POLITICAL ANALYSIS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE THROUGH RWANDAN ELECTORAL PROCESS
A Case Study of the City of Kigali from 2001 to 2013
KANAMUGIRE BISETSA Jean Damascène
MGE/0003/2011
Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Masters of Arts in Governance and Ethics submitted to School of Business and Public Management of Mount Kenya University
JUNE 2014
DECLARATION This research study is my original work and has not been presented to any other Institution. No part of this research should be reproduced without the author’s consent or that of Mt Kenya University.
Student’s Name: Kanamugire Bisetsa Jean Damascène Sign: ………………………………… Date: ………………………. Declaration by the Supervisor
This research has been submitted with our approval as the Mt Kenya Supervisor.
Name: Dr. Gaspard Gaparayi Sign: ……………………………… Date: ………………. For and on behalf of Mt Kenya University
ii
DEDICATION
To my parents, spouse Bernadette Umulinga, children, unforgettable late brother Justin Rwakagara, to whom this thesis is dedicated.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank The Almighty God for having accompanied me throughout my life and have enlightened my mind. I express my sincere gratitude to my parents for their moral as well as material support without whom my existence would be absurd. I express my deep gratitude to my wife Umulinga Bernadette and my children for their moral support.
I express my recognitions to the decision makers of Mt. Kenya University for starting this interesting and helpful Master’s program in Rwanda. My sincere thanks are addressed to my supervisor Dr. Gaspard Gaparayi for his valuable assistance, guidance and facilitations he provided in order to make this thesis more effective. All those who contributed toward completion of my studies are highly appreciated.
iv
ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study is to analyze the democratic governance in Rwandan electoral process in the city of Kigali from 2001 to 2013 with the aims of evaluating and analyzing the citizen participation in electoral process in order to build sustainable democratic governance. General objective is to assess democratic governance in Rwanda electoral process for building sustainable democratic governance while specific objectives are to evaluate the democratic governance in Rwanda through electoral process, to find out level of citizen participation in electoral process and to establish mechanism and strategies put in place in electoral process. The target population was 665,448 the total voters in the City of Kigali. Slovenes’ formula was used to determine the sample size from the total population of the research. Therefore the sample size was 399 respondents. Simple random sampling has been considered, whereby, a number has been given to every member of the accessible population and then the respondents were selected randomly. The study utilized questionnaire to collect primary data from the field. The data entry and management have been undertaken using the statistical package for social science (SPSS). Each questionnaire has been checked for completeness and preliminary general trends of data were established. Data have then been coded and entered into a predesigned data entry sheet in SPSS. Descriptive statistics have been used to analyze data. Data have then been condensed in the form of frequencies, and percentages of the variables. The data have been analyzed and then presented in tables, pie charts and bar charts. The main objective of data analysis and interpretation was to assess the level of citizen participation in designing and evaluating their leaders in decision making. It pursued to analyze the indicators of democratic governance through Rwandan electoral process since 2001 up to 2013, and the level of interactions between leaders and citizen. Findings showed that from various elections held in the City of Kigali since 2001 to 2013, Governance in Rwanda is consensus oriented, effective and efficient, accountable, following the rule of low, responsive and inclusive, acting in the transparent manner guided by the gender equality. Citizen participation through various elections held in Rwanda is effective in vesting leaders and decision making. Furthermore analysis and interpretation of data have confirmed that from electoral process indicators of democratic governance are fulfilled in Rwanda.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ...... ii DEDICATION ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... x LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xiii
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ...... 1
1.0 Introduction…...... 1
1.1 Background of the study ...... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 3
1.3 Objectives of Study ...... 4 1.3.1 General objectives ...... 4 1.3.2 Specific objectives ...... 4
1.4 Research Questions...... 4
1.5 Significance of the study ...... 5
1.6 Limitation of the Study ...... 5
1.7 Scope of the Study ...... 5
CHAPTER TWO ...... 7
LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7
2.0 Introduction ...... 7
2.1 Review of Theory and Concepts ...... 7 2.1.1 Leadership ...... 7 2.2.2 Governance as a cornerstone of democracy...... 7 2.2.3 Linkage between Good Governance and Leadership ...... 8
vi
2.2.3.1 Citizen participation ...... 11 2.2.3.2 Rule of law ...... 12 2.2.3.3 Transparency ...... 12 2.2.3.4 Responsiveness ...... 12 2.2.3.5 Consensus oriented...... 12 2.2.3.6 Equity and Inclusiveness ...... 13 2.2.3.7 Effectiveness and Efficiency ...... 13 2.2.3.8 Accountability ...... 13 2.2.4 Political power ...... 14 2.2.5 Rwanda vision 2020 ...... 14 2.2.6 Good governance and Decentralization ...... 14 2.2.6.1 Good Governance and Decentralization Policy in the Rwandan Context 14 2.2.6.2 Phases of Decentralization Implementation in Rwanda ...... 16 2.2.6.3 Decentralization and Performance Contracts ...... 18
2.3 Empirical review on Democratic Governance ...... 19 2.3.1 The Greco-Roman Background of Democracy ...... 19 2.3.2 Democracy in Antiquity ...... 21 2.3.3 The Middle Ages and Christian Monarchism ...... 22 2.3.4 The Modern Political Thoughts and Democracy ...... 23 2.3.5 Political Power and Democracy ...... 25
CHAPTER THREE ...... 37
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 37
3.0 Introduction…… ...... 37
3.1 Design of the study ...... 37
3.2 Target population ...... 37
3.3 Sample size……… ...... 38
3.4 Data collection instruments ...... 38
3.5 Reliability and validity ...... 39
vii
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 39
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 40
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ...... 40
4.0 Introduction…………………...... 40
4.1 Discussion of Results towards Study Objectives ...... 40 4.1.1 General Characteristics of the Respondents ...... 40 4.1.1.1 Respondents Sorted by Age Group and the District of Origin ...... 40 4.1.1.2 Respondents Sorted by Professional Categories and Marital Status ...... 41 4.1.1.3 Respondents Sorted by the Level of Education and Sex ...... 42 4.1.2 Evaluation of Democratic Governance through Electoral Process in Rwanda……...... 43 4.1.3 Democratic Governance and Citizen Participation ...... 45 4.2 Indicators of Democratic Governance within Rwandan Elected
leaders………………...... 47 4.2.1 Control of Corruption ...... 47 4.2.2 Political stability and absence of violence ...... 48 4.2.4 Voice and accountability ...... 52
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 53
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .. 53
5.0 Introduction…………………...... 53
5.1 Summary of major findings ...... 53 5.1.1 Evolution of democratic governance in Rwandan electoral Process between 2001 and 2013...... 54 5.1.2 Level of citizen participation in electoral process ...... 54 5.1.3 Mechanism and strategies put in place in electoral process ...... 56 5.2 CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………….58 5.3 RECCOMMANDATIONS ...... 59
viii
5.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTHER STUDIES ...... 60
REFERENCES ...... 62
APPENDICES ...... 65
ix
LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents according to age group and their district of origin 41 Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents according to profession and marital status ...... 41 Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents according to education level and sex ...... 42 Table 4.4: Respondents perceptions about democratic governance through Rwandan electoral process...... 44 Table 4.5: Respondents Perceptions about Citizen Participation on Decision Making ..... 45 Table 4.6: Respondents’ views about the rule of law in Rwanda ...... 46 Table 4.7: Respondents’ perceptions on the control of corruption ...... 47 Table 4.8: Respondents’ views about political stability as outcome of electoral process 48 Table 4.9: What Respondents Stated about ‘Rule of Law” Indicator within Rwandan Governance ...... 50
x
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1: Respondents’ views vis-à-vis Rwandan Governance Effectiveness ...... 49 Figure 4.2: Respondents’ perceptions on Rwandan regulatory quality enabling private sector development based on doing business ...... 51 Figure 4.3: Perceptions about voice and accountability vis-à-vis Rwandan governance .. 52
xi
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Electoral process
Electoral process refers to the method by which a person is elected to public office or the taking and counting of votes. The process usually gives the right or ability to make a choice. Electoral process is understood in this study as citizen participation, freedom of expression of citizens in vesting of leaders and the capability to overthrown them if they don’t comply with their needs.
Governance and Good Governance
Good governance is a process of decision making and the process by which decision are implemented. Good governance in this study refers to the way in which people are linked to their leaders by a contract allowing them to crosscheck whether their representatives comply with their project. Good governance assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society. Good governance is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law.
Decentralization
Decentralization is a process of transferring authority and responsibility from the central governance to local level. Decentralization refers to various reforms held in Rwanda in order to make effective delegation of power.
Democratic governance
Democratic governance seeks efficient institutions, and a predictable economic and political environment necessary for economic growth and effective functioning of public services. The democratic governance in this study refers to the implementation of good governance and decentralization policies. Democratic governance possible people have the possibility to participate in vesting of their leaders and ousting them whether they don’t achieve their project of society. Democratic governance is oriented toward the economic development.
xii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AD/BC : Anno Domini/Before Christ CDCs : Community Development Committees CGG : Commission on Global Governance EDPRS : Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy IRDP : Institut de Recherche et de Dialogue pour la Paix J.O : Journal Officiel (Official Gazette) MINALOC : Ministry of Local Government / Ministère de l’Administration Locale MINICOFIN : Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning NISR : National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda RPF : Rwandan Patriotic Front UN ESCAP : United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UNDP : United Nations Development Program USD: : United States Dollard WGI : Worldwide Governance Indicators
xiii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.0 Introduction This chapter presents the background to the study, the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research objectives and questions, significance of the study, justification of the study, scope of the study, limitation of the study, theoretical framework, and assumptions of the study.
1.1 Background of the study The existence of man finds its meaning in society within which he takes place. This is why, he is legitimately called social animal as Aristotle (1993) wrote in his consideration, that is why by nature a man tends to live in community because, taken separately, he is not self-sufficient.
Unlike other beings, human is distinguished by his intelligence by which he arranges to live in harmony with its surroundings. This harmony is possible only by the social pact that he establishes with his peers. In other words, it is by a social contract that its existence is meaningless. That requires a political system where there are leaders and led, bound by a social contract which, according to Rousseau (2005), the general will takes precedence over personal interests. According to him political power is based on good social organization resting in turn on a pact guaranteeing equality and freedom among citizens.
Whether the man is by nature a social being, and lives naturally within the group where are developed its multiple relationships, obviously he cannot develop himself fully without a legitimate political power ensuring harmony between the social groups involved. Thus, democracy appears as a political system where citizens participate in the establishment of their leaders through the elections.
1
Given this consideration of political power, Rwanda was not remained indifferent for building the basis of political power democratically based on the general will of the people. With genocide against Tutsi in 1994, there was total breakdown of institutions, systems, structures and human capacity in Rwanda. Since then, the country has gone through the painful challenge of rebuilding the whole governance infrastructure. The good governance and decentralization policy in Rwanda is the result of public consultations organized by the Presidency of the Republic since January 1998. The Government held a national workshop on governance. Priority areas for governance interventions in Rwanda were identified, notably: public sector reform, strengthening of the justice sector, strengthening the parliament, decentralization and local governance, the strengthening government coordination, and Human resource development (MINALOC, 2001).
The Rwandan electoral process is not moving by chance, but it is an expression of the people’s will through their free participation. First of all, the electoral process has its origins in Arusha agreements signed August 4, 1993 between the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and the Rwandan Government to promote genuine democracy. In the Protocol on the rule of law, in Chapter two, Article 10 states: "The elections should be organized so as to ensure transparency and eliminate fraud, through the establishment of effective oversight mechanisms including, if necessary, the assistance of international observers. The preliminary and exhaustive explanation of the rights and civic duties, including the issue of elections, is an inalienable right of a citizen and provides a means to avoid any form of political manipulation.” (Official Gazette, Year 32 N0 16 of 15 August 1993).
In addition to these agreements obsolete, after genocide against Tutsi of 1994 the country has put in place the policy of its reconstruction. Urugwiro (president’s office) debates of 1998/89, under the chairmanship of the President of the
2
Republic, had on its agenda among other things, searching for a democratic system appropriate to Rwanda. Among the critical policies initiated by the Urugwiro debates, the following issues were highlighted: establishment of national commissions and other institutions of accountability to address critical problems, initiation of good governance and the decentralization policy and reform of public institutions, the Vision 2020 and the elaboration of the Constitution. (Habumuremyi, 2008). Since 2001, The National Electoral Commission held various elections with purpose of building real democratic governance through citizen participation.
1.2 Statement of the problem Political power in any society tends to protect and ensure its development. The democratic governance seeks efficient institutions, and a predictable economic and political environment necessary for economic growth and effective functioning of public service. But the concept of democratic governance concerns political freedom and human rights, and removal of discrimination. Dahl (1998) argues that the political institutions of modern democratic governance are: elected officials; free, fair and frequent elections; freedom of expression; access to alternative sources of information; associational autonomy and inclusive citizenship.
The main issue of the governance in Rwanda is that for long time Rwanda did not experience the democratic elections, this is to say that the democratic governance did not exist in Rwanda before genocide. Earlier governance was under monarchical regime. Since 1959, the political situation was characterized by ethnic violence against Tutsi that result in the 1994 genocide. Indeed, there was not democratic election in the country, it was one presidential candidate to elect saying yes or no, others were appointed arbitrary according to the relationship or regional origin. Some elections were organized based on the manipulation of ethnicity where a certain component of the population was systematically excluded in the management and the exercise of power.
3
The Rwandan electoral process arises from a succession of political regimes that do not promote the effective participation of people in governance. After 1994, Rwanda has organized series of elections driven by the National Electoral Commission both locally and nationally. To consider different elections held since 2001 to 2013, we realize that it is the very foundation of democratic governance manifested through equality and fairness, the accountability, respect of the rule of law and transparency in daily management of public affairs. It is in this context that, the researcher intends to know whether Rwandan electoral process is rooted on the democratic governance.
1.3 Objectives of Study
1.3.1 General objectives The purpose of this study is to assess democratic governance in Rwanda electoral process for building sustainable democratic governance.
1.3.2 Specific objectives This study pursues the following specific objectives:
i. To evaluate the evolution of democratic governance in Rwanda through the electoral process between 2001 and 2013. ii. To find out level of citizen participation in electoral process iii. To establish mechanisms and strategies put in place in electoral processes
1.4 Research Questions i. What are the evolutions of democratic governance through the electoral process in Rwanda? ii. What are the levels of participation of citizen in electoral process? iii. What are mechanisms and strategies put in place during electoral process?
Starting from above questions, the research aims at cross-checking through these questions in order to verify whether really the Rwandan electoral process fulfills the two major functions of universal suffrage advocated by Braud (2004:365)
4 namely: “confer an additional legitimate authority to those who wield power, and reactivating governed in the sense of belonging to the large group through the exercise of a collective shared prerogative.”
1.5 Significance of the study This study analyzes the democratic governance in Rwanda from electoral process initiated since 2001 to 2013 and the role of citizen participation to the decision making. It has been benefic to the researcher as it has helped the readers to increase their knowledge in electoral governance in Rwanda.
To the policy maker, the study provided information used as a basis to evaluate the electoral process and its role for building sustainable democratic governance in Rwanda. The government took strategies that could be used during this electoral process. It served as a reference tool to help citizens to fight against poor governance through their effective participation in decision making by establishing worthy leaders and capable of serving general will of the people. The research would benefit the future researchers as a reference document hence contributing to academic career of the researcher.
1.6 Limitation of the Study The researcher faced a number of problems while conducting this research. The limitation of the study have been mainly the one associated to subjectively and suspicion of responses where respondents viewed the research as intrusive exercise and purely academic work, hence they gave responses without facts and evidence. On the other hand, respondents feared to exhaust the required information for the fact that the topic is sensitive contributor responsibilities.
1.7 Scope of the Study This study has been based on democratic governance in Rwanda on electoral process through which people participate to the exercise of political powers by choosing their leaders. Geographically, the research focused on City of Kigali,
5 which is the Capital City of Rwanda. Its limitation is rather determined by a specific period of time and the study complies with the field of governance and ethics.
The analysis covers a period of thirteen years, between 2001 and 2013. The year 2001 stands for the initial reference because it is from this year that the first democratic elections governed by the electoral code in Rwanda were organized, whereas 2013 alludes to the recent parliamentary elections, which were held in September 2013. Thus, our approach was to be articulated on all elections which were held during that period of time while they are highlighting obvious signs of democratic governance.
6
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction This chapter presented the review of the literature related to the assessment of the democratic governance in Rwanda through the electoral process. The researcher reviewed the theoretical, empirical and critical literature on the subject related to the study. The researcher also identified the gap going to be filled by this research.
2.1 Review of Theory and Concepts
2.1.1 Leadership Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
According to D’Souza (2010), leadership can be defined as enabling a group to engage together in the process of developing, sharing and moving into vision, and then living it out. Leadership is characterized by exerting influence, motivating and inspiring, helping others realize their potential, leading by example, selflessness and making a difference.
2.2.2 Governance as a cornerstone of democracy
According to Lalande (2002), the term governance is delivered from the Greek word kyberman and kybermetes. It means to steer and to pilot or to be at the helm of things. While the term government indicates the political unit for the function of policy making as distinguished from administration of policies, the term governance denotes an overall responsibility of both-the political and administrative functions. It also implies ensuring moral behavior and ethical
7 conduct in the task of governing, i.e. the continuous exercise of Primary data on both the political and administrative units of governance.
Governance is a process of decision making and the way in which decision are implemented or not. Governance relates to the way power and primary data is exercised and distributed within an organization. Governance is the sum of the many ways individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse conflict of interest may be accommodated and co-operative actions may be taken. It includes formal institutions and regime empowered to enforce compliance as well as informal arrangements that people and institutions ether had agreed to or perceive to be their interest (CGG, 1995).
2.2.3 Linkage between Good Governance and Leadership
The World Bank (1989) argues that politically, leadership is accurately linked with good governance. The good governance policy takes its origin from the late 1980s, when the debate on good governance and its requirements has provided an impetus for new approaches to public sector management reforms. Some of the changes taken place have been aimed at tackling some of the worst forms of governance abuses and failures in Africa such as: the personalized nature of rule in which key political actors exercise unlimited power; systemic clientelism; misuse of State resources and institutionalized corruption; opaque government; the breakdown of the public realm; the lack of delegation of power and the withdrawal of the masses from governance.
Good public management and administration, with emphasis on accountability and responsiveness to customer needs, has been seen as an aspect of good governance by donor’s agencies supporting reforms in developing countries. To the World Bank, good governance consists of a public service that is efficient, a judicial system that is reliable, and an administration that is accountable to the public. The
8
World Bank (1989) elaborates four elements of good governance which are: (i) Public sector management emphasizing the need for effective financial and human resource management through improved budgeting; (ii) accounting and reporting, rooting out inefficiency particularly in public enterprises, accountability in public services, including effective accounting, auditing and decentralization, generally making public officials responsible for their actions and responsive to consumers; (iii) Predictable legal framework with rules known in advance, (iv)) Finally a reliable and independent judiciary, law enforcement mechanisms, availability of information, transparency in order to enhance policy analysis, promote public debate and reduce the risk of corruption.
Referring to the Rwandan context, good governance refers to the exercise of political, economic, and administrative authorities to manage the nation’s affairs and the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships, and institutions as well as leadership behavior through which citizens’ groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences. Governance is good when it is effective, efficient and when the participation, interests, and livelihood of the governed are the prime motives of the leaders’ actions at every level of society.
In Rwanda, as expressed by the MINALOC (2001) the good governance policy is a result of multiple consultative meetings on governance which took place at Village in 1998, in which intervention sectors in governance were identified. This conference brought together senior policy frameworks of the country, provincial officials, and members of the donor community, civil society and scientists from institutions of higher education in Rwanda. One of the results of this conference is the promotion of good governance for poverty reduction. It is there that was originated the long-term vision of the government or the Vision 2020 and the Strategic Program of Poverty Reduction.
9
According to the MINICOFIN (2007) the main policy objectives of good governance in Rwanda are: (i) To enable and encourage local people to participate in initiating, devising, implementing and monitoring decisions and plans that consider their local needs, priorities, capacities and resources by transferring power, authority and resources from central to local government and lower levels; (ii) To strengthen accountability and transparency in Rwanda by making local leaders directly accountable to the communities they serve and by establishing a clear linkage between the taxes people pay and the services financed through these taxes; (iii) To enhance the sensitivity and responsiveness of public administration to the local environment by placing the planning, financing, management and control of service provision at the point where services are provided and by enabling local leaders to develop organization structures and capacities that take into consideration the local environment and needs; (iv) To develop sustainable economic planning and management capacity at local levels that was to serve as the driving motor for planning, mobilization and implementation of social, political and economic development to alleviate poverty; (v) To enhance effectiveness and efficiency in the planning, monitoring and delivery of services by reducing the burden from central government officials who are distanced from the point where needs are felt and services delivered.
Good governance in Rwanda is not a matter of government only but a situation of multiple crisscrossing relationships in which different and various actors in the public and private sectors at national and international levels play various roles, sometimes mutually reinforcing and complementary, sometimes conflicting, but always following the same principles and practices that are agreed as constituents of good governance. Good governance is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law.
10
2.2.3.1 Citizen participation Participation could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. Participation needs to be informed and organized. This means freedom of association and expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other hand.
According to Nay (2007), the democratic ideal is based on the conception that political power proceeds from the sovereign people. Therefore there is no democracy without citizen involvement that is to say without active citizens. This is why political participation involves not only the enjoyment of civil rights attached to citizenship (the right to vote, eligibility, civil liberties, access to positions of responsibility), but also and especially the duty of being involved in political life and participating in. It is around the election and therefore the act of vote which is ordered that conventional participation happiness.
Political participation is part of a peaceful conception of political engagement as necessary to participate in activities in which citizens are entitled to get in touch with the sacred universe of power. They naturally include those which are conventional produces because they contribute to the legitimacy of a government through the electoral process, which may include those that meet the legal framework for conflict resolution (Dahl, 2001).
If the policy is based on mediation, political power is to maintain the cohesion of a differentiated society through social, cultural and ideological conflicts, produce the rules and procedures for resolving disputes, offering a public space that allows the year of debate and political life. It is preserving the political link is constitutive of the social bond.
11
2.2.3.2 Rule of law Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force.
Politically, the rule of law is a concept explained in classical time. Aristotle (1993) wrote that law should be the final sovereign; and personal rule, whether it is exercised by a single person or a body of persons, should be sovereign in only those matters which law is unable, owing to the difficulty of framing general rules for all contingencies.
2.2.3.3 Transparency Transparency means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who were to be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. It also means that enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms and media (UN SCAP, 2004).
2.2.3.4 Responsiveness Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe. Functional and effective workings partnerships help to ensure that responsiveness is timely. Working partnerships are built over time and are based on mutual respect and trust.
2.2.3.5 Consensus oriented There are several actors and as many viewpoints in a given society. Good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in the society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective
12 on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such a development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.
2.2.3.6 Equity and Inclusiveness A society’s wellbeing depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their wellbeing.
Rousseau (2005) stipulates that the notion of political participation necessarily refers to that of equality. The feeling of being equal is the very foundation of political participation. Taking a look at the socio-political organization of the Greek City, those who participated in the deliberations of the agora felt as equals. Among the Greeks, to be a full citizen, it was appropriate to not be subject to the obligations to produce for others, not to be forced to fit into service relationships and dependency. The idea of the political relationship between equals is the basis of the idea of democratic governance.
2.2.3.7 Effectiveness and Efficiency Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. This characteristic promotes efficient public delivery systems and quality public outputs. It deals with the amount of public respect the civil service has.
2.2.3.8 Accountability Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions but also private sector and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. The accountability of each leader varies depending on whether decisions or actions taken are internal or external to an organization or institution. In general an organization or an
13 institution is accountable to those who were to be affected by its decisions or actions. Accountability cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law. Free and fair elections are vital to a flourishing democratic process that builds accountability between elected representatives and citizens (UNDP, 2002).
2.2.4 Political power
Political power is the ability to shape and control the political behavior of others to lead and guide their behavior in the direction desired by the person, group, or institution wielding the political power. Political power is the capacity to influence, condition, mold, and control human behavior for the accomplishment of political objectives (Nay, Carcassonne, Drayfus, Duhamel, et al., 2008).
2.2.5 Rwanda vision 2020
According to MINICOFIN (2000), Rwanda Vision 2020 is a result of a national consultative process that took place in Village Urugwiro in 1998-99. There was broad consensus on the necessity for Rwandans to clearly define the future of the country. In the beginning, the major aspiration of Vision 2020 is to transform Rwanda’s economy into a middle income country (per capita income of about 900 USD per year, from 290 USD); this was to require an annual growth rate of at least 7%. Nowadays, the middle income is expected to 1250 USD by 2020 per year with an annual growth rate at least 12%. Vision 2020 aspires for Rwanda to become a modern, strong and united nation, proud of its fundamental values, politically stable and without discrimination amongst its citizens.
2.2.6 Good governance and Decentralization
2.2.6.1 Good Governance and Decentralization Policy in the Rwandan Context Good governance policy is the cornerstone of Rwandan leadership. Due the genocide against Tutsi in 1994, there was total breakdown of institutions, systems,
14 structures and human capacity in Rwanda. Since then, the country was gone through the painful challenge of rebuilding the whole governance infrastructure. The good governance and decentralization policy in Rwanda is the result of public consultations organized by the Presidency of the Republic since January 1998. The Government held a national workshop on governance. Priority areas for governance interventions in Rwanda were identified, notably: public sector reform, strengthening of the justice sector, strengthening the parliament, decentralization and local governance, the strengthening government coordination, and Human resource development (MINALOC, 2011).
According to Habumuremyi (2008), the main objectives of the decentralization policy in Rwanda are: Allowing the population to participate in decision-making; allowing people to freely choose their leaders; Ensuring transparency and accountability in the management of public affairs at local level; Promoting the rule of law and equality before the law; Approach the service the local population.
According to MINICOFIN (2012), Rwanda first adopted the Decentralization Policy in May 2000, formulated after a series of dialogue sessions with citizens and consultations with experts on how Rwandans could turn their page permanently for the better in terms of good governance and wellbeing in which Rwandans themselves would be in-charge of their destiny. Decentralization is a process of transferring Primary data and responsibility from the central governance to local level. Decentralized governance remains the desire to make the government more receptive and accountable to the need of its population.
Decentralization has focused on: the advantages of decentralized governance in terms of poverty reduction, political participation, government accountability, responsiveness of public policies and service delivery; The limitations to what decentralization can achieve and the balance between centralization and decentralization: which areas are best addressed by which level of government; The reform of the state and systems of governance that decentralization requires
15 and facilitates, as decentralization alters the structure and institutions of governance; the political, financial, administrative and capacity preconditions for successful.
Decentralization aims at addressing failures to foster development and reduce poverty, and to consolidate democracy. It may entail transferring certain planning, financing and management tasks to local units of central agencies (deconcentration), lower levels of government (devolution), or semi-autonomous authority (delegation). It alters the structure and systems of governance (inter- governmental relations, state–society relations). While deconcentration and delegation imply a reorganization of central government, devolution means relinquishing political power. There is no standard model of decentralization: it varies considerably from country to country. Its impact depends greatly on the original objectives and design, as well as institutional arrangements and implementation.
2.2.6.2 Phases of Decentralization Implementation in Rwanda The Government of Rwanda is using decentralization as an instrument for people’s political empowerment, a platform for sustainable democratization, a structural arrangement for mobilization of economic development energies, initiatives and resources and as a means for reconciliation, social integration and wellbeing.
The decentralization process is being implemented in three successive phases: The first phase: 2001-2005 established democratic and community development structures. To facilitate the functioning of these structures, a number of legal, institutional and policy reforms were undertaken, especially in promoting democratic election. The second phase: 2006-2010: defined after a territorial restructuring in 2005 and aimed at consolidating progress on national priorities, such as Vision 2020, and deepen the decentralization process by enhancing effectiveness in service delivery to communities. Its finality was achieved by increasing capacities at different levels of administration (Villages, Cells and
16
Sectors) close to communities, promotion of integrated local economic development and fostering community participation at village level, in the planning and management of local affairs. The third phase: 2011-2015 aims at improving and sustaining the achievements of the first two phases, addressing the challenge faced during the two first phases. These challenges evolve around: Institutional and Legal Framework; Sectorial Decentralization; Service delivery; Fiscal and Financial Decentralization; Capacity Building interventions in Local Government; Local Economic Development; and Volunteerism, Participation, Accountability and Democratization. The third phase of Decentralization intends to diminish the distance between upper and lower levels of administration and make the Government more effective, efficient and responsive to people’s needs and preferences. In this phase, multi-sectorial decentralization at local level was to be reinforced and mechanisms for partnerships between public sector and non- state organizations were to be operational (MINALOC, 2011).
There are number of important assets that are already evident in relation to current decentralization efforts in Rwanda. At the highest levels of government there seems to be an impressive level of commitment to the success of decentralization. This is apparent in the ongoing efforts of Ministry of Local Government at reorganizing and rationalizing the new local governance system.
The successful election of district, sector, and cell level representatives over the past twelve years is another indicator of success in meaningful decentralization as most local interlocutors agreed that the new officials represent a potential for dramatically increased accountability. The fiscal autonomy of the new local officials provides room for innovative management techniques at least in principle. Further, the setting-up of the Community Development Committees and the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy offers a great potential for local ownership and participation in the development process.
17
2.2.6.3 Decentralization and Performance Contracts One indicator of decentralization is the ability of the population to objectively assess their leaders on the basis of tangible facts. It is in this context that in 2006, the Rwandan government has initiated the approach of performance contract. By performance contracts, local government authorities, meaning the elected officials, seat together and set goals, objectives and targets to be achieved within a given period (generally a year). These goals/objectives are of course thematic and are focused on key pillars: good governance, justice, economy, health and social affairs.
Each year the Mayor of Kigali City and Mayors of District sign these performance contracts with His Excellency the President of the Republic. Worthy of note, the President of the republic represents all and any Rwandan citizens and, therefore, signing performance contracts with him means signing them with the citizens who vested him by elections.
Through performance contracts, the elected authorities translate into action the promises made to the people during election campaigns. All budget and activities at all administrative units of the City of Kigali, Districts and Sectors can’t go outside of performance contracts.
When performance contracts are signed, citizens have now full right to hold accountable their leaders. Once every year, the district leaders appear before the people and other governing authorities to showcase how they have kept to the promises made. Each year Citizens participate to cross check leadership through an ad hoc committee put in place representing diverse social groups such as civil society organizations, churches, medias groups, political parties’ representatives that conduct an independent assessment to ascertain the achievements claimed by the respective mayors. This committee then ranks the districts according to a set of indicators aimed at service delivery.
18
2.3 Empirical review on Democratic Governance
2.3.1 The Greco-Roman Background of Democracy
Democracy is a political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them. It can also be defined as the political orientation of those who favor government by the people or by their elected representatives. To consider the thought of Dahl (1998) democracy provides opportunity for effective participation, equality in voting, gaining enlightened understanding, exercising final control over the agenda an inclusion of adults. The concept of democracy is deeply developed in the background of democratic governance.
Democracy appears between the sixth and fifth century AD in Greece, and it was understood as the power of the people. It was intended a more just government. For Dahl (1998) it was the Greeks, probably the Athenians, who coined the term democracy or demokratia, from the Greek words demos, the people, and kratos, to rule. Democracy is considered as a most natural political system born of that we might call the logic of equality. The purpose of democracy, according to the same author is to establish a political system of government that provides citizens the maximum of opportunity to participate in political decisions.
In the same perspective, Nay (2007) estimates that it is to Solon (c. 594 AD) to which it is attributed the foundation of democracy. Through the political reforms he introduced in Greece he laid out a council of 400 members with broad powers, among others, that of enacting laws. Solonian democracy was to be destroyed by the tyrant Pisistratus in 560 and especially by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus (528-510). Around 507, Cleisthenes rises to power and reforms political structures. Supported on the ideal of isonomy (arithmetic equality) he recognizes to all citizens an equal right to participate in public life (assemblies, courts and judiciary).
19
The same Cleisthenes instituted the assembly of the people ecclesia, one of the main organs of power in the City. The agora (Greek: Ἀγορά, Agorá was a central spot in ancient Greek city-states) became the meeting place of citizens and the center of political life of Athens. It is at the Agora that were organized much discussions on matters of common. The Agora replaces the Acropolis (site where are gathered the most religious buildings) and especially at the Areopagus (the old court controlled by the aristocracy). Cleisthenes puts an end to the old clannish structures where are predominated the bloodlines. Thus the power really belonged to the people who exercised directly (Nay, 2007).
The Athenians had established a system of political participation for the establishment of their leaders. The government had for core an assembly “ecclesia” in which all citizens had the right to take part. This assembly had the prerogatives to elect a small number of senior officials - the generals .The selection tool used in these elections was the draw in which all eligible citizens had the same opportunity of being nominated. By some estimates, every citizen had a reasonable chance of being nominated once in his life to fill the most important function within the government of the city.
While in Greece, the People's Government was designated under the concept of demokratia, the Romans themselves, gave their system the name of the Republic, from the Latin res, matter or thing, and publika; the republic was thus something that belonged to the public. Only patricians were allowed to participate in government. While popular assemblies of the Greeks were held at the agora, with the Romans, they were held at the forum. Those who lived in the remote territories of the Republic could not access it. Dahl considers that the system of Roman government did not offer opportunity to all citizens to attend meetings, because every time they win by conquest new territories, they granted citizenship to the conquered people, and they had the same rights as other Romans. As they had
20 conquered vast territories, those distant could not participate in these meetings due to lack of means (Dahl, 2001).
2.3.2 Democracy in Antiquity
The organization has taken various political considerations throughout history. Antiquity sees the birth of democracy, which takes different connotations depending on the author. To the pre-Socratics, it is the nature that enables us to think the human condition. With the Sophists, man is at the measure of all things. Policy therefore is explained according to the usefulness and interest of those who exercise it. Socrates against the Sophists reacts and defends the City State, and any policy consists in bringing man back to obedience to the law, because laws are established for property of citizens and seek greater justice. He invokes the meritocracy in the exercise of political power. This is the virtue that must lead the person exercising the power (Nay, 2007).
Plato (2004) invokes the ideal City. He enumerates the five types of possible regimes: the power of terror focused on finding of honors where good and evil are mixed; tyranny or monarchy similar to power of terror; oligarchy considered as the accumulation of goods; the aristocracy as the government of a few and democracy which is the possible government that Plato considers as the government of the poor and incompetent victorious. He intends to rely on the political morality, that is to say, the set of values conducive to the realization of good and fair.
For him, the idea of justice does not refer to the vision defended by supporters of democracy, that is to say, the equality of all before the law. It is rather the result of creating a system whereby everyone may find the place and rank that suits him according to his qualities. Plato believes that the ideal organization should seek to leave the charges and powers according to individual capabilities. And the city appears perfectly happy if it is ruled by philosopher-kings who only mastered the art of governing.
21
Unlike Plato, Aristotle (1993) is not intended the absolute unity of the City, but the relative unity that leaves room for complementarities between the different parts. In his political consideration, totalitarianism is replaced by friendship. Friendship means benevolence, humanity, sociability, attention to others, in short all those virtues that promote community life and make it agreeable. In its organic conception of social order, human being has no independent existence. He is fully realized in the social order to which it belongs. This is a being destined to live in society.
Concerning the system of political regime, Aristotle takes Plato's comparison and concludes that populous democracies of cities are the worst regimes because subject to change, to the whims and demagoguery; rural democracies are the best because people there are little agitated and grant authority to the most virtuous; about the oligarchy, when it is flexible, it is good, rigid, it is catastrophic. The ideal would be the moderate royalty, but sometimes it degenerates into tyranny and Aristotle is wary about it (Nay, 2007).
2.3.3 The Middle Ages and Christian Monarchism
The history of medieval Christianity traces Christianity during the Middle Ages, the period after the Fall of Rome (c.476) until the Protestant Reformation (c.1517), considered the start of the modern era of Christianity. In Middle age, medieval Christian preaching becomes the main source of political inspiration. The politic gradually loses its autonomy and only be defined in relation to religion. Christian thinkers take from the word of Christ political conceptions of a rare originality, establishing the separation of secular’s powers and spiritual Primary data. In this context St. Augustine was to consider the Church as supreme institution which holds universal sovereignty eminently superior to the temporary Primary data of kings. Hence the church has supremacy to all other powers. This is a form of monarchy to the detriment of democracy (Nay, 2007).
22
In the thirteenth century, St. Thomas Aquinas contributed to the evolution of Christian doctrine, which is an essential step in the march towards modern thought. He was to build a new theology reconciling Christian revelation and pagan philosophical sources. On after him, the political was to be articulated on the distinction between God's commandments and that of nature, in other words, between law and grace. The law is understood as a work of reason ordered because of the common good. About the best political regime, Saint Thomas is in favor of the monarchy in mixed government, because it privileges the unity to the multitude; the best is to take the pattern of the Office from the King of the natural form of government as God rules over the universe. The power that seems the most natural is the monarchy because it conforms to the common government of nature. The king's role is to work towards unity, without ever losing sight of the common good. If power becomes tyrannical monarchy loses its meaning. The people have for that spot to elect those who govern. So Thomas has conducted a review of the doctrine of the Church in recognizing that men attach positive laws (Nay, 2007).
2.3.4 The Modern Political Thoughts and Democracy
During the centuries following the Middle Ages, the monarchy is reinforced in the modern age and people start to become aware of its attachment to the king. The monarchical doctrines are taking off as an attempt to free itself of medieval thought, especially between the thirteenth and seventeenth century. Some thinkers like Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke and Montesquieu were to emerge during this period.
Machiavelli (2004) is striving to show how to conquer a State and preserve it. According to him, the reference model of the Prince is not good or bad, but the power becoming autonomous. The prince can make use of good when it serves its interests, but also he can be cruel and be wary of morals principles when the necessity requires. The prince must seek the most effective way to exercise power
23 and use all means to achieve its goals, including those that seem to be condemned on the moral level. He argues that the end justifies the means.
Hobbes (2000) develops a political absolutist conception prefiguring modern totalitarian theories reconciled with modern traditional monarchists. Thomas Hobbes believes that human being is not naturally good, he is quite bad. Man in the state of nature seeks nothing but his own selfish pleasure, but such individualism naturally leads to a war in which every man's hand is against his neighbor, man is a wolf to man. He is not naturally sociable. In order to socialize people; it was to require a strong power to compel human being to live in society, meaning that democratic is impossible. The role of the State is to regulate the relationship of men by putting in place and strengthening lows. According to him, man can stop being a wolf and a threat to other men in becoming a citizen, because in civil status, he was to be constrained by the sovereign power and the benefits of the life of the same civil status to be altruistic, in the first case for fear of reprisals in the second by a simple interest calculation.
According to Locke (1992), the human being acquires a dimension whole different. The natural state of man is not at the wild state, but there is a freedom and natural equality of men and they are naturally sociable. Locke stated in these terms: “The men, as has been said, being all naturally free, equal and independent, no one can be drawn from this state and be subject to political power of another without his own consent, by which he may agree with other men to join and unite in society for their conservation” (Locke, 1992: 214). For him, the best form of government is democracy, to the greatest number. He introduced the theory of separation of powers which was to be afterwards developed by Montesquieu.
Montesquieu (1996) with his theory of separation of powers, namely the legislature, executive and judiciary was to be based on the principle and nature of governments. He distinguishes the republic which may be democracy, aristocracy and monarchy. Montesquieu gives clear preference to the monarchy, as it makes
24 decisions more binding. It displays a frank hostility to democratic ideas. Montesquieu gives his clear preference to the monarchy because it makes decisions more enforceable.
Rousseau (2005), political power relays on a social contract. Political power is generated from conventions of man in society to govern themselves according to the wise laws. This is to say that people in society must be governed by respect of rule of law, one of the pillars of democratic governance.
Starting from these points of view of these above scholars, we realize that the Rwandan electoral process is a response to the challenges they perhaps have not surmounted. This is from their ideas that were to arise democracy in the modern sense, which occurs precisely throughout the policy of good governance. The Rwandan electoral process is to enable political participation through citizens who establish their leaders who are accountable to them. It is not enough to have separation of powers as stated Locke and Montesquieu, or the social contract such as Rousseau, let alone the social struggle as Hobbes so that the society finds its meaning, but rather the political harmony where all men are equal and free and agree on the model of government they choose.
2.3.5 Political Power and Democracy
According to Rousseau (2005), life in society is often accompanied by conflicts which must necessarily find solution. This is not possible without the establishment of political power based on a social pact to serve the general was to. Rousseau's political power in any society is to protect it and ensure its development. The existence of a national feeling, a desire to live together, allows the appearance of a legitimate political power and accepted.
From the sixth century AD, the Greeks had invented a system of democratic power to inspire. A century later, the Roman Republic was organized according to similar principles (Dahl, 1998). Gradually, this culture has spread in other countries,
25 especially in the eighteenth century with Rousseau's Social Contract, and currently it has already taken place in Rwanda.
Democratic power did not exist in Rwanda before the independence of Rwanda in 1962. It was only after independence that a travesty of democracy, rather a dictatorship in the service of one party and unjust, has emerged and is wary of the general was to. It was in March 1999 that a real path to the electoral process was to be spawned with the election of the administrative leaders of the cells and sectors organized by the Ministry of Local Government. At June 2000, it was created the National Electoral Commission to carry out the process of democratization through electoral process.
2.3.6 Indicators of democratic governance
The World Bank displays six indicators of governance which reflecting democratic governance. These are: (i) Voice and accountability, (ii) Political stability and absence of violence, (iii) Government effectiveness, (iv) Regulatory quality, (v) Rule of law and (vi) the Control of corruption (Kaufman, Kraay and Mastruzzi, 2007).
Democratic governance seeks efficient institutions, and a predictable economic and political environment necessary for economic growth and effective functioning of public services. Democratic governance is a result of good governance which is not possible without free and fair elections expressing the citizens’ participation in governance. Dahl (1998) argues that the political institutions of modern representative democratic governance are: elected officials; free, fair and frequent elections; freedom of expression; access to alternative sources of information; associational autonomy and inclusive citizenship.
According to McConnell (1995) there are six essential principles that ensure that the democratic process is upheld in any organization: (i) All members are equal, they have equal rights and responsibilities; the organization is run with impartiality
26 and fairness; (ii) the rules are applied equally and fairly, to all and not just a few; (iii) there is no favored group within the organization was to get preferential treatment or who considers itself above the law, Ideas come from the members and are presented to the assembly to decide upon; (iv) everyone gets the right to present ideas, speak to these ideas, and vote on the ideas, not just a select group, the majority rules but the rights of the minority and absent members are protected and everything is accomplished in the spirit of openness, not secrecy; (v) members have the right to know what is going on within the organization by attending meetings, inspecting the official records and receiving notices and reports form committees, officers, and boards; (vi) leaders come from the people through an election process which is fair and not slanted so a favored group can control the organization. When a leader’s term of office ends, he or she returns to the people. A hierarchy of power doesn’t exist; it is shared equally.
2.3.7 Rwandan Electoral Process
Originally, the political organization was monarchy. The monarch, the Mwami (king), was at the top of the hierarchy and exercised absolute power in principle, but he was joined by the Queen Mother. He had power over all the territory and all Rwandans were subordinated to his obedience. He had the right to life and death over his subjects. The king was surrounded in court by councilors known as abiru (advisors of the king), who held the secret of the court and especially the esoteric code and playing as well as an important role in the inductions of kings. The king did not run alone. In management roles in the country was divided. In the royal court, each had its charges clear. The acquisition of power was by hereditary. The institution of monarchy in Rwanda was ruled by the hereditary dynasty Banyiginya (Habumurenyi, 2008).
The study of Rutazibwa (1995) considers that during the colonial period, Rwanda was initially led under the German protectorate in 1890, after the Berlin Conference (1884-1885). First, the country experienced a military rule until 1906.
27
Thereafter the power was given to civilians. The Germans assured the supreme sovereignty, law enforcement, justice to the foreign, concession of mining, foreign trade, etc.., while the internal political and judicial domain remained in the hands of the Mwami (king). Germans applied in Rwanda the system of indirect rule. Then, Rwanda was under mandate and led under Belgian supervision from 1916 to 1962. It is just after the First World War when Germans were stripped of their colonies, and that the League of Nations entrusted the mandate to Belgium on the Belgian Congo, Ruanda-Urundi. After the Second World War, Rwanda was under Belgian supervision to prepare the country for independence.
According to Rutazibwa (1995), from 1926, begins politico-administrative reform that was to profoundly change the traditional structures and set up a phenomenon of ethnic segregation in the administration. Initiated by the Belgian Resident Mortehan in 1926, on the advice of Bishop Leo Class, this administrative reform was to culminate in the Plan Voisin of 1930 by setting up an administration almost exclusively Tutsi under Belgian administrators. This resulted in generating unprecedented antagonism between Hutu and Tutsi.
Shortly before independence it was a period of political turbulence. Supported by the authority of the Catholic Church, new Hutu elite have been created against Tutsi. Divergent political trends were emerging within the Rwandan society. Some professed to monarchists and militated for decolonization, while others, the Hutu elite, argued that the colonialism did not matter, and it had to get rid of Tutsi domination. It is in this movement that was to rise to divergent trends of political parties and that the first political elections were held without any truly democratic connotation.
As it is précised by the National Electoral Commission of Rwanda in its strategic plan 2007-2011, the first elections were held in Rwanda in November 1952 followed in 1956 by direct elections of representatives of grassroots communities at sub-chiefs and chiefdom levels. In 1961, under the leadership of colonial
28 tutelage, were organized the referendum called Kamarampaka (allusion at the final solution) to end the monarchy and make way for the Republic.
The early years of electoral experience in Rwanda have been marked by a series of ethnic conflicts. These elections were used as tools to assert the ascendancy of the ethnic majority that political leadership has deliberately confused the democratic majority. This dynamic has prevailed during the first and the second Republic. This was the basis for a communitarianism which has undermined the entire electoral process and remains a major challenge for Rwanda.
From 1959 until 1994, the political leadership legitimized his political action based on the manipulation of ethnicity to the detriment of a component of the population who was systematically excluded in management and exercise of power; all of which led to the genocide of 1994. As seen, the elections in Rwanda were far from free and fair elections. They have always been organized by the political authorities in place to give the impression of being democratic to the eyes of the international community.
It was only in 1993, during the signing of the Arusha Peace Agreement between the Government of Rwanda at that time and the Rwandan Patriotic Front, that an independent National Electoral Commission has been proposed as a structural solution for promoting a fair electoral process, the main factor of democracy. After 1994, Rwanda has organized a series of elections driven by the National Electoral Commission both locally and nationally. The new Constitution of 2003 adopted by referendum has dedicated the advent of a pluralistic democratic regime of consensual type where elections are seen as instrument of social cohesion (Habumuremyi, 2008).
2.3.7 Chronology of elections held in Rwanda from 2001 to 2013
Since 2001 Rwanda has embarked on the path of democratization. This could not be possible without the electoral process whose main function is to organize and
29 supervise all elections, to allow the Rwandan people to participate in the establishment of a political power through universal suffrage. Here is a series of elections held in Rwanda since 2001to 2013. From 6 to 13 March 2001: elections of Local leaders at the District level and City of Kigali; from 4 to 7 October 2001: elections of the members committees of Gacaca Courts (Inyangamugayo); from 25 to 26 March 2002: elections of Local leaders at Cells and Sectors level; on 26 May 2003: The Referendum; on August 25, 2003: Presidential elections; September 29 to October 3, 2003: Parliamentary elections for both chambers of Deputies and Senators; June 20, 2004: Elections of the members committees of Gacaca Courts ; from 12 to 16 July 2004: Elections of committees of the National Council of Women; on 13 July 2004: Elections of committees of conciliators; from 06 February to 2 March 2006: Elections consecutively of grassroots authorities namely: Executive Committees of Cells on 02/06/2006; Councilors of Sectors on 02/20/2006; Executive Committees of Sectors on 24/02/2006; Executive Committee of City of Kigali and the member of board Direction of Kigali City Council on 02/03/2006; from August 19 to 22, 2006: Election of Executive Committees of the villages and Mediation Committees; from 15 to 18 September 2008: Elections of members to the Chamber of Deputies; August 09,2010: Presidential elections; February 2011: Election of District and City of Kigali leaders; From 16 to 18 September 2013: Elections of parliamentary (Chamber of Deputies).
2.4 Critical Review
Democratic governance took various political considerations throughout history. As it is considered by Nay (2007), between the sixth and fifth century AD, Greeks and Roman had invented a system of political power democratic based, but it had not been effective for all citizens. Athenians had established a system of political participation by an assembly "ecclesia" in which all citizens had prerogatives to elect a small number of senior officials. However, this system faced a big
30 challenge because it was very impossible to get at once all citizens in one assembly.
Otherwise, as stated Dahl (2001) the Roman system didn’t recognize to all citizens an equal right to participate in public life. Only patricians were allowed to participate in government whereas women, children and slaves were excluded from public life because they were considered as things. Those who lived in the remote territories of the Republic could not access. The Roman system of government did not offer opportunity to all citizens to attend meetings, because they often conquered new territories, granted citizenship to the conquered people with the same rights as other Romans. As they had conquered vast territories, those distant could not participate in these meetings due to lack of means. Once again for Roman democratic governance appears to be idyllic.
The Antiquity, argues Nay (2007) sees the birth of democracy, which took different connotations depending on the authors. The pre-Socratics denied the democratic principles with subordinating human being to the nature that regulates human condition while the Sophists place man at the measure of all things and therefore relativize the democratic principles. Policy therefore is explained according to the usefulness and interest of those who exercise it. Socrates against the Sophists defends the democratic values by bringing man back to obedience to the law. He invokes the meritocracy as the cornerstone of democratic governance.
Plato (2004) defends the ideal City enumerating various types of possible regimes but he considers the democracy as a government of the poor and incompetent victorious. For him aristocracy seems be the best regime. In turn, Aristotle (1993) invokes the friendship as the tool of governance. He argues that the poplars’ democracies are the worst regimes because subject to change, to the whims and demagoguery whereas the rural democracies are the best because people there are little agitated and grant authority to the most virtuous about the oligarchy, when it is flexible, it is good, rigid, it is catastrophic. The ideal would be royalty moderate,
31 but sometimes it degenerates into tyranny and Aristotle is wary. Aristotle falls in turn in aristocracy.
In Middle Age, states Nay (2007), the democratic governance is subordinated to the Christian faith by theologians such as St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas considering the Church as the supreme institution which holds universal sovereignty eminently superior to the temporary authority of kings. Hence the church has supremacy to all other powers. This is a form of monarchy to the detriment of democracy. The power that seems the most natural is the monarchy because it conforms to the common government of nature.
In the modern period, the monarchy was reinforced and people started to become aware of its attachment to the king. Hobbes (2000) and Machiavelli (2004) supported a political amorality based on a one-way contract culminating in tyranny and despotism. Machiavelli defends the impossibility of democracy arguing that the end justifies the means whereas for Hobbes human being is not naturally sociable he must be forced to live in society by a strong power. Here democracy doesn’t have a place in ruling people.
By contrast Locke (1992) and Montesquieu (1996) developed the sociability of human being in their theory of separation of powers, which symbolize the basis of democracy. Locke distinguishes the republic that can be democracy, aristocracy and monarchy. Montesquieu gives clear preference to the monarchy because it makes decisions more enforceable. This is another challenge to the democratic governance.
In the same Perspective, Rousseau (2005) considers that political power relies on a social contract, a kind of conventions of man in society to govern themselves according to the wise laws. According to him people in society must be governed democratically by respect of rule of law which is pillar of democratic governance. Rousseau believes that democracy is an ideal. He considers that in democracy,
32 people are the least loaded; amongst the aristocracy it is more, while in the monarchy, it carries the greatest weight. By his opinion, the monarchy is appropriate only to opulent nations, aristocracy to the mediocre States in wealth and greatness thus democracy for small and poor States.
From these considerations on democracy, we realize that democratic governance arises in Rwanda in the same perspective. Originally, democracy did not exist in Rwanda; the political organization was based on monarchy. During the colonial period, the colonialists assured the supreme sovereignty. From 1959 until 1994, political leadership legitimized his political action based on the manipulation of ethnicity. After genocide of 1994 against Tutsi, the electoral process contributed to the citizen participation in vesting of leaders and decision making. Democratic governance is based on the decentralization and good governance policies as guide line of leadership in Rwanda.
In brief, let us say that there is no unique democracy worldwide; each country has its priorities to be realized according to the needs of its population. The originality of democratic governance in Rwanda rests on the performance contracts allowing citizen participation in decision making. Furthermore, unlike Greeks and Romans where democracy seems to be impossible because of incapacity to meet the whole population at once, in Rwanda, councils organized each end of month at the Village level make possible the direct democracy which was impossible to Greeks and Romans, founders of the concept of democratic in antiquity.
2.5 Summary and Gaps to Be Filled by the Study
The study of democratic governance in Rwanda reveals that electoral process is key factor allowing citizen participation in decision making. Within a period of thirteen years, good governance and decentralization policy is being implemented in Rwanda. This policy is oriented to sustainable development based on the vision 2020 and the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy. From
33 electoral process, Rwandan leadership reflects democratic governance trough the respect of rule of law, accountability and responsiveness of leaders, effectiveness and efficiency governance, acting in fair and transparent manner. The citizen involvement in decision making is manifested through different councils from the Village, Sector, and District level to the City of Kigali level. Performance contracts are the fundamental factors enabling people to evaluate their leaders.
Despite these considerations on democratic governance, many studies done on the topic found that there is no perfect democratic governance. Rousseau (2005) believes that democracy is an ideal. He argues that if there were a people of gods, it would be governed democratically but a perfect government is not appropriated for human being. This means that each country has its priority motivating the way it should be governed. Likewise Dahl (1998) considers that there is not a unique democracy in which all countries would comply. No State ever owned a government that would fully satisfies the criteria of democracy. The direct democracy faces a great difficulty which emanates from impossibility of effective participation of all citizens because greater the number of people increases, smaller is the opportunity to participate in decision making. Some members of the group eventually prevail and the others are adopting their views.
To Raymond Aaron (2007) democracy should not be limited only to the simple fact of allowing people to elect their representatives, because the universal suffrage does not always allow them to actually elect their representatives even if the vote is authentic. The objective of any political order is to make men live in peace, to prevent violence breaks out between citizens.
The Rwandan electoral process have been considered as a cornerstone of democratic governance , therefore the futures studies should overcome some gaps such as obsession with issues of identity still apparent in some voters. There is still reluctance to some people for political participation, lack of political maturity for some young political parties more adventurous than visionary. Political parties
34 should make civic education their priority to strengthen citizen political participation. Citizen participation seems inadequate at the Sector and District levels, due to indirect representation through local councilors and due to lack of sufficient information and knowledge about their right of overthrowing unaccountable elected leaders. There is a need of strengthening promotion of efficiency and effectiveness of different Councils from Village to the District levels.
2.6 Conceptual Framework
This research lies on different variables interconnected each other. The main variables are: electoral process, democracy, governance and democratic governance.
Independent variables: Dependent variables:
Electoral process Democratic governance Citizen participation Decentralization Vote Good governance Government involvement Economic growth Good leadership Vision 2020
Intervening variables
Political structure Political mobilization Political campaigning media communication
Voters facilitation
Source: Researcher (2013)
35
The independent variables include all electoral process such as citizen participation, voting and government involvement while dependent variable will include, good governance, economic growth, democracy, good leadership and achievement of vision 2020. The intervening variable will include political structure, political mobilization, political campaign, media communication and availability of voters’ facilitation.
36
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction The chapter comprises of several subsections, which are presented in the following order. This section consists of Design of the study, Target Population, Sample Size and Design, Data Collection Instruments, Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments, Data Collection Procedure and Data Analysis Procedure.
3.1 Design of the study The research first of all used data collection from interviews written documents and questionnaire which was distributed to the select population expected to have a great experience in organizing, supervising, monitoring and observing elections including members of the coordination of electoral activities and opinion leaders among whom there are members of civil society and different political parties operating in Rwanda. The research was qualitative as long as it was seeking to understand the problem of democracy from the perspectives of the local population involving in vesting of their leaders through elections. The qualitative method has been effective in obtaining information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and political contexts to evaluate the citizen participation in governance through electoral process as a tool of building democratic governance in Rwanda.
3.2 Target population A population as it is argued by Brown (1998) is the entire group of people that a particular study is interested in. The study targeted the population of 665,448 voters in the City of Kigali, in order to verify whether leadership from electoral process fulfills the need of the population and the indicators of democratic governance.
37
3.3 Sample size The sample size relates to the numbers of individual to be selected from the total population of the research to constitute a sample. The sample should be optimum, meaning that it fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
The sample size of this study is chosen with consideration of purposive type of sample which includes the non-probabilistic or judgmental sampling technics. Thus, in order to focus on cases rich in information, members of the coordination of electoral activities including opinion leaders, members of different political parties operating in Rwanda and members of civil societies were been chosen to answer questionnaire. The sample size is in total 399 voters and assessors among whom we have 75 public servants, 98 teachers, 98 private agents, 60 no specified jobs, 22 shop keepers, 22 students, 8 journalist, 8 drivers and 7 volunteers. This sample is constituted by people who are expected to have a great experience in organizing, supervising, monitoring and observing elections. Moreover, their knowledge in this field is a springboard for us to collect more or less reliable information.
3.4 Data collection instruments O’Leary (2004) remarks that data collection is an essential component to conducting research. In order to collect data, the researcher should be able to access the data that needs to be collected for the study. Data can be gathered from a number of sources including questionnaire, written documents, records, workplaces, surveys or interviews. When we have determined data and required information’s we can then identify, select between, and specify the most appropriate methods of data collection to be used. The researcher used both primary and secondary data. Thus to collect primary data the researcher opted to use the directed questionnaire and interview, the secondary data related to the written document such as different books and documents relating to the subject. A
38 questionnaire is a set of questions which are used to elicit information from a respondent. Interviews are a systematic way of talking and listening to people and are another way to collect data from individuals through conversations. The written document was to help at identification of the achievement of Rwanda Local institution put in place through elections as far as democratic governance.
3.5 Reliability and validity According to Mugenda (1999), reliability is the degree to which results obtained from analysis of data actually represent the phenomenon under study. The test- retest technique was been used to test the reliably of the research instruments, the test involves administering the same instrument twice to the same group of subjects with time interval of one week. Mugenda (1999) defines validity as the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on research results. The study applied content validity as a measure of the degree to which data obtained from the research instruments meaningfully and accurately reflect the theoretical concept.
3.6 Data analysis The research applied the qualitative and quantitative data analysis techniques to analyze data. This ensured that the data have been analyzed in a systematic way in order to come to some useful conclusions and recommendations. Data obtained have been coded, organized and presented using frequency tables and percentages.
39
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.0 Introduction In the present chapter, the collected data has been presented, analyzed and interpreted according to draw inferences.
In other terms, the main objective of this chapter was to assess the level of citizen participation in designing and evaluating their leaders in decision making. In the same way, this chapter pursued to analyze the indicators of democratic governance through Rwandan electoral process since 2001 up to 2013, and the level of interactions between leaders and citizen.
4.1 Discussion of Results towards Study Objectives
4.1.1 General Characteristics of the Respondents Respondents presented various characteristics such as age, District of origin, professional categories, marital status, the level of education and sex. The following tables present them sorted by each one of these characteristics.
4.1.1.1 Respondents Sorted by Age Group and the District of Origin In the context of electoral process, age is an important factor because it is an important determinant for directing voters. Likely, the representativeness of all geographical corners of the country is also very important for results which are more representative.
40
Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents according to age group and their district of origin Age group District of respondent Total Percentage Nyarugenge Kicukiro Gasabo 20-30 38 38 82 158 39.62 31-40 38 45 60 143 35.85 41-50 23 15 38 76 18.87 51-60 0 7 15 22 5.66 Total 99 105 195 399 100.00 Source: Primary data
The table 4.1, above shows 39.62% of the respondents’ age between 20-30 years, the highest number of voters, while 35.85% between 31-40 years old while voters aged between 51 and 60 had 5.66%.
4.1.1.2 Respondents Sorted by Professional Categories and Marital Status Occupation and marital status are important factors of electoral behavior insofar as more we are stable, more we need a stable and solid power and for the benefit of the public interest.
Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents according to profession and marital status Professional Marital Status Totals Percen categories Married Single Divorcees Widows tage Public servants 45 28 0 7 75 18.87 Drivers 8 0 0 0 8 1.89 Shop keepers 8 7 7 0 22 5.66 Job not specified 35 15 0 0 60 15.09 Teachers 68 30 0 0 98 24.53 Students 15 8 0 0 22 5.66 Journalists 8 0 0 0 8 1.89 Private agents 53 45 0 0 98 24.53 Volunteers 7 0 0 0 8 1.89 Total 247 133 7 7 399 100 Source: Primary data
41
The table 4.2 shows that sample of voter’s teachers was (24.53%), private agents (24.53%) and public servants (18.87%). According to the above table, over 80% of respondents have a job more or less defined, so it would be difficult to manipulate them to adopt a particular electoral behavior.
4.1.1.3 Respondents Sorted by the Level of Education and Sex History reveals that the level of education is essential in the electoral orientation. The large majority of politicians have nurtured their ambitions from school bench with political theories acquired. It is obvious that by targeting individuals with a level of education a little further, you would access information more or less rich.
Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents according to education level and sex
Education levels Sexes Total Percentage Male Female Primary 15 0 15 3.75 % Post-primary 38 22 60 15.03 % Secondary 113 52 167 41.85 % Higher institution 112 45 157 39.34 % Total 278 119 399 100 % Source: Primary data
The table 4.3 shows that 81.13% of respondents reached respectively the higher level of education (i.e. 39.6%) or secondary education (i.e. 41.5%). These levels of education might confer to the holder an appropriate and free discernment of an adequate political system to adopt. Similarly, gender greatly influences voting behavior. While males are more rational, women are more intuitive. In this context, the Rwandan gender policies and civic education over last 13 years allows to women to bear a substantive attitude vis-à-vis to electoral processes.
42
4.1.2 Evaluation of Democratic Governance through Electoral Process in Rwanda We have previously defined democracy as a political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them. The most significant principles of democracy are: public involvement, egalitarianism, open- mindedness, lucidity, accepting the outcome of elections, financial liberty. The electoral process is the fundament of democratic governance insofar as different human rights are mainstreamed through it. Actually, through various and inclusive elections of leaders at different levels, citizens (men and women) have a say in decisions affecting their lives; they are capable to hold them accountable.
Drawing from interview with one member of the National Electoral Commission in the City of Kigali, we realize that Rwandan electoral system relies on three types of elections. Some elections are either direct where citizens elect their authorities lining up behind the candidates. This is the case of voting of the authorities at Villages and Cells level. Other elections occur through an indirect manner where people elect their authorities through their representatives. This is the case of the elections of Executive Committees at District and the City of Kigali, the National Youth Council and the National Council of Women in Sector Districts and Kigali City as well as the National level. By this way of voting, leaders are elected directly by an Electoral College, which in turn, will vote on behalf of the population. Elections of deputies representing women, youth, and the disabled in parliament follow the same model. The Electoral College votes for candidates by writing their names on an appropriate ballot. This is also done in the Senators elections. The third form of voting is held by direct way where people choose by putting their finger in front of the photo of the candidate or his emblem. This is the case of the presidential elections, parliamentarians from political parties as well as the referendum.
43
From interviews one of respondents told us that there was a big evolution of democratic governance through elections initiated in Rwanda since 2001 in these words: “the principles of equality, human right, fairness, transparency, rule of law and freedom are respected”.
Table 4.4: Respondents perceptions about democratic governance through Rwandan electoral process.
Democracy from electoral process is District of origin of Total Perce manifested by these facts: respondents ntage Nyaru Kicukiro Gasabo genge
Leadership from election is consensus 73 80 178 331 82.95 oriented, inclusive, effective and efficient because of political parties and civil societies are part in decision making All decision-making bodies from the 82 95 170 347 86.96 local to the central government are established with transparency Gender equality is respected at high 88 93 191 372 93.23 level and the voice of minority is taken in consideration in decision making All citizens are equal before the low 80 87 171 338 84.71 and human right and elected leaders are accountable before the population. The elected authorities are vesting by 86 83 185 354 88.72 the population to whom they are accountable Source: Primary data
According to respondents’ opinions reflected in the above table, it is clear that election is a main sine qua none condition of democratic governance in Rwanda. Their point of view are more significant when respondents express at high level that leadership is consensus oriented, effective and efficient, accountable, following the rule of low, responsive and inclusive, acting in the transparent
44 manner guided by the gender equality at over 82%. This means that governance following the electoral process in Rwanda is based on the principles of good governance which are at the same time the pillars of democratic governance. Analyzing these opinions, we realize that elections are the main way to the democratic governance. It is thanks to the elections that the power belongs to the people who exercise it.
4.1.3 Democratic Governance and Citizen Participation Table 4.5: Respondents Perceptions about Citizen Participation on Decision Making
Citizen participation in the electoral District of origin of Total Percenta process is a clear sign that people are the respondent ge owner of the power and institution they Nyaru Kicu Gasa put in place. It is through because: genge kiro bo
Leaders are evaluated by performance 82 95 178 355 88.97 contracts signed between elected Local leaders and the population to whom they are accountable All decision-makers of Local 96 99 181 376 94.23 Government are vested by the people with ability to oust them when they don’t fulfill their promises Through the various councils from the 87 94 192 373 93.48 cells’ level to the City of Kigali, citizens express their will and leaders are accountable to them Through various Councils, citizens set 86 97 174 357 89.43 priorities responding to their welfare The elected authorities are 91 87 182 360 90.22 implementing the will of the citizen Source: Primary data
Taking account into the respondents’ point of view from the above table, we realize that citizen participation at all level is very high. Performance contracts between leaders and people are signs of citizen participation at 88.97%, which
45 means that before planning of any activity local leaders, have to make sure that population priorities are taken in consideration. Furthermore, considering local government organization, leaders are vested and accountable to the population as it is confirmed by respondents at 94.23%, meaning that the power remains to the population. At the other side respondents confirmed that through various Councils from Village to the City of Kigali level, citizen is the holder of authority. It means that citizen participation is the parameter of sustainable democratic governance. This complies with the idea of Lincoln where he defines democracy as government of the people, by the people and for the people ((Nay, Carcassonne, Drayfus, Duhamel, et al., 2008). Hence, respondents confirmed that democratic governance rests upon the citizen involvement in governance through vesting their leaders.
Table 4.6: Respondents’ views about the rule of law in Rwanda
Do you think that the Rwandan electoral Sex Total Percenta process is inclusive subject to compliance Male Female ge with the rule of law and freedom of expression of candidates and voters? (Justify)
Yes 246 117 363 90.97 No 34 02 36 9.023 Total 280 119 399 100 Source: Primary data
Respondents estimate that the rule of law in Rwanda is highly respected insofar as 90.97%. Respondents confirmed that Citizens are equally subject to the provision of the electoral code without discrimination. All citizens who fulfill the eligibility conditions are free to stand for elections and during the electoral campaign everyone is considered equally. Representativeness of political parties is much respected in the electoral process Rwandans, meaning that elections are fair, inclusive, the voice of the minority is taken in consideration and all people have access to the information.
46
One respondent testified as follows: “In 2011, I was a candidate to Sector Council; actually I am not very educated. I feared my candidature could not be accepted even if the citizens wanted to elect me. The elections started at Sector level, then to District. Surprisingly, I found myself in the District Council only because citizens trusted me. I realized that all candidates were equal and the rule of law was well respected”.
For this respondent, it was really amazing to find himself in District Council though he was not very educated. He was as equal as other educated people. He had probably more trust from the neighbors and the most important thing was that the law does not exclude the less educated candidates. It is also important to mention that elected leaders represent and implement the law; their power doesn’t originate from their personality, their wealth, their sector of origin. Their power simply comes from the law which establishes their positions and from the citizens who elect them to those positions.
4.2 Indicators of Democratic Governance within Rwandan Elected leaders
4.2.1 Control of Corruption Table 4.7: Respondents’ perceptions on the control of corruption
One indicator of democratic governance Male Female Tot. Percentage is governance that is free from corruption. Drawing on your experience about the public service delivery, to what level will you score the mechanism and policies put in place for fighting corruption in Rwanda?
High level 241 83 324 81.20 Medium level 30 38 68 17.04 Low level 7 0 7 1.75 Tot. 278 121 399 100 Source: Primary data
47
As far as Rwandan elected leadership is concerned, our research found that the overwhelming majority of respondents (81.1%) affirmed that bribe is less perceived meaning that control of it has been really effective. Indeed, Rwanda has endorsed and strongly enforced since 2003 and anticorruption law and relative measures against corruption (Law no 23/2003 Related to the Punishment of Corruption and other related Offenses).
4.2.2 Political stability and absence of violence Table 4.8: Respondents’ views about political stability as outcome of electoral process
From the Rwandan electoral process, Male Female Tot. Percentage leadership guarantees the political stability and absence of violence in this way: 376 94.23 The policies put in place such as unity and 203 173 reconciliation, respect for human rights, the Office of the Ombudsman, the Office of the Auditor General, etc. allow the citizens to feel confident leadership 373 93.48.07 The policy of good governance and 197 176 decentralization enables citizens to participate in governance and therefore to feel responsible for the future of the country 379 94.98 Strengthening the security and political 211 168 institutions in Rwanda is an important factor for ensuring to sustainable development, a sine qua non condition of stability and absence violence Source: Primary data As it is appearing on the above table respondents are sure that the political stability and the absence of violence are observed at the high level degree over 93%. Institutions from the electoral process in Rwanda have implemented strong policies allowing citizens to flourish freely; political stability and absence of violence are visible through the Good governance and decentralization policies
48 enabling citizen to political participation, the security and political institutions, as cornerstone for sustainable development are strengthened in Rwanda. In addition, as respondent’s stated, current leaders have been democratically elected and have win elections with satisfactory voices. In brief political stability and absence of violence translates citizens’ satisfaction vis-à-vis their leaders and leadership and this complies closely with governance democratically based and following the rule of law.
4.2.3 Government effectiveness
As it has been discussed throughout this research, governance is a broad field. It is worth noting that this field which constitutes a subject of our study here includes, among other aspects, processes of selecting leaders and monitoring them and even replacing them; it also extends on the capacity of the government to design and implement effectively policies and programs. Figure 4.1: Respondents’ views vis-à-vis Rwandan Governance Effectiveness
The effectiveness governance from the electoral process is manifested through leaders democratically elected, independence of civil servants from political pressures, information accessible to all Citizens and the voice of those minorities taken in consideration, and the service delivery. To what extent can be appreciated the Rwandan governance? 86.8%
11.3% 1.9%
High level Medium level Low level
Source: Primary data
As the results showed, an overwhelming majority of 86.8% strictly stated that effectiveness of Rwandan governance can be appreciated at high level of
49 performance. Most of them emphasized that government strongly observe its long term plan commonly known as “Rwanda Vision 2020” from which all operational programs are designed from. Additionally, most respondents affirmed that performance contracts and decentralization play a crucial role in making government more effective and accountable. Of course, all is not perfect insofar as for some 11.3% this effectiveness was judged at average. As mentioned above, performance contracts have played and continue playing a key role in implementing significant policies. This light discussion on performance contracts and decentralization in Rwanda will offer another opportunity for enlightenment.
Table 4.9: What Respondents Stated about ‘Rule of Law” Indicator within Rwandan Governance
The rule of law which is one of the indicators Male Female Tot. Percentage of democratic governance is implemented in Rwanda because:
All persons, institutions and entities, public 248 103 351 87.96 and private, including the State itself are accountable to laws There is an effective separation of power and 253 118 371 92.98 respect of human tight.
All citizens are equal before the law and 27 115 362 90.72 citizen participates to the decision making
The elected authorities implement the will of citizen and there is fairness in the application 252 117 369 92.42 of the law
No one is above the law regardless of his social position 237 103 340 85.21 Source: Primary data
As for other indicators, above of 85% of respondents were satisfied with the rule of law in Rwanda. The human right is respected, the voice of minorities is taken in consideration, the separation of powers is effective and people participate to the
50 decision making. This means that the power remains in the hands of people. The elected leaders must respect the citizen will before taking any decision. All things are done according to the law provision.
Regulatory quality
Democratic governance is really effective when it is inclusive. Regulatory quality in democratic governance is the ability of the government to provide sound policies and regulations that enable and promote private sector development and hence promoting easy doing business in the country. In other words civil society and private sector have a free and permissive space for contributing to social, economic and political life of the country. The country must have fair and comprehensive policies and regulations allowing the promotion of private sector; this is regulatory quality.
Figure 4.2: Respondents’ perceptions on Rwandan regulatory quality enabling private sector development based on doing business
Regulatory quality in the Democratic governance is a key indicator enabling government to provide policies and regulations for promoting private sector development based on doing business. For you, to what level could be rankeda Rwanda accordingly?
Low level Medium level 0% 9%
High level 91%
Source: Primary data
Results showed that 91% of respondents took the position that Rwandan governance provides a permissive law environment particularly to private sector to intervene in country’s economic growth and 9% declared this permissiveness was
51 at average. Thus, for the case of Rwanda, respondent stated that there are several mechanisms put in place attracting investors.
4.2.4 Voice and accountability Figure 4.3: Perceptions about voice and accountability vis-à-vis Rwandan governance
percentage
5%
22% Bad Average Very Good 73%
Source: Primary data
As illustrated in the figure, respondents estimated at almost 73% stated that voice and accountability within Rwandan governance could be scored very well; 22% had average opinion while 5% was bad. These views are a proof of a big improvement in democratic governance where the voice of accountability is the cornerstone. By experience, voters show that the elected leaders of local government who don’t fulfill the need of their elected citizen have been ousted during this last decade.
52
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter provides a summarized overview of our research results. To this end, the chapter draws on the entire discussion from introductory paragraphs to findings of this work in order to provide the reader with a concise, relevant, evidence-based and corroborated answer to the research questions and to the starting assumptions (hypotheses) of this research. In this perspective, this chapter ensures the extent to which the study objectives have been attained.
5.1 Summary of major findings
The Critical analysis of Democratic governance in Rwanda basing on electoral processes within a timeframe of 13 years (2001-2013) was the purpose of this study. Specifically, the research sake first of all to evaluate the evolution of democratic governance in Rwanda through the electoral process in the period of 2001-2013; then, to find out level of citizen participation in electoral process for building democratic governance; and finally, to establish mechanisms and strategies put in place in electoral processes according to the indicators of democratic governance implemented in Rwanda since 2001 up to 2013.In the same perspective, a number of questions raised in relation to the governance topic.
The researcher was interested to find right answers at least to these questions; after achieving this end; we could be assured being on good truck in attaining the objectives abovementioned. The following paragraphs recapitulate results in line with each of the study objectives.
53
5.1.1 Evolution of democratic governance in Rwandan electoral Process between 2001 and 2013 The first objective aimed at evaluating the evolution of democratic governance in Rwanda through the electoral process between 2001 and 2013. The analysis of data allowed us to find out that really democratic governance in Rwanda seeks efficient political institutions, predictable economic and political environments which lead to sustainable economic growth. It is worthy reminding also that thanks to electoral process in Rwanda, democratic governance mainstreams political freedom, human rights, and strives for removing all forms of discrimination. Efforts offered by Rwandan government in democratic governance are readable through various effective elections of leaders at different level since 2001 until now. The effectiveness of these elections is reflected in their fairness, openness and frequencies, freedom of voters and candidates. Besides, democratic governance is translated into citizen’s associational autonomy and into inclusive and participatory citizenship.
On the other hand, decentralization policy put in place since 2000, and which a transfer of powers (authority data and responsibility) to local levels, is seen as another approach of mainstreaming citizens’ right to participate in decision making from local to national level. The implementation of decentralization was accompanied with political reforms and elections in order to fill in required leaders in new political positions through three phases of decentralization that are: first phase: 2001-2005, second phase: 2006-2010 and the third phase 2011-2015.
5.1.2 Level of citizen participation in electoral process The second objective was to find out level of citizen participation in electoral process which is the cornerstone of democratic governance. The discussion around democratic governance issue could not go without involving electoral process which is an underlying fact. Undoubtedly, principles underlying elections such as
54 fairness, equality, citizen’s involvement, openness and accepting the results of elections are those principles which are the pillars of democratic governance.
Citizen Participation, the political ideal of involving citizens in transferring powers convey in itself the fulfillment of basic civil rights and civil liberties including the right to vote, right to eligibility, etc. Citizen participation is therefore reflected in the rate of participation in different elections held in Rwanda.
Equality and non-discrimination, in relation to gender equality, it has been broadly argued that Rwandan policies and laws’ environment guarantee that men and women have the same electoral opportunity. In virtue of Rwandan Constitution, women are at least granted 30% of posts in decision making organs. For the 2008 elections of parliamentary, the total number of female elected 45/80 making 56% whereas for these last elections of deputies by 2013 women won with 64% of the total seats making an increase of 8%. For the case of the chamber of Senate 2011 elections results, the female senators were 10/26 senators, meaning 38%.
With regard to youth integration and people living with disability, the article 76 of the Constitution of 4 June and the Organic Law N0 17/2003 of 07/07/2003 relating to presidential and legislative elections, in article 83, provides eighty (80) seats for the Chamber of Deputies, fifty-three (53) provided for the competition of political parties registered in Rwanda, two (2) members elected by the National Youth Council and one (1) elected by the federation of associations of people living with disability. This representation guarantees the voice of the most vulnerable people is heard. This representation is not limited to the parliament but also reach councils at sector, cell and village levels.
Concerning the political parties, in virtue of the Organic Law N0 19/2007 of 04/05/2007 modifying and complementing the Organic Law N0 16/2003 of 27/06/2003 governing political parties and politicians, in article 29, all parties are treated equally before the state institutions.
55
Accountability and Transparency according to results reflected in this study, respondents’ views appreciated different ways through which the democratic governance was being manifested. Among other signs of democratic governance in Rwanda, 84% of respondents straightly said that accountability days seemed for them an opportunity for holding accountable leaders; 91.1% confirmed that decision-making bodies at local level are established by themselves through regular elections (village, cell, sector, district). These bodies are vehicles of citizens’ ideas and priority issues to put in development plans.
Rule of Law results of this research showed that 90.7% of the respondents are convinced that the rule of law applies to Rwandan governance. For them, laws and procedures apply equally to all people regardless their political formation, their beliefs, their ethnic groups, the education level, etc. Examples showed that even candidatures not highly educated succeeded legislative elections (lower and upper house deputies) or in district councils.
Thus, the above principles readable through Rwandan electoral procedures constitute a fact to justify an outstanding governance environment ensuring full enjoyment of citizens’ rights. In order to confirm this, a support of some indicators is also needed.
5.1.3 Mechanism and strategies put in place in electoral process The third objective sake to establish mechanisms and strategies put in place in electoral processes. This helped us to find out if the indicators of democratic governance are compatible with different policies put in place since 2001 up to 2013.The indicators of democracy are observed through the effective participation of citizens in decision-making, the daily management of local governance through the performance contracts (Imihigo). As far as democratic governance indicators are concerned, respondents scored these indicators in this order: the control of corruption comes on top at 92.5%, then political stability at 94.8%, government
56 effectiveness at 86.8%, rule of law at 90.7%, regulatory quality at 91% and finally voice and accountability at 84%.
The analysis of the primary data in question has shown us that all these indicators were scored above the average. Thus, we see a linkage between this level of scores and the principles underlying the democratic leadership in Rwanda and also the electoral process which constitute a cornerstone of the whole machinery. It is worth mentioning that Rwanda comes on top in combating corruption. Rwanda has also proven sustainability of political environment and this led to an annual average of 7% of economic growth rate.
Control of corruption: From the view point of our respondents, Rwanda has good records in the fight against corruption if compared to many other regional countries. According to 81.8% of the respondents, fighting corruption is scored at high level against 17% scoring this fight at medium level.
Control of corruption, political stability and absence of violence result from government effectiveness related with services delivery and its independence from political pressures, and the credibility of government’s commitment to such policies in Rwanda. In the context of this work, results showed, an overwhelming majority of 86.8% strictly stated that the effectiveness of Rwandan governance can be appreciated at high level of performance. As discussed previously, performance contracts have played a crucial role in implementing a number of significant policies.
This research is about democratic governance in Rwandan electoral process in The City of Kigali from 2001 to 2013. The literature review shows us that democracy appears as a political system where citizens participate in the establishment of their leaders through the elections. The purpose of the Rwandan electoral process aimed at building the real democratic governance through citizen participation.
57
5.2 CONCLUSIONS The Conclusion concentrates on answering the three research questions. The first one is to analyze the evolutions of democratic governance through the electoral process in Rwanda. The result of our research has shown us that through various elections held in Rwanda since 2001 up to 2013, the democratic governance in Rwanda is consensus oriented, built upon the transparency, rule of low, the effectiveness and efficiency, equality, accountability. Thus the democratic governance seeks the efficient institutions, and a predictable economic and political environment necessary for economic growth and effective functioning of public services. This has been possible though the decentralization policy governing the leadership in Rwanda since 2000. The Government of Rwanda is using decentralization as an instrument for people’s political empowerment, a platform for sustainable democratization.
From the question research relating to the levels of citizen participation through Rwandan electoral process, it has been verified the embodiment of democratic governance. The respondents stated that from the electoral process in Rwanda all citizen are equal, they have equal rights and responsibilities in decision making; the elections are run with impartiality and fairness. The rules are applied equally and fairly; to all and not just a few. Everything is accomplished in the spirit of openness, not secrecy. In other words it has been proved that the main objectives of the decentralization policy in Rwanda aimed for allowing the population to participate in decision-making; allowing people to freely choose their leaders; Ensuring transparency and accountability in the management of public affairs at local level; Promoting the rule of law and equality before the law; Approach the service the local population.
Finally the finding on the field proved that the mechanisms and strategies in place from electoral process such as the vision 2020, the good governance and decentralization policy, the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction
58
Strategy aimed to identify the priority areas for governance interventions in Rwanda, notably: public sector reform, strengthening of the justice sector, strengthening the parliament, decentralization and local governance, the strengthening government coordination, and Human resource development. Thus these strategies are a platform for sustainable democratization.
The first phase of decentralization established democratic and community development structures where a number of legal, institutional and policy reforms were undertaken, especially in promoting democratic election. The second phase, after defined a territorial restructuring aimed to consolidate progress on national priorities by enhancing effectiveness in service delivery to communities. Its finality was achieved by increasing capacities at different levels of administration (Villages, Cells and Sectors) close to communities, promotion of integrated local economic development and fostering community participation at village level, in the planning and management of local affairs. That is why the ongoing third phase decentralization aims at improving and sustaining the achievements of the first two phases, focused on the Service delivery with diminish the distance between upper and lower levels of administration and make the Government more effective, efficient and responsive to people’s needs and preferences.
5.3 RECCOMMANDATIONS The Rwandan electoral process is facing some challenges to overcome such as: obsession with issues of identity still apparent in some voters; Reluctance to some people for political participation, lack of political maturity for some more adventurous than visionary political parties. To overcome these challenges, the Rwanda National Electoral Commission must modernize the Electoral file to allow citizens to vote wherever they are; Fostering of the selection of candidates based on integrity and meritocracy; Strengthening the promotion of efficiency and effectiveness of the different Councils: at the Village, Cells, Sectors and District
59 level; Political parties should make the civic education a priority to strengthen the political participation of citizens.
Since the genocide in 1994, Rwanda has made remarkable progress in developing national and local institutions of government, maintaining security, promoting reconciliation and strengthening the justice system. Despite progress, some weaknesses in the implementation of democratic governance principles remain especially at the local government level including a weak and confidential civil society, issues of media with less professionalism and need for increased capacity building.
The Decentralization policy in Rwanda has introduced and is entrenching a culture of democratic participation, pluralist and consensus-based decision making and a genuine feeling of an empowered citizenry. Nevertheless, this is still at the beginning of real decentralization, and this policy must serve as a guiding vehicle to achieve full decentralization within the context of the country’s governance and socioeconomic structure. The key performance measure for effective policy implementation must be the capacity of the Local Governments to plan, finance and deliver services to the citizens, and the citizens’ ability to own their local governments (partly by way of paying taxes) and to hold their leaders accountable.
Even if since 2001 to 2013 Rwanda has made remarkable progress in democratic governance through electoral process, there are some improvements to be made in term of fulfilling of accountability, service delivery, efficiency and effectiveness, citizen participation, respect rule of low, leadership responsiveness and the control of corruption from local to central government.
5.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTHER STUDIES Since we have seen in this study, electoral process plays a key role in Democratic governance based upon the decentralization policy and good governance. For the Rwandan context, the democratic governance seeks efficient institutions, and a
60 predictable economic and political environment necessary for economic growth and effective functioning of public services. We suggest for the futures research to focus on the Governance and citizen participation in decision making in Africa with the case study of Rwanda.
This research can be helpful to the African countries to overcome the dictatorship tendencies for building a sustainable democracy and a predictable development where decentralization can have very positive effect on development by improving state efficiency, responsiveness, accountability and citizen voice. All things considered, Democracy in Africa must be therefore seen as a response to address the everyday concerns of people, including the high levels of inequality and poverty in many societies.
61
REFERENCES Alpe,Y., Beitone, A., Dallo, C., Lambert, J. R. &Parayre, S. (2007). Lexique sociologique. Paris : 2e édition, Dalloz.
Aristotle, (1993). Les politiques. Paris : Flamarion.
Aron, R. (2007). Démocratie et totalitarisme. Paris : Gallimard.
Boudon, R. and Bourricaud, F. (2006). Dictionnaire Critique de la Sociologie. Paris : PUF
Braud, P. (1980). Le suffrage universel contre la démocratie. Paris : PUF.
Braud, P. (2004). Sociologie politique. Paris : Librairie Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence E.J.A.
Brown, J. D. (1988). Understanding Research in Second Language Learning: A teacher's guide
Commission Nationale Electorale, (2007). Plan stratégique de la Commission Nationale Electorale (2007-2011). Kigali, Rwanda.
Chirimwami, (1990). Cours de l’Ethique fondamentale. Bukavu, Republic Democratic of Congo
D’Souza, A. (2010). Leadership. Trilogy on Leadership and Effective Management. Nairobi: Kolbe Press.
Dahl, R. (1998).On Democracy, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Dahl, R. (2001). De la démocratie, Jouve. Paris : Juvé.
Durkheim., E. (2007). Les règles de la méthode sociologique. Paris : PUF.
Gahama, J. (1998). Démocratie, Bonne Gouvernance et Développement dans la région des Grands Lacs. Butare : Université Nationale du Rwanda.
Habermas, J. (1997). Droit et démocratie. Entre faits et normes. Paris : Gallimard.
Habumuremyi, P. D. (2008). Intégration politique au Rwanda après le génocide 1994 : Utopie ou réalité. Kigali : Pallotti-Press.
Hobbes, T. (2000). Léviathan ou Matière, forme et puissance de l’Etat Chrétien et civil. Paris : Gallimard.
62
Institut de Recherche et de Dialogue pour la Paix (2005). Résultats de la Recherche sur la Démocratie au Rwanda (Premier Draft), Kigali.
Kaufman, Kraay and Mastruzzi (2007). The Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-Conflict Societies. New York: United Nations Security Council.
Lalande, A. (2002) : Vocabulaire technique et critique de la philosophie. Paris: PUF.
Locke, J. (1992). Traité du gouvernement civil. Paris: GF Flammarion.
Machiavel, N. (2004). Le prince. Paris : Bordas.
McConnell, R. (1995). Home Owners Association. Volume I. Issue 2, Texas: Amazon.com
Ministry of Local Government, (2000). Politique Nationale de la Décentralisation, Kigali.
Ministry of Local Government, (2002). Stratégie nationale globale de la Gouvernance Locale, Kigali.
Ministry of Local Government, (2007). Politique Nationale d’Education Civique au Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda.
Ministry of Local Government, (2011). Decentralization Implementation Plan 2011-2015, Kigali, Rwanda.
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, (2000). Rwanda Vision 2020, Kigali.
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, (2008). IFMIS (Public Books). Implementation strategy (2008-20012), Kigali.
Montesquieu, C. (1996). De l’esprit des Lois. Paris: Larousse.
Mugenda, O. (1999), “Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches” African Centre of technology studies, Nairobi.
Nay, O. (2007). Histoire des idées politiques. Paris : Armand Colin
63
Nay, O., Carcassonne, G., Drayfus, F., Duhamel, O., Laroche, J., Simeant, J. & Surl, Y. (2008). Lexique de science politique. Vie et institutions politiques. Paris : Dalloz.
O’Leary, A. (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: SAGE Publications.
Office of the President of the Republic, (1999). Report on the Reflection Meetings held in the Office of the President of the Republic from May 1998 to March 1999, Kigali.
Petit Larousse illustré (1984). Paris : Librairie Larousse.
Platon, (2004). La République. Paris : Flammarion.
Rousseau, J. J. (2005). Le Contrat social ou Principes du droit politique. Paris : Librairie Générale Française.
Rutazibwa, P. (1995). Espérance pour mon peuple et pour les miens. Kigali : Editions Centrales.
Sartre, J.P., (2009). L’Etre et le Néant. Essai d’ontologie phénoménologique. Paris : Gallimard.
United Nations Development Programme, (2002). Good Governance and its Relationship to Democracy & Economic Development, Human Development Report 2002.
64
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: INFORMATION LETTER FOR RESEARCH INTERVIEWS My name is KANAMUGIRE BISETSA Jean Damascene. I am doing a Master’s degree of Arts in Governance and Ethics in Mount Kenya University, Kigali Campus, and this is a step of preparing the dissertation. To fulfill the requirement of a good research, I need your support.
This questionnaire is brought to you in the context of a research for end fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Masters of Arts in Governance and Ethics at Mount Kenya University on this topic:
“Political analysis of Democratic governance through Rwandan electoral process: Case study of Kigali from 2001 to 2013”
It consists of open-ended questions where you will freely express your opinions and closed questions where it is a question of choosing one or more of the answers given; in this latter case, you will find the box where you simply put the sign'√' or 'X'. For the answers to multiple choice questions check all answers that seem suitable. Your answers will be kept as secret and will only be used for the abovementioned reasons. For this, we ask you not to mention your names.
With high consideration of your limited time, by answering the following questionnaire, you are requested to please assist the researcher to respond adequately from your view point and concept on the research for the good of our future generation.
The research is purely an academic and your answer will be kept in secret.
Thank you for your kind assistance.
Regards,
KANAMUGIRE BISETSA Jean Damascène
APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE
65
Question about Democratic governance in Rwanda electoral process
A. Identification of the Respondents
Age: …………………………….
Sex :
a. Male b. Female Marital status:
a. Married b. Single c. Divorcee d. Separated Education level:
a. Primary b. Post-primary c. Secondary d. Higher institution (university level) Your electoral zone : …………......
District...... Sector: ...... Cell : ...... Nationality: ………………………………………………………………………..... Profession: ………………………………………………………………………….. Religious affiliation: …………………………………………………………….…. Your Political party: ….…………………………………………………………….
66
B. Questions
1) For you, what is the foundation of the governance after electoral process?
a. It is consensus oriented, inclusive, effective and efficient because of political parties and civil societies are part in decision making b. All decision-making bodies from the local to the central government are established with transparency c. Gender equality is respected at high level and the voice of minority is taken in consideration in decision making d. All citizens are equal before the low and human right and elected leaders are accountable before the population e. The elected authorities are vesting by the population to whom they are accountable
2) The citizens’ participation in the electoral process is a clear sign that they are owner of the power and institution they put in place. This is through because:
a. Leaders are evaluated by performance contracts signed between elected Local leaders and the population to whom they are accountable b. All decision-makers of Local Government are vested by the people with ability to oust them when they don’t fulfill their promises c. Through various councils from the Cells’ level to the City of Kigali, citizens express their will and leaders are accountable to them d. Through various councils, citizens set priorities responding to their welfare e. The elected authorities are implementing the will of the citizen
3) Do you think that the Rwandan electoral process is inclusive subject to compliance with the rule of law and freedom of expression of candidates and voters? Yes or no. (Justify)
67
4) According to the principle of democratic governance, a good social organization is based on a social pact guaranteeing the voice of accountability, efficiency and effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of low, control of corruption and the political stability. Is it the same for the political organization after the Rwandan electoral process initiated since 2001 up to 2013? a. Yes Why? (Justify your answer) ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………… b. No Why? ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………
5) One indicator of democratic governance is governance that is free from corruption. Drawing on your experience about the public service delivery, to what level will you score the mechanism and policies put in place for fighting corruption in Rwanda?
a. The Rwanda governance is striving for fighting corruption at high level b. The Rwanda governance is striving for fighting corruption at medium level
68
c. The Rwanda governance is striving for fighting corruption at lower level
6) From the Rwandan electoral process, leadership guarantees the political stability and absence of violence in this way:
a. The policies put in place such as unity and reconciliation, respect for human rights, the Office of the Ombudsman, the Office of the Auditor General, etc. allow the citizens to feel confident leadership b. The policy of good governance and decentralization enables citizens to participate in governance and therefore to feel responsible for the future of the country c. Strengthening the security and political institutions in Rwanda is an important factor for ensuring to sustainable development, a sine qua non condition of stability and absence violence
7. The effectiveness governance from the electoral process is manifested through leaders democratically elected, independence of civil servants from political pressures, information accessible to all Citizens and the voice of those minorities taken in consideration, and the service delivery. To what extent can be appreciated the Rwandan governance? a. High level b. Medium level c. Low level
8. The electoral process in Rwanda guarantees the principle of rule of low which is one of the indicators of democratic governance because:
69
a. All persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws b. There is an effective separation of power and respect of human tight. c. All citizens are equal before the law and the authorities d. The elected authorities implement the will of citizen and there is fairness in the application of the law e. No one is above the law regardless of his social position
9. Regulatory quality in the Democratic governance is a key indicator enabling government to provide policies and regulations for promoting private sector development based on doing business. For you, to what level could be ranked Rwanda accordingly? a. High level b. Medium level c. Low level
10. The Rwandan electoral process guarantees equality and freedom among citizens because: a. All citizens are equal before the law and the authorities b. The elected authorities implement the will of citizens c. No one is above the law regardless of his social position d. Everyone is free to choose the candidate who seems useful
11. The Rwandan electoral process meets the aspirations of citizens to establish an accurate democratic governance in this sense: a) It gives priority to the policy of good governance and decentralization b) It promotes political participation of all strata of citizens
70
c) The promotion of women in political action is highly significant d) All political parties are represented in all decision-making bodies
Thank you for your honest cooperation!
71
APPENDIX 3: MAP OF CITY OF KIGALI
72