The Global Corporatization of Music Cory McKay Departments of Music and Computer Science University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W 1

The control of the worldwide music industry hardware that is used to play music. This leads has become increasingly concentrated in the them to implement policies that benefit all as- hands of a few very influential multinational pects of their operation. This is particularly ap- corporations over the past several decades. These parent in the case of films, where the commercial major powers have been very successful in gain- links between soundtracks and the movies them- ing control of markets all over the world that selves can be very strong, to say nothing of reve- were previously dominated by relatively small nues from t-shirts, posters, children‘s toys, local companies or government organizations. magazines and books. An obvious result of these developments has A good example is the film The Bodyguard been the global commercialization of music, which featured W hitney Houston‘s hit I Will something which has very negative conse- Always Love You. The success of the movie con- quences. This commercialization tends to ho- tributed to the success of the song and vice versa, mogenize the diverse musical styles of the world leading to double profits for a company that held and to marginalize those styles that do not fit interests in both. The marketing strategies used into the recording industry‘s preconceptions of in promoting films and soundtracks together are what will sell. Other very worrying problems are made apparent by the practice of recording vid- the intrusive effect of mainstream W estern cul- eos that show movie clips. Film and music are ture on non-W estern cultures and the exploitative even more closely linked in the Indian movie and manipulative ideas promoted by record industry, where film music is the predominant companies in order to increase sales. popular music idiom.3 More than 90% of the gross sales worldwide Traditionally, W estern music was sold pri- of recorded music in 1994 came from albums, marily in the W est. This has changed dramati- singles and music videos owned or distributed by cally in recent years, however, and American and W EA, BMG, EMD, Polygram, Sony or UNI.1 British music industries now obtain over half of These six multinationals have used mergers and their revenues from foreign markets.4 This boom purchases to gain a stranglehold on the world in foreign sales has been partly brought about by music industry in the past several decades, to the the increasing availability of cassette players in extent that there are virtually no other companies the developing world and by an opening up of that can compete with them on any significant world markets after the fall of Communism. Ten level. times as many recordings are sold now in most To give the 90% statistic some context, the countries than was the case in the 1950‘s5 and traditional threshold of market concentration the international music industry has an annual before monopolistic activities become apparent turnover of $33 billion U.S.6 is a market share of 70% by the top eight firms Another important change in the music in- in any particular industry.2 It should be realized dustry is that the United States is no longer the that the levels of ownership and market concen- only worldwide recording center. European and tration that might be tolerable in other areas are Japanese companies have now become major particularly undesirable in the media industry. forces as well, leaving W EA as the sole U.S. The six corporate powers also have exten- sive control of numerous forms of media outside 3 of the music industry as well as interests in the Peter Manuel, Cassette Culture. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993) 40-41. 4 Robert Burnett, The Global Jukebox. (New 1 Robert Burnett, The Global Jukebox. (New York: Routledge, 1996) 4. York: Routledge, 1996) 2. 5 Ibid., 39. 2 Ibid., 13. 6 Ibid., 2-3. owned company among the six giants. Nonethe- speak any more.10. . . Music now seems less, the developing world still has virtually no hardly more than a somewhat clumsy excuse for the self-glorification of musicians and ownership of any of these companies. In fact, 11 these corporations have been rapidly buying up the growth of a new industrial sector. small local recording companies in the develop- ing world, leaving the recording industry of the Music is a well-known agent of socialization world almost entirely in the hands of American, and carrier of culture. As soon as music falls European or Japanese companies. In addition, under corporate control, there is a very serious the cultural center of the music industry is still danger that these functions of music will be the United States, at least in commercial terms. abused. Just as national anthems and hymns are American musicians sell the most recordings and used to reinforce loyalty to countries or religions, it is the United States that invented music televi- multinationals use music to reinforce corporate sion and dominant commercial forms like pop, loyalty. The jingles used in television commer- rock and rap.7 cials are an obvious example of this. Given that the music industry of the world is The influences that can be exerted through now dominated by a few multinationals that are control of the music industry are much less bla- primarily influenced by mainstream W estern tant than jingles, of course, but no less real. culture, the next step is to understand how the Product placement in music videos is already a negative effects of this manifest themselves. It is very lucrative source of money for the musicians important to realize that the ultimate goal of who consent to it. The content of many commer- these companies is to make as much of a profit cial pop songs, the imagery displayed in music as possible, not to be considerate of the social or videos and the conspicuous consumption appar- artistic issues surrounding music. The sheer size ent in the lifestyles of pop stars all reinforce the of multinational record companies also makes idea that mass consumption will lead to happi- them insensitive towards or unaware of local ness. issues. Jacques Attali does an excellent job of Corporations are also in an excellent posi- highlighting some of the problems related to the tion to censor music that contains political con- corporate control of music production: tent that is contrary to their interests. This takes on a form much subtler than government censor- Fetishized as a commodity, music is illustra- ship. Rather than explicitly banning a particular tive of the evolution of our entire society: song, corporations can simply choose to not re- deritualize a social form, repress an activity cord or promote it under pretexts different from of the body, specialize its practice, sell it as a spectacle, generalize its consumption, then its political content. They can then claim that the see to it that it is stockpiled until it loses it musician is free to have his or her music re- meaning.8. . . Everywhere we look, the mo- corded by other companies, when the reality is nopolization of the broadcast of messages, that virtually all of the recording and distributing the control of noise, and the institutionaliza- companies are owned by the same few multina- tion of the silence of others assure the dura- tionals. Continued refusals often lead musicians bility of power. Here, this channelization to self-censor their music in an effort to have takes on a new, less violent, and more subtle their work recorded. form: laws of the political economy take the place of censorship laws. Music and the mu- The feel-good content of much commercial sician essentially become either objects of pop music can have the effect of glossing over consumption like everything else, recupera- 9 the reality of the structural oppression faced by tors of subversion, or meaningless noise.. . . people all over the world. This is particularly The monologue of standardized, stereotyped apparent in the film music of India, where audi- music accompanies and hems in a daily life in which in reality no one has the right to ences living in dire poverty go to see movies and listen to music that glorifies the lives of the mid- dle or upper class citizens of India.

7 It can thus be seen that commercial pop has Timothy D. Tayor, Global Pop. (New York: the triple socializing effect of making people Routledge, 1997) 199. forget the conditions under which they live, of 8 Jacques Attali, Noise: The Political Economy of Music. Brian Massumi, trans. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 5. 10 Ibid., 8. 9 Ibid., 8. 11 Ibid., 9. making them believe that there is legitimacy in ties to more original bands. The numerous boy commercial power and of silencing people by bands assembled by record companies in imita- mass-producing a deafening, syncretic type of tion of the New Kids on the Block are an exam- pop music while censoring alternatives. This is ple of this. particularly worrisome given the increasing di- In order to take advantage of the economies versity of media controlled be the same corpora- of scale, record companies would rather sell 500 tions. 000 copies of one record than 50 000 copies each The commercialization of music has impor- of ten different records. As a result, there are tant cultural ramifications that must be consid- now fewer musicians signed to major labels than ered. The major corporations tend to promote there were in the 1980‘s.16 Since the small record primarily W estern styles of music, which results companies that used to record local musicians in W estern popular culture infusing the everyday are being bought up as the big six multinationals lives of listeners and reproducing the dominant increase their foreign ownership, these musicians complex of ideology in colonized cultures. are being given decreasing opportunities to have their music heard. Record companies want to maximize their profits, and taking a chance on new types of mu- Lesser-known musicians are still at a huge sic is a risk that they are unwilling to take when disadvantage even if their work is recorded. their big stars are so lucrative. Since American- Most popular radio stations add three or four style pop music is already by far the most popu- new songs to their play list each week, yet re- lar form world-wide, it is in the interests of com- ceive approximately 7000 singles and 5000 al- panies to continue to promote and produce it bums per year.17 The situation is even more pro- rather than local or original styles that fall out- nounced when considering music television. A side the mainstream. The resultant domination of musician who dares to diverge too much from W estern music is made clear by the fact that it is the mainstream is facing very poor odds of being much easier to buy W estern music in other coun- heard. tries than it is to buy world music in the W est.12 In addition to simply taking away the op- A major U. S. copyright organization has stated portunities for local musicians to have their work that —for every one foreign song that is earning recorded and promoted, the multinationals are money in America, ten American songs are earn- also doing whatever they can to convince local ing money abroad.“13 audiences to listen to the W estern stars in their Only one out of five releases generates catalogues instead of more local styles of music. enough income to cover the costs of production It is in the interests of corporations to standardize and distribution.14 This leads record companies audience tastes and institute programmed con- to concentrate their resources on promoting their sumption because it maximizes economic divi- biggest stars rather than on giving opportunities dends. to many different musicians of diverse musical The result is that musicians who used to play backgrounds. There is an elite of less than 100 local or minority styles are often left with little international pop stars that receive a very dispro- choice but to play music that conforms to the portionate amount of the promotional resources W estern-style pop favored by record companies. that are essential to success in the modern music There is a feedback loop between musicians and industry. 15 Record companies are also well audiences that increasingly want W estern sound- known for promoting corporate clones of suc- ing music that results in marginalization of mu- cessful musicians rather than giving opportuni- sic that is outside the W estern mainstream. As a side note, the situation is ironically re- 12 Timothy D. Tayor, Global Pop. (New York: versed in the case of the less commercially sig- Routledge, 1997) 201. 13 nificant types of music marketed as traditional Roger W allis and Krister Malm, "The Interna- world music, although the end result is unfortu- tional Music Industry and Transcultural Com- nately similar. Record companies tend to market munication," in Popular Music and Communica- this type of music using the language of authen- tion, ed. James Lull (London: Sage Publications, ticity, knowing that their consumers want music 1987) 118. 14 Robert Burnett, The Global Jukebox. (New York: Routledge, 1996) 24. 16 Ibid., 62. 15 Ibid., 62. 17 Ibid., 81. that is —genuine“ and not diluted by W estern Musicians do not come in regimented shapes pop. To suit the desires of this niche market, and sizes, but are individuals who change record companies try to make musicians record and evolve together with their audiences. music that seems premodern and untainted.18 The Sony obviously views this as a great incon- venience. They have developed hard sell, effects of this are to cause the music to remain high profile sales techniques, and their static and to prevent it from existing as an or- stance is that if George Michael, or any ganic, living music. It also greatly limits the other artist for that matter, does not wish to freedom of expression of individual musicians conform to Sony‘s current ideas, there are who might like to experiment. plenty of hungry young acts who will.21 As an additional side note, It should be An argument often used in defense of com- noted that there in nothing wrong with musicians mercialization is that consumers exercise the from anywhere in the world recording music that ultimate power over the recording industry has a very strong W estern influence if they so through their choice of what to buy and listen to. choose. Some musicians, such as Youssou It is thus reasoned that the dominance of the N‘Dour, value the opportunity to be influenced W estern mainstream is simply a response to the by and to play W estern styles of music.19 They desires and tastes of consumers, and as such should not, however, be coerced into doing this should not be considered as a negative thing. by the recording industry. Likewise, W esterners should be able to use music from other cultures There are several very important flaws with as inspiration, but they must be careful to do so this reasoning. To begin with, it is important to without stealing or trivializing the cultural sig- realize that consumers are never exposed to any- nificance of the music. thing approaching the full range of music that is being produced, but only that which the record The institution of mass culture, standardiza- companies are choosing to record and promote. tion and mass production leads to homogeniza- This makes it difficult to argue that the consum- tion and a decreasing number of cultural forms ers have any free choice. In addition, the record available to audiences. Corporations attempt to companies produce music for those consumers institute structured obsolescence and rhythmic who have the most ability to consume, which is cycles of style in order to maximize sales while to say the richest. This means that efforts are minimizing costs. As Howard Koval has written, being made to meet the tastes of the rich, while —old ideas are repeated over and over again. . . . the poor have little financial purchasing power to and thus culture is no longer characterized by persuade the record companies to produce music diversity but is reduced to the repetition of a rela- that they like. tively narrow spectrum of forms and ideas which change slowly and with great resistance.“20 This It is also important to consider the coercive use of repetitive stereotypes and mechanical effects of advertising. The way in which the con- formulae is hardly conducive to free artistic or flict between the American Society of Compos- cultural expression. ers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI) in the years Even some of the high profile stars are re- surrounding 1940 completely changed the face belling against the authoritarian corporate control of American popular music is a good example of of the music industry. George Michael sued how industry forces can very successfully manu- Sony in 1993 in an attempt to be released from facture consumer demand for reasons that have his contract. Michael argued that the major re- virtually nothing to do with consumer demand.22 cord companies are signing musicians to long- term exclusive deals that give them the power to Further proof for the relatively low influence not release any music that a musician records if of consumers is found in a study by Eric W . they do not like it. As Michael has stated: Rothenbuhler. In a list of forty-two different fac- tors that he found affecting radio programming,

18 Timothy D. Tayor, Global Pop. (New York: Routledge, 1997) 21. 21 Ibid., 28. 19 Ibid., 135. 22 John Ryan, The Production of Culture in the 20 Robert Burnett, The Global Jukebox. (New Music Industry. (New York: University Press of York: Routledge, 1996) 30. America, Inc., 1985) 127. only four were related to the audience.23 This is he was involved in.27 Only one world music particularly significant considering the very im- Grammy has ever gone exclusively to a non- portant role that radio has on influencing what American group or musician.28 consumers buy. All of this shows that, while W esterners are Although music produced by non-W estern increasingly willing to listen to music from other artists represents only a small fraction of the total parts of the world, they are most willing to do music sold worldwide, it has been growing rap- this when some important elements of their own idly in popularity in the W est since the 1980‘s. culture are present in the music. Further exami- In 1988, the international buyer for Tower Re- nation of why W esterners are increasingly listen- cords told Newsweek that his section was —defi- ing to music from other cultures and how the nitely the fastest growing part of the store.“ The music is marketed to them uncovers some dis- market share of —foreign music“ sold by major turbing revelations. American record stores like Tower Records at- In order to understand the dynamics at play, tained parity with that of jazz or classical music it is useful to discuss how this music is labeled. by 1991, at a level of about 3%.24 Establishing stable and homogenous categories Although at first glance these statistics seem helps the recording industry to boost their to indicate that the American public is becoming sales.29 —W orld music“ and —world beat“ are two increasingly interested in diverse, international labels commonly used by the recording industry. styles of music, this is not entirely the case. To Keeping in mind that the labels are sometimes begin with, a good deal of the music that is pro- used interchangeably, the former is generally moted as being from non-W estern cultures is used to denote folk or traditional styles of music really only mainstream W estern pop played by from any country, whereas music falling under musicians who happen to be from non-W estern the umbrella of the latter tends to be music that is countries. In addition, the charts show that the produced outside North America or Britain and best selling world music is actually music made is influenced by mainstream pop.30 Although by W estern musicians.25 For example, the top there are many problems with these labels, as three Billboard world music sellers from the will soon be demonstrated, they are useful when early 1990‘s are the Gipsy Kings, Clannad and used to discuss the effects of worldwide com- Strunz & Farah.26 Not only do these bands play mercialization of music as a common experience folk music from Europe rather than from other shared by many cultures. The terms will there- parts of the world, but their music is particularly fore be used in this particular context throughout influenced by generic rock or pop. The albums this paper. that sell the best of all tend to be ones that in- Terms like these lump together styles of mu- volve contributions from W estern pop stars, such sic that are totally unrelated culturally or even as from Ry Cooder on Buena Vista Social Club aesthetically. The only commonality is that they and from Paul Simon on Graceland. are different from W estern music. This rein- The music awards that are given out also re- forces the idea that there are only two types of flect an unwillingness to recognize non-W estern music or, by extension, culture: the W est and music without some kind of mediation from the everything else. Not only does this ignore the W est. For example, the Grammy awards often go reality that two different types of music from two to recordings that are collaboration with W estern different cultures can easily have much less in pop stars. The 1991 world music Grammy was common with each other than with W estern mu- given to the Grateful Dead drummer Mickey sic, but it also denies the individuality of differ- Hart and the 1993 and 1994 Grammies went to ent cultures. Ry Cooder for two different collaborations that In the particular case of world pop, there are many sub-categories used, such as ambient mu- 23 Eric W . Rothenbuhler, "Commercial Radio sic, trance music, space music, world ambient, and Popular Music," in Popular Music and tribal music, ethnic fusion, ethno-techno, ethno- Communication, ed. James Lull (London: Sage Publications, 1987) 89. 24 Timothy D. Tayor, Global Pop. (New York: 27 Ibid., 11. Routledge, 1997) 1. 28 Ibid., 12. 25 Ibid., 7-9. 29 Ibid., 14. 26 Ibid., 7-8. 30 Ibid., 3. punk, techno-tribal and many others.31 Again, tion based on the country of origin produces the these categories make no distinction between psychological impression that musicians from types of music from different cultures. Many of the same region all play the same stereotypical these categories also blend together and overlap styles of music, minimizes the importance of the with new age music. The result is the creation of actual individual musicians and gives no a genericized style that ignores the roots of any recognition to the reality that there are many of the music or any cultural significance that it diverse musical traditions within each of these might have. regions. There are also many additional problems re- An example of the consequences of this kind lated to the ways in which world music is mar- of labeling is shown in the following posting on keted in addition to the issues surrounding label- the newsgroup rec.music.indian.misc by an ing. Some of these are illustrated in the follow- Internet user in Hong Kong: ing excerpt from a web page promoting the mu- sic of Tibetan monks of Gyuto: I have never before been on this newsgroup. But I had to. In a local newspaper, a food This remarkable, transcendentally beautiful journalist called the music in an Indian res- sound, thought to arise only from the throat taurant ”definitely newage.‘ I‘m sure the of a person who has realized selfless wis- music must have been Indian. Please tell me dom, is like nothing else on this earth. . . . what is newage music and why would (if he Seeing and hearing the music is a very spe- did) the journalist call Indian music newage, cial experience, for in addition to their mul- when it has been around for thousands of tiphonic chanting, the audience is feasted years?32 with the brilliant colors of their costume, the graceful movement of ritual activity, and a On the introduction of their W orld Music panoply of unusual instruments: mountain 37 chart in 1990, Billboard wrote that —the chart horns, bells, and drums. will run biweekly in the Retail section in tandem with the 25-position New Age chart under the Speaking from a W estern aesthetic perspec- heading Top Adult Alternative Albums.“33 It tive, the music is in reality relatively dull in the should be noted that the same person manages sense that it is simply the Tibetan equivalent of 38 both the New Age and W orld Music charts.34 Christian priests reciting prayers. In order to The lumping of world music with these other make the music appeal to the public, it is exoti- categories is an explicit demonstration of how cized and mystified by the record company. It is world music is being categorized and marketed packaged as ancient Eastern spirituality without by the commercial music establishment. As writ- any true understanding of the beliefs and values ten by Timothy D. Taylor, —[world music] is that are so central to it. designed to be music for grown-ups, music as Exoticization is a very common theme in the wallpaper, music that does not, on its reasonably marketing of world music. A further example is attractive and accessible surface, raise sticky given in the notes to the album Boheme by the problems about misogyny, racism, colonialism, group Deep Forest: what have you.“35 Not surprisingly, it is the six major recording multinationals mentioned earlier The enchanting timbre of a strange woman‘s and the companies that they own that dominate voice unmistakably marked Transylvania as 36 the world music charts. our new destination in that stationary jour- ney which gives our music meaning. Echoes Record stores often subdivide their world of deep forests, ancient legends and buried music sections based on country of origin rather tales still resounded there.39 than by style of music or performer name. This is markedly different from the way the classical, Emphasizing the exotic aspects of world rock or jazz sections are subdivided. Organiza- music and using mystical descriptive terms al- lows record companies to appeal to the desire of modern consumers to feel that they are not part 31 Ibid., 4. of the mainstream, that they have individualized 32 Ibid., 5. 33 Ibid., 5. 34 Ibid., 6. 37 Ibid., 24. 35 Ibid., 6. 38 Ibid., 24. 36 Ibid., 9. 39 Ibid., 12-13. and eclectic tastes. Unfortunately, the result of black clad figure is on his way across the so- this kind of marketing is that the W estern record called dark continent. He meets lions, warriors, buyers are even further alienated from the real pygmies and jungles. . .“42 It is notable that the cultural context of music and they are led to credits of this album mention several tribes, but stereotype styles of music based on how they are no African individuals.43 marketed. Collaboration between pop stars and musi- The irony is that record producers are well cians from other cultures are perfectly acceptable aware that most consumers don‘t really want if the pop stars get no more credit for the resul- music that is fundamentally that different from tant music than any of the other musicians. An what they are used to. In reality, consumers want implication of this is that all of the musicians music with familiar elements that gives the illu- involved should get comparable shares of the sion of being different. Record companies there- revenue from recordings, something that is very fore either encourage their musicians to change rarely done. It is also important that the cultural their music to play up to W estern stereotypical significance of any music not be overlooked. preconceptions about what music from a certain Corporate influence, as opposed to intent on region should sound like or they ask them to the part of the pop star, is often very influential incorporate elements of mainstream music into in the dominance of the pop star over the other their work to make it appeal more to the W estern musicians. Record companies choose to promote buyers who believe that they actually buying the pop star‘s prominence because they know something outside the norm. that doing so will likely bring in much higher There is a tendency to categorize musicians revenues. The case of Graceland lends some based on their ethnicity rather than their music in support to this. The record, which was marketed order to capitalize on the desire for music with and produced by Simon‘s record company, gave an —ethnic tinge.“ For example, the singer Banig a very disproportionate amount of attention to is a Filipina teenager who now lives in Los An- Simon. The Graceland tour, in contrast, featured geles. Despite the fact that she sings in English the entire ensemble relatively equally, with in a style identical to mainstream W estern Simon being careful not to dominate. pop/dance, her record company printed a full- To summarize, one of the most important page ad for her music in Rhythm Music Maga- problems with the commercialization of music is zine, one of the few magazines devoted to world that it limits the freedom of musicians to produce music in the United States.40 music that inspires them and that is relevant to A final issue that needs to be dealt with is them. It also takes away the power of choice the phenomenon of W estern pop stars who re- from the public by limiting the options available cord music with musicians from other cultures. to them and by conditioning them to respond to In response to the accusations of appropriation, consciously manufacturing trends. The cultural Paul Simon defended his Graceland album by independence of different regions of the world saying that, —Culture flows like water. It isn‘t are subordinated to mainstream W estern culture, something that can just be cut off.“41 Implicit in replacing musical diversity with genericized ho- this statement is the assumption that his culture mogeneity. The marketing strategies used by the is different from other cultures. His culture can giants of the music industry stereotype and trivi- be protected by copyrights, agents and lawyers, alize non-W estern styles of music and remove while the music of other cultures is free for him them from their cultural context and significance. to capitalize on. New technology is providing a few glim- Pop stars that go off to record with musi- mers of hope amongst the general barrenness of cians in other parts of the world are often por- the situation. The Internet provides a medium by trayed as explorers heading off to discover mys- which music can be freely and openly dissemi- terious music, again raising issues of exoticism. nated independently of the corporations, al- An example is Stewart Copeland‘s The Rhythma- though only certain segments of the population tist, which includes these album notes: —Rhyth- have access to this technology. The increasing matism is the study of patterns that weave the quality and decreasing prices of home recording fabric of life; with this speculation in mind a technology is also making it easier for musicians

40 Ibid., 17. 42 Ibid., 28. 41 Ibid., 22. 43 Ibid., 30. to record their own work, although this does not Burnett, Robert. The Global Jukebox. New York: solve problems of distribution. The revolutionary Routledge, 1996. effect of cassette culture in India and elsewhere Desnisoff, R. Serge. Solid Gold. New Bruns- is perhaps a cause for hope, although there are wick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1975. issues of piracy involved. Perhaps the greatest hope of escaping corporate dominance of the Manuel, Peter. Cassette Culture. Chicago: Uni- music industry is given by the example of how versity of Chicago Press, 1993. subordinate groups in the United States have had Rothenbuhler, Eric W ., ed. Popular Music and radical effects on popular music in the past cen- tury. One hopes that subordinate groups around Communication. London: Sage Publications, the world will now be able to do the same and 1987. break through the culturally repressive effects of Ryan, John. The Production of Culture in the the global commercialization of music. Music Industry. New York: University Press of America, Inc., 1985. Bibliography Tayor, Timothy D. Global Pop. New York: Routledge, 1997. Attali, Jacques. Noise: The Political Economy of Music. Brian Massumi, trans. Minneapolis: W allis, Roger and Krister Malm. Big Sounds University of Minnesota Press, 1985. From Small Peoples. London: Constable, 1984. Bennett, Tony ed. Rock and Popular Music: Politics, Policies, Institutions. London: W allis, Roger and Krister Malm. Media Policy Routledge, 1993. and Music Activity. London: Routledge, 1992. Bindas, Kenneth J. ed. America‘s Musical Pulse. London: Praeger, 1992.