or low ground is usually a good place to trap, especially at the bases of valleys, but setting pitfall lines in a variety of situations and habitats including altitudinal variation is important for comparison and capturing diverse species. It is good policy to check your pitfalls first thing in the morning, and then again in late afternoon.
The method is cheap to use, as all the materials ae locally obtained, easy to involve local community to set traps while one expert for identification can be involved. Being the cheap and easy to apply the method has been used in different forest reserves, open areas and woodland for example IKONA WMA resource assessment (Nahonyo et al, 2007) herptile were inventoried using this method
Figure 1; Sketch of the drift fence and pitfall trap source: (Davies and Hoffmann, (2002)
Advantages • The advantages of this method are that it is easily repeatable, can easily be modified to suit local conditions, and can be used to sample mammals, amphibians and reptiles simultaneously.
• It is also one of the few methods that can be used to sample apodans and burrowing reptiles that occasionally emerge on the forest floor.
• It can be used as a non-destructive technique, and permits the mark-recapture method of population assessment
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Disadvantages • The trap particularly polythene sheet occasionally can be damaged by big animals likes bush pigs or small antelopes necessitating repairs.
• Because the traps have to stay overnight captured animal may be drowned when it rain heavy
3.9.2 Canopy walkway traps A canopy walkway trap is a method of setting traps on walkways in the canopy level of the forest. It involves constructing a runway or walk way of mosquito mesh into which is sewed a funnel-shaped bag – the funnel trap. Two funnel traps (1m x 0.8m) are then constructed of 8mm x 8mm galvanised wire mesh and are sewn onto the walkway using galvanised wire at 5-m intervals. The mouths of the funnel traps are as wide as the walkway, so that any animal that moves along it is directed into the trap. A guide line of string or rope is attached to both sides of each funnel trap; when the walkway is raised to its desired height these can be pulled tight and tied to trees or rocks to prevent it from inverting during winds and rains. The entire construction is then raised by means of rope and pulleys into the canopy at different levels from 3 m, 10 m and 15 m height
This method works on the principle that reptiles will make use of walkways to travel through the forest canopies and as it walks through the walkway it falls into the funnel traps established at equal distance of about 5 m apart. Applying this method selection of the site requires that the walkway trap should be touching as many trees and branches as possible, but will still permit the use of pulleys to raise and lower it.
The funnel traps should be checked regularly, ideally early morning, midday, and late afternoon. Depending on the trap success and the size of animals captured, it may be necessary to increase the depth of the funnel traps, especially if large snakes are encountered. The method has never been practice in east African forests. Due to risks associated with it most of the study on reptile has focused on other safe methods.
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Figure 2: Canopy walk trap adopted from Davies and Hoffmann, (2002),
Advantages • This method is effective for sampling species which live in the canopy, or even just above ground level in the forest.
Disadvantages • The method involves climbing into trees and capturing by hand the trapped reptile which risks and dangerous. • It is labour-intensive and requires much experience to perfect. • Furthermore, care should be used when setting and dismantling the trap; always have at least one and preferably two other people present in case of falls and related injuries.
3.9.3 Snake trappings This is a simple trap made of mosquito mesh wire fitted with conical funnel traps on either end of the cylindrical mosquito wire mesh (Fritts1988). This is constructed in such a way the wider end of the conical funnel fits the end of the cylindrical mesh with the narrow part of the conical funnel facing the centre of the cylinder on each end. This makes easy for the snake to enter but not able to get out. The method is usually baited with bird, feather or dropping but it has proved useful even without bait. The trap can be used as a simple funnel trap for both lizards and snakes, and seems to work best when placed along a natural barrier, such as a log, large rock, and other obstacles.
This technique is aimed at assessing populations of a particular species rather than for general survey work. It might also be possible to use it with a drift fence, in an area with hard or rocky
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ground, which would be unsuitable for pitfall traps. The method is effective for arboreal species that feed on birds. Some snakes detect prey mainly by olfaction, whereas others respond to visual stimuli. For this reason, it would be necessary to experiment with different baits
The method is not commonly practice in east African forest. Due to risks associated with it, the limitation that it is species specific therefore most of the study on reptile has focused on other safe methods.
Figure 3: Snake trap adopted from Davies and Hoffmann, (2002),
Advantage • It can be used together with drift fence where it is unsuitable for pitfalls.
• The method is effective in assessing arboreal species
Disadvantage • The method is suitable for assessing the population of specific species rather the general survey
• This method is labour-intensive and extremely time consuming and extra care is also required.
3.9.4 Forest litter plots In this method, a measured area of 2m x 2m (or any convenient size) is cleared of every bit of leaf-litter and the amphibians within the area identified and counted. A portable ‘fence’ of plastic or metal may be used to enclose the area for ease in sampling. The procedure is to measure the area to be sampled and enclose it with a suitable ‘fence’; carefully search through the leaf-litter, using a small hoe or short-handled rake to move the leaf-litter away from a patch of ground in case amphibians, snakes, scorpions, etc. are also present; and collect animals by hand and place in cloth bags. It is best to sample as many sites as possible since it is likely
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at least 20 sites with animals present will be needed to meet the requirements of statistical tests.
The method is cheap, easy for local communities to carry out with locally obtained equipment. Setting the plot requires no specific expertise, and only one expert for identification is needed. Being the cheap and easy to apply the the method is commonly used to supplement drift fence with pitfall trap methods in forests. It has been used in different forest reserves, for example Uluguru North and South Forest Reserve (Frontier, 2005) Nguru South Forest Reserve (Doggart and Loserian, 2007), open areas and woodland for example IKONA WMA resource assessment (Nahonyo et al, 2007) the method supplemented other survey methods.
Advantage • The methods can capture species that dwell in litters that are rarely captured with drift fence with pitfalls trap.
Disadvantage • The method is dangerous due to possible encounters with snakes and scorpions hiding in forest litter
• The method samples only small forest leaf-litter anurans; it is labour intensive and will usually require more than one searcher.
• In some forests, herptile densities may be so low as to make assessment by this technique difficult.
• Microhabitat requirements and/or seasonality factors may result in situations arising in which an area sampled may yield no herptiles, while a plot immediately near that one might have high numbers.
• Thus, it is generally unsuitable for a species with extremely narrow microhabitat requirements.
3.9.5 Timed constrained search methods In a time-constrained search, the observer attempts to exert a continuous sampling effort over a particular area or transect for a limited period of time. The observer must determine an area that is going to be surveyed, and then set a block of time (5–25 minutes), during which full concentration can be maintained for searching (in a standardised way). The observer takes rests between search blocks (5 minutes or so). The observer should move slowly along survey transects and other paths, making every effort to look all around, up and down.
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For most reptiles and amphibians, this method is difficult to use because some are extremely difficult to find when they are not vocalizing, since many hide under vegetation. Nevertheless, this technique may prove useful when animals are conspicuous, such as at breeding congregations. The method is useful in supplementing other inventory methods used in a study. It has been used in different forest reserves, for example Uluguru North and South forest reserve (Frontier, 2005) Nguru south forest reserve (Doggart and Loserian, 2007), open areas and woodland for example IKONA WMA resource assessment (Nahonyo et al, 2007) the method supplemented other survey methods.
Disadvantage • The method is best suited to sampling animals which are fairly visible from a distance, and therefore not applicable for many forest situations except when amphibians have congregated for breeding.
• It may be useful for reptiles that are ‘sit and wait’ predators, such as geckoes, which often occupy relatively conspicuous sites at night. It may also be applicable for night time counts of chameleons.
3.10 Sound recording Sound recording of vocalizing species is another technique, which is used to collect inventory data for animals like amphibians. Parker (1991) has argued convincingly for the use of tape recordings in avifaunal surveys, and his arguments also hold for surveys of amphibians. Tape recordings have been made of many frog vocalisations (Schiotz, 1999; Passmore and Carruthers, 1995; Rodel, 2000). Heyer et al. (1994) suggest protocols for recording of amphibian calls which can be used as means of inventorying amphibians. This technique is not applicable to reptiles, because none of the African species vocalise with sufficient volume and regularity to be suitable for such an approach (Howell, 2002). There are two approaches possible when recording vocalizing species. One is to record individuals as heard, and try to approach and capture these animals for identification, preferably a specimen with its field number noted on the recording of its call. A second approach is to place the tape recorder at a particular site and record 5–10 minutes of the general calling sounds of amphibians (Howell, 2002). When recording species, which are sensitive to the approach of an observer/recorder, a useful approach is to have a long microphone cable; the microphone is left near the animal which has been vocalising, and the observer/recorder simply retreats to a certain distance, and records using the long microphone cable.
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Securing high quality recording devices and associated tools like microphones are expensive. Similarly, interpretation of the recordings requires an expert or experienced field technician. Due to the variability of sites and micro niche where individual species of amphibian or reptile dwell it is difficult to capture inventory data using single method. The methods have been used in estimating the abundance and distribution of the taxa in forests, but the methods haves not been used frequently in protected areas due to safety issues particularly when inspecting the traps (very early morning and later evening). Usually combinations of all mentioned methods yield sufficient inventory data (Howell, 2002). The use of audio-visual survey and search, timed constrained search, drift fence with pitfall traps and drift fence with funnel traps have been successful in herpetology inventorying (Howell, 2002). The methods can easily involve local people during establishment of the traps, searching within forest litter plots and even timed constrained search. The materials used such as buckets and polythene sheets are cheap, locally obtained, and can be reused for subsequent surveys.
3.11 Camera trapping
Camera traps are small cameras that are attached to infrared sensors. When an animal enters the infrared beam it triggers the camera to take a picture (Rovero et al, 2007). While taking a picture the date and time of photographs is automatically imprinted on the film. Depending on the size and types of the animals to be photographed, the sensitivity of the infrared sensor can be adjusted (Rovero et al, 2007). This method is very useful for surveying elusive and nocturnal animals. Typically, this method is best suited to take pictures of ground dwelling mammals including carnivores, antelopes and rodents. The use of this method yields sufficient inventory data particularly to elusive animals. However, it is expensive in terms of purchasing the devices such as infrared camera, film and chips and requires expertise to adjust the infrared beam. Market surveys in local markets can yield significant information on various sales of live and dead wildlife, which might have not been covered by systematic survey. Thus, to enrich the inventory data, market surveys can be conducted by local communities, retired game officers and traders who are accessing the markets for various wildlife products. Here care must be taken to identify species from the smoked meat or other form of meat processing.
3.12 Live-trapping methods: rodents and insectivores There are wide ranges of methods grouped under live trapping methods; these include Sherman trap method, Longworth and Havahart. They vary in size of instrument used, and targets different species or group. The methods work on the principle that the instrument will
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capture the live animal and various measurement parameters are taken while the animal is still alive.
3.12.1 Longworth Sherman and Havahart Longworth and Sherman live-traps are made of aluminium and measure approximately 230mm x 95mm x 80mm in size when set up. While Sherman traps can be folded to simplify transport to the field, Longworth do not fold and are bulky. Havahart live-traps on the other hand are large in size, targeting large species. These are effective for sampling species such as African giant rat, and hyrax (dassie), and are convenient and easy to use. The trap is set so a rectangular hole allows the animal to enter, and a trigger to close the door or flap once the animal touches the bait. These traps are very lightweight, and have the added advantage that they can fold flat for storage and easy carrying in the field. Traps are generally placed in clusters, termed ‘trap stations’, spaced regularly (5–10m) along transect or in a regular grid. Each trap station can have a number of traps, although three per trap station is probably a minimum. The traps have to be baited, and particular attention needs to be paid to standardising the baits since type of bait used can favour a particular species or group. There are a number of baits that have been successfully used: peanut butter works well, and can be mixed with other items (e.g. banana, maize meal, oats, raisins, forest fruits, chunks of manioc root, dried fish, etc.). In Tanzania, pieces of fried coconut, mixed with local peanut butter (Howell, 2002) are commonly used. This mixture fits onto the trap bait-hook well, is attractive to rodents, and seems to survive the threats posed by rain and ants. The selection of bait will have a major impact on the species that will come to the trap, so the same bait needs to be used if trapping is to be standardised between sites. The method can gather data on species richness and abundance, spatial distribution of the species in different habitats. The method has been used to collect inventory data on resource richness and status in different Eastern Arc Mountain and Coastal forests (Frontier, 2005), open areas and woodland for example IKONA WMA resource assessment (Nahonyo et al, 2007). This method has been used to supplement other survey methods.
Advantages • It offers an opportunity to study live specimens
• Can be applied with capture re-capture method for abundance measurements
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Disadvantage • It requires skills to handle live specimens
• Care must be taken to avoid diseases and pest transmission from researcher to the animals and vice versa
3.13 Dead or removal traps This method entails the use of traps that capture the organism by killing the individual by trapping. The most common trap used in this method is snap trap and break-back traps used for catching or killing pest rodents such as rats (larger size) and mice (smaller size). This method generally catches more than live-traps method, thereby providing specimens for identification and museum reference collections. However, they are indiscriminate in what they catch (i.e. they are not species-specific) and usually, many individuals of one or two common species will predominate. Thus, many individuals are killed for a minimal amount of information that may be useful for management. The problem is exacerbated when doing surveys in conservation areas where protection may be a focus of management. The method also is strongly influenced by the baits that are used, and the ecology of the species in the forest site. This method is used in combination with live-traps method for gathering inventory data on a particular group of organisms.
3.14 Animal Census survey This is a survey that involves the counting of animals to estimate their number, in terms of population size, and density and to monitor changes in various parameters of the animal population. There are three common methods used in animal census survey: Aerial total count, Systematic Reconnaissance Flight (SRF) and road counts.
3.14.1 Aerial Total Counts (TC) The total count method described by Norton– Griffiths (1978) entails that light aircrafts (Cessna 182) is used during the survey each with a crew of four. Pre- determined transects are used to guide flight paths to ensure that the area is sufficiently covered. The According to author the ecosystem is divided into census blocks that are systematically searched with aircraft flying at a maximum altitude of 400 feet above ground and target speed of 180 km/hour. Flying altitude varies depending on visibility, land cover and terrain. Hand-held Garmin GPS- map 62s are used to track flight paths of each aircraft by recording waypoints automatically (Norton– Griffiths, 1978). Each time a herd of animals is encountered, the aircraft circles above the herd and the location and size of the herd is recorded. For details photographs are taken
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using high resolution digital cameras, and exact numbers determined on the ground from photographs. Care should be taken to avoid double counting where multiple photographs are taken of the same herd.
The method is useful in covering small areas with sparsely distributed vegetation since dense vegetation and bushes does not allow clear visibility for the observation of the herd and for taking pictures for counting the number of animals. Also, terrain has to be considered for the application of the method; in rugged terrain (mountainous areas) the method becomes unsafe for the crew. To be applied in small area is expensive in terms of expertise to operate the aircraft, acquiring high resolution camera and GPS mounted to the aircraft for recording flight path. Similarly, it requires trained crew to apply the method and retrieval the required data.
Advantages • Suitable in areas with hunting blocks as it provides actual numbers per species that can be used to allocate hunting quotas for each species. • Commonly applied in most protected areas in TANZANIA
Disadvantages • It requires clear visibility and flat terrain for the safety of the aircraft • Difficulties of spotting and counting animals in thick vegetation and bush • Difficult to eliminate duplication of herds and sometimes an observer may undercount or over count • Total counts are expensive and rely on the assumption that no animals are counted twice and that no animals are missed. These assumptions are difficult to evaluate in any real situation and so total counts are often unreliable • It requires trained technical people like pilots and experienced guides • Require high resolution digital camera, GPS and other devices that are sophisticated
3.14.2 Systematic Reconnaissance Flight (SRF) The Systematic Reconnaissance Flight (SRF) method described by Norton– Griffiths (1978) uses light aircrafts (Cessna 182), flying at a target height of 350 ft (about 100 m) above ground and a target speed of 175 km/h. The survey crew consists of four individuals in each aircraft. The pilot navigates the aircraft following a survey plan that are loaded into the GPS prior to the flight. The Front Seat Observer (FSO) is responsible for the inflight recording of transect metadata including the beginning and end points of each transect, the beginning and end time
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of each transect, flight height above ground using a radar or laser altimeter in each subunit, predominant vegetation, presence or absence of water and extent of burnt areas (Norton– Griffiths, 1978). The FSO also announces the sub-unit identification numbers to the rear seat observers. Left and right Rear Seat Observers (RSOs) count and record on a small cassette or digital recorder all observations of wild animals and human activities sighted in each sub- unit. Photos are taken of large groups with more than ten individuals (Norton– Griffiths, 1978). The RSOs transcribe recorded data on to data-sheets after each flight. Counting is confined within a sample area defined by streamers attached on the wing strut on each side of the aircraft with a target width of 150m on the ground (Norton– Griffiths, 1978). Geographical position of every subunit as called-out by the FSO is recorded together with its observations and subsequently transcribed on enumeration sheets.
This method is the most frequently used in animal censuses conducted by TAWIRI in monitoring trend of change of wildlife especially elephants. For example, the 2013 TAWIRI aerial census of elephant in Selous ecosystem was conducted using systematic reconnaissance flight (SRF) technique as described by Norton-Griffiths (Norton--‐Griffiths 1978) with advanced standards and validation methods as adopted by TAWIRI 2013). This method can be supplemented with Block count technique particularly where terrain is not suitable for SRF method. For example, the Selous-Mikumi census (TAWIRI, 2013) was supplemented in the southern part of Mikumi National Park; a mountainous area where flying SRF transects was unsafe due to extremely rugged terrain.
The method is useful in covering large areas with sparsely distributed vegetation since dense vegetation and bushes does not allow clear visibility for the observation of the herd and for taking pictures for counting the number of animals. Similarly, the method is mostly used where resources are limited to do total counting and where distribution of animals is fairly even. Also terrain has to be considered for the application of the method; in rugged terrain (mountainous areas) the method becomes unsafe for the crew. To be applied in small areas is expensive in terms of expertise to operate the aircraft, acquiring high resolution camera and GPS mounted to the aircraft for recording flight path. Similarly, it requires trained crew to apply the method and retrieval the required data.
3.14.3 Road counts Total count can be in the form of transect counts or road counts where a specified width of transect for a given distance is traversed by car or walking and counting of any encountered animal is done within the boundary of transect. This method is mostly used in small areas where the terrain and vegetation cover is dense to allow counting from the aircraft.
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Advantages • The method is suitable in verifying aerial survey
• It more useful in small areas like WMA, and poor terrain where aerial survey is impossible
Disadvantages • It is time consuming
• Observer/ the researcher is exposed in danger due to animal attacks
Wildlife censuses have been carried out by TAWIRI using these two methods (Systematic Reconnaissance Flight (SRF) and Total Counts (TC)) in most cases supplemented by road counts particularly in areas where terrain does not permit aerial survey. Over the last 13 years TAWIRI has been using these two techniques to provide update of elephant status and other animals in protected areas in terms of population size, (numbers, distribution, density and trends) (TAWIRI, 2014). The data generated has been used very extensively in the management of large mammals in protected areas.
3.15 Birds and bats For birds and bats the commonly used methods are mist netting, capture mark recapture, point count and timed species count. These methods are relatively easy to apply and have yielded significant information of species richness, population distribution and abundance.
3.15.1 Mist netting Mist nets are extremely fine nylon thread almost impossible to see nets that area stretched out to trap birds and bats. They come in a variety of heights, lengths and mesh sizes, but all feature various numbers of shelves – a pocket of mesh suspended from a strong thread, which runs along the net. If the nets are set correctly, birds flying across the net line do not detect them (Bennun and Howell, 2002). When they fly into the net, they drop into one of the mesh pockets, and become entangled. They can then be carefully removed, identified, banded and measured. Mist net technique can be combined with capture mark recapture methods where captured birds are ringed as mark. When combined with ringing becomes powerful techniques for surveying and studying birds, and has been used to follow weight changes, moult, breeding seasons and movement in individual birds. Employing capture-mark-recapture techniques, it can also be used to estimate population size.
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However, mist netting and ringing require considerable expertise and extreme attention to detail, which can be acquired only through lengthy training (Bennun and Howell, 2002). If you will be using mist nets to capture, identify and possibly ring birds, special permission is required. One doing it should contact the appropriate ringing scheme (e.g. the Ringing Organiser, East Africa Natural History Society, P. O. Box 44486, Nairobi) for advice (Bennun and Howell, 2002). Mist netting and ringing should be carried out only by competent and experienced persons and qualified ringers, who can handle the nets and the birds ethically and safely. If birds are not handled properly, it may affect both the results of your study and, more importantly, the long-term survival of the population.
3.16 Capture-mark-recapture method In this method, animals are captured (using one of the methods described above), marked, and released, and the population sampled again after some time, using the same trapping methods. The method is suitable for long-term study to make better estimates of population size. The population estimates are based on the equation: Total population = Total first catch x total second catch Number of recaptured marked animals However, a number of key assumptions must be met for this to follow (after Kunz, 1988) • survival rate of marked individuals is representative of the population as a whole;
• the probability of survival between capture periods is equal for marked and unmarked individuals;
• the permanent loss of individuals from the population is a result of deaths, and not long-term emigration (or dispersal);
• marked individuals have an equal probability of being captured as unmarked animals;
• marks are not lost;
• the intensity of trapping (number of traps, number of days trapping, etc.) is the same in different surveys.
These requirements are often not met, especially during a general survey of many species in a short period.
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3.17 Point count methods
In this method an observer establishes a point either systematically or randomly and begin counting the observed bird at specified time interval. Point counts can be made along a cut transect every fifteen minutes, i.e. the observer spent eight minutes walking (fast) along transect, followed by seven minutes waiting and counting at the point. Point counts have been used for this purpose (among others) in Kenya (Bennun and Howell, 2002). Usually, point counts are carried out by a single observer, but it is possible to have an experienced observer accompanied by a trainee. A major problem with this technique, however, is that very few birds tend to be recorded, since point counts sample a relatively small area.
3.18 Search efforts: in form of timed search, timed species count, timed constrained search In this method researcher or observer search for particular animal for specified time in specified area of search. The search effort is used as a measure of determining the relative abundance of animal searched. The method can be applied in herpetology, birds and bats. It is relatively easy to apply, and the observer can build a big species list very quickly. In most cases it is used in combination with other systematic techniques of sampling particular taxa.
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3.19 Indirect methods This technique is useful when the survey subjects are not seen directly, or seen very rarely. This means that surveys are made for the signs left by the animals, and the population density of the animals producing the signs is estimated. Signs include faeces (e.g. pellet piles of duikers, dung piles of elephants and buffaloes, scats of cats), footprints or spoor, hairs, diggings and nests (for pigs), urine-marking sites (pygmy hippo, rhinoceros and carnivores). The most common sign used are dung counts, track counts, and photo-traps. Detail of each approach is given by Davies and Hoffmann, (2002) in this section a summary of the methods and how easily or difficulties in applying the method is.
3.19.1 Dung counts Animal population density can, in theory, be calculated from dung density on the forest floor according to two variables by looking at: i) The number of dung piles produced per animal per day (defecation rate); and ii) The length of time the dung takes to disappear (dung-decay rate). However, these two variables are affected by several different factors, and this introduces many potential sources of error. In addition, for groups such as medium-sized duikers or small carnivores it is difficult to identify dung to species level. For example, only biochemical techniques will enable identification between the scats of golden cats and mongooses. Defecation rates vary with diet (White, 1995), and, in the case of big cats, with the estrous cycle of females. Decay rates vary with the weather, microclimatic conditions, and with dung beetle activity. In Ugandan forests, for example, Nummelin (1990) showed that duiker pellets were encountered less frequently when rainfall was high prior to surveys.
Any errors in estimation of decay rate and defecation rate will have a radical effect on the estimation of population density (Plumptre, 2000). Furthermore, territorial species such as duikers and carnivores use droppings to mark their territories, so distribution of dung is not random, presenting complex sampling problems. In the case of migratory or far-ranging species such as elephants, the survey area may not cover their whole range, so dung density will vary according to the passage of elephants through the survey area in the period prior to the survey. However, in spite of methodological difficulties, dung counts may be the best option available for surveys, since dung is the most frequently encountered sign of many larger forest mammals.
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3.19.2 Foot counting Footprints or spoor (e.g. tracks of duikers, pug-marks of cats) give vital information on the presence of species, including those that are rare or hard to spot, and can be carried out alongside other types of survey work. However, this method is less robust than dung counts for estimates of relative abundance because track densities are affected by the type and dampness of the soil substrate, rainfall, and the movement patterns of animals through the survey area. Also, track size and shape change with the animal’s gait, the soil substrate, and the age of the track. Fresh tracks in an ideal soil type have well-defined, vertical edges, making it relatively easy to measure them accurately, but most tracks found will show some degree of spread as they fade. Edges become sloped and poorly defined, making measurements difficult.
As a result of these variables, similar-sized species are hard to distinguish from their tracks. Also, young animals leave tracks that resemble those of adults from a smaller species (e.g. tracks of young red duiker resemble those of adult blue duiker). Some traditional hunters have been reported to be able to distinguish the tracks of all species (Koster and Hart, 1988), but, so far, biologists have been unable to come up with objective methods to do this, and most track surveys lump forest antelopes together into two or three size categories. Species identification is less of a problem for cats since only the leopard and the golden cat are present in forests, and they are very different in size.
In applying the method either of the following can be adopted i) Opportunistic – wherever tracks are seen. ii) Strategic – search any area where there is a damp, soft or sandy damp substrate which will take an impression of a light footprint. Ideal places include damp, sandy or dusty areas on roads and paths and sandy stream beds (in the dry season) or river banks. iii) Systematic – set up track stations at regular intervals (e.g. every 50–100m) along a transect. Clear all leaves and debris and rake the ground so that it is smooth and soft enough to take animal footprints (Wilkie and Finn, 1990).
3.19.3 Territory Marking In this method the locations of individual territorial males are determined and then plotted on a map of the study site. However, it is very time consuming and labour-intensive, and probably would be used only if you were concerned with a particular species or population. This technique can be used for lacerated lizards and for agamas, which are markedly territorial. ANALYSIS OF CURRENT METHODS FOR CONDUCTING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES 33
3.19.4 Collection of animal remains This method can be used as supplementary to other detail methods; it works on the principle of present /absence of a particular species by observing remains of the animal body such as skeleton, bones, feathers and any other animal part. The part collected is identified and the identified organism is added on the species list collected using other methods explained above.
3.20 Identification There are very few field guides that give details of indirectly method such as footprint size and dimensions for larger terrestrial mammals. Walker (1991) has developed a field guide that covers mostly savannah mammals. Similarly, Stuart and Stuart (1995, 1997) guide may be helpful for people working in East Africa. The other available books by Liebenberg (2000), covers mostly species restricted to southern Africa, it can be used to identify most of the Savanna species mammals using foot prints or other spoor. The field guide developed for South Africa is commonly used to identify species found in most Savanna land of Tanzania.
3.21. Sweep net sampling
A sweep net is a funnel-shaped net attached to a long-handled frame that is swept back and forth through the foliage. Collections of flying insects, or those inhabiting foliage, can be made using a sweep net (Brewer et al, 2010). Several types of nets are available, with standard sizes being either 30.5 cm (12 in) or 38 cm (15 in) diameter. Aerial nets have an open mesh collection bag and are used mainly to capture flying insects, although they can be swept through light vegetation such as tall grass (Brewer et al, 2010).
Beating nets are made from canvas and are used to sweep through vegetation that could snag and tear a mesh bag. A single back and forth sweep covering a 1500 to 1800 arc is considered as a single sweep. The number of sweeps taken should be recorded so that samples can be quantified as the number of insects per sweep (Brewer et al, 2010). Collected insects can be identified and counted live in the net, or placed in a container with a piece of paper towel soaked with non-acetone nail polish remover to kill them to facilitate counting. Sweep net have been used to sample sampling insects and invertebrates in various studies including the resource assessment for establishment of IKONA WMA (Nahonyo et al., 2007); Jozani-Chwaka bay proposed National Park biodiversity assessment (Nahonyo et al., 2002)
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Advantages • Offer opportunity to identify live insects
• Efficient / fast
• Fairly objective
• Accepted with ET’s in some regions
Dis advantages • Data varies with skill level of the user
• Problematic in high winds
• Tougher to use with tall plants
• Moderately fatiguing
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4.0 IDENTIFIED DISCREPANCY AND GAPS IN INVENTORY METHODS
In assessing and analyzing the available methods used the major discrepancies identified are; lack of clear definition of boundaries between ecological inventories and survey, same methods used in same detail to carry out survey and inventories, what details goes where and required for what purposes, lack of integration of methods or techniques for conducting inventories and in ability to accommodate cross cutting issues in ecological inventories.
• Lack of clear definition of boundaries between ecological inventory and normal ecological survey
Understanding the boundaries between the typical inventory and normal ecological survey is important in deciding what data should be gathered for a particular undertaking. The major difference between inventory and survey lies on the level of detail and type of data to be gathered. Inventories encompasses any quantifiable, repeatable collection of key information required to identify, characterize, assess and ascertain the quality, status and state of environmental/ecological entity/variable or ecological area that provide the basis for management and monitoring of the resources; on the other hand survey is collection of data to quickly or broadly obtain an overview or characterization of the areas in terms of species present, characteristics and trends of the particular phenomenon.
In essence the two concepts differ in level of detail collected, and each inventory is guided by the purpose/objective, scale or scope and also the resources available. Lacking clear understanding of the two definitions result into inconsistence of data collected, inconsistence in level of detailed gathered, different storage format and difficult to unify for future monitoring use. Inconsistence in terms of data gathered has created debatable arguments in reported data and particularly trend in wildlife population; for example, the Bauer et al., (2015) report indicated a decline in Lion population by 66% between 1993 and 2014 in Tanzania which raised concerns for hunting tourism. However, Riggio et al., (2016) criticized results as the Bauer et al., (2015) distorted population estimates and erroneously computed a 100% decline (Riggio et al); which called for more lion surveys in Tanzania to correctly assess lion numbers and trends. This absence of consensus comes mainly from the lack of consistent and repeated population surveys across much of the species range (Bauer et al., 2015). In most assessed discipline, it was common to find that the same methods are used in collecting data, for survey and for inventories. Thus understanding the boundaries will enable the researcher to capture the level of details required for ecological inventories as opposed to normal ecological survey.
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Therefore, lack of clear understanding of the boundaries has resulted into most of the inventory data collected lacking required detail as it was conducted basically like a survey using survey methods.
• What details goes where and required for what purposes,
The level of details in terms of data collected for particular inventory is guided by the purpose, scale and resources available. Often baseline data gathered in different disciplines differs in level of details, methods used to collect, including the means of recording and reporting the basic information that is necessary for determining, with confidence (Finlayson et al, 2001) the status of ecological entity or protected areas in this case. The level of details in data collected should be able to respond to (i) the need /purpose/aim/goal/objective of inventory, (ii) the use of the information gathered i.e does the level of information collected provide useful information required for comprehensively addressing conservation need, (iii) are the data /information collected going to provide continuity of data with time and will it be relevant in the future and (iv) size and magnitude of impact anticipated. After judging then decides what methods will be used in gathering the required information?
In absence of standardized methods lack of required data details for ecological inventories in protected areas is common. Since most of the inventories are carried using same methods that are used in conducting ecological surveys, understanding the level of details that goes into the inventories as opposed to normal survey is important. In some cases, survey data are mistakenly used as inventory data. For example, Jozani-Chwaka bay proposed National park biodiversity and inventory report by Nahonyo et al (2002) differs in level of details with the report by Nahonyo et al (2007) on Resource assessment for IKONA WMA for instance in terms of vegetation distribution, while Jozani-Chwaka report is having fish inventory while the IKONA report does not have. More seriously is that the two reports are containing just part of the information needed for proper ecological inventory. The reports lack information like communities’ characteristics imposing pressures on resources, degradation trend and pattern, soil characteristics and distribution to name few. The data intended for inventory are more details and cut across various disciplines other than a particular discipline involved in the study. The details on inventory data collected are guided by the purpose of the inventory and the resource available in terms of financial, human resources and time to undertake an inventory.
As a result, continuous monitoring of the performance of the protected areas is limited to available information gathered during the inventory. In case additional data are generated will
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find the previous collected data are already obsolete requiring updates. To avoid the problem standardization of the inventory methods will yield comprehensive data covering all required parameter in unified details. In case update is required all the date will be updated to the same level thus simplifying monitoring improve efficiency in monitoring protected areas
• Lack of integration on methods for conducting inventories
Given the diverse nature of the ecosystems and so the diversity of the disciplines, ecological inventory has to be integrative to cover all the discipline of the ecosystem. At the moment each discipline is conducting ecological inventories in isolation without integrating the inputs from other discipline. Ecological inventory focusing on gathering useful information for multiple-use management requires inter-disciplinary approach; however inter-disciplinary research teams are few, and there has been little investment in developing research or survey methods that integrate biological, social and economic information. Lack of integrative methods for comprehensively gathering ecological inventories that are inclusive of the discipline has been a major issue of concern. Associated with lack of integrative methods is absence of interdisciplinary team that foresee the needed inputs from various discipline to ascertain the quality and level of detail on data that are inclusive enough to capture required ecological inventory objectives.
The current management approaches in protected areas recognises the importance of local communities and actually have integrated local communities in conservation. Prior to establishment, all wildlife management areas currently in operation were subjected to resource evaluation where a multi-disciplinary team conducted the job. For example, the reports by Nahonyo et al, 2002 resource assessment for proposed establishment of Jozani- Chwaka bay National Park; resource assessment for proposed establishment of IKONA WMA (Nahonyo et al, 2007); a description of biophysical landscape in South Nguru Forest Reserve (Doggart and Loserian, 2007). Similarly, two Landscape wide studies i.e Ruvuma Landscape Scenarios (WWF, 2014) and Greater Ruaha and Greater Kitulo Kipengere Landscapes (SPANEST, 2016) are good success stories in applying muti-disciplinary approach/ team in gathering information for the management and monitoring of the Landscape issues.
In absence of integration of the methods or approach in gathering ecological data we are witnessing great skewness of monitoring data on trend of wildlife number issued by TAWIRI with little inputs from trend of change in habitats, human population, level of encroachment and trends which in a way impact the integrity of the protected area. This level of detail requires a comprehensive data from wildlife, plants, social and physical perspectives of the study which
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will better be gathered through integration of methods or development of interdisciplinary approach and development of multi-disciplinary team in undertaking Ecological inventory.
• Inability to accommodate cross cutting issues in ecological inventories
Since most of methods used are designed to capture data for specific discipline they lack ability to capture cross cutting issues in ecological inventory. Ecological inventories are meant to collect data in totality inclusive enough to highlight characteristics of the ecosystem, possible threats, means to combat the threats and progressive monitoring and evaluation to achieve sustainable management. Thus some of the parameter required to meet sustainable management comes from social, economic disciplines, some are policy issues while others are environmental. To comprehensively capture and give a fair treatment of the aspect experts from each of the discipline touched or likely to be impacted positively or negatively has to be involved and integrated in to have a say in addressing issues related to its discipline. Therefore, having the methods that can accommodate cross cutting issues in ecological inventories and sustainable management is a key component in achieving sustainable resource management.
4.1 Lesson Learnt From the Assessment
The Following are lesson learnt from the assessment; • Each discipline is working independent in terms of developing methods, collecting data, storage of data and processing for use in resource management. This tendency has created a lot of gaps in unifying data collected from various discipline and thus causing difficult in planning effective resource monitoring, evaluation and management. Most of the output gathered from different discipline is desecrate in nature in terms of level of details, format, types of data gathered, storage format and analysis methods thus lacking continuity once a particular project or inventory ends.
For example, REDD + report by WWF (2015) and the NAFORMA report (2014) contains details on vegetation and carbon stock information with little emphasis on trend of degradation, wildlife and community perspective putting pressure on the resources. Similarly, aerial census conducted by TAWIRI focus solely on wildelife population and distribution giving little emphasis on habitats in terms of detail vegetation characterization, distribution abundance that provide habitat to wildlife (TAWIRI, 2012, 2013, 2014). Differences in level of details on data collected, check for example wet seasonal larger carnivore census report in AWKE (Kissui and Kenana, 2013) and Amboseli –west Kilimanjaro large carnivore census (Kissui et al, 2012) while
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the 2013 report indicates data on stripped Hyena, the 2012 report had no records on stripped Hyena. Similarly, Cheetar and wild dog were spotted on 2013 report whereas these animals and leopards were mentioned in questionnaires.
Therefore, different level of details, differences in storage format, processing format result into difficult in unifying the data into one database that can easily be accessed in continuous monitoring changes in resources for effective management
• Lack of stakeholder involvement in terms of development and designing tools for undertaking inventory, application of developed tools and participation in ecological inventories. Most of the methods developed are discipline based and have been developed by those experts in the particular discipline without consideration of the local knowledge, community need and applicability. There is an urgent need to involve the local communities from developing inventory methods, designing community friendly methods that are cheap in terms of purchase and applying in the field, data processing and updating of the method whenever necessary. This will enhance ownerships of the undertaking to the community and will improve performance of the community in undertaking effective ecological inventory for monitoring and management of resources
• Single discipline based methods are not sufficient to comprehensively collect ecological inventory data. Therefore, we need to develop inter-disciplinary methods that go together with inter-disciplinary research teams to undertake ecological inventory for effective resource monitoring and evaluation for sustainable management.
• In areas where multi-disciplinary approach or team has been implemented in resources assessment a fair collection and treatment of the data can be observed and a better monitoring is being done (case of landscape studies and resource data for establishing protected areas and WMA)
• We need to develop an inventory guide for protected areas which will provide steps to follow in undertaking ecological inventory for protected areas, stipulate level of details on data to be collected, specify analytical tools, propose storage format and access and guide utilization of the stored data for monitoring purposes.
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5.0 RECOMMENDED METHODS FOR CARRYING OUT ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES
5.1 Overview
After looking at available methods and narrowing down to most frequently used and efficient methods for inventorying, this section provide a recommendation of the methods that should be used for conducting ecological inventories in Tanzania’s protected areas. The basis for the recommendation is drawn from the effectiveness of the method in capturing most required inventory data, ability to sample significant large area, usability by local experts, local community and para trained personnel, cost of securing the necessary tools for carrying out the ecological inventory, easy of field operations to apply the method, and the ability of the method to yield results or data that can monitored over time within the protected areas and the large landscape ecosystem.
The recommendations are given to reflect most effective methods for each group constituting the large biodiversity of the protected area to encourage a multidisciplinary team or approach in carrying out ecological inventories. By deploying a multidisciplinary team assurance of the coverage of all or nearly all taxa or groups information will be collected using correct methods and can be used with confidence for management of protected area and long term monitoring of the protected areas’ resources.
5.2 Recommended methods for inventorying vegetation
The recommended methods are transects combined with vegetation plots of varying dimension (either rectangular for mountainous, square or circular for fairly flat terrain). The use of this method can sample large area, collect sufficient data such as species richness, abundance in terms of density, biomass and cover for monitoring changes even successional dynamics when permanent vegetation plots are used (Tuxill and Nabhan, 1998). The permanent plot provide opportunity for researcher to census plots in the vegetation plot noting species, size of each species, and re-census to establish a trend of change over time, (NAFORMA, 2015). Within the plots other ecological characteristic like soil types, aspect, moisture regime, elevation, microclimate species association and distribution which influence vegetation and create differences between microclimate can be captured. To increase efficiency and reliability of data consultation with local communities in terms of interviews, mapping and other participatory appraisal activities with local residents can help in
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indicating where best to locate plots for sampling vegetation representative of both age and specific disturbance regime (WWF REDD+, 2015). Similarly, consultation with ecological experts from the Department of Botany University confirmed and recommended that, the combination of transect methods with permanent plots and supplemented with opportunistic survey to enrich species lists yield sufficient inventory data.
Transects combined with plots either permanent or temporary plots can collect data on abundance, of species in terms of density, diameter at breast height frequency, and height of the species. These data are important in describing the forest structure, assessing the resource available per height enabling allocation of quarters for forest utilization. Transect method is easy to use as local community can utilise locally available materials like rope, steps to measure the transect length and take vegetation measurement such as height, cbh/ dbh etc. WWF REDD + involved the communities in surveying coastal forest.
This method is commonly used in Tanzania to study ecological characteristics of plants for example the NAFORMA Project conducted a National Forest Inventory across the Country in 2013 (NAFORMA, 2015). Similarly, WWF REDD+ project applied the method in supplementing NAFORMA study focusing on less covered vegetation types (WWF REDD+, 2015).
5.3 Recommended methods for inventorying herpetology
There are, therefore, few standard methods that have been used to quantify amphibian and reptile populations. Those that have been used in Africa have dealt with forest, leaf-litter- dwelling anurans and reptiles in Cameroon (Scott, 1982), or anurans in open areas such as small seasonal breeding ponds (Bowker and Bowker, 1979). No satisfactory methods have yet been developed to sample the arboreal tree frogs, the fossorial apodans, or canopy- dwelling reptiles (Howell, 2002).
Field guides currently available for reptiles are Branch (1998), which covers southern Africa and includes many common woodland (but not forest) species found in Eastern Africa; MacKay and MacKay (1985), which gives details on how to identify venomous snakes in East Africa; and Broadley and Howell (1991), which provides a key and annotated list of species for Tanzania have detailed these recommended methods for collecting inventory data for herpetology.
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5.3.1 Amphibian and reptile other than snakes
The methods that are recommended for amphibians and harmless reptiles are drift fence with buckets pitfall traps, audio-visual records (for frogs and toads), forest litter plots, opportunistic search and funnel traps. The combination of these methods together has been used in estimating the abundance and distribution of the taxa in forests. However, the applications of the same methods are recommended for protected areas such as National Parks, WMAs and Game Reserve. The most important issue is taking extra precautions when visiting the traps. The observer can be accompanied by trained armed game officer and all recording and processing of the specimen be carried out at the camp where security is maximum.
Consultation with herpetology specialist from the University of Dar es Salaam department of Zoology and wildlife conservation pointed out that all the inventory work done in Tanzania combines the recommended methods to provide data on species richness, distribution abundance and monitoring trend of change in population and resource abundance in forest reserve in Eastern Arc Mountains such as Nguru South Forest Reserve (Doggart and Loserian, 2007), Uluguru Mountains Forest Reserve (Frontier, 2005) Coastal Forests (Frontier, 2005), valuating resource in WMAs (Nahonyo et al, 2007) and resource assessment for upgrading Saa Nane Game Reserve to National Park (Nahonyo et al, 2008) and inventorying biodiversity in Jozani-Chwaka bay (Nahonyo et al, 2002)
5.3.2 Snakes, geckos and other harmful reptile
The snakes trap technique developed by Fritts (1988) has proved useful even without bait and it can be used as a simple funnel trap for both lizards and snakes. The technique is suitable in assessing populations of a particular species thus can yield sufficient data for reptile inventories.
Similarly, reptiles data particularly species richness can be collected through search methods in their habitats such as under rocks, the bark of trees, and sometimes they may also be seen basking on and above the ground (Howell, 2002). When surveying reptile, it can be helpful to place sheets of metal, wood and cardboard besides tracks and roads to attract reptiles. Night time collecting is also required for some snakes, geckoes (none of the east African species give loud vocalisations), and chameleons; the latter are often visible when asleep, clinging to vegetation at different levels above the ground.
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5.4 Recommended methods for inventorying small mammals, rodents and insectivores
The most recommended methods in collecting inventory data for small mammals, rodents, and insectivores are those using live trapping. There is a wide range of live-traps to select from including Longworth and Sherman live-traps (for sampling rodents, small rats), havahart live-traps (available from international suppliers) are effective for sampling species such as African giant rat, and hyrax (dassie), and use of pit-fall traps for catching mammal species that may not be caught in other types of live-traps (Davies and Howell, 2002).
This includes species that do not like the baits on offer and/or species that forage widely and do not follow runs (including shrews and other insectivores). These traps are very lightweight, and Shermans have the added advantage that they can fold flat for storage and easy carrying in the field, as for havahart live-traps they are not collapsible and thus rather bulky (Davies and Howell 2002). The application of these methods is backed up with views collected from small mammal’s specialist from department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation of the University of Dar es Salaam. The combination approach of these recommended methods have been applied in collecting inventory data for Jozani Forest Reserve in Zanzibar (Nahonyo et al, 2002), assessment of resource values and threats to Coastal Forest of Mtwara (Frontier, 2005) and Biodiversity assessment of the Uluguru Mountains Forest Reserves (Frontier, 2005).
5.5 Recommended methods for inventorying shy, hiding and nocturnal
The recommended method for gathering inventory data for shy, hiding and nocturnal animals are through camera trapping. This method is very useful to survey elusive and nocturnal animals. Typically, this method is best suited to take pictures of ground dwelling mammals including carnivores, antelopes and rodents. The method yields sufficient inventory data particularly on hiding animals that are difficult to spot and cannot be captured using other traps. The method has been applied by Doggart and Loserian (2007) in resource survey of the Nguru South Forest Reserve.
5.6 Recommended methods for inventorying birds and bats
The recommended methods for inventorying birds and bats is by using mist netting, point count and timed species count. These methods have yielded significant information of species richness, population distribution and abundance. Mist net combined with capture mark (by
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ringing the bird) recapture method has long been used in studying birds and has been used to follow weight changes, moult, breeding seasons and movement in individual birds (Bennun and Howell, 2002). Employing capture-mark-recapture techniques, it can also be used to estimate population size.
Point count (for bats emergence counts and roost counts) method has been used to compile a quick species list of the surveyed area. The method is suitable in sampling small area and has been used to survey birds in different protected areas in Kenya and Tanzania (Bennun and Howell, 2002).
5.7 Recommended methods for inventorying large mammals
For inventorying large mammals, the following are recommended methods; animal census survey, total count and call back play while counting responding carnivores to the call. Wildlife censuses have been carried out by TAWIRI using various methods including Systematic Reconnaissance Flight (SRF) and Total Counts (TC). Over 95% of wildlife census conducted by TAWIRI has been using SRF in providing update of elephant status and other large mammals in terms of population size, distribution, density and trends of the counted animals (TAWIRI, 2014). Total count in form of road count, transect count and aerial count is recommended in small area where details of the number of each species are required for example in areas conservation for utilization is applied (TAWIRI, 2013). The data generated has been used very extensively in the management of large mammals in protected areas. The method is useful in covering large area with sparsely distributed vegetation since dense vegetation and bushes does not allow clear visibility for the observation of the herd and for taking picture for counting the number of animal.
For carnivores like lion, hyena, wild dogs call back play is recommended where sound or vacuolization of calling carnivore, sound wildebeest being killed and combination of vulture and hyena scrambling on carcass is played and responding carnivore to the sound are countered.
To enrich the species list data opportunistic recording of animal signs and other indirectly method can be adopted to add value to the animal census carried out using the preferred methods.
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To support these recommendations, consultation with ecological experts from Wildlife Division pointed out that most of the ecological inventory in the division is carried out by TAWIRI. TAWIRI are responsible in carrying out animal census in all protected areas in Tanzania, within TAWIRI there is a section established by Wildlife Division abbreviated as Conservation Information and Monitoring Unit (CIMU) which are responsible for detailing statistics of the wildlife resources in protected area (wildlife management areas, game reserves and national parks). Thus TAWIRI was in a better position to provide inputs and comment on the recommended methods and also provide valuable contribution toward standardizing the methods for carrying ecological inventories in Tanzania. It was learnt also that at Wildlife Division there is a repository where all data collected by TAWIRI are being kept. Most of the data are based on census survey carried out by TAWIRI.
Ecological experts from TAWIRI consulted during the review commented that; there are many methods that are used to inventory different animal species. Each method is suitable for a particular species in size of the area under study (TAWIRI, 2013). The most determining factor for choosing a particular inventory method is the purpose/objective the inventory itself, the size of the area to be surveyed and the resources available. In matching these criteria 95% of TAWIRI inventory has culminates into using the systematic reconnaissance flight census survey methods in assessing large protected areas and only Serengeti and Tarangire National Parks have been censured using total counts. Application of Systematic Reconnaissance Flight is on large extensive areas where terrain is fairly flats and animals are more or less evenly distributed. Similarly, when resources are limited the use of systematic reconnaissance flight is more suitable as it yields sufficient information to characterize animal census data.
In areas designated for conservation for utilisation application of total counter becomes important as this method can generate information on quantity per species which can be used to allocate quarters for utilization such as hunting blocks. Similarly, total count is more applicable in small areas and where resources are available.
As for carnivores call back play method has yielded a significant result where carnivore’s responds on plated back calls and counting of pride size or responding carnivore is done. This method has been applied in assessing the population of carnivores in Amboseli –Kilimanjaro ecosystem (TAWIRI, 2013). As an effort to standardize methods for carrying out ecological inventories of wildlife, TAWIRI has prepared an inventory manual, which is in the press that will be useful in guiding various researchers and actors carrying ecological inventories in protected areas.
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5.8 Triangulation of the inventory methods
Inventory methods recommended are required to generate data that can be used by various stakeholders for making informed decision about conservation in protected areas in Tanzania. For effective protection of these areas not only inventory data are required, there are other key areas addressing the social economic perspective of the protected area. What communities are surrounding the area, what is their livelihood need, how do they meet this and so on. All these issues are important in characterizing the resources status of the protected area. In undertaking inventory, it is important to address the social characteristics of the surrounding communities as this will determine the status of the protected area in terms of resource rich, how disturbed is, level of encroachment. This kind of data can be collected and addressed by carrying out a social economic baseline of the community. Therefore, as matter of triangulation a combination of methods gathering social characteristic, biological data and ecological need to be integrated and verified through triangulation. To enrich the inventory data, it is important to employ addition means of gaining information through opportunistic survey, market survey, consultation with key informants and literature review.
5.8.1 Opportunistic Survey
Information on ecological parameters can be gathered using opportunistic survey where random walking within the ecological entity (forest reserve, National park or any natural resource site) can encounter and discover unique species outside the systematic sampling applied in the area. This approach is usually done in ad hock manner for the purpose of chance finding of the unique or any missed information particularly to enrich species list or species richness. Good example is the discovery of the Kihansi spray toad in Kihansi River Gorge.
5.8.2 Market survey
Market survey entails a visit to various local markets where various forest products are sold; the visit can yield significant information on various forest products which might have not been covered by systematic survey. Thus to enrich the inventory, market survey has to be applied involving local communities, traditional healers, retired forest officers and traders who are accessing the markets for various products.
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5.8.3 Key informant interviews
Consulting key informants who have lived long in the area, who are familiar with the ecological characteristics of the area and perhaps have been involved in different ways in managing or utilizing the area is another useful way of adding ecological information. This approach first involves local community and second it utilizes local knowledge in gathering and collecting inventory data for a particular ecological area. This kind of approach has been used by Institute of traditional medicine in Dar es Salaam collecting species with medicinal values and their use.
5.8.4 Literature review
Review of available documentation on a particular species, status of a species or habitat or community is used to inform researchers on the particular trend of vegetation such as documented change of vegetation over time due to changing land use and human history. Review of literature is subject to availability of documentation for a particular ecological entity or species of interest. In most cases the written information about the land use changes, landscape ecology of the area, status of the species and protected areas are rarely documented thus posing significant absence of the materials to review. Similarly, there is a tendency of skewing the research to some few areas where people have drawn attention on it. For example, there is significantly high documentation of the Serengeti National Parks than Katavi or Mkomazi or even Sadani National parks. Thus designing a uniform monitoring approach to all National parks some may lack baseline data that are compatible with the planned monitoring tool or approach.
5.9 Operation and need assessment for effective method used
5.9.1 Effective operation of the recommended methods
Applying methods recommended for inventorying vegetation, wildlife ranging from herpetology, aquatic organism (fish), small mammals to large mammals requires a number of considerations that include i) planning the inventory ii) conduct a need assessment iii) preparation iv) organisation and v) deploy the team. Planning for inventory: planning an ecological inventory require considerations of the purpose and objective of the inventory, resource (financial, human, time) available for
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inventory, size of the area to be surveyed and scope of the work. From the scope of work various planning attribute are developed to reflect the activities that will be carried during the inventory exercise.
Need assessment: in carrying out any ecological inventory a researcher has to conduct a need assessment to clearly ascertain the needed resources, equipment and tools. The assessment further identifies the available resources in terms of personnel, equipment, fiscal resources and time required to conduct an inventory. Based on the objective of the inventory, resources available and the area to be inventoried the appropriate method will be chosen that reflect the need and the available resources in terms of time and financial budget. In general, the need assessment has yielded significant gap in the following key areas. • Shortage of well-trained field based human resources; there is acute shortage of trained staff to undertake ecological inventories. The shortage is massive at all levels from those developing the methods, those preparing the working tools, field officers that implements the developed methods and tools, data processing and database managers. This shortage call for massive investment in training human resource for development and implementation of ecological inventories for efficient resource management.
• Skewness of inventory data; there is increased skewness of data to certain discipline while leaving other discipline unresearched or with obsolete data that are not compatible in terms of time frame, format and level of details. Most of the available data for example in Tanzania protected areas are focusing on animal census which also focuses to specific big game of interest such as Elephants, wild dogs and perhaps Chimpanzee. But data on other organisms e.g. invertebrates which constitutes part of the ecosystem are poorly researched and documented. For example, habitat data and characteristics, pressures causing habitat loss and fragmentation or diversity of small mammals etc.
• Lack of unified or integrated methods; absence of integrated methods that bring together inter-disciplinary team work and inter-disciplinary collection of data for comprehensive analysis of inventory data is missing. This needs to be considered seriously and find how best an interdisciplinary team and methods capable addressing cross cutting issues in ecological monitoring and management of natural resources can be developed.
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• Discontinuity and lack of consistency of data; since various discipline conduct and collect data using their own methods which are not unified there is increasing problem of data discontinuity and consistency once on project ends. Similarly lack of clear or uniform format of data collection and storage has resulted into discontinuity of monitoring changes of a particular trend over time making it difficult to predict anticipated change. We need to improve this by standardizing data collection methods, format, storage and unifying level of details to be gathered.
• Community involvement in planning, implementing and undertaking ecological inventories. Local community are equipped with massive knowledge which can be integrated in the in the course of undertaking assessment. Involving the local community will enhance ownership of the programme and will help in planning alternative income earning and reduce pressure on resources
• Financial constraint; there is serious shortage of fiscal resources to cater for purchase of equipment, development of new database, updating the data available, processing the available data to be used for management purposes and for training staff. We need to invest in human resource so that little resource available can be used to achieve big objectives.
Thus understanding the gaps provide an avenue for planning and utilizing limited resources available in all aspect starting from experts, financial, equipment and time available to carry out ecological inventories to achieve intended objectives. Due to limited resources many ecological sites have not been inventoried, making it even more crucial in planning how little available resources will be prioritised in which ecological site. Thus, conducting a need assessment will guide the researcher in effectively utilising the resources available in capturing suitable data for management and monitoring of an ecosystems. The objective or purpose of the inventory, the available resources both financial and experts together with the area to be inventoried will guide the choice of method for carrying out an inventory and therefore the equipment and expertise to prepare. As for vegetation inventories effective inventory requires organisation of the team to include taxonomists (people with plants’ identification skills) experienced ecologist in designing sampling methods and procedures, tools for collecting specimen and for pressing collected specimen for further identification. Also involvement of local communities in guiding the
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team where to access and how to assess vegetation community and perhaps may help in the process of choosing where to set a camp and other forest needs. To capture the most representative of the area increasing sampling intensity is the most important attribute and this is guided by the purpose of the inventory, resources available and the area to be inventoried. As for herpetology inventory combination of different methods highlighted yields the best results. Sometime inclusion of artificial habitats seems to work best for example for reptile placing along a natural barrier, such as a log, large rock, and other obstacles (Howell, 2002) to attract reptile. It might also be possible to use it with a drift fence, in an area with hard or rocky ground which would be unsuitable for pitfall traps (Howell, 2002). Similarly, in inventorying small mammals, birds and bats no single methods that worked perfectly rather a combination of various available methods which will be guided by the objective of the inventory is suitable for conducting ecological inventories. In surveying large mammals, the choice of the method to be used is again guided by the purpose and objective of the inventory and the area to be covered, species to be censured, resources available, size and terrain of the area to be inventoried. Therefore, choice of suitable standard method for a particular species, involving experienced personnel, increasing sampling intensity is an important as it increases the accuracy of data collected. Although different species are censured using different methods it is worthwhile combining various sampling approach to increase the representation of the area sampled or under investigation. This can be achieved by surveying the area in two different season wet season and dry season, day time search as well as night-time search.
5.10 Improvement needed
• Development of inter-disciplinary research team that form a mult-disciplinary approach in undertaking ecological inventory.
• Develop ecological inventory methods that user friendly capable of capturing cross cutting issues in resource monitoring and evaluation for effective resource management
• Effective training of the human resource field based staff that are well equipped in capturing ecological inventory
• Provide sufficient financial support in terms of funds, equipment, database and tools
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• Develop database to form the bases of future development for continuous monitoring and management of natural resources.
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6.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Review of methods for conducting ecological inventory was carried out for the purpose of identifying available methods, analyse the discrepancies in collecting inventory data for the purpose of harmonising and standardising the applicable methods in conducting ecological inventories for effective management and monitoring of protected areas in Tanzania. To achieve the task a review of available documentation on ecological methods available and applicable in Tanzania, East Africa and other part of the World was carried out. Similarly, consultation with key stakeholders that were grouped as developer or trainers of the applicable methods which constituted various departments at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) playing both part as developer and applier of the methods, wildlife division and TANAPA as high level users and WMAs under their umbrella of Authorised Association consortium as the end users.
The report highlight the need for standardisation of the methods, why do we need to standardize, it further identifies the available methods in conducting ecological studies and point out which methods are frequently used in carrying out ecological survey. The report further addresses the recommended methods for each particular field of ecology and seek opinion on the recommended methods from the experts and those using the methods in carrying out ecological inventory.
It is important to appreciate that despite the various methods available in carrying out ecological survey in different discipline still there is great overlap of the methods particularly in sampling design and combination of more than one technique in increasing the sampled areas for capturing more representation of the sampled area. Thus standardizing the methods will yield a more standardized data, in terms of depth of the data collected, recording style and format analytical procedures and mean of managing the data for further use in management and monitoring of protected areas.
The report has summarized the individual methods just to highlight what it is and how it works but the details of the methods are described in referenced books or manuals that the report is citing. For detail of the individual method the ready should opt for the referenced book or manual since this report provide the simple analysis of the available methods and how best can be applied in capturing ecological inventory data for the management and monitoring of protected area in Tanzania.
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7.0 REFERENCES Bauer, H., Chapron, G., Nowell, K., Henschel, P., Funston, P., Hunter, L.T.B., Macdonald, D.W. & Packer, C. (2015) Lion (Panthera leo) populations are declining rapidly across Africa, except in intensively managed areas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112, 14894–14899
Bennun, L.A. and Howell, K.(2002) a field survey manual for vertebrates: Birds. In Davies, G. and Hoffmann, M. (2002). African Forest Biodiversity: a field survey manual for vertebrates. Earthwatch Institute (Europe)
Bowker, R.G. and Bowker, M.H. (1979). Abundance and distribution of anurans in a Kenyan pond. Copeia 1979: 278–285.
Branch, B. (1998). Field Guide to the Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa. 3rd edn. Struik, Cape Town, South Africa.
Brewer, M. J, Anderson D. J., Armstrong S.J., Villanueva R.T., Biles S. P. (2010). Comparison Of Methods For Sampling Plant Bugs On Cotton In South Texas
Broadley, D.G. & Howell, K.M. (1991). A checklist of the reptiles of Tanzania, with synoptic keys. Syntarsus 1: 1–70.
Davies, G. and Howell, K. (2002). a field survey manual for vertebrates: Small mammals rodents, vemits and Bats. In Davies, G. and Hoffmann, M. (2002). African Forest Biodiversity: a field survey manual for vertebrates. Earthwatch Institute (Europe)
Davies, G. and Hoffmann, M. (2002). African Forest Biodiversity: a field survey manual for vertebrates. Earthwatch Institute (Europe)
Doggart, N. and D. Loserian (eds.) (2007). South Nguru Mountains: A Description of the biophysical landscape. TFCG Technical Paper No 11. DSM Tz pp 1 – 71. Finlayson CM, Davidson NC & Stevenson NJ (eds) 2001. Wetland inventory, assessment and monitoring: Practical techniques and identification of major issues. Proceedings of Workshop 4, 2nd International Conference on Wetlands and Development, Dakar, Senegal, 8.14 November 1998, Supervising Scientist Report 161, Supervising Scientist, Darwin.
Field Museum of Natural History [FMNH], (2004). Rapid Biological Inventories. www.fieldmuseum.org/research_collections/ecp/ecp_sites/rapidinventories/
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Fritts, T.H. (1988). Instructions for making screen-wire snake traps. In: The Brown Tree Snake, Boiga irregularis, a Threat to Pacific Islands, pp. 28–30. US Fish Wildl. Serv., Biol Rep. 88 (31), 36 pp.
Frontier, (2005), Biodiversity Survey of Coastal Forest in Mtwara Region (CEPF Funded project)
Frontier, (2005). Biodiversity Survey of Uluguru Mountains in Morogoro (CARE International Funded by UNDP/ GEF)
Grieg-Smith, P. 1983. Quantitative plant ecology. Studies in Ecology, vol. 9. 3rd edition. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Heyer, R.W., Donneley, M.A., McDiarmid, R.W., Hayek, L-A.C. & Foster, M.S. (1994). Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity. Standard methods for Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, USA.
Hunter., Anderson, W. (2004) Rapid Biological and Ecological Inventory and Assessment of the Cajon Bonito Watershed, Sonora, Mexico. Part II, Technical Report: Using the Variable Transect
Howell, K. (2002). a field survey manual for vertebrates: Amphibians and Reptiles the Herptiles. In Davies, G. and Hoffmann, M. (2002). African Forest Biodiversity: a field survey manual for vertebrates. Earthwatch Institute (Europe)
Kissui B. M, Kenana L. and Bitok E. (2012) Amboseli-West Kilimanjaro Large carnivore census report 2012.
Kissui B. M, and Kenana L. (2013) Amboseli-West Kilimanjaro Large carnivore wet season census report 2013.
Koster, S.H. & Hart, J.A. (1988). Methods of estimating ungulate populations in tropical forests. Afr.J. Ecol. 26: 117–126.
Liebenberg, L. (2000). Photographic Guide to Tracks and Tracking in Southern Africa. New Holland, South Africa.
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MacKay, A. and MacKay, J. (1985). Poisonous Snakes of Eastern Africa and the Treatment of their Bites. Published by the authors, Nairobi, Kenya.
NAFORMA, (2015). National forest resources monitoring and assessment of Tanzania Mainland Main Results. MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES & TOURISM TANZANIA FOREST SERVICES AGENCY in collaboration with the government of Finland and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of The United Nations
Nahonyo, C. L., Lyaruu, H.V.M., Msuya, C. A., Masao, C. A., Mligo, C., Suya, T. B., and Chambi, A. (2007). Status of Biological Resources In The Proposed IKONA Wildlife Management Area (PWMA) In Serengeti District, Mara Region, Tanzania
Nahonyo, C. L., Sangu, G. and Bayona, D. G. (2008). Report on Ecological Carrying Capacity of Saanane Island Proposed National Park, Mwanza, Tanzania. TANAPA.
Nahonyo, C. L., Mwasumbi, l. B., Eliapenda S., Msuya, C., Mwansasu, C. Suya, T. M., Mponda B. O. and Kihaule P. (2002). Jozani - Chwaka Bay Proposed National Park Biodiversity Inventory Report. Care Tanzania and Department Of Commercial Crops, Fruits And Forestry
Norton-Griffiths, M. (1978). Counting Animals. Nairobi: African Wildlife Foundation.
Nummelin, M. (1990). Relative habitat use of duikers, bush pigs, and elephants in virgin and selectively logged areas of the Kibale Forest, Uganda. Trop. Zool. 3: 111–120.
Passmore, N. & Carruthers, V. (1995). South African Frogs: A Complete Guide. Revised edition. Southern Book Publishers and Witswatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Plumptre, A.J. (2000). Monitoring mammal populations with line transect techniques in African forests. J. Appl. Ecol. 37: 356–368.
Parker, T.A. III. (1991). On the use of tape recorders in avifaunal surveys. Auk 108: 443–444.
Riggio, J., Caro, T., Dollar, L., Durant, S.M., Jacobson, A.P., Kiffner, C., Pimm, S.L. & van
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Aarde, R.J. (2016) Lion populations may be declining in Africa but not as Bauer et al. suggest.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 10.1073/pnas.1521506113.
Rodel, M.O. (2000). Herpetofauna of West Africa, Vol.1: Amphibians of the West African Savanna. 332pp, including CD.
Rovero, F., Bracebridge, C., Loserian, D., Mndeme, A., Perkin, A. and Doggart, N (2007). Mammals of the South Nguru Mountains. In: Doggart, N. and D. Loserian (eds.) (2007). South Nguru Mountains: A Description of the biophysical landscape. TFCG Technical Paper No 11. DSM Tz pp 1– 71.
Schiotz, A. (1999). Tree Frogs of Africa. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Scott, N.J. Jr. (1982). The herpetofauna of forest litter plots from Cameroon, Africa. In: Herpetological Communities. (Ed. N.J. Scott Jr.). U.S. Dept. Int. Fish Wild Ser. Wild. Res. Rept. No. 13: 145–150.
SPANEST,(2016). Ecological Baseline Study Greater Ruaha and Greater Kitulo-Kipengere Landscapes
Stuart, C. & Stuart, T. (1995). Southern, Central and East African Mammals. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa.
Stuart, C. & Stuart, T. (1997). Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa.
Stohlgren, TJ; Falker, MB and Schell, LD (1995). A modified Whittaker nested vegetation sampling method. Vegetatio 17: 113-121.
TAWIRI, (2013). Population Status of African Elephant in Selous -Mikumi Ecosystem, Dry Season, Census Report, 2013.
TAWIRI, (2014). Population Status of African Elephant in Tarangire-- ‐Manyara Ecosystem Dry Season 2014
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Tuxill, J. and Nabhan, G. P. (1998). Plants and Protected areas: A guide to In situ management. Conservation manual. Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
URT, 1998. The National Forestry Policy. Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism Dar es Salaam: Government Printer
URT, 2007. The National Wildlife Policy. Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.
USGS/NPS, (1994). Field Methods for Vegetation Mapping USGS/NPS Vegetation Mapping Program United States Department of Interior Unite States Geological Survey and National Park Service
Wilkie, D.S. & Finn, J.T. (1990). Slash-burn cultivation and mammal abundance in the Ituri Forest, Zaïre. Biotropica 22(1): 90–99.
White, L.J.T. (1995). Factors affecting the duration of elephant dung piles in rain forest in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Afr. J. Ecol. 33: 142–150.
WWF,(2014). The Ruvuma Landscape Scenarios: Strategy towards Integrated Planning to Secure a Future for the Rapidly Changing Ruvuma Landscape.
WWF REDD+, (2015). Final Project Report of WWF REDD+ Pilot Project entitled “Enhancing Tanzanian Capacity to Deliver Short and Long Term Data on Forest Carbon Stock across the Country, Prepared and Produced by WWF Tanzania in partnership with SUA and University of York, UK
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8.0 APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Terms of References and scope of work for carrying out the assignment
1.0 Background: The PROTECT Project is a five-year USAID-funded project implemented by International Resources Group (IRG). The objective of PROTECT is to address dynamics in Tanzania that threaten biodiversity conservation and inhibit private sector-led growth in the natural resources sector. One of the PROTECT assignments is to analyze methods and techniques used in ecological inventories, identify the successful ones and recommend them to the relevant organs for implementation. Protected areas ecological inventories have not been consistent in terms of techniques applied and their relevancy. The current methods appear not to capture the full potential of existing techniques and they are used in isolation without needed triangulation and verification. The ecological inventories done authentically and through acceptable scientific standards can be used to precisely inform conservation stakeholders including decision makers as well as to effectively monitor the changes occurring in Tanzania’s protected areas, but hasn’t often been the case. These inventories are important in natural resource governance e.g. in law enactment and at addressing gaps in wildlife policy, regulations and at different important strategies. The ecological inventories shall be applied by relevant government authorities including various conservation stakeholders who are engaged in conservation at these landscapes. All these initiatives are geared towards improved sustainable use of Tanzania’s natural resources.
2.0 Purpose: The purpose of this assignment is to review the current methods for conducting an ecological inventory (including wildlife) as well as point out any discrepancy or irregularities if any in the method and ways to correct them. The study aims to identify the most useful and feasible ecological inventory’s method for Tanzania’s PAs. The outcome of this study will be used by key actors (Authorized Association Consortium (AAC), Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) and Wildlife Division (WD)] to make NRM more equitable, effective, and sustainable decision making in WMAs
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The consultant should work closely with the TANAPA, TAWIRI, AAC and other necessary key stakeholders to accomplish the work. The result of the inventory will assist AAC, TANAPA and the WD to achieve their conservation objectives.
3.0 Stakeholders The beneficiary stakeholders are communities residing in and outside WMAs and conservation organizations (governmental and non-governmental). PROTECT will recommend improvements in the present system that will improve the data and information necessary for good decision-making. PROTECT will disseminate best practices and ensuring sharing of lessons learned
4.0 Specific activities: - Analyze current methods for conducting an ecological inventory (including wildlife), emphasizing importance of triangulation
- Review key literature/studies in Tanzania and East Africa regarding the methods/techniques being applied in ecological inventories.
- Identify the most applicable inventory techniques which are user friendly in terms of cost of resources required, technology and other logistics by key conservation stakeholders, including AAC, TANAPA and WD personnel responsible for ecological
- Consult AAC, TANAPA, TAWIRI and WD to get their views regarding prioritized techniques.
- Consult the organizations/persons who have been practicing the selected techniques, ascertain perceived weaknesses and gaps as well as their recommendations/suggestions on means to enable them work effectively
- Recommend the most effective techniques including means for effective operations and need assessment including personnel, resources and ideal organizations to implement the techniques.
- Prepare and submit a first draft report, which comprises the above outlined components, to reach PROTECT by 15th October, 2015.
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- Prepare and submit a final report taking into consideration the comments and suggestions of key stakeholders by 22th October, 2015.
5.0 Deliverables: The consultant shall deliver the deliverables by email, in either Microsoft Word and/or PPT, to the PROTECT Chief of Party as well as to the Policy, Research and Advocacy Head at PROTECT, per the schedule outlined below:
Deliverables Due Dates
1. Review relevant literature: on current ecological inventories in 5 October 2015 protected areas
2. First Draft: entailing analysis of ecological inventories 15 October2015
3. Final report: Entailing ecological inventories including the 22 October suggested ones as well as means to operationalize. 2015
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Appendix 2 Questionnaire for Key Stakeholders
PROTECT is project is a five years USAID- funded project implemented by International Resource Group (IRG). The objective of PROTECT is to address dynamics in Tanzania that threaten biodiversity conservation and inhibit private sector-led growth in the natural resources sector. One of the PROTECT assignment is to analyze methods and techniques used in ecological inventories, identify the successful ones and recommend them to the relevant organs for implementation. The purpose of this assignment is to review the current methods for conducting ecological inventories for the purpose of standardizing them, and eliminating discrepancies and irregularity for easy and effective monitoring, conservation and management of protected areas. In view of that we are consulting stakeholders who develop techniques, train users of the techniques, those who apply the techniques (users) to find the most current used technique, with cost effective and easily applied by local level including AAC, and ecological experts such as TAWIRI, TANAPA, WWF and others. Help us gather the necessary information by answering few questions in this questionnaire 1. What are the key techniques applied in conducting ecological inventory in your field ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………….…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Describe the most currently used techniques in conducting ecological inventory in Tanzania particularly in protected areas. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………
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3. Rank the inventory techniques applicable and user friendly in terms of cost, resources required, technology and other logistics by stakeholders (users) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Using your expertise Can you recommend the most effective techniques ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Can you propose the most effective operational means in applying the most effective technique………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………
THANK YOU
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Appendix 3 Available Methods/ In Conducting Ecological Inventories
Given the diverse nature of the ecosystem, the biodiversity available in a particular ecosystem cannot be assessed full by single method. To capture the diverse nature of the ecosystem there are several methods used in conducting ecological inventories, these methods can be grouped to reflect the organism or the discipline constituting the entire biodiversity. In most cases each discipline has developed methods that provide sufficient data to explain the characteristic of the organism constituting that particular discipline. This section summarizes methods available that are used to characterize a particular group of organism which in total makes the biodiversity within an ecosystem.
Vegetation/plants group Common available methods in gathering ecological information on vegetation or plant group are summarized as: a) Ground survey using systematic sampling methods such as use of transects, transects and plots of varying dimension and shape, use of plot alone and plot less methods. These methods can be applied to conduct: ▪ Systematic collection and identification of species richness checklist
▪ Biotic community survey
▪ Ethnobotanical survey
▪ Eco geographical survey
▪ Population genetics studies
▪ Assessment of conservation status of a particular species b) Aerial mapping of vegetation cover; in this case vegetation cover is broadly mapped and classified using aerial photos, digital photos or satellite image. The information gathered is backed up by ground survey to generate maps classifying vegetation types. c) Literature review: review of available documentation on a particular species, status of a species or habitat or community is used to inform researchers on the particular trend of vegetation such as documented change of vegetation over time due to changing land use and human history. ANALYSIS OF CURRENT METHODS FOR CONDUCTING ECOLOGICAL INVENTORIES 64
d) The above method can be supplemented by carrying out the ▪ Opportunistic survey-observation to document uncaptured species using systematic approach
▪ Market survey of the forest products such as timber, fruits, medicinal plant species
▪ Consultations with key informants (traditional healers, elders, retired forest officers in the village, traders of forest products)
Herpetology and fish a) Inventorying using systematic sampling methods: this category include a number of sampling techniques such as live traps, dead or removal traps,
b) Sound recording: Tape Recording species calls/ vocalization
c) Search efforts: in form of timed search, timed species count, timed constrained search
d) Consultation with key informant groups
Birds, bats small mammal, medium sized mammals a) Sighting of the individual, call back play, hunter calls, attractants and observation point b) Indirect methods such as Observation of sign, tracks, trails, droppings, territory marking, feathers, Foot count and foot print identification, bones etc a) Camera trapping using infrared beam that trigger camera to take photo of the animal within the range of beam a) Capture mark recapture of species Big mammals a) Census survey -Aerial survey- can be aerial census using systematic reconnaissance flight or using aerial total count of groups, road count, transect count
b) Call back play for carnivores
c) Camera trapping using infrared beam that trigger camera to take photo of the animal within the range of beam
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d) Capture mark recapture of species e.g collaring e) Indirect methods such as Observation of sign, tracks, trails, droppings, territory marking, feathers, Foot count and foot print identification, bones etc f) Consultation with key informant groups such as hunters, elders, retired game officers g) Market survey, market places are useful in gaining information on sales of wildlife live and meat of dead animal. Here care must be taken to identify species from the smoked meat or other form of meat treatment h) Literature review, review of documentation of previous mammals, trends of change in population of species of interest and threats to biodiversity i) Identification of animals from photos and drawing by local communities, bones of dead animals or skeleton retrieval j) Fossil evidence with documentation of the previously existed animals
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Appendix 4 Requirement for field preparation
Preparation: Successful surveys require careful planning and preparation. In particular, you must think carefully about the purpose and objective of your survey, as this will determine the information that you need to obtain, and thus the methodology that is most appropriate. In addition, before you start surveying, you need to think how the data will be analysed. This is vital in order to develop an appropriate sample design. After choosing the method the researcher prepares for planned inventory; the plan include understanding how the chosen method is applied, prepare tools require Equipment: Although there is special equipment and/or personnel necessary to conduct the individual survey methods, there is some basic equipment that is common to all surveys and may be considered as essential items to be carried into the field (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002). It goes without saying that suitable clothing, footwear, field bags and camping equipment are basic necessities (Davies and Hoffmann, 2002). Similarly, Davies (2002) outlines other necessary equipment as: Notebook (with plastic bag for rain protection): most suitable is a loose-leaf binder, so that only the notes for a particular field session are taken to the field. Previous notes can then be kept elsewhere for safety, and photocopied as soon as one returns from the field session. Data recording sheets or forms: these can be designed and photo-copied in advance, or simple formats can be reproduced daily in a notebook or binder. Topographic maps of the survey area, on as large a scale as available, and map of trails, footpaths, etc. If you have produced your own map from reconnaissance surveys it can be carried in the field. Prismatic compass (in a protective case): essential, not only for making maps and determining survey routes, but also to help teams return to camp if they get lost. Pencil/pen: propelling pencils, which need no sharpening, are most convenient, or pens with waterproof (India) ink. Ordinary ballpoint pens are NOT recommended for data recording: the ink is not waterproof, and your data sheet or notebook will be a mess if it gets wet. Torches (preferably six-battery) and headlamp for night-time work (spare bulbs and batteries are essential). Watch and/or stopwatch (should be easy to read in dim light conditions).
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Field identification guides: field identification guide are important to include as will help the team identify collected species in field. There are different field identification guides for plants, animals, birds, bats etc. available in the markets, museum, herbarium and laboratories. Avoid the use of large, cumbersome reference works (which are best consulted back in the office/laboratory), and stick with lightweight, compact field guides. A species checklist for the area (if available) is advisable, or a preliminary list compiled from expected occurrences. Binoculars: these are the most essential piece of equipment for surveys of larger mammals, and especially birds. Photographic equipment: a good camera is often useful for taking photographs of survey areas, different types of habitats, evidence of human activities, captured or surveyed specimens, etc. Organisation of the team and equipment: This entails organisation of the team, equipment and logistical materials like vehicles, camping equipment, sampling and recording tools, first aid kit etc. Deploying the team to the field: when deploying the team in the field make sure that all necessary equipment and tools are with the team, take time to look at the make before departing to the field. Know exactly the team’s destination. Similarly, the vehicle to be used has to be in good order and ready for the field work to avoid spending time maintaining the vehicle in steady of doing sampling. It is important to involve local communities while you in the destination for the better choice of camping site and observation of ethical norms and tradition of the communities.
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