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A Revisit of Global Dimming and Brightening Based on the Sunshine Geophysical Research Letters RESEARCH LETTER A Revisit of Global Dimming and Brightening Based 10.1029/2018GL077424 on the Sunshine Duration Key Points: Yanyi He1, Kaicun Wang1 , Chunlüe Zhou1 , and Martin Wild2 • Spatial-temporal comparison of the observed and sunshine 1State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, College of Global Change and Earth System Science, duration-derived surface incident 2 solar radiation over China, Europe, and Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China, Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland the United States • Surface incident solar radiation derived by sunshine duration is Abstract Observations show that the surface incident solar radiation (Rs) decreased over land from the proven to depict the observed 1950s to the 1980s and increased thereafter, known as global dimming and brightening. This claim has long-term variability • A revisit of global dimming and been questioned due to the inhomogeneity and low spatial-temporal coverage of Rs observations. Based on brightening in China, Europe, and the direct comparisons of ~200 observed and sunshine duration (SunDu) derived Rs station pairs, meeting data United States since 1901 record lengths exceeding 60 months and spatial distances less than 110 km, we show that meteorological observations of SunDu can be used as a proxy for measured Rs. Our revised results from ~2,600 stations show global dimming from the 1950s to the 1980s over China (À1.90 W/m2 per decade), Europe (À1.36 W/m2 Correspondence to: per decade), and the United States (À1.10 W/m2 per decade), brightening from 1980 to 2009 in Europe K. Wang, (1.66 W/m2 per decade) and a decline from 1994 to 2010 in China (À1.06 W/m2 per decade). Even if [email protected] 1994–2010 is well known as a period of global brightening, the observed and SunDu-derived Rs over China 2 still exhibit declining trends. Trends in Rs from 1923 to 1950 are also found over Europe (1.91 W/m per Citation: decade) and the United States (À1.31 W/m2 per decade), but the results in Europe may not well represent the He, Y., Wang, K., Zhou, C., & Wild, M. (2018). A revisit of global dimming and actual trend for the European continent due to poor spatial sampling. brightening based on the sunshine duration. Geophysical Research Letters, Plain Language Summary Ground-based observations of the surface incident solar radiation (Rs) 45, 4281–4289. https://doi.org/10.1029/ reveal the phenomena known as global dimming and brightening, that is, a downtrend over land from the 2018GL077424 1950s to the 1980s and an uptrend thereafter. However, Rs observations suffer from inhomogeneity issues and low spatial-temporal coverage. Sunshine duration-derived Rs is not present above problems and was Received 1 FEB 2018 – Accepted 6 APR 2018 utilized here to compare with observed Rs from China, Europe, and the United States over the 1950 2010 Accepted article online 19 APR 2018 common period. Results show a good agreement between two data sets except for the dimming period in Published online 5 MAY 2018 China, mainly due to instrument sensitivity drift of Rs observations. Therefore, using more extensive sunshine duration-derived Rs data set at approximately 2,600 stations over China, Europe, and the United States since 1901, a revisit of global dimming and brightening has been reasonably conducted, including the early period prior to the 1950s. 1. Introduction As the Earth’s primary energy source, the surface incident solar radiation (Rs) plays an important role in climate change (Dorno, 1920; Mercado et al., 2009; Sellers et al., 1990). However, Rs is not constant; rather, it undergoes significant decadal variations (Wild, 2009). Ground-based observations of Rs have indicated a continuous decrease from the 1950s to the 1980s and an increase thereafter, a trend that is known as “global dimming and brightening” (Augustine & Dutton, 2013; Dutton et al., 2006; Ohring et al., 2008; Stanhill & Cohen, 2001; K. Wang, Dickinson, et al., 2012; K. Wang et al., 2013; Wild, 2012; Wild et al., 2005). These phenomena have become an important consideration for research on the Earth’s energy and water cycles (Long et al., 2009; Roderick & Farquhar, 2002). Ground-based observations of Rs collected at weather stations since the 1950s, such as those from the Global Energy Balance Archive (GEBA), provide key evidence for global dimming and brightening (Ohmura et al., ©2018. The Authors. 1989; Wild et al., 2017). However, the uncertainties in such Rs data are difficult to quantify (Wild, 2009). For This is an open access article under the example, Rs observations in China suffer from substantial inhomogeneity issues due to instrument replace- terms of the Creative Commons ment and instrument sensitivity drift (K. Wang, 2014; K. Wang et al., 2015). Accordingly, to improve the instru- Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distri- mental accuracy, the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) was established during the early 1990s bution in any medium, provided the (Ohmura et al., 1998) to independently measure Rs and its diffuse and direct components according to the original work is properly cited, the use is fi non-commercial and no modifications speci cations of the World Climate Research Programme. High-accuracy instruments have been deployed or adaptations are made. at the BSRN stations, with good maintenance protocols and frequent calibration (Augustine & Dutton, HE ET AL. 4281 Geophysical Research Letters 10.1029/2018GL077424 2013; K. Wang, Augustine, & Dickinson, 2012). Furthermore, parallel observations of Rs at BSRN stations can compensate for each other to improve the data continuity (Augustine & Dutton, 2013). However, the BSRN stations are too sparse (with approximately 50 sites worldwide; Ohmura et al., 1998) to well estimate Rs at the global scale (Ma et al., 2015). The observed Rs data have been criticized for their poor spatial representativeness, temporal discontinuity, and urbanization effects (Alpert & Kishcha, 2008; K. Wang et al., 2014). The Rs data from reanalyses data sets also have substantial uncertainties arising from the use of cloud fields sourced from model simulations rather than instrumental observations in reanalysis systems (Naud et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2018). Moreover, most existing reanalyses, such as ERA-Interim and Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, do not include interannual variations in atmospheric aerosols, leading to significant biases in the long-term trends of Rs after 1990 in China (K. Wang et al., 2015). Multiple Rs products based on satellite retrievals, including the Global Energy and Water Exchanges Surface Radiation Budget project, have been employed to investigate the decadal variations of Rs dating back to the 1980s (Pinker et al., 2005). The Global Energy and Water Exchanges Surface Radiation Budget Rs product is derived from cloud observations obtained from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (Rossow & Schiffer, 1999), which suffers from inhomogeneity issues due to different amounts and capabilities of data acquired from geostationary and polar-orbit satellites (Dai et al., 2006; Evan et al., 2007). Furthermore, data from satellite retrievals only cover the brightening period. The sunshine duration (SunDu) collected at globally distributed weather stations provides an independent 2 proxy of Rs. SunDu records the time duration of a direct solar beam over a given threshold (i.e., 120 W/m ) during a day (Tang et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2006). Observations of SunDu date back to the nineteenth century at some of the sites and SunDu measurement sites are distributed worldwide. The material used to measure SunDu (light sensitive paper) is replaced each day. Therefore, it hardly suffers from the problem of instrument sensitivity drift (Sanchez-Lorenzo & Wild, 2012). Simultaneously, SunDu is almost free from influences of instrument replacement (Stanhill & Cohen, 2005). Even though, SunDu data do not provide a direct estimate of Rs and have the different sensitivity of atmospheric turbidity changes, compared with Rs observations, they are still a good proxy for variations of Rs (Manara et al., 2017). Moreover, existing studies have shown that SunDu-derived Rs estimates roughly depict long-term variabil- ity in Rs almost without the problems associated with early radiometry mentioned above (K. Wang, 2014; K. Wang et al., 2015) and reflect to some extent impacts of both aerosols and clouds (Tang et al., 2011; K. Wang, Dickinson, et al., 2012). In this study, we compared the observed and SunDu-derived Rs at approximately 200 observed and SunDu- derived Rs station pairs over China, Europe, and the United States, meeting record lengths exceeding 60 months and spatial distances less than 110 km, and analyzed the spatial patterns of the trends in the two data sets by establishing 2.5° × 2.5° grids. Finally, we provided a SunDu-derived Rs data set with high spatial-temporal coverage from 1951 to 2010 at approximately 2,600 stations over China, Europe, and the United States, thereby permitting a revisit of global dimming and brightening. In addition, we also attempted to estimate earlier trends in Rs (i.e., prior to 1950) over Europe and the United States. 2. Data and Method Observed Rs data sets from GEBA (Wild et al., 2017) and the China Meteorological Administration were used in this study (118 sites from 1959 to 2010 over China, 44 sites from 1961 to 2009 over Europe, and 46 sites from 1952 to 1980 over the United States). SunDu and other meteorological data (including the relative humidity, air temperature, and surface pressure) employed to derive Rs at approximately 2,600 meteorological stations over China (2,318 sites from 1951 to 2010), Europe (116 sites from 1901 to 2009), and the United States (137 sites from 1901 to 1987) were selected from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, the Global Summary of the Day, the European Climate Assessment & Dataset (ECA&D), and the China Meteorological Administration.
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