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Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Amantadine and Memantine

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Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Amantadine and Memantine Journal of Personalized Medicine Communication Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Amantadine and Memantine: Possible Therapeutics for the Treatment of Covid-19? Félix Javier Jiménez-Jiménez 1,* , Hortensia Alonso-Navarro 1 , Elena García-Martín 2 and José A. G. Agúndez 2 1 Section of Neurology, Hospital Universitario del Sureste, Arganda del Rey, E-28500 Madrid, Spain; [email protected] 2 University Institute of Molecular Pathology Biomarkers, UNEx. ARADyAL Instituto de Salud Carlos III, E-10071 Cáceres, Spain; [email protected] (E.G.-M.); [email protected] (J.A.G.A.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-636968395 Received: 2 October 2020; Accepted: 6 November 2020; Published: 9 November 2020 Abstract: We have reviewed current data on the anti-inflammatory effects of amantadine and memantine in clinical and in vivo models of inflammation, and we propose that these effects have potential interest for the treatment of the SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19 disease). To that end, we performed a literature search using the PubMed Database from 1966 up to October 31 2020, crossing the terms “amantadine” and “memantine” with “inflammation” and “anti-inflammatory”. Amantadine and/or memantine have shown anti-inflammatory effects in chronic hepatitis C, in neuroinflammation induced by sepsis and by lipopolysaccharides, experimental models of multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, and respiratory diseases. Since the inflammatory response is one of the main pathogenetic mechanisms in the progression of the SARS-CoV-2 infection, anti-inflammatory effects of amantadine and memantine could be hypothetically useful in the treatment of this condition. This potential utility deserves further research. Keywords: amantadine; memantine; anti-inflammatory effects; SARS-Cov-2; COVID-19; therapy 1. Introduction Amantadine (adamantan-1-amine) is an adamantane derivative which was used to treat influenza caused by influenza virus type A (the antiviral effects of amantadine are based on the ability to interfere with the viral M2 protein, therefore interfering with viral replication), although today it is not recommended for this indication because of the development of drug resistance [1,2]. Amantadine is also useful for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD) at early stages (it decreases symptoms of bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor) and to treat levodopa-induced dyskinesia in this disease. The mechanisms of action of amantadine in PD include non-competitive antagonism of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (NMDAR), an increase of dopamine release, a reduction of dopamine reuptake, and mild anticholinergic (by antagonism of the nicotinic cholinergic receptor) and D2 receptor agonist actions [1,3]. Amantadine is also widely used as an effective and safe drug in the treatment of fatigue in patients with multiple sclerosis [4] and has shown efficacy in persistent vegetative state due to severe traumatic brain injury [5] or to severe cerebral hemorrhage [6]. Memantine (3,5-dimethyladamantan-1-amine) is a non-competitive, low-affinity, voltage- dependent antagonist of NMDA receptors, and also acts as an antagonist of both the nicotinic cholinergic and serotonergic (5-HT) type 3 (5-HT3) receptors. Memantine is one of the two classes of drugs approved for clinical use in moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [7–9]. Other clinical uses J. Pers. Med. 2020, 10, 217; doi:10.3390/jpm10040217 www.mdpi.com/journal/jpm J. Pers. Med. 2020, 10, 217 2 of 15 J. Pers. Med. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 includeuses include the treatment the treatment of vascular of vascular dementia, dementia, dementia dementia of Wernicke-Korsako of Wernicke-Korsakoffff syndrome, syndrome, and acquired and pendularacquired nystagmuspendular nystagmus of multiple of sclerosis multiple [sclerosis10]. [10]. TogetherTogether with with these these main main mechanisms mechanisms of action of action and clinical and clinical uses, both uses, amantadine both amantadine and memantine and havememantine shown importanthave shown anti-inflammatory important anti-inflammatory actions. Because actions. inflammatory Because inflammatory response with response the so-called with “cytokine-storm”the so-called “cytokine-storm” (triggering viral (triggering sepsis and viral inflammatory-induced sepsis and inflammatory-induced lung injury) lung is one injury) of the is mainone pathogeneticof the main mechanismspathogenetic inmechanisms the progression in the of prog theression SARS-CoV-2 of the (COVID-19) SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19) [11], weinfection should speculate[11], we onshould the hypothesisspeculate on that the amantadine hypothesis andthat memantineamantadine could and memantine be useful as could adjunctive be useful therapy as foradjunctive the treatment therapy of for this the condition. treatment Forof this this condit purpose,ion. For we this undertook purpose, a we literature undertook search a literature using the PubMedsearch using database the PubMed from 1966 database up to 31 from October 1966 2020,up to crossing31 October the 2020, terms crossing “amantadine” the terms and “amantadine” “memantine” withand “inflammation”“memantine” with and “inflammation” “anti-inflammatory”. and “anti-inflammatory”. The whole search The retrieved whole asearch total ofretrieved 337 references, a total whichof 337 were references, examined which manually were examined one by manually one, before one the byreferences one, before strictly the references related strictly to this related issue were to selected.this issue The were flowchart selected. for The the flowchart selection for of the studies selection is represented of studies inis represented Figure1. in Figure 1. Figure 1. Flowchart of the studies on anti-inflammatory effects of amantadine and memantine. For more information, visit www.prisma-statement.org. Figure 1. Flowchart of the studies on anti-inflammatory effects of amantadine and memantine. 2. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Amantadine 2. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Amantadine Amantadine and its derivative rimantadine, in combination with interferon α2b (IFNα2b) and Amantadine and its derivative rimantadine, in combination with interferon α2b (IFNα2b) and ribavirin, have shown higher efficacy in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C in non-responders to ribavirin, have shown higher efficacy in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C in non-responders to J. Pers. Med. 2020, 10, 217 3 of 15 IFNα2b than the combination of IFNα2b with ribavirin, measured as the end-of-treatment response (ETR), according to two literature reviews [12,13]. Amantadine combined with pegylated IFNα2b and ribavirin has also shown efficacy in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C (measured as a sustained virological response—SVR) [14,15], which was higher in drug-naïve than in non-responders to IFNα2b [16]. While several studies have shown the lack of effect of amantadine alone in the treatment of patients with chronic hepatitis C non-responders to IFNα2b, both in reducing viremia and in reducing alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels [17,18], other studies have shown a sustained reduction in ALT levels in patients treated with this drug, suggesting its potential anti-inflammatory activity [12,19]. Amantadine has shown the ability to reduce the induction of inflammatory factors such as RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted; Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 5) in a dose-dependent manner, and the activation of p38 MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinase and c-Jun-NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) in cell cultures of bronchial epithelial cell lines infected with influenza virus (the reduction in the activation of p38 MAP kinase and JNK seems to be related to the inhibition of virus replication, because amantadine did not inhibit the activation of these kinases induced by tumour necrosis α -TNF-α)[20]. Both amantadine and memantine showed a positive effect on neurological deficits and in the improvement of rats with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), an experimental model of multiple sclerosis, increasing both the number and activation of microglial cells, and decreasing mRNA expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and, to a lesser extent, expression of IL-1β, TNF-α mRNA, but did not affect the activation of astrocytes [21]. Amantadine injected intraperitoneally in mice reduces neuroinflammation by attenuation of the increase of IL-1β expression induced in a model of sepsis induced by caecal ligation and puncture [22]. Administration of amantadine to rats with spinal cord injury showed a protective effect related to endothelial development and angiogenesis, reduction in inflammation, and markers of apoptosis and oxidative stress [23]. Finally, amantadine inhibited the release of microglial pro-inflammatory factors and increased the expression of neurotrophic factors such as glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) from astroglia in rat midbrain mixed neuron-glia cultures challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or the dopaminergic neurotoxin 1-methyl-phenyl-pyridinium ion (MPP+), these actions being independent of NMDA receptor inhibition [24]. 3. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Memantine Memantine has shown the ability to decrease neuroinflammation induced by intraventricular infusion of LPS in rats by reducing microglia activation [25]. Like amantadine, as previously stated, memantine improved EAE in rats [21]. Memantine has shown a potent protective effect against lesions induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (OHDA) in dopaminergic PC12 cells related to reversing nerve growth factor IB (Nurr77) upregulation [26]. Nurr77
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