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Glossary Glossary

abiotic: the nonliving components of an ecosystem angle of incidence: the angle a ray of light makes absolute zero: the temperature at which all with the normal to the surface at the point of vibrations of the atoms and molecules of matter incidence cease; the lowest possible temperature angle of reflection: the angle a reflected ray makes absorption spectrum: a continuous spectrum with the normal to the surface at the point of interrupted by absorption lines or a continuous reflection spectrum having a number of discrete wavelengths anion: a negatively charged ion missing or reduced in intensity anthropogenic: generated or produced by human acceleration: the change in velocity per unit time activities ∆ a v antinode: a point on a standing wave where the ∆t displacement of the medium is at its maximum accretion: the process whereby dust and gas aphelion: the point in the Earth’s orbit that is accumulated into larger bodies like stars and planets farthest from the Sun. Currently, the Earth reaches aphelion in early July. accuracy: how close the measured value is to the standard or accepted value of that measurement aquifer: any body of sediment or rock that has sufficient size and sufficiently high porosity and acid: a compound or solution with a concentration permeability to provide an adequate supply of water of hydrogen ions greater than the neutral value from wells (corresponding to a pH value of less than 7) ash: fine pyroclastic material (less than 2 mm in acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions in diameter) water, or is a proton donor asteroid: a small planetary body in acid-base indicator: a dye that has a certain color in orbit around the Sun, larger than a an acid solution and a different color in a base meteoroid (a particle in space, less solution than a few meters in diameter) but adaptation: an inherited trait or set of traits that smaller than a planet. Many asteroids improve the chance of survival and reproduction of can be found in a belt between the orbits an organism of Mars and Jupiter. adaptive radiation: the diversification by natural asthenosphere: the part of the mantle selection, over evolutionary time, of a species or beneath the lithosphere. The group of species into several different species that asthenosphere undergoes slow flow, rather are typically adapted to different ecological niches than behaving as a rigid block, like the air resistance: a force by the air on a moving object; overlying lithosphere. the force is dependent on the speed, volume, and astronomical unit: a unit of measurement equal to mass of the object as well as on the properties of the the average distance between the Sun and Earth, i.e., air, like density about 149,600,000 (1.496 108) km albedo: the reflective property of a non-luminous atom: the smallest particle of an element that has all object. A perfect mirror would have an albedo of the element’s properties; it consists of a nucleus 100% while a black hole would have an albedo of surrounded by electrons 0%. atom: the smallest representative part of an element : A substance that has metal characteristics and atomic mass unit (amu): a unit of mass defined as consists of two or more different elements one-twelfth of the mass of a -12 atom alternating current: an electric current that reverses atomic mass unit: a standard unit of atomic mass in direction based on the mass of the carbon atom, which is ampere: the SI unit for electric current; one ampere assigned the value of 12 (1 A) is the flow of one coulomb of charge every atomic mass: atomic mass is determined by the second mass of the protons and neutrons of the atom amplitude: the maximum displacement of a particle aurora: the bright emission of atoms and molecules as a wave passes; the height of a wave crest; it is near the Earth’s poles caused by charged particles related to a wave’s energy entering the upper atmosphere anatomy: the (study of) internal structure of organisms

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

autotroph: an organism that is capable of obtaining body fossil: any remains or imprint of actual organic its energy (food) directly from the physical material from a creature or plant that has been environment preserved in the geologic record (like a bone) Avogadro’s number: The number of atoms bounce: the ability of an object to rebound to its contained in 12 grams of carbon-12. The number is original position when dropped from a given height 23 6.022 x 10 . caldera: a large basin-shaped volcanic depression, axial precession: the wobble in the Earth’s polar more or less circular, the diameter of which is many axis times greater than that of the included vent or vents background extinction: normal extinction of species carbon cycle: the global cycle of movement of that occurs as a result of changes in local carbon, in all of its forms, from one reservoir to environmental conditions another basalt: a kind of volcanic igneous rock, usually dark carbon cycle: the process in which carbon is passed colored, with a high content of from one organism to another, then to the abiotic base: a compound or solution with a concentration community, and finally back to the plants of hydrogen ions less than the neutral value carnivore: an animal that feeds exclusively on other (corresponding to a pH value of greater than 7) animals base: a substance that releases hydroxide ions (OH–) carrying capacity: the maximum population that in water, or is a proton acceptor can be sustained by a given supply of resources bias: a purposeful or accidental distortion of catalyst: a substance that changes the speed of a observations, data, or calculations in a systematic or chemical reaction without being permanently nonrandom manner changed itself bilateral symmetry: a body plan that divides the cation: a positively charged ion body into symmetrical left and right halves cement: new material precipitated around binary compound: a compound formed from the the particles of sediment when it is buried below the combining of two different elements Earth’s surface biodiversity: the diversity of different biologic center of mass: the point at which all the mass of species and/or the genetic variability among an object is considered to be concentrated for individuals within each species calculations concerning motion of the object biodiversity: the sum of all the different types of centripetal acceleration: the inward radial organisms living on Earth acceleration of an object moving at a constant speed biodiversity curve: a graph that shows changes in in a circle the diversity of organisms as a function of geologic v2 a time R biomass: the total mass of living matter in the form centripetal force: a force directed towards the of one or more kinds of organisms present in a center that causes an object to follow a circular path particular habitat mv2 F biome: a recognizable assemblage of plants and R animals that characterizes a large geographic area of the Earth; a number of different biomes have been chemical change: a change that converts the recognized, and the distribution of the biomes is chemical composition of a substance into different controlled mainly by climate substance(s) with different chemical composition biosphere: the area on Earth where living organisms chemical energy: energy stored in a chemical can be found compound, which can be released during chemical biotic: the living components of an ecosystem reactions, including combustion birthrate (natality): the rate at which reproduction increases the size of a population

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Glossary

chemical formula: the combination of the symbols community: all the populations of organisms of the elements in a definite numerical proportion occupying a given area used to represent molecules, compounds, radicals, composite: a solid heterogeneous mixture of two or ions, etc. more substances that make use of the properties of chemical group: a family of elements in the periodic each component table that have similar electron configurations composite cone (stratovolcano): a volcano that is chemical property: a characteristic that a substance constructed of alternating layers of lava and undergoes in a chemical reaction that produces new pyroclastic deposits substance(s) compound: a material that consists of two or more chemical reaction: a process in which new elements united together in definite proportion substance(s) are formed from starting substance(s) concave lens: a lens that causes parallel light rays to chemical test: a physical procedure or chemical diverge; a lens that is thicker at its edges than in the reaction used to identify a substance center chromosome: threads of genetic material found in concentration: a measure of the composition of a the nucleus of cells solution, often given in terms of moles of solute per chromosphere: a reddish layer in the Sun’s liter of solution atmosphere, the transition between the outermost condensation: the process of changing from a gas to layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, or corona a liquid climate: the general pattern of weather conditions conduction: (of heat) the energy transfer from one for a region over a long period of time (at least 30 material or particle to another when the materials or years) particles are in direct contact climate proxy: any feature or set of data that has a conduction: a process of heat transfer by which the predictable relationship to climatic factors and can more vigorous vibrations of relatively hot matter are therefore be used to indirectly measure those factors transferred to adjacent relatively cold matter, thus climax community: the final, quite stable community tending to even out the difference in temperature reached during the stages of succession between the two regions of matter closed system: a physical system on which no conductivity: the property of transmitting heat and outside influences act; closed so that nothing gets in electricity or out of the system and nothing from outside can constellation: a grouping of stars in the night sky influence the system’s observable behavior or into a recognizable pattern. Most of the properties constellations get their name from the Latin closed system: a system in which material moves translation of one of the ancient Greek star patterns from place to place but is not gained or lost from that lies within it. In more recent times, more the system modern astronomers introduced a number of additional groups, and there are now 88 standard coal: a combustible rock that had its origin in the configurations recognized. deposition and burial of plant material constructive interference: the result of colligative property: a property such as freezing- superimposing different waves so that two or more point depression or boiling-point elevation whose waves overlap to produce a wave with a greater physical value depends on only the ratio of the amplitude particles of solute and solvent particles and not on their chemical identities consumer: a heterotrophic organism colloid: a mixture containing particles larger than the continental accretion: the growth of a continent solute but small enough to remain suspended in the along its edges continuous phase of another component. This is also contour interval: the vertical distance between the called a colloidal dispersion. elevations represented by two successive contour coma: a spherical cloud of material surrounding the lines on a topographic map head of a comet. This material is mostly gas that the contour line: a line on a map that connects points Sun has caused to boil off the comet’s icy nucleus. A of equal elevation of the land surface cometary coma can extend up to a million miles convection: motion of a fluid in which the fluid from the nucleus. moves in a pattern of closed circulation combustion: the rapid reaction of a material with convection: the heat transfer resulting from the oxygen accompanied by rapid evolution of flame movement of the heated substance, such as air or and heat water currents comet: a chunk of frozen gasses, ice, and rocky debris that orbits the Sun

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

convection cell: a pattern of motion in a fluid in decomposition: the chemical process of separation which the fluid moves in a pattern of a closed of matter into simpler chemical compounds circulation denitrification: the conversion of nitrates and convergent plate boundary: a plate boundary where nitrites to nitrogen gas, which is released into the two plates move toward one another atmosphere converging lens: parallel beams of light passing density: the mass per unit volume of a material or through the lens are brought to a real point or focus substance (convex lens) (if the outside index of refraction is density: the mass per unit volume of a material less than that of the lens material); also called a convex lens destructive interference: the result of superimposing different waves so that two or more convex lens: a lens that causes parallel light rays to waves overlap to produce a wave with a decreased converge (if the outside index of refraction is less amplitude than that of the lens material); a lens that is thinner at its edges than in the center diffraction: the ability of a wave to spread out as it emerges from an opening or moves beyond an core: the solid, innermost part of the Earth, obstruction consisting mainly of iron digital: a description of data that is stored or corona: the outermost atmosphere of a star transmitted as a sequence of discrete symbols; (including the Sun), millions of kilometers in extent, usually this means binary data (1s and 0s) and consisting of highly rarefied gas heated to represented using electronic or electromagnetic temperatures of millions of degrees signals correlation: a mutual relationship or connection displacement: the difference in position between a cosmologist: a scientist who studies the origin and final position and an initial position; it depends only dynamics of the universe on the endpoints, not on the path; displacement is a coulomb: the SI unit for electric charge; one vector; it has magnitude and direction coulomb (1 C) is equal to the charge of divergent plate boundary: a plate boundary where 6.25 1018 electrons two plates move away from one another. Coulomb’s Law: the relationship among electrical dominant: used to describe the gene that determines force, charges, and the distance between the charges the expression of a genetic trait; the trait shows up q q even when the gene is present as a single copy F k 1 2 d2 Doppler Effect: change in frequency of a wave of covalent bond: a bond formed when two atoms light or sound due to the motion of the source or combine and share their paired electrons with each the receiver other double-displacement reaction: a chemical reaction crest: the highest point of displacement of a wave in which two ionic compounds “exchange” cations to produce two new compounds critical angle: the angle of incidence for which a light ray passing from one medium to another has ductility: a property that describes how easy it is to an angle of refraction of 90º degrees pull a substance into a new permanent shape, such as, pulling into wires crude oil: (see petroleum) earthquake: a sudden motion or shaking in the crust: the thin outermost layer of the Earth. Earth caused by the abrupt release of slowly Continental crust is relatively thick and mostly very accumulated strain. old. Oceanic crust is relatively thin, and is always geologically very young. eccentricity: the ratio of the distance between the foci and the length of the major axis of an ellipse death rate (mortality rate): the rate at which death decreases the size of a population ecosystem: a community and the physical environment that it occupies decomposers: organisms that break down the remains or wastes of other organisms to obtain their ecosystem: a unit in ecology consisting of the nutrients environment with its living elements, plus the nonliving factors that exist in it and affect it decomposition: a chemical reaction in which a single compound reacts to give two or more efficiency: the ratio of the useful energy obtained products from a machine or device to the energy supplied to it during the same time period elasticity: the property of a material to resist deformation and return to its normal size or shape

N after a force has been applied to it

1

2

3

4 5

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Glossary

elastic rebound: the return of a bent elastic solid to electron configuration: the distribution of electrons its original shape after the deforming force is in an atom’s energy levels removed element: a substance in which all of the atoms have electric charge: a fundamental property of matter; the same atomic number charge is either positive or negative elevation: the height of the land surface relative to electric circuit: an electrical device that provides a sea level conductive path for electrical current to move emigration: the number of individuals of a species continuously that move out of an existing population electric current: the flow of electric charges through emission spectrum: a spectrum containing bright a conductor; electric current is measured in amperes lines or a set of discrete wavelengths produced by an electric energy: energy associated with the element. Each element has its own unique emission generation and transmission of electricity spectrum. electric field: the region of electric influence defined emulsion: a colloid or colloidal dispersion of one as the force per unit charge liquid suspended in another electric power: power associated with the endothermic change or reaction: a change in which generation and transmission of electricity energy in the form of heat is absorbed from the electrical resistance: opposition of a material to the surrounding environment resulting in an increase in flow of electrical charge through it: it is measured in the internal energy of the system ohms (Ω); the ratio of the potential difference to the evaporation: the process of changing from a liquid current to a gas evolution: a gradual change in the characteristics of R V I a population of organisms during successive generations, as a result of natural selection acting on electrolysis: the conduction of electricity through a genetic variation solution that contains ions or through a molten exothermic change or reaction: a change in which ionic compound that will induce chemical change energy in the form of heat is released from a system electromagnet: a device that uses an electric current resulting in a decrease in the internal energy of the to produce a concentrated magnetic field system electromagnetic radiation: the energy propagated extinction: the permanent disappearance of a through space by oscillating electric and magnetic species from Earth fields. It travels at 3 108 m/s in a vacuum and extrusive igneous rock: an igneous rock that has includes (in order of increasing energy) radio, formed by eruption of lava onto the surface of the infrared, visible light (optical), ultraviolet, x-rays, Earth and gamma rays. fault: a fracture or fracture zone in rock, along electromagnetic radiation: the movement of energy, which the rock masses have moved relative to one at the speed of light, in the form of electromagnetic another parallel to the fracture waves feedback loops: the processes where the output of a electromagnetic spectrum: the complete spectrum system causes positive or negative changes to some of electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, measured component of the system microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-rays, and feedstocks: raw materials (for example, petroleum) gamma rays that are supplied to a machine or processing plant electromagnetic waves: transverse waves that are that produces manufactured material (for example, composed of perpendicular electric and magnetic plastics) 8 fields that travel at 3 10 m/s in a vacuum; fertilizer: a material used to provide or replace soil examples of electromagnetic waves in increasing nutrients wavelength are gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, First Law of Thermodynamics: the law that energy microwaves, and radio waves can be converted from one form to another but be neither created nor destroyed electron: a negatively charged particle with a charge of 1.6 10–19 coulombs and a mass of 9.1 10–31 fission: the process of breaking apart nuclei into kg smaller nuclei and with the release of a large amount of energy electron: a subatomic particle that occurs outside of the nucleus and has a charge of -1 and mass of flame test: an experimental technique or process in 9.109 10–28g identifying a metal from its characteristic flame color

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

focal length: the distance between the center of a gas giant planets: the outer solar system planets: lens and either focal point Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, composed focus: the place at which light rays converge or from mostly of hydrogen, helium and methane, and 2 which they appear to diverge after refraction or having a density of less than 2 gm/cm reflection; also called focal point gene: a unit of instruction located on a chromosome focus: the point of an earthquake within the Earth that produces or influences a specific trait in the where rupture first occurs to cause an earthquake offspring food chain: a series of organisms through which genotype: the genes of an individual food energy is passed in an ecosystem geothermal energy: energy derived from hot rocks food web: a complex relationship formed by and/or fluids beneath the Earth’s surface interconnecting food chains in an ecosystem glacial period: an interval in time that is marked by representing the transfer of energy through different one or more major advances of glacier ice. Note levels that the time interval is not necessarily of the same foraminifera: an order of single-celled organisms magnitude as the “Period” rank of the geologic time (protozoans) that live in marine (usually) and scale. freshwater (rarely) environments. Forams typically glacier: a large, long-lasting accumulation of snow have a shell of one or more chambers that is and ice that develops on land and flows under its typically made of calcium carbonate. own weight force: a push or a pull that is able to accelerate an global climate: the mean climatic conditions over object; force is measured in newtons; force is a the surface of the Earth as determined by the vector quantity averaging of a large number of observations force: a push or pull exerted on a body of matter spatially distributed throughout the entire region of the globe fossil: any remains, trace, or imprint of a plant or animal that has been preserved in the Earth’s crust Global Positioning System (GPS): a satellite-based since some past geologic or prehistoric time system for accurate location of points on the Earth fossil fuel: fuel derived from materials (mainly coal, gravimeter: an instrument for measuring variations petroleum, and natural gas) that were generated in Earth’s gravitational field from fossil organic matter and stored deep in the gravitational potential energy: the energy a body Earth for geologically long times possesses as a result of its position in a gravitational fossiliferous rock: a rock containing fossils field GPE mgh frame of reference: a vantage point with respect to gravity: the force of attraction between two bodies which position and motion may be described due to their masses free fall: a fall under the influence of only gravity greenhouse gases: gases in the Earth’s atmosphere that absorb certain wavelengths of the long- frequency: the number of waves per second or wavelength radiation emitted to outer space by the cycles per second or hertz (Hz) Earth’s surface frequency: the number of waves produced per unit greenhouse gases: gases responsible for the time; the frequency is the reciprocal of the amount greenhouse effect. These gases include: water vapor of time it takes for a single wavelength to pass a (H O), carbon dioxide (CO ); methane (CH ); point 2 2 4 nitrous oxide (N2O); chlorofluorocarbons (CFxClx); v and tropospheric ozone (O ). f 3 ground water: the part of the subsurface water that friction: a force that acts to resist the relative is in the zone of saturation, including underground motion or attempted motion of objects that are streams in contact with each other groundwater: water contained in pore spaces in sediments and rocks beneath the Earth’s surface friction: the force exerted by a body of matter when growth rate: the rate at which the size of a it slides past another body of matter population increases as a result of death rate, fusion: nuclei of lighter atoms combining to form birthrate, immigration, and emigration nuclei with greater mass and release of a large halogens: Group VIIA (17) on the periodic table amount of energy consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and galvanometer: an instrument used to detect, astatine measure, and determine the direction of small hazard: a natural event, like an earthquake, that has electric currents the potential to do damage or harm

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Glossary

heat: kinetic energy of atoms or molecules infiltration: the movement of water through pores or associated with the temperature of a body of small openings into the soil and porous rock material infrared: electromagnetic radiation with heat capacity: the quantity of heat energy required wavelengths between about 0.7 to 1000 mm. to increase the temperature of a material or system; Infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. typically referenced as the amount of heat energy inorganic compound: a compound not based on required to generate a 1°C rise in the temperature of molecular compounds of carbon 1 g of a given material that is at atmospheric pressure and 20°C insolation: the direct or diffused shortwave solar radiation that is received in the Earth’s heat energy: a form of energy associated with the atmosphere or at its surface motion of atoms or molecules insolation: the rate at which a given area of land heat transfer: the movement of heat from one receives solar energy region to another interglacial period: the period of time during an ice herbivore: a heterotroph that feeds exclusively on age when glaciers retreated because of milder plant materials temperatures heredity: the passing of traits from parent to intrusive igneous rock (plutonic igneous rock): offspring igneous rock formed at considerable depth by the heterotroph: an organism that must obtain its crystallization of magma energy from autotrophs or other heterotrophs invasive species: a nonnative species whose horsepower: a unit of power introduction does or is likely to cause economic or hot spot: a fixed source of abundant rising magma environmental harm or harm to human health that forms a volcanic center that has persisted for inverse square relation: the relationship of a force tens of millions of years to the inverse square of the distance from the mass hydrocarbon: a molecular compound containing (for gravitational forces) or the charge (for only hydrogen and carbon electrostatic forces) hydroelectric power: electrical power derived from inverse-square law: a scientific law that states that the flow of water on the Earth’s surface the amount of radiation passing through a specific area is inversely proportional to the square of the hypothesis: a statement that can be proved or distance of that area from the energy source disproved by experimental or observational evidence ion: an atom with one or more electrons removed (or igneous rock: rock or mineral that solidified from added), giving it a positive (or negative) charge molten or partly molten material, i.e., from magma ion: an electrically charged atom or group of atoms immigration: the number of individuals of a species that has acquired a net charge, either negative or that move into an existing population positive impulse: the product of force and the interval of ionic bond: the attraction between oppositely time during which the force acts; impulse results in charged ions. a change in momentum ∆ ionic compound: a compound consisting of positive Ft (mv) or negative ions inclination: the angle between the orbital plane of ionization energy: the energy required to free an the solar system and the actual orbit of an object electron from an atom around the Sun ionization energy: the energy required to remove an index fossil: a fossil of an organism that was electron from a gaseous atom at ground state widespread but lived for only a short interval of geological time ionosphere: the part of the Earth’s atmosphere above about 50 km where the atoms are index of refraction: a property of a medium that is significantly ionized and affect the propagation of related to the speed of light through it; it is radio waves calculated by dividing the speed of light in vacuum by the speed of light in the medium ions: atoms that have an electric charge because one or more electrons (particles with a negative electric inertia: the natural tendency of an object to remain charge, which orbit around the nucleus of the atom) at rest or to remain moving with constant speed in a have been added to the atom or removed from the straight line atom inertial frame of reference: unaccelerated point of isoseismal map: a map showing the lines connecting view in which Newton’s Laws hold true points on the Earth’s surface at which earthquake intensity is the same

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

isotope: atoms of the same element but different latitude: a north-south measurement of position on atomic masses due to different number of neutrons the Earth. It is defined by the angle measured from isotope: one of two or more kinds of atoms of a the Earth’s equatorial plane. given that differ in mass because lava: molten rock that issues from a volcano or of different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus of fissure the atoms lava flow: an outpouring of molten lava from a vent joule: the SI unit for work and all other forms of or fissure; also, the solidified body of rock so energy; one joule (1J) of work is done when a force formed of one newton moves an object one meter in the Law of Conservation of Matter: in chemical direction of the force reactions, the quantity of matter does not change kinetic energy: the energy an object possesses Law of Definite Proportions: the composition of a because of its motion pure substance is always the same or the elements of KE 1 mv2 the compound always combine in the same 2 proportion by mass lahar: a wet mixture of water, mud, and volcanic leeward: the downwind side of an elevated area like rock fragments, with the consistency of wet a mountain, opposite of windward concrete, that flows down the slopes of a volcano lepton: a group of elementary particles that are not and its river valleys affected by the nuclear force; electrons belong to this group light-year: a unit of measurement equal to the distance light travels in one year, i.e., 9.46 1012 km lithosphere: the outermost layer of the Earth, consisting of the Earth’s crust and part of the upper mantle. The lithosphere behaves as a rigid layer, in contrast to the underlying asthenosphere. lithospheric plate: a rigid, thin segment of the outermost layer of the Earth, consisting of the Earth’s crust and part of the upper mantle. The plate can be assumed to move horizontally and adjoins other plates. Little Ice Age: the time period from A.D. 1350 to 1850. During this period, global temperatures were at their coldest since the beginning of the Holocene. loess: the deposits of wind-blown silt laid down over vast areas of the mid-latitudes during glacial and postglacial times longitudinal pulse or wave: a pulse or wave in which the motion of the medium is parallel to the direction of the motion of the wave luminosity: the total amount of energy radiated by an object every second luster: the reflection of light from the surface of a material described by its quality and intensity magma: naturally occurring molten rock material lake-effect snow: the snow that is precipitated when generated within the Earth. Magma also contains an air mass which has gained moisture by moving dissolved gases, and sometimes solid crystals. over a relatively warm water body is cooled as it magma: naturally occurring molten rock material, passes over relatively cold land. generated within the Earth, from which igneous This cooling triggers condensation of clouds and rocks are derived through solidification and related precipitation. processes lapilli: pyroclastics in the general size range of 2 to magnetic field: the region of magnetic influence 64 mm around a magnetic pole or a moving charged particle

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Glossary

magnetometer: an instrument for measuring molecular cloud: a large, cold cloud made up mostly variations in Earth’s magnetic field of molecular hydrogen and helium, but with some malleability: the property of a material to be able to other gases, too, like carbon monoxide. It is in these be hammered into various shapes without breaking clouds that new stars are born. mantle: the zone of the Earth below the crust and molecular compound: two or more atoms bond above the core. It is divided into the upper mantle together by sharing electrons and lower mantle with a transition zone between momentum: the product of the mass and the map projections: the process of systematically velocity of an object; momentum is a vector transforming positions on the Earth’s spherical quantity surface to a flat map while maintaining spatial p = mv relationships morphology: the (study of the) features that mass extinction: a catastrophic, widespread comprise or describe the shape, form, and structure perturbation where major groups of species become of an object or organism extinct in a relatively short time compared to normal background extinction motile: having the ability to move spontaneously mechanical energy: the sum of the kinetic energy and native-element mineral: a mineral consisting of the potential energy of a body of matter only one element Mercator projection: a map projection in which the natural gas: a gas, consisting mainly of methane, Equator is represented by a straight line true to scale, that is produced in sediments and sedimentary rocks the meridians by parallel straight lines perpendicular during burial of organic matter to the Equator and equally spaced according to their natural selection: the differences in survival and distance apart at the Equator, and the parallels by reproduction among members of a population straight lines perpendicular to the meridians and the neap tide: the tides of decreased range occurring same length as the Equator. There is a great semimonthly near the times of the first and last distortion of distances, areas, and shapes at the polar quarter of the Moon regions. nebula: a general term used for any “fuzzy” patch metal: classes of materials that exhibit the on the sky, either light or dark; a cloud of properties of conductivity, malleability, reactivity, interstellar gas and dust and ductility. Metal elements readily lose electrons to form positive ions. neutral: having a concentration of hydrogen ions that corresponds to a value of pH of 7 meteor: the luminous phenomenon seen when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere (commonly known neutralization: the process of an acid and base as a shooting star) reacting to form water and salt meteorite: a part of a meteoroid that survives neutron: a subatomic particle that is part of the through the Earth’s atmosphere structure of the atomic nucleus; a neutron is electrically neutral with a mass of meteoroid: a small rock in space 1.675 10–24 g mid-ocean ridge: a chain of undersea ridges extending throughout all of the Earth’s ocean located in the nuclei of the atom basins, and formed by sea-floor spreading neutron star: the imploded core of a massive star Milankovitch cycles: the cyclical changes in the produced by a supernova explosion geometric relationship between the Earth and the Newton’s Laws of Motion: Sun that cause variations in solar radiation received Newton’s First Law of Motion: an object at rest at the Earth’s surface stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic, solid unless acted upon by an unbalanced, external force material that consists of atoms and/or molecules Newton’s Law of Gravitational Attraction: the that are arranged in a regular pattern and has relationship among gravitational force, masses, and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, the distance between the masses and physical properties Gm m F 1 2 model: a representation of a process, system, or d 2 object mole: a collection of objects that contains Newton’s Second Law of Motion: if a body is acted Avogadro’s number (6.022 1023) upon by an external force, it will accelerate in the direction of the unbalanced force with an acceleration proportional to the force and inversely proportational to the mass F ma

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

Newton’s Third Law of Motion: forces come in pairs; normal freezing point: the characteristic the force of object A on object B is equal and temperature, at 1 atm, at which a material changes opposite to the force of object B on object A from a liquid state to its solid state niche: the ecological role of a species; the set of normal melting point: the characteristic resources it consumes and habitats it occupies in an temperature, at 1 atm, at which a material changes ecosystem from a solid state to its liquid state nitrogen cycle: the movement of nitrogen through nuclear fission: a nuclear reaction in which a massive, ecosystems, the soil, and the atmosphere unstable nucleus splits into two or more smaller nitrogen fixation: the process by which certain nuclei with a release of a large amount of energy organisms produce nitrogen compounds from the nuclear fission: the process by which large atoms are gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere split into two parts, with conversion of a small part noble gas: a family of elements (Group 18 or VIIIA) of the matter into energy of the periodic table nuclear (strong) force: a strong force that holds node: a point on a standing wave where the medium neutrons and protons together in the nucleus of an is motionless atom; the force operates only over very short distances nonconsumptive water: water that is returned, in liquid form, to the natural environment after use nuclear fusion: a nuclear process that releases energy when lightweight nuclei combine to form : elements that do not exhibit the heavier nuclei properties of conductivity, malleability, reactivity, and ductility. These elements tend to form negative nuclear fusion: a nuclear reaction in which nuclei ions. The oxides of the elements are acidic. combine to form more massive nuclei with the release of a large amount of energy nonnative (exotic, alien, introduced, or non- indigenous) species: any species, including its seeds, nucleon: the building block of the nucleus of an eggs, spores, or other biological material capable of atom; either a neutron or a proton propagating that species, that is not native to that nucleus: (of an atom): the positively charged dense ecosystem center of an atom containing neutrons and protons nonrenewable resource: an energy source that is nucleus: the very dense core of the atom that powered by materials that exist in the Earth and are contains the neutrons and protons not replaced nearly as fast as they are consumed obliquity: the tilt of the Earth’s rotation axis as normal: at right angles or perpendicular to measured from the perpendicular to the plane of the normal boiling point: the temperature at which the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. The angle vapor pressure of the pure liquid equals 1 atm of this tilt varies from 22.5° to 24.5° over a 41,000-year period. Current obliquity is 23.5°. ohm: the SI unit of electrical resistance; the symbol for ohm is Ω omnivores: a heterotroph that feeds on both plant materials and animals open population: a natural population in which all four factors that affect population size (death rate, birthrate, immigration, and emigration) are functioning open system: a physical system on which outside influences are able to act; open so that energy can be added and/or lost from the system orbit: the path of the electron in its motion around the nucleus of Bohr’s hydrogen atom orbital: in the quantum mechanical model of an atom, it is the region surrounding the atomic nucleus in which the electron distribution is given by a wave function orbital parameters: any one of a number of factors that describe the orientation and/or movement of an orbiting body or the shape of its orbital path

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Glossary

orbital plane: (also called the ecliptic or plane of the permeability: the ease with which a fluid can be ecliptic). A plane formed by the path of the Earth forced to flow through a porous material by a around the Sun. difference in fluid pressure from place to place in orbital precession: rotation about the Sun of the the material major axis of the Earth’s elliptical orbit petroleum: an oily, flammable liquid, consisting of a organic (carbon-based) molecules: molecules with variety of organic compounds, that is produced in the chemical element carbon as a base sediments and sedimentary rocks during burial of organic matter; also called crude oil organic compound: a molecular compound of carbon pH: a quantity used to represent the acidity of a organism: an individual living thing solution based on the concentration of hydrogen oxidation: the chemical process by which certain ions (pH = – log[H+]) kinds of matter are combined with oxygen phase change: the conversion of a substance from oxidation: the process of a substance losing one or one state to another state at a specific temperature more electrons and pressure. Example: solid to liquid, liquid to gas, oxidation number: a number assigned to an element or solid to gas (sublimation). in a compound designating the number of electrons phenotype: the observable traits of an organism that the element has lost, gained, or shared in forming result because of the interaction of genes and the that compound environment paleoclimate: the climatic conditions in the phosphorous cycle: the cycling of environmental geological past reconstructed from a direct or phosphorous through a long-term cycle involving indirect data source rocks on the Earth’s crust, and through a shorter paleoclimatologist: a scientist who studies the cycle involving living organisms Earth’s past climate photosphere: the visible surface of the Sun, lying paleoclimatology: the scientific study of the Earth’s just above the uppermost layer of the Sun’s interior, climate during the past and just below the chromosphere paleomagnetism: the record of the past orientation photosynthesis: the process by which plants use and polarity of the Earth’s magnetic field recorded solar energy, together with carbon dioxide and in rocks containing the mineral magnetite nutrients, to synthesize plant tissues paleontologist: a scientist who studies the fossilized photovoltaic energy: energy associated with the remains of animals and/or plants direct conversion of solar radiation to electricity Pangea: Earth’s most recent supercontinent which physical change: a change that involves changes in was rifted apart about 200 million years ago the state or form of a substance but does not cause any change in chemical composition parallax: the apparent difference of position of an object as seen from two different places, or points of physical property: a property that can be measured view without causing a change in the substance’s chemical composition parsec: a unit used in astronomy to describe large distances. One parsec equals 3.26 light-years. phytoplankton: small photosynthetic organisms, mostly algae and bacteria, found inhabiting aquatic peak wavelength: the wavelength of light with the ecosystems most electromagnetic energy emitted by any object pioneer community: the first species to appear during succession peat: a porous deposit of partly decomposed plant material at or not far below the Earth’s surface pitch: the quality of a sound dependent primarily on the frequency of the sound waves produced by its perihelion: the point in the Earth’s orbit that is source closest to the Sun. Currently, the Earth reaches perihelion in early January. Planck’s constant: a proportionality constant of the energy of a photon to its frequency, derived by Max period: a horizontal row of elements in the periodic Planck in 1900. His equation was: E hf and table Planck’s constant is (h) 6.626 10–34 J s period: the time required to complete one cycle of a planetesimal: one of the small bodies (usually wave micrometers to kilometers in diameter) that formed periodic wave: a repetitive series of pulses; a wave from the solar nebula and eventually grew into train in which the particles of the medium undergo protoplanets periodic motion (after a set amount of time the plasma: a state of matter wherein all atoms are medium returns to its starting point and begins to ionized; a mixture of free electrons and free atomic repeat its motion) nuclei

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

plate tectonics: the field of study of plate motion probability: a measure of the likelihood of a given plate tectonics: the study of the movement and event occurring interaction of the Earth’s lithospheric plates producer: an organism that is capable of making its polarized waves: disturbances where the medium own food vibrates in only one plane product: the substance(s) produced in a chemical pollen: a collective term for pollen grains, which are reaction microspores containing the several-celled projectile: an object traveling through the air microgametophyte (male gametophyte) of seed proton: a positively charged subatomic particle plants contained in the nucleus of an atom. The mass polyatomic ion: an ion that consists of 2 or more of a proton is 1.673 10–24g and it has a atoms that are covalently bonded and have either a charge of +1 positive or negative charge proton: a subatomic particle that is part of the polymer: a substance that is a macromolecule structure of the atomic nucleus; a proton is consisting of many similar small molecules positively charged (monomers) linked together in long chains protoplanetary body: a clump of material, formed polymerization: a chemical reaction that converts in the early stages of solar system formation, which small molecules (monomers) into large molecules was the forerunner of the planets we see today (polymers) pure material: an element or compound that has a population: a group of organisms of the same defined composition and properties species occupying a given area pure substance: a substance that contains only one porosity: the ratio of pore space to total volume of a kind of particle rock or sediment, multiplied by 100 to be expressed pyramid of energy: a pyramid developed on the as a percentage basis of the energy at each trophic level potential energy: energy that is dependent on the pyramid of living matter: a pyramid developed on position of the object the basis of the mass of dry living matter at each potential energy: mechanical energy associated with trophic level position in a gravity field; matter farther away from pyroclastic flow: a high-density mixture of hot ash the center of the Earth has higher potential energy and rock fragments with hot gases formed by a potential energy: stored energy of the material as a volcanic explosion or aerial expulsion from a result of its position in an electric, magnetic, or volcanic vent gravitational field radial symmetry: a body plan that is symmetrical power: that time rate at which work is done on a about a center axis body or at which energy is produced or consumed power: the time rate at which work is done and energy is transformed W P t precession: slow motion of the axis of the Earth around a cone, one cycle in about 26,000 years, due to gravitational tugs by the Sun, Moon, and major planets precipitate: an insoluble solid formed in a liquid solution as a result of some chemical reactions precipitation: water that falls to the Earth’s surface from the atmosphere as liquid or solid material in the form of rain, snow, hail, or sleet precision: the closeness of agreement of several measurements of the same quantity primary succession: the occupation by plant life of an area previously not covered with vegetation primary wave (P wave): a seismic wave that involves particle motion (compression and expansion) in the direction in which the wave is traveling. It is the fastest of the seismic waves.

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Glossary

radiation: (heat transfer): electromagnetic radiation rift valley: a large, long valley on a continent, strikes a material that can absorb it, causing the formed where the continent is pulled apart by forces particles in the material to have more energy often produced when mantle material rises up beneath the resulting in a higher temperature continent radioactive: a term applied to an atom that has an rift valley: the deep central cleft in the crest of the unstable nucleus and can spontaneously emit a mid-oceanic ridge particle and become the nucleus of another atom risk: the potential impact of a natural hazard on radioactive: an atom that has an unstable nuclei and people or property will emit alpha, positron, or beta particles in order rocks: naturally occurring aggregates of mineral to achieve more stable nuclei grains radio telescope: an instrument used to observe runoff: the part of the precipitation appearing in longer wavelengths of radiation (radio waves), with surface streams large dishes to collect and concentrate the radiation onto antennae saturated solution: the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved at a given temperature and rain shadow: the reduction of precipitation pressure commonly found on the leeward side of a mountain scalar: a quantity that has magnitude, but no ray: the path followed by a very thin beam of light direction reactants: the starting materials in a chemical scrubbing: removal of dioxide, ash, and other reaction harmful byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels as reactivity: a property that describes how readily a the combustion products pass upward through a material will react with other materials stack or flue real image: an image that will project on a screen or seal: an impermeable layer or mass of sedimentary on the film of a camera; the rays of light actually rock that forms the convex-upward top or roof of a pass through the image petroleum reservoir recessive: used to describe the gene that is overruled seamount: a peaked or flat-topped underwater by a dominant gene; the trait is masked mountain rising from the ocean floor reduction: a process in which the substance under Second Law of Thermodynamics: the law that heat consideration gains electron(s) cannot be completely converted into a more useful reforestation: the replanting of trees on land where form of energy existing forest was previously cut for other uses, secondary recovery: the use of techniques to such as agriculture or pasture recover oil still trapped among sediment particles refraction: the change in direction (bending) of a after years of production light beam as it passes obliquely from one medium secondary succession: the occupation by plant life to a different one of an area that was previously covered with relativity: the study of the way in which vegetation and still has soil observations from moving frames of reference affect secondary wave (S wave): a seismic wave produced your perceptions of the world by a shearing motion that involves vibration relief: the physical configuration of a part of the perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is Earth’s surface, with reference to variations of traveling. It does not travel through liquids, like the height and slope or to irregularities of the land outer core of the Earth. It arrives later than the P surface wave. renewable energy source: an energy source that is sedimentary basin: an area of the Earth’s crust powered by solar radiation at the present time where sediments accumulate to great thicknesses rather than by fuels stored in the Earth sedimentary rock: a rock resulting from the reservoir: 1. a place in the Earth system that holds consolidation of accumulated sediments water; 2. a large body of porous and permeable sedimentary rock: a rock, usually layered, that sedimentary rock that contains economically results from the consolidation or lithification of valuable petroleum and/or natural gas sediment resonance: a condition in which a vibration sediments: loose particulate materials that are affecting an object has about the same period as the derived from breakdown of rocks or precipitation of natural vibration period of the object solids in water respiration: physical and chemical processes by which an organism supplies its cells and tissues with oxygen needed for metabolism

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

sediments: solid fragmental material that originates single-displacement reaction: a reaction in which from weathering of rocks and is transported or an element displaces or replaces another element in deposited by air, water, or ice, or that accumulates a compound by other natural agents, such as chemical Snell’s Law: describes the relationship between the precipitation from solution or secretion by index of refraction and the ratio of the sine of the organisms angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of seismic (earthquake) waves: a general term for all refraction elastic waves in the Earth, produced by earthquakes sin ∠ i n ϭᎏ or generated artificially by explosions sin ∠ R seismic wave: a general term for all elastic waves in the Earth, produced by earthquakes or generated solar wind: a flow of hot charged particles leaving artificially by explosions the Sun seismogram: the record made by a seismometer solenoid: a coil of wire seismology: the study of earthquakes and of the solute: the substance that dissolves in a solvent to structure of the Earth form a solution seismometer: an instrument that measures seismic solution: a homogeneous mixture of two or more waves. It receives seismic impulses and converts substances them into a signal like an electronic voltage. solvent: the substance in which a solute dissolves to seral stages: the communities in between the form a solution pioneer and climax community during the stages of source rocks: sedimentary rocks, containing succession significant concentrations of organic matter, in sessile (non-motile): an organism that is which petroleum and natural gas are generated permanently attached rather than free-moving during burial of the deposits shear strength: the shear force needed to break a Special Theory of Relativity: the theory of space and solid material time shield volcano: a broad, gently sloping volcanic species: a group of organisms that can interbreed cone of flat-dome shape, usually several tens or under natural conditions and produce fertile hundreds of square miles in extent offspring silica: material with composition SiO2 species: a group of organisms, either plant or animal, that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

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Glossary

specific gravity: the ratio of the weight of a given supersaturated solution: a solution containing more volume of a substance to the weight solute than a saturated solution and therefore not at of an equal amount of water equilibrium. This solution is not stable and cannot specific heat: the amount of energy required be maintained indefinitely. to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a material surface area: changing the nature of the reactants by 1°C into smaller particles increases the surface exposed E mc∆t to react. Successful reaction depends on collision spectroscope: an instrument consisting of, at a and increasing the area of the reactant increases the minimum, a slit and grating (or prism) which chance of a successful collision taking place. produces a spectrum for visual observation Lighting a log is more difficult than lighting wood shavings. The shavings have a greater surface area spectroscopy: the science that studies the way light and speed up the reaction. interacts with matter surface wave: a seismic wave that travels along the speed: the change in distance per unit time; speed is surface of the Earth a scalar, it has no direction suspension: heterogeneous mixture that contains spore: a typically unicellular reproductive structure fine solid or liquid particles in a fluid that will settle capable of developing independently into an adult out spontaneously. By shaking the container they organism either directly if asexual or after union will again be dispersed throughout the fluid. with another spore if sexual suture zone: the zone on the Earth’s surface where spring potential energy: the internal energy of a two continents have collided and have been welded spring due to its compression or stretch together to form a single continent spring tide: the tides of increased range occurring synthesis reaction: a chemical reaction in which two semimonthly near the times of full Moon and new or more substances combine to form a compound Moon taxonomy: the theory and practice of classifying stellar black hole: the leftover core of a massive plants and animals single star after a supernova. Black holes exert such large gravitational pull that not even light can temperature: a measure of the average kinetic escape. energy of the molecules of a material steppe: an extensive, treeless grassland found in temperature: a measure of the energy of vibrations semiarid mid-latitude regions. Steppes are typically of the atoms or molecules of a body of matter considered to be drier than the prairie. tephra: a collective term for all the particles ejected strength: the property of how well a material from a volcano and transported through the air. It withstands the application of a force includes volcanic dust, ash, cinders, lapilli, scoria, pumice, bombs, and blocks. subduction zone: a long, narrow belt in which one plate descends beneath another terrestrial planets: any of the planets , Venus, Earth, or Mars, or a planet similar in size, subduction: the movement of one plate downward composition, and density to the Earth. A planet that into the mantle beneath the edge of the other plate consists mainly of rocky material. at a convergent plate boundary. The downgoing plate always is oceanic lithosphere. The plate that texture: the characteristics of the surface of a stays at the surface can have either oceanic material, like how smooth, rough, or coarse it is lithosphere or continental lithosphere. theory: a proven and generally accepted truth sublimation: the change of state of a solid material thermal convection: a pattern of movement in a to a gas without going through the liquid state fluid caused by heating from below and cooling succession: the slow and orderly replacement of from above. Thermal convection transfers heat community replacement, one following the other energy from the bottom of the convection cell to the top. supercontinent: a large continent consisting of all of the Earth’s continental lithosphere. Supercontinents thermal insulator: a material that impedes or slows are assembled by plate-tectonic processes of heat transfer subduction and continent–continent collision. thermodynamics: a branch of physics that deals supernova: the death explosion of a massive star with the relationships and transformations of energy whose core has completely burned out. Supernova thermodynamics: the study of energy explosions can temporarily outshine a galaxy. transformations described by laws

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Glossary Coordinated Science for the 21st Century

thermohaline circulation: the vertical movement of urban heat-island effect: the observed condition seawater, generated by density differences that are that urban areas tend to be warmer than caused by variations in temperature and salinity surrounding rural areas titration: an analytical procedure in which the valence electrons: the outermost electrons of an concentration of an unknown solution is added to a atom. These electrons are used for chemical bonding standard solution until a color change of some of atoms. indicator indicates that equivalent quantities have vaporization: the change of state from a liquid to a reacted gas topographic map: a map showing the topographic vector: a quantity that has both magnitude and features of the land surface direction trace fossil: a fossilized track, trail, burrow, tube, velocity: speed in a given direction; displacement boring, tunnel, or other remnant resulting from the divided by the time interval; velocity is a vector life activities of an animal quantity, it has magnitude and direction trace fossil: any evidence of the life activities of a virtual image: an image from which rays of reflected plant or animal that lived in the geologic past (but or refracted light appear to diverge, as from an not including the fossil organism itself) image seen in a plane mirror; no light comes directly trait: an aspect of an organism that can be described from or passes through the image or measured viscosity: the property of a fluid to offer internal trajectory: the path followed by an object that is resistance to flow. launched into the air visible spectrum: part of the electromagnetic transform fault: a vertical surface of slippage spectrum that is detectable by human eyes. between two lithospheric plates along an offset The wavelengths range from 350 to 780 nm. between two segments of a spreading ridge (A nanometer is a billionth of a meter.) transform plate boundary: a plate boundary where volcanic bomb: a blob of lava that was ejected while two plates slide parallel to one another viscous and received a rounded shape (larger than transpiration: the emission of water vapor from 64 mm in diameter) while in flight pores of plants as part of their life processes Volcanic Explosivity Index: the percentage of transpiration: the process by which water absorbed pyroclastics among the total products of a volcanic by plants, usually through the roots, is evaporated eruption into the atmosphere from the plant surface in the volt: the SI unit of electric potential; one volt form of water vapor (1 V) is equal to one joule per coulomb (J/C) transverse pulse or wave: a pulse or wave in which water (hydrologic) cycle: the cycle or network of the motion of the medium is perpendicular to the pathways taken by water in all three of its forms motion of the wave (solid, liquid, and vapor) among the various places trophic level: the number of energy transfers an where is it temporarily stored on, below, and above organism is from the original solar energy entering the Earth’s surface an ecosystem; the feeding level of one or more water budget: an accounting of the sources of water populations in a food web supply and water demand, and of how the supply is trough: the lowest point on a wave divided among the various uses that make up the demand tsunami: a great sea wave produced by a submarine earthquake (or volcanic eruption or landslide) water cycle (or hydrologic cycle): the constant circulation of water from the sea, through the turbine: a rotating machine or device that converts atmosphere, to the land, and its eventual return to the the mechanical energy of fluid flow into mechanical atmosphere by way of transpiration and evaporation energy of rotation of a shaft from the land and evaporation from the sea Tyndall Effect: the scattering of a light beam as it water table: the surface between the saturated zone passes through a colloid and the unsaturated zone (zone of aeration) ultraviolet: electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths watt: a unit of power shorter than the violet end of visible light; with wavelengths ranging from 5 to 400 nm wavelength: the distance between two identical points in consecutive cycles of a wave unconfined aquifer: an aquifer that has a free connection upward to the surface wavelength: the distance measured from crest to crest of one complete wave or cycle. uniformity: the property of how consistent a material is throughout

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weather: the condition of the Earth’s atmosphere, specifically, its temperature, barometric pressure, wind velocity, humidity, clouds, and precipitation weight: the vertical, downward force exerted on a mass as a result of gravity Fg mg windward: the upwind side or side directly influenced to the direction that the wind blows from, opposite of leeward work: the product of the displacement and the force in the direction of the displacement; work is a scalar quantity W F d work: the product of the force exerted on a body and the distance the body moves in the direction of that force; work is equivalent to a change in the mechanical energy of the body x-ray telescope: instrument used to detect stellar and interstellar x-ray emission. Because the Earth’s atmosphere absorbs x-rays, x-ray telescopes are placed high above the Earth’s surface.

1021 Coordinated Science for the 21st Century