BrIe f# 0I Housing Opportunity fe B. 2012 and Services Together www.urban.org InSIDe THIS ISSue •The HOST demonstration will implement and test strategies that use housing as a platform to deliver services to vulnerable populations in two cities. •Both sites will employ case management and dual-generation interventions. •The formative evaluation plan consists of a process evaluation, an outcome evaluation, and a detailed cost analysis.

Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration Challenges and Lessons Learned Susan J. Popkin, Molly M. Scott, Joe Parilla, Elsa Falkenburger, Marla McDaniel, and Shinwon Kyung

The multisite Housing Opportunity and Services Together (HOST) demonstration is an ambitious effort to test strategies that use housing as a platform for services to improve the life chances of vulnerable children, youth, and adults. This brief provides an overview of the project’s early challenges and successes to offer practitioners insights on the planning and design of “dual-generation” interventions and to inform policy supporting comprehensive place-based initiatives.

aunched in December 2010 with the Urban Institute and the Chicago Housing support of the Open Society Authority (CHA) piloted from 2007 –2010 During its two-year Foundations’ (OSF) Special Fund for with residents of Dearborn Homes and the Poverty Alleviation, the multisite Madden/Wells development. While this implementation, the LHOST demonstration tests innovative, two- model showed promising gains for even the generation service models to improve the life highest-risk adults, the benefits did not HOST demonstration chances of vulnerable low-income families extend to their children. Parents reported that living in public and mixed-income housing their teens were struggling in school, engag - will identify strategies communities. At its core, the demonstration ing in risky behavior, being arrested, and aims to address parents’ key barriers to self- pregnant and parenting at rates far above and services that help sufficiency—such as poor physical and men - average (Popkin and Getsinger 2010 ). tal health, addictions, low levels of literacy, Developing effective place-based models that the families at greatest lack of a high school diploma, and historically reach youth is critical not only for improving weak connection to the labor force—while the lives of individual children and youth, but risk and offer the best simultaneously integrating services and sup - also for ensuring the health and viability of ports for children and youth. public and mixed-income communities. If potential for strength - HOST builds on lessons learned from the youth engagement strategies are successful, successful wraparound service model that the they can reduce critical neighborhood ening the community. Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration

and ( 4) commit to participating in a research figure 1. HOST Demonstration Theory of Change demonstration and evaluation. HOST’s first two partner agencies— Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) and HOST demonstration: developing comprehensive, coordinated service models Home Forward (formerly the Housing Authority of Portland, Oregon)—both have a INTERVENTION history of developing innovative service mod - Urban Institute and Site Partners Case management and wrap-around services for els for their HOPE VI redevelopment initia - adults with strategies to engage children and youth tives, working with the Urban Institute, and participating in research projects. The part - ners’ Moving-To-Work (MTW) status also grants them greater flexibility to shift their ENGAGEMENT AND FOLLOW-UP AND ONGOING PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION ADJUSTMENT OF SERVICES federal funds to pay for resident services. 2 Site Partners Urban Institute and Site Partners Both housing authorities are implement - ing dual-generation case management models, but their programs target substantially differ - ADULTS Increased self-sufficiency/ ent communities and residents (table 1). CHA improved health and well-being is focusing its efforts on Altgeld Gardens, its CHILDREN AND YOUTH last remaining large public housing develop - Positive educational, health, and behavioral outcomes ment, which sits in an extremely isolated com - munity on the far south side of Chicago near the Indiana border. CHA’s HOST program Sustainable community Improved well-being builds on the previous case management revitalization for families and youth demonstration, which identified heads of household who were sporadically employed, did not have high school diplomas, had high rates of physical and mental health problems, problems such as vandalism, drug trafficking, Department of Justice’s Byrne Criminal and had children in the household noted as fighting, and gang activity—the disorder and Justice Innovation program. 1 Looking for - “high risk” and most in need of intensive case violence that have considerable impact on ward, HOST will help answer critical management (Theodos et al. 2010 ). For residents and can drive others away. Figure 1 ques tions about what works for whom and HOST, CHA has targeted 230 “high-risk” shows the theory of change for the HOST provide important insight into how local households where the head of household was demonstration sites. communities implement similar dual-gener - “work able” but failed to obtain employment During its two-year implementation, ation models to improve the life chances of during the first nine months of 2011 . Many of the HOST demonstration will identify their most vulnerable children and families. these residents are longtime public housing strategies and services that help the families at residents and all are African American. In greatest risk and offer the best potential for An Overview of HOST Partners addition, children living in these targeted strengthening the community. This informa - and Program Models households are less likely than youth living tion is vital as the federal government begins The first step in putting together any demon - in employed households to participate in to take place-based initiatives to scale stration is to identify suitable partners. For extracurricular activities offered at Altgeld. through its multiagency Neighborhood HOST, partners must have the capacity to ( 1) Home Forward has opted to build on Revitalization Initiative, which encompasses implement dual-generation case management its existing Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) pro - the Department of Housing and Urban models, ( 2) integrate meaningful programs gram initiatives, which hold rent constant Development’s Choice Neighborhood pro - for children and youth into their service plans, and provide case management to help resi - gram, the Department of Education’s (3) leverage federal and local funds to comply dents increase their income and save addi - Promise Neighborhoods program, and the with OSF’s required dollar-for-dollar match, tional earnings in a five-year escrow account

2. Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration

accessible upon program completion. For individual components including case man - absenteeism and failing grades). Project Match HOST, Home Forward is enhancing one of agement and services for youth. The local staff will be integrated into UCAN’s HOST these programs, the Opportunity Housing workforce investment board, Work Systems case management team and will provide a Initiative (OHI), by offering more services for Inc., will deliver employment-related pro - system of incremental goal setting, incentives, adults and incorporating case management grams along with Portland Community verification, and public recognition. The case for youth. HOST also allows Home Forward College; Innovative Changes runs a series of managers and Project Match staff will work to reach more than twice as many households financial literacy workshops for HOST par - to link HOST children and youth to services as before with this enhanced version of OHI. ticipants; and another outside consultant available on site, including UCAN’s after- The housing authority already requires resi - manages the youth component. school programming and groups for male and dents of Humboldt Gardens, one of its Intensive interaction between case man - female teens. smaller mixed-income developments, to par - agers and families serves as the centerpiece of Home Forward’s youth component is also ticipate in OHI and has expanded access in its HOST in both sites. CHA and Home highly tailored to the needs of individual largest mixed-income development, New Forward are using the opportunity presented children and youth but is structured quite dif - Columbia, and an adjacent public housing by the HOST demonstration to enhance their ferently. A multicultural team of experienced property, the Tamarack apartments. Home existing service models and to move from a licensed clinical social workers will coordinate Forward’s 136 HOST families are much more traditional case management approach to a closely with Home Forward’s HOST case diverse than CHA’s and include immigrant collaborative “coaching” model that will more managers to identify children and youth with and refugee populations, as well as African actively engage residents and leverage their acute behavioral or academic problems. The Americans, Latinos, and whites. And, since strengths and assets (Theodos et al. forthcom - youth case managers will then work intensively the Portland program targets mixed-income ing). Home Forward is also offering the Pacific with these children and their families to resolve communities, it will be serving families with Institute’s STEPS training, a series of work - these issues and connect them to additional a wider continuum of needs. shops that aim to improve motivation, raise resources (e.g., tutoring, specialized clinical The two housing authorities have also personal accountability, and provide insight therapy). The youth team will also work with made different strategic decisions about how into how the mind works so participants can the larger group of HOST children to develop to staff the services that compose their HOST control the way they think to achieve success. activities and opportunities for engagement models. CHA is contracting out its services, All HOST case managers, HOST adults, and and support, including weekly girls’ and boys’ with the Uhlich Children’s Advantage older youth are required to attend STEPS in support groups and service projects. Network (UCAN) 3 serving as the lead. order to construct common language and UCAN has provided services for vulnerable goals around self-sufficiency and resiliency. Building a Collaborative effort children and families in Chicago for nearly 150 Both CHA and Home Forward have HOST is a formative rather than a traditional years. The agency is CHA’s supportive services developed new youth programming for evaluation, which affects how the researchers provider for all of Altgeld. In that capacity, HOST. Project Match, an employment pro - relate to the program staff. In a traditional eval - UCAN provides basic case management and gram with a long history of working with uation, researchers do not enter the picture clinical services for adults; for youth, it either CHA families, will partner with UCAN to until after the intervention has been designed, provides them with or links them to after- provide school-age children and youth the and they wait until the study’s end to reveal school programming. For HOST, UCAN will opportunity to make concrete, measurable their findings and provide feedback to program provide intensive case management to the 230 progress along two distinct but interrelated and service administrators. In contrast, HOST families in the target group, lowering caseloads trajectorie s— one for enrichment and the is a collaborative effort and the Urban Institute from 55 :1 to 23 :1; providing employment, clin - other to help “off-track” children and youth. 4 has worked closely with the sites on developing ical, health, and financial literacy services for The enrichment group will target those whose the demonstration design, planning for the adults; and partnering with another CHA in-school and out-of-school behaviors suggest evaluation, and addressing administrative provider, Project Match, to develop and they are developmentally stable. This group issues to ensure its timely launch. Through this implement the youth component. would include both early excellers and average process, the Urban Institute has built a valu - In contrast, Home Forward is using its achievers. In contrast, the at-risk track will tar - able feedback loop that will allow the partners own staff to provide case management to get those with behavioral indicators classified to refine services and strategies over the course adults at a ratio of 40 :1, while contracting out as red flags, (e.g., school-age kids with high of the demonstration.

3. Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration

The Urban Institute’s site liaisons have partner staff. But over time, the calls have quarterly visits to each site and extra visits ongoing communication with their sites, become more targeted and attendance more when challenges arise. These visits have served including regular conference calls, e-mail limited to key personnel. In-person commu - as a solid platform for reaching consensus exchanges, and site visits. Initially, conference nication is particularly important for more around philosophical approaches and goals as calls covered a wide range of conceptual and intensive conversations about actual program well as hammering out the specifics of the practical issues and required an “all hands on models and design decisions. The site liaisons demonstration design. The evaluation team deck” approach with all Urban Institute and and the principal investigator make at least also takes advantage of time on the ground to

Table 1. Overview of HOST Demonstration Sites

CHICAgO HOuSIng AuTHOrITy HOMe fOrwArD

Sites Altgeld gardens new Columbia Tamarack Humboldt gardens

Type Public housing Mixed income

Target population 230 households 136 households

Case management uCAn Home forward

• 23:1 caseloads • 40:1 caseloads • Strengths-based coaching model • Strengths-based coaching model • Weekly meetings • Triage model of engagement • STEPS training

employment uCAn work Systems Inc.

• Barriers to success inventory • Comprehensive employment preparation • Job-readiness training • On-the-job training • Literacy programs • Internships

financial stability uCAn Innovative Changes

• Required financial literacy training • Required financial literacy training

Clinical uCAn Home forward

• On-site clinician • Referrals to off-site clinics • Clinical eco-maps

youth/parenting uCAn and Project Match Joy Degruy Consulting

• Pathways to Rewards incentive program for • Intensive case management with high-need youth 6–18 youth age 0–18 • Referrals to tutors and specialized clinical services when needed • After-school programming • Community enrichment activities • Summer jobs program • STEPS training for all youth age 12–18 • Clinical counseling • Early childhood delay screening

4. Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration

interview staff about the programs and mod - services through their existing service programs, that may limit the number of staff available. els and how they are being adapted. Lastly, CHA did not need residents’ consent to CHA has addressed its HOST staffing needs Urban Institute staff e-mail to follow up on identif y them as part of its target population. by realigning 10 UCAN case managers to pending items after conference calls and site CHA used its administrative data to select Altgeld from another site, which effectively visits, provide a written record of discussions, high-need, work-able families in Altgeld for cuts the case management ratio from 55 :1 to and clarify decisions made. the demonstration. However, while the work- 23 :1 for HOST families. Home Forward has In addition to building strong relationships able definition seems straightforward, CHA navigated this challenge by adapting its between partners, HOST aims to create a staff discovered that the prevalence of seasonal HOPE VI relocation model to triage HOST community of practice. During the planning labor and unstable employment made employ - families and tailor the level of case manage - phase, the Urban Institute organized two cross- ment fluid. Because of these issues, a sample of ment to their level of need. Given the site’s site meetings, one in Chicago and one in families pulled at any particular moment in mix of both high- and low-need families, the Portland. These meetings allowed partners to time will inevitably include some not appropri - triage approach allows Home Forward to share their insights and expertise with each ate for the demonstration and will miss others serve a larger number of families than if it other and mutually support the development that are. CHA reviewed its administrative data were using a one-size-fits-all model. of HOST models. For example, at the October three times between December 2010 and When designing a model like HOST, there 2011 cross-site meeting in Portland, CHA staff September 2011 to select as the final target pop - is a strong temptation to spread the money led a session on strengths-based coaching tech - ulation the 230 households that were work able broadly and offer families a wide variety of pro - niques. In between cross-site meetings, the and not employed in the final two reports. grams and services. While this approach has its Urban Institute organizes webinars to continue The challenges for Home Forward were benefits, the resulting intervention may not be this sharing and encourages partners to use very different. Because the OHI program strong enough in any one area to really move each other as sounding boards and to contact requires a signed contract with the client, family outcomes. To avoid this problem, the each other directly for technical assistance. Home Forward had to identify HOST partic - Urban Institute and its HOST partners used a ipants before implementation, and actively logic model process to ensure that the pro - Designing the HOST Demonstration engage and enroll them. With the help of two gramming pushes key HOST outcomes. In For most public housing authorities, struc - other general resident services staff, the four this way, the housing authorities have struck a tured case management programs like the HOST case managers in Portland actively balance between being comprehensive in their HOST demonstration tend to be small, bou - recruited residents for six months to make service model and providing the support fami - tique undertakings funded with FSS or sure there were enough families to support lies need to succeed. MTW funds and targeted to particularly the statistical analysis needed for the evaluation. The process of designing the HOST self-motivated, mostly adult clients. As a These multicultural staff also actively reached youth component highlights this tension. result, scaling up a high-capacity HOST out to refugee and immigrant residents as well Both HOST partners have chosen to serve model focusing specifically on hard-to-serve as to high-need families identified by the local children in a wide age range and considered adults and children presents a new set of chal - school to minimize the selection bias inherent directly funding multiple tutoring programs, lenges. HOST partners have the added task of in a voluntary program. mentoring programs, and youth employment designing, staffing, and launching HOST As noted above, the successful evaluation programs. However, CHA and Home models that support rigorous evaluation of a place-based demonstration like HOST Forward have chosen to implement highly within nine months. Further complicating depends heavily on the number of families tailored one-one-one youth case management this formidable undertaking are the con - engaged because of the need for statistical models because the other approach spreads straints under which public agencies operate, power to detect the intervention’s effect. resources too thin and may not deliver suffi - such as hiring freezes, contracting regulations, When the central component of the interven - cient services to each child. and concerns about service equity. tion is intensive case management, the num - Both HOST partners have wrestled with The first challenge for the HOST sites was ber of case managers needed increases expo - the question of which services to provide in deciding which residents to target for services. nentially as the number of families increases. house and which to contract out. The core CHA chose to target residents who were not This can pose difficulties when the agency components of CHA’s HOST model—inten - gainfully employed for at least 20 hours per providing core services is a housing authority sive case management, job training and devel - week. Since households were eligible to receive bound by local hiring freezes or other issues opment, mental health services, and other

5. Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration

specialized programs—resulted from lessons Planning the evaluation interviews, monthly HOST administrative learned over the past decade through imple - Evaluating a complex model like HOST pres - data on client engagement, and contextual menting a robust resident services program. ents challenges far beyond the usual issues data on local economic and political trends. CHA’s long-standing relationship with such as controlling for the larger context and Outcome evaluation. This part of the UCAN as the service provider in Altgeld identifying an effect within a prescribed time. evaluation will analyze changes in key out - Gardens has made UCAN the natural choice HOST models are different in each site and, comes such as employment, residential stabil - for managing the HOST demonstration. by design, will be refined and adapted over ity, and health in assisted households and By 2010 , the disappointing youth findings time. Moreover, because adding comparison youth-specific outcomes like school engage - from the evaluation of the Chicago Family groups is contingent on gaining additional ment and risky behaviors. Case Management Demonstration had funding, the Urban Institute may not be able The baseline and follow-up HOST family already helped CHA think more comprehen - to measure program impacts in a traditional surveys will bolster sound analyses of these sively about youth interventions (Popkin et al. sense. To address these challenges and others outcomes. First, to benchmark HOST out - 2010 ). Leadership in CHA’s Resident Services particular to dual-generation interventions, comes against those of similar households department was interested in partnering with the HOST demonstration team organized a through a formal comparison group, UI will Project Match to implement their Pathways to research advisory panel of practitioners, employ administrative data and standardized Rewards model in a public housing setting. researchers, and other experts in health, family measures that can be compared to popula - Initially, CHA, UCAN, and Project Match stability, employment, housing management, tions in national, state, and local surveys. debated whether Project Match should pro - and education to inform the evaluation design. Second, the Urban Institute will administer vide the youth component independently; but The advisory panel stressed that, as a the surveys not only to an adult in each during the planning period, CHA realized proof of concept evaluation, HOST has great household, but also to one youth 12 or older that Project Match did not have enough staff potential to contribute new knowledge and when present. This will enable the Urban to serve the high number of HOST children. create valuable prototypes for innovative serv - Institute to capture the unique experiences of As a result, CHA opted to have UCAN direct ice models. However, the evaluation’s success young HOST participants directly. youth services through either providing serv - depends on employing a strong research Because not all outcomes are captured ices or referring to community or school pro - design and creative data collection techniques. well by survey data, the Urban Institute has grams with technical assistance and support The group’s suggestions directly informed the also chosen to track some outcomes with from Project Match. Urban Institute’s evaluation plan, which con - administrative data. HOST case managers In contrast, Home Forward traditionally sists of three key components: ( 1) a process will record monthly interim data on employ - provides the majority of its case management evaluation, ( 2) an outcome evaluation, and ( 3) ment status, wages, and housing stability for and resident services functions in house; its a detailed cost analysis. all households because these outcomes often model HOPE VI relocation program laid the Process evaluation. A robust process eval - fluctuate widely over time. In addition, the groundwork for the intensive coaching model uation is especially important to HOST Urban Institute and its partners are currently so central to HOST. However, Home because of the demonstration’s structure and evaluating the feasibility of gathering report Forward generally leverages its relationships planned evolution over time. The process cards for HOST children and tracking com - with other agencies to provide programs and evaluation will ( 1) create a mechanism by mon measures of school engagement and services for residents. Thus, for HOST, Home which HOST partners can fine-tune client achievement through this mechanism. Forward has largely chosen to work with engagement, services, and management using Cost analysis. This research component is existing subcontractors that already know the feedback from the Urban Institute; ( 2) help central to understanding which policies or pro - community, understand residents’ needs, and analysts better understand and interpret find - grams generate maximum returns on invest - are familiar with the housing authority’s pro - ings from the outcome evaluation; and ( 3) ment. To gather this information, the Urban cedures and expectations. However, because provide the detailed information on imple - Institute will pair HOST partners’ monthly Home Forward was looking to make a large mentation needed for other communities administrative data on engagement and service investment in a new area of services, the to adapt HOST models. Methodologies use with cost estimates by service providers. agency used an intensive RFP process to select include interviews and observations of HOST The Urban Institute has already begun the the right youth services provider. partners and service providers, focus groups process study by documenting local program with HOST participants, in-depth family and staffing decisions through interviews and

6. Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration

observation of the HOST partners. The insti - Meanwhile, evaluation activities are in full tute has also worked closely with HOST swing. In December 2011 , the Urban Institute, notes partners to prepare for the other aspects of in partnership with Decision Information 1. For a full description of the Neighborhood the evaluation. At the first cross-site meeting, Resources (DIR), launched the baseline sur - Revitalization Initiative, see the White House CHA staff shared their experiences with vey of families in both Chicago and Portland. (2011 ). the Chicago Family Case Management Research and evaluation activities during the 2.For more information on the Demonstration with UCAN and other second year will include analysis of the base - Moving to Work program, see HOST partners; staff gave partners a sense of line survey data; ongoing analysis of the http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/ what to expect from the Urban Institute dur - administrative data on engagement, service program_offices/public_indian_housing/ ing a formative evaluation and advice on bal - use, and interim outcomes; focus groups with programs/ph/mtw. ancing services with the added tasks of track - adults and youth on early engagement with 3. http://www.ucanchicago.org/. ing outcomes and activities. At the second case management and services; observations meeting, site staff met with the firm conduct - of program activities; interviews with pro - 4.Project Match’s services build on the Pathways to Rewards incentive-based model they developed ing the family survey to define core adminis - gram staff; and in-depth interviews with par - for families in the CHA’s Westhaven mixed- trative measures across sites. ticipants about their experiences with HOST. income development. See http://pmatch.org/. As HOST develops, the research team will Looking forward assess the lessons learned, challenges, and CHA and Home Forward launched the serv - successes from the demonstration and dis - references ice component of the HOST demonstration seminate those findings in an interim report Popkin, Susan J., and Liza Getsinger. in November 2011 . In the first few months, in 2012 . Communication with stakeholders 2010 . “Reaching the Next Generation: they have continued to intensify resident out - and other interested parties will be an ongo - The Crisis for CHA’s Youth.” Supporting Vulnerable Public Housing Families Brief 6. reach, finalize staffing, and modify service ing effort for the Urban Institute and its part - Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. provision. The full HOST model will be ners, ensuring that HOST informs the work http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID= 412259 . rolled out over several months in 2012 as of practitioners, public housing authorities, residents become engaged with new oppor - local governments, philanthropy, congres - Popkin, Susan J., Brett Theodos, Liza Getsinger, and Joe Parilla. 2010 . “An Overview of the Chicago tunities. Undoubtedly, there will be new sional offices, the Department of Housing Family Case Management Demonstration.” programs added, tweaks to services, and per - and Urban Development, and the Supporting Vulnerable Public Housing Families haps major changes to existing models. Neighborhood Revitalization Initiative Brief 1. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Nevertheless, both program failures and suc - par tner agencies. Lessons learned from the http://www.urban.org/url.cfm.?ID= 412254 . cesses will be useful for policy and practice. demonstration are sure to make an impact in Theodos, Brett, Susan J. Popkin, Elizabeth This brief documents the start-up for only the lives of low-income children and families . • Guernsey, and Liza Getsinger. 2010 . “Inclusive two HOST sites. However, in the year to come, Public Housing: Services for the Hard to House.” the New York City Housing Authority Acknowledgments Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. (NYCHA) and the District of Columbia The authors wish to thank Chantal Hailey http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID= 412035 . Housing Authority (DCHA) plan to join the and Amanda Mireles for their assistance in Theodos, Brett, Susan J. Popkin, Joe Parilla, and demonstration and begin their own planning preparing this brief, as well as our colleague Liza Getsinger. Forthcoming. “The Challenge of processes in time to roll out new HOST mod - Robin Smith for providing helpful suggestions. Targeting Services: A Typology of Public Housing els in late 2012 . Because large action-oriented We would also like to thank the representa - Residents.” Social Services Review . research undertakings like HOST require tives of the Chicago Housing Authority and The White House. 2011 . “Building collaboration from multiple organizations, Home Forward for their participation in this Neighborhoods of Opportunity.” White House the Urban Institute will continue its research and their insightful comments on this Neighborhood Revitalization Initiative Report. conversations with major national philan - brief. We also wish to thank the generous fun - Washington, DC: The White House. thropic organizations to leverage the support ders of the HOST demonstration: the Open http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/ of foundations coming on board during the Society Foundations’ Special Fund for Poverty nri_pb_agencies_final_ 9.pdf. planning year, including the Paul G. Allen Alleviation, the Paul Allen Foundation, Home Family Foundation and the Kresge Foundation. Forward, and the Chicago Housing Authority.

7. Planning the Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration

About the Authors Housing Opportunity and Services Together Demonstration Susan J. Popkin is both director of the Urban Institute’s Program on Copyright © February 2012 Neighborhoods and Youth Development and a senior fellow in the Metropolitan The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of Housing and Communities Policy Center. the Urban Institute, its partners, its trustees, or its funders. Permission is granted for reproduction of this document, with attribution to the Urban Institute. Molly M. Scott is a research associate in the Urban Institute’s Metropolitan Photo courtesy of My Stor y—Portland, Oregon Housing and Communities Policy Center.

Joe Parilla is a research associate in the Urban Institute’s Metropolitan Housing and Communities Policy Center.

Elsa Falkenburger is a research associate in the Urban Institute’s Metropolitan Housing and Communities Policy Center.

Marla McDaniel is a senior research associate in the Urban Institute’s Labor, Human Services, and Population Policy Center. urBAn InSTITuTe Shinwon Kyung is a visiting fellow in the 2100 M Street, nw ● washington, DC 2003 7-1231 Urban Institute’s Metropolitan Housing (202) 833-7200 ● and Communities Policy Center. [email protected] ● www.urban.org