Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 45-62, 2016

Processed : Basics and Possibility for the Development of Healthier Products

Aly S., Eman El Dakhakhny, El Saadany K., Nassra Dabour & Kheadr, E. Functional and Nutraceuticals Laboratory (FFNL), Science and Technol- ogy Dept., Fac. of Agric., El-Shatby, 21545, Univ. of Alexandria, Alex., Egypt. Received: 16 November, 2016 Revised: 10 December, 2016 Accepted: 18 December, 2016

ABSTRACT gains continuous popularity due to its diverse composition and wide applications. The diversity of ingredients used for its formulation permits the production of a wide variety of with different flavours, textures and functions. Presently, more attention has been paid to processed cheese as a promising vehicle able to deliver specific nutrients into human body. This review focuses on the following topics: market development, main ingredients of processed cheese (mainly natural cheeses, milk protein and emulsifying salts), processed cheese ana- logue (classification, formulation and important protein and substitutes) and previous attempts for production of healthier processed cheese. Key words: Processed cheese, natural, reduced-fat, imitated cheese, healthier product.

INTRODUCTION form a homogeneous product”. Processed cheese The innovation of processed cheese was origi- production increased steadily during the last cen- nated from the desires to extend the shelf-life of tury leading to the development of wide variety of natural cheese, recycle defected cheese and⁄or to products worldwide. Based on the physical charac- develop a cheese with distinct texture, flavour and teristics of the final product, processed cheese was functional properties. The production of processed generally grouped into two different categories as cheese started in Europe early in the last century. processed cheese and spreadable processed cheese The first attempt for making processed cheese was (Smith, 1990). made in Switzerland in 1911 by Walter Gerber and According to Carić & Kaláb (1999), processed Fritz Stettler from Swiss cheese (Kapoor & Metzger cheese has numerous advantages over natural 2008). At this time, the process described simply as cheeses due to: melting Swiss cheese using one additional ingredi- 1– Reduction of refrigeration cost during stor- ent which was sodium citrate as an emulsifying salt. age and transportation, James Lewis Kraft, a Canadian-American entrepre- 2– Improvement of keeping quality with less neur and inventor, was the first to patent processed changes in cheese characteristics during cheese in 1916 (Kapoor & Metzger 2008). The storage, process was described as a combination of heating and stirring of pieces to form a ho- 3– The possibility of producing cheese with mogenous warm emulsion which was then packed different intensity of flavour and functional in glass jars or cans. properties for various applications, 4– The possibility of adjusting packaging for There are numerous definitions describing various usage, economical needs, processed cheese. Among them, the definition pro- posed by Guinee et al. (2004) is the most frequent- 5– The suitability for home use as well as for ly used and the simplest one. The authors defined snack restaurants, e.g. in , hot processed cheese as “the cheese which can be pro- sandwiches, and dips for fast foods. duced by blending natural cheese of different ages Processed cheese market and degrees of maturity in the presence of emulsi- fying salts and other dairy and nondairy ingredi- The production of processed cheese has a con- ents followed by heating and continuous mixing to tinuous growth in some region worldwide, while

45 Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 45-62, 2016 Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. remains relatively constant in other regions. The tions related to “improvement of nutritional value”, growing markets of today are located in the Mid- “health”, and “labelling” issues. dle East, Russian Federation, South America and North Africa. However, Western Europe, United Processed cheese types States and Japan are considered relatively stable Processed cheeses can be classified into 2 main markets (Table 1). groups (pasteurized and substitute/ imitation pro- In Egypt, processed cheese production is con- cessed cheese) according to their composition, wa- sidered to be one of the most active and dynamic ter content and consistency. Each group is further sector among Egyptian food industries. Economi- classified based on ingredients used for the formula- cally, Egyptian processed cheese industry contains tion of each cheese category as shown in Figure (1). approximately 24 large factories and represents 20- Processed cheese manufacture 25% of the entire industry with continuous increased exportation value. This dairy The main processing steps involved in pro- product showed huge growth abilities in terms of cessed cheese manufacture are illustrated in Figure produced, local consumed and exported quantities (2). The processing steps can be divided into two of cheese. In year 2005, Egypt exported approxi- main stages as 1) ingredient selection and formu- mately 180 tons of processed cheese which in- lation and 2) processing and storage (Kapoor & creased in year 2011 to 62,282 tons equivalent to Metzge, 2008). The first stage includes selection 225 million US dollars (FAO statistics, 2011). Pro- and shredding of natural cheese, fat standardiza- cessed cheese gained popularity among Egyptian tion, selection of appropriate emulsifying salts and people as consumption per capita increased from other ingredients and blending ingredients in order approximately 2 kg in year 2003 up to 2.46 kg in to meet the targeted gross chemical composition. 2010 (Table 2). The second stage concerns the technological steps in processing including, cooking (heat and mix- The huge diversity of ingredients that can be ing), packaging, cooling, cartoning and storage. incorporated in cheese blends permits the produc- tion of a wide variety of processed cheeses with Main ingredients of processed cheese diverse flavours, textures and functions. Thus, pro- Natural cheese cessed cheese itself can be used as an ingredient for application or in the production The type, characteristic and age of the natural of other foods such as snacks. This ability makes cheese have major role in controlling the textural, processed cheese production among the most inno- viscoelastic, functional, microstructural, and sen- vated industry in dairy sector. Actually, the mar- sorial properties of processed cheese (Glenn et al., ket of the area of processed cheese needs innova- 2003, Acharya & Mistry, 2005). Blends of cheese Table 1: Growth of processed cheese market volume (1000 tons) in some selected countries worldwide

Country 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 United States 248.40 263.50 279.40 197.00 323.80 356.00 380.80 407.10 Canada 74.80 74.50 74.00 73.60 73.30 73.10 72.90 72.70 Argentina 35.60 39.30 41.00 42.80 44.50 46.20 47.90 49.60 Brazil 11.40 16.20’ 18.00 20.10 22.70 25.50 28.20 30.80 Japan 102.00 106.00 110.70 115.10 119.20 123.20 127.20 130.90 Australia 23.80 24.60 25.40 26.40 27.60. 28.50 29.50 0.40 China 7.60 8.40 9.50 11.00 12.70 14.70 16.90 19. 40

India 6. 60 1.7.10 7.10 8.60 9.60 % 10.80 11.90 13.10 Republic of Korea 7.40 8.10 8.80 9.40 9.90 10.30 10.80 11.20 New Zealand 9.40 9.60 9.60 9.70 9.80 9.90 9.90 9.90 Philippines 5.40 5.60 5.90 6.30 6.70 7.20 7.70 8.20 Source: Datamonitor 2011 (from Maurer and Scheurer 2012).

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Table 2: Growth of processed cheese consumption (in kg) per for block-type is composed of 3:1 capita in some selected countries worldwide mild: semi mature or mature cheese, respectively (Thomas, 1977), while Country 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 a mixture of young: mild: matured Saudi Arabia 2.31 2.36 2.46 2.51 2.57 2.64 2.70 2.78 cheeses at ratio of 55:35:10 is rec- Morocco 1.99 2.08 2.18 2.28 2.38 2.45 2.52 2.59 ommended for the production of pro- Egypt 1.99 2.00 2.03 2.12 2.22 2.30 2.38 2.46 cessed cheese in slices where a high South Africa 0.72 0.74 0.79 0.84 0.90 0.96 1.02 1.10 content of un-hydrolysed protein is necessary (Kosikowski, 1982). On Hungary 1.60 1.84 2.05 2.28 2.50 2.61 2.72 2.83 the other hand, the production of France 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 cheese spreads requires cheese with Ukraine 0.54 0.63 0.71 0.81 0.90 1.00 1.11 1.21 increased content of hydrolysed Spain 1.13 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.34 protein (semi mature and mature). Poland 0.74 0.82 0.89 0.97 1.04 1.09 1.15 1.22 In this case, a ratio of 30:50:20 of young: semi-matured: matured Czech Republic 1.40 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.20 1.20 1.21 1.22 cheeses, respectively has been sug- Germany 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 gested by Kosikowski (1982). In Finland 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.98 general, the increased content of Netherlands 0 68 0.71 0.75 0.79 0.84 0.85 0.87 0.89 young cheese in the production of Belgium 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.86 processed cheese may have some United Kingdom 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64 advantageous including, cost reduc- tion and good slicing properties. The Austria 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.62 0.63 disadvantages related to increased Turkey 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.27 portion of young cheese in cheese Russia 0.70 0.77 0.85 0.90 0.94 0.96 1.00 1.04 blend are the possible production Canada 2.32 2.29 2.26 2.22 2.20 2.17 2.14 2.12 of a tasteless and firmer processed Uruguay 1.19 1.27 1.31 1.36 1.40 1.45 1.49 1.53 cheese (Carić & Kaláb, 1999). How-� ever, the increased content of ma- United States 0.86 0.90 0.94 1.00 1.08 1.17 1.24 1.32 tured cheese in the blend improves Argentina 0. 92 1.00 1.104 1.07: 1.10 1.14 1.17 1.20 flavour intensity, flow properties Australia 1.21 1.23 1.26 1.30 1.35 1.38 1.42 1.45 and melting of the resultant pro- Japan 0.80 0.83 0.87 0.90 0.94 0.97 1.00 1.03 cessed cheese (Thomas, 1977). The excessive incorporation of matured Source: Datamonitor 2011 (from Maurer and Scheurer 2012). cheese in the blend may lead to the may contain one or more varieties of cheese with formation of sharp flavour, low emulsion stability different degrees of maturation (Guinee et al., 2004, and soft consistency. Kapoor & Metzger, 2008). Cheddar cheese was and Natural cheese contributes significantly to still the major type of natural cheese used for manu- overall quality of processed cheese via its con- facturing processed cheese. The amount of natural tent of intact casein which is inversely related to cheese in blend depends on the type of processed the natural cheese age (Shimp, 1985). As the natu- cheese and the amount of natural cheese required ral cheese ages, milk indigenous enzymes, resid- in a processed cheese formula varies from 51% to ual rennet and residual starter or nonstarter lactic >80% of the final processed cheese (Food and Drug acid bacteria present in the cheese hydrolyze the Administration, 2006). proteins present in natural cheese into peptides, The general practice in processed cheese man- thereby reducing the amount of intact casein (un- ufacture is to use 2 types of natural cheese with hydrolyzed form). In general, the increased content different degree of maturation (e.g. young: mild: of intact casein in processed cheese blend resulted mature or semi mature cheese). The ratio between in cheese with firm texture and increased elasticity the two groups of cheese play the major role in (Purna et al., 2006). controlling the physical characteristics of the re- Indeed, a wide variety of natural cheeses can sultant processed cheese. The general formulation be used for the formulation of processed cheese.

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Fig. 1. Classification of processed cheese products based on ingredients used. Adapted form Fox et al. (2000).

Fig. 2. Schematic flow chart showing the main manufacturing stages of natural processed cheese

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The proper selection of natural cheese is the most Ultrafiltrated cheese contains, compared to important factor to produce processed cheese with traditional cheese, increased amount of whey pro- desired properties. The selection is based on many teins which make its processing to processed cheese criteria including, cheese type (hard or soft), flavour difficult. This should be taken into account when intensity, maturity, consistency, texture and acidity used in processed cheese production. The applica- or pH (Carić & Kaláb, 1999). In Egypt, Cheddar, tion of ultrafiltrated cheese is recommended for the Ras and Karish cheeses are most frequently used production of cheese spreads but not for the produc- in the formulation of processed cheese. Common tion of sliceable cheeses. natural cheeses used in processed cheese formula- Rubin & Bjerre (1984) manufactured pro- tion are as follows: cessed cheese using the cheese base product made Cheddar cheese proved to be the most suit- from pasteurized whole milk by ultrafiltration or able and unproblematic ingredient in the manu- diafiltration. The authors recommended the use facture of processed cheese. It has lower calcium of such base at a ratio of 4:1 with ripe cheese in content, compared to other hard cheeses, due to the the production of processed cheese. At this ratio, acidification process taken place during production. processed cheese could be made from ultrafiltrated Cheddar has ideal melting properties and difficult milk had less flavour and texture acceptability com- creaming ability. These two characteristics make pared with the control cheese. Mixing ultrafiltered Cheddar the first choice in the formulation of slice- cheese base and matured Gouda cheese (at ratio of able processed cheese recipes (Guinee 2009). Li- 3:7, respectively) in the production of processed pase-treated Cheddar was recommended to be used cheese spreads gave cheese with more acceptable as a flavour enhancer for processed cheese (Kapoor physicochemical, organoleptic and textural charac- & Metzger, 2004, Gustaw & Mleko, 2007). teristics similar to those of the control cheese (Ky- cia et al., 2006). However, the addition of cheese Ras cheese is an Egyptian hard cheese, simi- base at 50% tended to lower pH and protein con- lar to Caskawal cheese in body and flavour, made tent of spreads as well as unfavourably increases from cows’ milk and is being extensively used for the hardness of the cheeses. production of processed cheese (Abdel Hamid et al., 2000 a, b and c, El-Shibiny et al., 2007). Milk proteins Abdel Hamid et al. (2000a) produced processed Milk proteins have significant nutritional and cheese spreads using Ras cheese and various add- functional impact in the manufacture of processed ed emulsifying salts. In terms of organoleptic and cheese. Many commercial ingredients of milk pro- structural attributes, the most acceptable processed teins and their derivatives (either from casein or cheese spreads could be produced using emulsify- whey proteins) are extensively used in the produc- ing salt mixture containing Na-pyrophosphate + tion of natural processed cheese and cheese ana- Na-polyphosphate + Na-orthophosphate + Na-trip- logue. The following products are among the most olyphosphate at ratio of 50:20:20:10, respectively. important ingredients implicated in the production of processed cheese and . Karish cheese is an Egyptian soft cheese made from skim milk via acid coagulation, has been Skim milk powder particularly that prepared extensively used for the production of processed via spray drying is an important ingredient for cheese. El-Shibiny et al. (2007) prepared low fat processed cheese formulation. It contains approxi- processed cheese spreads from mixture of fully mately 35% protein and 48% lactose. When used in ripened Ras and Karish cheeses at ratio of 2:3, re- processed cheese preparations, the resultant cheese spectively. In another trial, Karish was replaced by would have many adventurous over other cheese rennet cured prepared by rennet coagulation of ul- made with no added skim milk powder including, trafiltered skim milk retentate (20% total solids). better creaming properties and consistency, im- Results revealed that the colour and organoleptic proved stability and spreadability and fresher and attributes of low fat cheese spreads made with more neutral taste (Carić & Kaláb, 1999). Karish cheese were inferior to those of full-fat or Whey proteins have many interesting tech- low-fat cheeses with added rennet curd. However, nological properties including foam formation, rennet curd containing cheese showed organoleptic emulsifying capacity and water binding ability. scores close to those for full fat cheese. The highly functional whey proteins available in

49 Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 45-62, 2016 Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. the market are existed as concentrates or isolates, Calcium caseinates are extensively used in and both can be used in processed cheese prepa- the manufacture of processed cheese analogues. rations. The total protein content in whey protein Cheese containing calcium caseinate has been concentrates and isolates ranged from 30 to 38% shown to have high pH, soft texture, high degree (Jiménez et al., 2012) and from 90 to 95% (Et- of casein dissociation and low degree of fat emul- zel, 2004), respectively. Whey protein isolates are sification. In addition, calcium caseinate affects commercially available as pure β-lactoglobuline or inversely cheese firmness and melting ability (Cav- pure α-lactalbumine. Depending on desired type of alier-Salou & Cheftel, 1991). cheese and functionality, whey protein isolates and Sodium caseinate has no ability to form mi- concentrates are usually added to processed cheese celle-like structure but able to form gel structure blends at rates ranged from 0.3 up to 2% (calcu- commonly known for most proteins. It has an lated on the finished product). The incorporation excellent capacity to emulsify fat and to develop of whey proteins in processed cheese blends im- products with firm consistency and high pH (Cav- proves creaming and melting properties of the final alier-Salou & Cheftel, 1991). Sodium caseinate is product (Solowiej et al., 2010). In the manufacture usually used as fillers like casein particularly in of processed cheese spreads, Pinto et al. (2007) cheese analogues. replaced partially Cheddar cheese solids by whey protein concentrate (38% protein) solids at levels Emulsifying salts of 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5%. Body and texture scores given Emulsifying salts are considered to be the most to cheese increased as the concentration of whey important ingredient in processed cheese blend. The protein concentrate increased. Results also indicat- amount, type and composition of emulsifying salts ed that cheese with good meltability properties was can significantly affect pH, textural, microstruc- obtained from blends contained 4.5% whey protein tural, melting, functional and sensorial properties concentrate. of processed cheese (Glenn, et al., 2003, Acharya Rennet casein is prepared from skim milk via & Mistry, 2005). Two main groups of emulsifying rennet coagulation. It is used for the manufacture of salts (citrate-based and phosphate-based salts) are processed cheese as a substitute for natural cheese. commonly used for the manufacture of processed Rennet casein can build up a cheese like structure cheeses. as it contains high ratio of intact protein. Conse- Citrate-based salts quently, it is suitable for the production of prod- Citric acid is tri-basic acid, contains 3 acidic ucts which should show elasticity, good re-melt, hydrogen atoms, which can produce 3 probabilities or stringiness such as processed cheese blocks and of salt formation according to the number of neu- slices. Rennet casein is neutral in taste and cannot tralized acidic hydrogen atoms. The replacement of interfere with the flavouring agents incorporated one, two and three acidic hydrogen atoms with a in processed cheese recipe (Abou El Nour et al., cation Na+ results in the formation of mono-, di- 1996). and tri-sodium citrate, respectively. Indeed, citrate- Acid casein is prepared via acid coagulation based salts were the first emulsifiers used in pro- of skim milk. This type of coagulation is accom- cessed cheese manufacture (Zehren & Nusbaum, panied by the dissolution of the calcium out of the 1992). Among citrate salts, tri-sodium citrate is sub-micelles leading to the complete disintegration one of the most important emulsifying salts in pro- of casein network structure. At functional level, cessed cheese manufacture and is often used for the acid casein can act naturally as fat emulsifier. Un- manufacture of slices (Zehren & Nusbaum, 1992). like rennet casein, and due to the loss of important On the other hand, other citrate salts such as potas- amount of calcium in the whey, acid casein is not sium or ammonium citrates were evaluated for the able to rebuild up the typical cheese structure and production of low-sodium processed cheese (Gupta can be thus used as a filling agent in the processed et al., 1984). The high levels of these salts tended to cheese analogue recipes. Acid casein has shown the produce bitterness in the final cheese. ability to improve meltability properties of cheese Phosphate based salts analogs particularly with increasing pH values of cheese blend from 5.0 to 7.0 (Solowiej et al., 200 The majority of commercial emulsifying salts 8). currently used for the manufacture of processed

50 Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 45-62, 2016 cheese are based on phosphate salts. Phosphoric made with sodium hexametaphosphate was the acid salts can be divided into two main groups: 1) largest as compared to cheeses with other emulsifi- mono-phosphates (orthophosphates) and 2) con- ers. Cheeses made with added phosphate salts were densed polyphosphates which can be further subdi- darker than that prepared with tri-sodium citrate. vided into (i) polyphosphates, (ii) metaphosphates The nuclear magnetic resonance measurement indi- - rings and (iii) condensed phosphates - rings with cated that the moisture in cheese was mainly bound chains and branches. water combined with the fat globule. One of the earliest study to understand the In addition, Shirashoji et al. (2010) studied the role of phosphate based emulsifying salts in pro- effect of the concentration of hexametaphosphate cessed cheese was that made by Gupta et al. (1984) (0.25–2.75%) on the textural and rheological prop- who evaluated seventeen emulsifier salts (belong erties of pasteurized processed Cheddar cheese. to di-potassium phosphate, and tetra-potassium The meltability of processed cheese, made with pyro-phosphate) for their emulsifying capacity in different concentrations of hexametaphosphate experimental processed cheese by the same criteria (from 0.25 to 2.75%) decreased with an increase in for the commercial samples including textural and the concentration of emulsifying salt, while hard- flavour properties of the resultant cheeses. Results ness increased. The insoluble calcium and total and revealed that each tested emulsifying salt contrib- insoluble phosphorus contents increased as con- uted differently to properties of processed cheese centration of hexametaphosphate increased. and it should be useful to develop blends of emulsi- Orthophosphates include monosodium dihy- fier salts to produce processed cheeses possessing drogen phosphate, disodium hydrogen phosphate with a wide range of physical properties. and trisodium phosphate. The corresponding po- Abdel Hamid et al. (2000c) tested three mix- tassium salts of previous compounds can be used tures of emulsifying salts including, (1) Na-pyroph- to reduce sodium content of the resultant processed osphate + Na-polyphosphate, (2) Na-pyrophos- cheese. Due to their excellent buffering capacity, phate + Na-polyphosphate + Na-tripolyphosphate monosodium and trisodium phosphates are usually and (3) Na-pyrophosphate + Na-polyphosphate + used for the manufacture of processed cheese main- Na-orthophosphate + Na-tripolyphosphate in the ly to bring cheese pH to the correct value (Zehren production of processed cheese spreads using 2 & Nusbaum, 1992). month old acidified Ras cheese. Results revealed Long-chain polyphosphates, incorrectly that cheese pH values tended to decrease with in- known as hexametaphosphates, are not used in creasing polyphosphate ratio in the salt mixture processed cheese manufacture. However sodium and with prolonging the storage period. The solu- hexametaphosphates, a member belongs to this ble nitrogen content increased with increasing the category has potential application in food indus- pyrophosphate ratio in the emulsifying mixture. try particularly in processed meat sector (Molins Emulsifying salts appeared to affect the buffering 1991). The application of hexametaphosphates in capacity of cheeses in a salt mixture depending processed cheese production resulted in cheese with manner. In conclusion, the authors reported that low pH and poor textural and structural attributes emulsifying mixtures (1) 70+30%, (2) 60+30+10% especially melting characteristic (Gupta et al., 1984, and (3) 50+20+20+ 10% can be recommended for Carić et al., 1985). However, elevation cheese pH producing the spreadable processed Ras cheese can significantly improve meltability of processed with acceptable chemical properties. Chen & Liu cheese made with hexametaphosphates (Lu et al., (2012) investigated the effect of different types 2007). Meanwhile, Shirashoji et al. (2006b) report- and concentrations of emulsifying salts (trisodium ed that the incorporation of sodium hexametaphos- citrate, tetra-sodium pyrophosphate, sodium tri- phate in sliced processed cheese recipe resulted in polyphosphate, sodium hexametaphosphate and significant reduction in pH to 5.3 as compared with disodium orthophosphate) on the physicochemical cheeses with added citrate, orthophosphate or py- properties of processed cheese made from Mozza- rophosphate salts where pH ranged from 5.9 to 6.0. rella cheese. Results revealed that cheese hardness, Also, sodium hexametaphosphate had negative im- degree of casein dissociation, and pH increased as pact on cheese texture due to the formation of crum- the concentration of emulsifying salts increased. bly and mushy defects in the resultant cheese. The fat particle size (4.68 μm) of processed cheese

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Antimicrobial activity of polyphosphate phates, inoculated with 5×105 (blend A) or 2.5×106 salts (blend B) Clostridium tyrobutyricum spores per The food-grade long-chain polyphosphate gram and incubated at 35°C for up to 7 weeks. De- termination of viable cell counts was carried out at food grade formulations (JOHA HBS sodium days 1, 9, 19 and 49 (cheese blend A) and 8, 16, 27, polyphosphate glassy, HBS-l and HBS-9) have 35 and 50 (cheese blend B). While, 0.1% polyphos- shown antibacterial activity against wide range of phate had little effect, higher concentrations were microorganisms including spore formers (Clostrid- increasingly inhibitory to spore germination and ium tyrobutyricum and Bacillus cereus), Gram gas formation. With 0.5% polyphosphate, onset of positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Lis- growth was delayed for about 3 weeks in cheese teria monocytogenes), Gram-negative bacteria blend A, while this concentration was able to inhib- (Samlonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli ) it the organism in cheese blend B. The authors con- and yeasts (Saccharomyces cerivisiae). Lössrier cluded that 0.5% polyphosphate may be sufficient et al. (1997) evaluated the antibacterial activity of to control Clostridium tyrobutyricum growth under polyphosphate formulations (JOHA HBS, HBS-l “normal” conditions, where initial spore counts and HBS-9) against a panel of 21 Gram-positive are rather low, and storage temperatures are usu- and 11 Gram-negative bacteria. Results revealed ally at or below 20°C. However, a concentration of that 17 of 21 of the Gram-positives and yeasts could 1.0% polyphosphate resulted in a complete inhibi- be inhibited by concentration ranged from 0.05 tion of Clostridia growth, indicating the usefulness to 0.3% of tested polyphosphates but none of the of these polyphosphates for prevention of butyric tested Gram-negatives were affected. The Staphy- blowing in pasteurized processed cheese spreads. lococcus aureus could be inhibited at 0.05%, while Saccharomyces cerivisiae showed to be inhibited Principle activities of emulsifier salts at 0.3% of tested polyphosphates. Maier et al. Principle activities of emulsifier salts in pro- (1999) studied the mechanism of action by which cessed cheese (Lucey et al., 2011) are: polyphosphate can exert growth inhibition, mor- Calcium binding and ion exchange capac- phological changes and lysis of Bacillus cereus. ity: This is accomplished through the ability to Results indicated that at a concentration of 0.1% form 1) a complex with calcium present in the se- or higher, polyphosphate had a bacteriocidal effect rum phase or removed from casein (Shirashoji et on log-phase cells, in which it induced rapid lysis al., 2006a) and 2) cross-links among the network of and reductions in viable cell counts of up to 3 log the processed cheese leading to tightness of cheese units. Also, a concentration of 0.1% inhibited spore structure (Zehren & Nusbaum, 1992), germination and a higher concentration (1.0%) was even sporocidal. This antimicrobial activity The pH adjustment and buffering capacity: was completely stopped by the addition of divalent The final pH and buffering capacity of processed metal ions (Mg+2 and Ca+2) which can immediately cheese are principally determined by the type and stop lysis and reinitiate rapid cell division and mul- amount of used emulsifying salts. The emulsify- tiplication. The sub-lethal concentration (0.05%) ing salts are commonly basic in nature and used to of polyphosphate appeared to cause morphological rise pH of cheese blends from 5.2 (common pH of natural cheeses used in processed cheese manufac- changes in Bacillus cereus leading to the formation ture) to approximately 5.5-6.0 (pH range of final of elongated cells (approximately 70 µm length). processed cheese) (Carić & Kaláb, 1999). This pH The complete lack of septum formation within the modification is important to improve configura- filaments was confirmed by electron microscopy tion and solubility of casein and the ability of the examination. Indeed, similar mechanisms of action emulsifying salts to bind calcium molecules, lead- could be postulated for other microorganisms in- ing to the formation of processed cheese with bet- cluding, Clostridium tyrobutyricum, Staphylococ- ter textural and microstructural properties. On the cus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes (Lee et al., other hand, processed cheese with high buffering 1994, Zaika et al., 1997, Lössrier et al., 1997). capacity can tolerate pH changes that take place The antibacterial activity of polyphosphates during storage. Emulsifying salts can significantly has been proven in processed cheese by Lössrier improve cheese buffering capacity to avoid adverse et al. (1997). Two different formula- effects of pH changes on cheese textural and mi- tions were fortified with 0.1% to 1.0% polyphos- crostructural characteristics.

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Casein dispersion and hydration: Casein may contribute to crystal formation by emulsifying can easily disperse during cooking process of pro- salts include the excessive use and/or the presence cessed cheese due to heat and mechanical energies of un-dissolved emulsifying salt along with high applied to the cheese mass (Glenn et al., 2003). The pH of cheese and/or high cooking temperature (Lu- dispersed proteins are helpful in fat emulsification cey et al., 2011). The formation of crystals depends process by coating the surfaces of dispersed free mainly on the type of emulsifying salts used and fat globules (Guinee et al., 2004). The dispersion reported to be in the order citrate > orthophosphate of casein is mainly attributed to emulsifying salts > polyphosphate (Scharpf & Kichline, 1968 and which can bind calcium ions and increase cheese 1969). pH leading to the increased charge repulsion be- tween caseins (Shirashoji et al., 2006a). Emulsifier selection Fat emulsification: Is another important func- Selection of the proper emulsifier mixture, tion of emulsifying salts which is based on their concentration and type of emulsifying salts, de- ability to emulsify fat within the cheese matrix to pends on many factors including, avoid its separation causing defect known as oiling Those related to cheese that will be used in off. Cheese made with no added emulsifying salts processed cheese manufacture such as its age and would have rough texture and considerable oiling- composition (Hassan et al., 2004), off defect (Lucey et al., 2011). Those related to the resultant processed cheese, Structure formation: The dispersion of ca- including the desired composition, characteristics sein due to addition of emulsifying salts and heat and type of cheese (blocks, slices, spread, etc…. treatment during cooking of processed cheese are (Lucey et al., 2011), both capable of destroying the structure of the Other factors including price of emulsifying original cheese and predisposing conditions for the salts and cooking condition (time and temperature) formation of new structure with unique character- (Lucey et al., 2011). istics upon cooling cheese. Emulsifying salts can significantly affect cheese structure and the correct Processed cheese analogue amount should be added depending on age of origi- nal cheese and type of emulsifier. The over emul- The concept of cheese substitution or imita- sification is usually accompanied by an increase in tion describes the process that tends to the produc- fat surface area covered by casein leading to the tion of products in which milk fat, milk protein or formation of hard processed cheese (Shimp, 1985) both are partially or wholly replaced by non-milk , However, low concentration of emulsifying salts based alternatives, principally of origin (under- emulsification) would accompany by poor (Fox et al., 2000). Indeed, food legislation authori- casein dispersion and fat emulsification leading to ties do not allow the application of vegetable pro- creaming defect (Shirashoji et al., 2006a). teins or oils in the manufacture of natural processed cheese. However, these substitutes are allowed for Antimicrobial activity: Most emulsifying the manufacture of cheese substitutes, imitates or salts commonly used for processed cheese manu- analogues and should be mentioned clearly on the facture possess antimicrobial activity to some packaging materials. Substitute or imitated cheese extent. Citrate salts have been shown to have an- should not be nutritionally inferior to the original tifungal activity (Davidson et al., 2002), whereas cheese. However, in many circumstances, substi- pyrophosphates and polyphosphates have anti- tutes or imitation lead to the formation of cheese microbial activity against Gram-positive bacteria with health promoting and nutritional advantages (Tanaka et al., 1986). The antimicrobial activity of as compared with the original cheese, for exam- both citrate and phosphate emulsifiying salts has ple, cheeses with higher unsaturated fatty acids, been attribute to their ability to chelate metal ions no and low calorie (Mc Carthy, 1990). (Lössrier et al., 1997, Davidson et al., 2002). Processed cheese analogue containing Crystal formation: Emulsifying salts, under paste is considered to be a functional food (health certain circumstances, can be crystallised with improving product) due to the incorporation of cheese calcium. The formed crystals are distributed isoflavonoides and polyunsaturated fatty acids in mainly throughout the cheese body with little ap- cheese as well as proteins which are known to have pear on the cheese surface. The possible factors that cholesterol decreasing effect (Teixeira et al., 2000).

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Substitute/ imitated cheese products are classi- tritional aspects play a great role for the selection of fied into three categories: (a) analogue cheeses, (b) the protein source. filled cheeses and (c) -based cheese origin (Fox Soybean protein isolate was one of the earliest et al., 2000). Analogue cheese can be further clas- vegetable proteins used for partial or total replace- sified, based on the ingredients used and the manu- ment of caseinate for the formulation of processed facturing procedures, into 3 categories (Fox et al., cheese analogue (Ahmed et al., 1995). The low cost 2 0 0 0 ) a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e ( 1 ) : of this product makes it one of the important sub- 1- Dairy analogues products are made from stitutes for milk proteins (El-Sayed et al., 1991). blends containing casein, caseinate and In comparison to milk proteins, soy proteins are butter oil. They are not produced in large larger in molecular size and do not have phosphate quantities because their cost is relatively residues in their structure (Brander et al., 1985). high, Consequently, main characteristics of soy proteins 2- Partial dairy products include products (emulsifying capacity, heat coagulability and solu- containing mainly vegetable oils (such as bility) are different from those for milk proteins. oils from soya bean, palm or rapeseed, and Treatments with enzymes (e.g., alcalase, trypsin, their hydrogenated equivalents) and dairy etc...) are the common practice to improve previ- based proteins (such as rennet casein or ca- ous functionalities of soy proteins (Kamata et al., seinate), and 1993). 3- Nondairy analogues include products in El-Sayed (1997) assessed to replace skim which both fat and protein are vegetable milk powder (at levels of 5, 10 and 15%) in pro- derived. cessed cheese blends by three plant protein isolates (from chickpea, sesame and peanut). The author In addition to nutritional and health advantag- also evaluated some functional properties of plant es, substitute/ imitated cheese products have many protein isolates including emulsion activity, water important technological and economical impacts absorption capacity and water-oil absorption index. due to their: Results revealed that emulsion activity index of dif- 1- Implication in the production of wide variety ferent isolates were in the order: sesame < chickpea of fat foods in which processed cheese is < peanut. Water absorption capacity of the tested used as one of the functional ingredient, protein isolates ranged from 196 to 329 g water/100 2- Low cost, g protein. The water-oil absorption index for chick- 3- Ability to offer diverse functionality range pea, peanut and sesame protein isolates were 7.6, (e.g. flowability, melt resistance, shredabil- 0.48 and 0.90, respectively. Changes in chemical ity, etc), and composition of cheeses containing different levels of plant protein isolates occurred only in total ni- 4- Ability to be designed to meet special die- trogen content, while, the other constituents such as tary needs through changes in formulation total solids, fat and salt were not affected. Sensory (such as low fat, calorie and cholesterol evaluation of the processed cheese revealed that to- and/or vitamin, fiber or mineral-enriched tal score gradually decreased with increasing plant- products). protein isolate levels up to 15% but still preferable Vegetable proteins for the consumer. This decrease in the total score The main sources for vegetable proteins used regards the flavour but not to the colour or body in the formulation of processed cheese analogues and texture. are those from particularly soy bean, lu- Awad et al. (2014) used lupine paste to substi- pine and chickpeas (Ahmed et al., 1995). tute 25, 50, 75 and 100% of cheese in base formula proteins are commercially available in concentrate of processed cheese analogue. Chemical composi- and isolate forms with a protein content of about tion and physical and sensory properties of cheese 70 and 90 %, respectively (Tiwari et al., 2011). In were analysed during 3 months of storage at 5 the hydrolysates, the enzymatic hydrolysis of the ±2°C. The authors also evaluated the histopatho- legume proteins leads to the formation of a wide logical effect of lupine-containing cheese in al- product variety of different functional properties. loxan diabetic albino rats. The incorporation of lu- In addition to the functional properties also the nu- pine paste in processed cheese analogue increased

54 Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 45-62, 2016 ash and protein contents while meltability and pen- Healthier processed cheese etration values of resultant products were found to Processed cheese can be re-designed by incor- decrease. The addition of lupine past increased the porating untraditional ingredients with potential oil index and firmness of the resultant cheese. Body biological activity to exert specific benefits beyond and texture scores of lupines-containing cheeses its nutritious value. Various nutritive molecules were the mostly affected by increasing lupine ra- have been incorporated in blends used for processed tio in formula without significant difference up to cheese manufacture including, minerals, vitamins, 50% substitution of the cheese base. On the other fibers and biologically active molecules and oils. hand, rats fed on cheese-containing lupine showed marked improvements in langerhans islands struc- Iron. Although milk and its products contrib- ture and lowered blood glucose as compared to rats ute significantly to human health by providing our fed on basil diet (negative control). bodies with high nutritive components including, protein, fat, minerals and vitamins but could not Vegetable oils provide iron to human diets. Zhang & Mahoney The replacement of milk fat with vegetable (1991) fortified processed cheese with Fe-casein, oils and in processed milk products has gained Fe-whey protein, or ferric chloride to final concen- increased popularity in the early 1990s due to in- tration of 40 mg iron/kg cheese. The quality of the creased public’s awareness of the dangers of cho- processed cheese was determined by thiobarbituric lesterol found in animal fats (Kong-Chan et al., acid assay and taste panel evaluation. Thiobarbi- 1991). The main vegetable oils and fats used for re- turic acid numbers were slightly lower in the un- placing milk fat in processed cheese analogue reci- fortified cheese. A taste panel of 94 subjects did pes were those extracted from soy bean, sunflower, not detect any differences in oxidized off-flavour palm and coconut. The selection of vegetable fat or cheese flavour among cheeses stored up to3 source is based mainly on availability, price and months. Iron-fortified and unfortified cheeses had stability against oxidation and temperature. similar hedonic scores to the flavour, texture and Indeed, different procedures have been de- overall quality. veloped to incorporate hydrogenated vegetable oil Branched chain amino acids. Patients with (from soya bean, peanut, palm kernel, cotton seed, advanced liver disease are generally characterized coconut or corn) in processed cheese analogue reci- by the presence of low levels of circulating branched pes (Brander et al., 1985, Arellano-Gomez et al., chain amino acids (BCAAs) (Mesejo et al., 2008). 1996, Lobato-Calleros & Vernon-Carter, 1998). In an attempt to enrich in BCAAs, El-Shazly et al. The application of vegetable fats can give distinct (2010) used a protein substitution technique to syn- structural characteristics to cheese that make it thesize a new processed cheese as a dairy source more suitable for certain applications (Anonymous rich in BCAAs, with low phenylalanine content. 1989). For example, the incorporation of soybean A commercial phenylalanine-free milk formula fat into cheese blend conferred hardness and ad- was used for the replacement of cheese proteins at hesiveness to the resultant cheese analogues, but the rate of 2.5%, 5%, 10%. L-Phenylalanine was led to decrease their cohesiveness and springiness. selected to induce hepatic and brain affections in However, the opposite effects were recorded for Begg Albino strain c (BALB/c) mice model. Re- cheese in which was added instead of sults revealed that animals fed on 10% protein milk fat (Lobato-Calleros et al., 1997). The formu- substitution showed the highest content of BCAAs lation of cheese analogues using blends of differ- along with least phenylalanine content as well as a ent vegetable fats resulted in cheese in which the remarkable improvement in histopathological find- physicochemical and textural characteristics were ings of both liver and brain tissues. an average of that provided by each fat alone (Lo- bato-Calleros et al., 1997). In Egypt, palm oil is Microalgae. In an attempt to re-formulate still considered to be the first choice to replace milk processed cheese analogue, Mohamed et al. (2013) fat in the formulation of processed cheese analogue incorporated the Chlorella vulgaris (microalgae particularly in block-type cheeses. However, the recognized as a rich source of protein, fatty acids, incorporation of palm oil in the production of pro- fiber, ash and essential vitamins and minerals) in cessed cheese spread caused adverse effects on the blends used for processed cheese manufactures. sensorial characteristics of the final cheese (Salam This microalgae has health benefits including, as- 1988 a & b, Azzam 2007, Calvo et al., 2007). sisting disorders such as gastric ulcers, wounds,

55 Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 45-62, 2016 Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. constipation, anemia and hypertension and possess cheese. The first study was conducted to determine immune-modulating and anticancer properties. the impact of daily consumption of vitamin D3 (600 Cheese analogue trials with C. vulgaris biomass IU/d)-fortified processed cheese for 2 months on at levels 1, 2 and 3% were evaluated for chemi- serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, parathyroid hormone cal, physical and sensory properties during three and osteocalcin concentrations among 100 older months of cold storage. Results revealed that (≥ 60 year) men and women. Participants were cheeses containing the microalgae were richer in randomized to receive vitamin D-fortified cheese, the protein, carbohydrates and fiber contents than non-fortified cheese, or no cheese. The serum lev- the control samples. On the other hand, addition els of 25-hydroxyvitamin D, parathyroid hormone of Chlorella biomass to the cheese gave products and osteocalcin were measured at the beginning higher firmness and stronger network leading to and end of the studyt. Results revealed that the lower oiling off and meltability values than the vitamin D-fortified cheese group had a greater de- control. The sensory evaluation indicated that addi- crease in 25-hydroxyvitamin D than other groups, tion of 2% C. vulgaris did not adversely affect the due to higher baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The overall acceptability of the resultant cheese which second study was conducted to determine whether encourages the addition of untraditional additive the bioavailability of vitamin D2 in cheese (deliv- for the production of healthier cheese. ering 5880 IU of vitamin D2/56.7-g serving) and Vitamins. Fortification of processed cheese water (delivering 32,750 IU/250 mL) is similar and with vitamins is another way to produce function- whether absorption differs between younger and al dairy products with improved nutritional value older adults. For this purpose, 2 groups of 4 par- and potential ability to deliver vitamins to certain ticipants each (younger and older group) have been individuals especially children and elderly. The designed to receive single acute feedings of either majority of attempts dealing with vitamin fortifica- vitamin D2-fortified cheese or water. Serial blood tion were interested in the addition of vitamin D to measurements were taken over 24 h following the dairy products. Vitamin D, fat-soluble vitamin ex- acute feeding and results revealed plasma concen- ists in two forms as D2 and D3, has important health tration of vitamin D in younger (23 to that 50 years) benefits and its deficiency can cause many health and older (72 to 84 years) adults was similar, and risks including, cancer, cardiovascular disease and vitamin D2 was absorbed more efficiently from severe asthma in children. Also, vitamin D is cru- cheese than from water. The authors concluded that cial for healthy bone development, maintenance vitamin D in fortified process cheese was bioavail- of bone density and bone strength, and prevention able, and that young and older adults had similar of osteoporosis (softening of the bones in adults) absorption rate. In older individuals, the consump- (Johnson et al., 2005). The earlier attempt to fortify tion of 600 IU of vitamin D3 daily from cheese for processed cheese with vitamin D was conducted by 2 months was insufficient to increase serum 25-hy- Upreti et al. (2002). In that study, pasteurized pro- droxyvitamin D with limited sunlight exposure. cessed cheeses fortified with commercial water- or Inulin, as a soluble dietary fiber, could be suc- fat-dispersible forms of vitamin D3 at a level of 100 cessfully incorporated in processed cheese spread IU per serving (28 g) were manufactured and stored formulation to enhance its functionality and nu- for 9 months at 21 to 29°C and 4 to 6°C. There was tritive value. Giri et al. (2014a) studied the effect no loss of vitamin during storage of the fortified of inulin (0, 4, 6 and 8 %) on textural and melting cheeses stored at either temperature range. How- properties of the processed cheese spread. In gen- ever, a loss of 25-30% of the vitamin was recorded eral, as the levels of inulin increased, cheese firm- after heating cheeses at 232°C for 5 min. Also, ness and work shear increased, while the stickiness vitamin D3 fortification did not impart any off fla- and work of adhesion decreased. vours to the fortified cheeses. There were no differ- The hypocholesterolemic effect of inulin con- ences between the water and fat-dispersible forms taining processed cheese spread has been evalu- of the vitamin in the parameters measured in forti- ated by Giri et al. (2015) using rat model. In that fied cheeses including chemical composition and study, 4 animal groups were designed including, vitamin distribution within cheese matrix. In 2005, group 1 (control) fed on a synthetic diet, whereas Johnson et al. conducted two studies to determine groups 2, 3 and 4 fed on a cholesterol-enriched diet the effect of vitamin D-fortified cheese on vitamin for 30 days. Thereafter, groups 2, 3 and 4 were, D status and the bioavailability of vitamin D in 56 Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 45-62, 2016 respectively, fed with synthetic diet, the control Cholesterol-reduced cheese had significantly high- cheese spread and inulin (6%) containing pro- er total free amino acids content and also higher cessed cheese spread for 30 days. Results revealed gumminess, brittleness, yellowness and elasticity that feeding animals with cheese containing inulin scores over all storage periods than those in the resulted in decrease in serum total, low and very control. However, processed flavour and slimy tex- low density lipoproteins cholesterol, and athero- ture were significantly lower in cholesterol-reduced genic index as well as significant reduction in liver cheese spread (SooYun et al., 2009). cholesterol and triglycerides contents as compared Low-sodium processed cheese spread was to other groups. It was also reported that feeding on made from ultrafiltered Edam cheese (i.e. the brine cholesterol-enriched diet correlated with increased was prepared from a mixture of NaCI and KCI at a liver, spleen, and heart weights, whereas feeding ratio of 1:1). The low-sodium processed cheese had with inulin containing cheese led to reduction in low meltability, high oiling off and high sensory weight of those organs due to reduction in deposi- score as compared with the control cheese (Amer tion of triglycerides and cholesterol. et al., 2010). Phytosterols, plant steroids similar to cho- lesterol with potential hypocholesterolemic effect, CONCLUSION are other bioactive molecules which could be inte- Processed cheese manufacture is an effective grated in processed cheese formulation to enhance strategy to extend the shelf-life of natural cheese, its functionality. The addition of phytosterols has recycle of defected cheese and to develop cheeses been found to affect textural attributes of processed with distinct texture, flavour and functional proper- cheese spread. The inclusion of 3% and 4% of phy- ties. Processed cheese is mainly composed of natu- tosterols in cheese blends increased the firmness and ral cheese, emulsifying salts, flavouring agents, work of shear of the resultant cheese as compared salt and water. Among ingredients, emulsifying with no added phytosterols (Giri et al., 2014b). salts have major role in determining pH, textural, Rice bran. A functional processed cheese microstructural, melting, functional and sensorial containing rice bran, source of dietary fibers and properties of the resultant cheese. The consumption bioactive photochemicals, has been developed by of processed cheese has been increased steadily in El-Shibiny et al. (2013). The authors studied the some regions in the world especially in Middle East effect of adding 2, 4 and 6 % rice bran to processed and Asia. Due to the increased public’s awareness cheese spread blend on the chemical composition, of the dangers of cholesterol found in animal fats microbiological, oiling off, colour and texture pro- and the desire to reduce costs related to production, file of the resultant cheese. Generally, addition of processed cheese analogous has gained increased 4 and 6% rice bran resulted in remarkable and sig- popularity. It can be produced by partial or whole nificant adverse effects on the most of the studied replacement of milk constituents (fat, protein or characters. However, no significant differences in both) by non-milk based alternatives, principally colour attributes, oiling off and sensory properties of vegetable origin. This concept has also initiated were found between cheese with added 2% rice the research to incorporate unusual ingredients into bran and the control. The authors recommended processed cheese blends in order to develop wide the addition of 2% rice bran in processed cheese varieties of products with diverse applications. For spread formulation to produce functional product example, processed cheese has a great ability to with a decreased production cost. Indeed, the addi- be used as a functional food by incorporating the tion of rice bran would improve the nutritive value desired functional molecules (minerals, vitamins, and health attributes of processed cheese since the proteins, fats, fibers, etc...) in the cheese blend. Its resultant cheese contains several bioactive com- composition (high total solid content and buffering pounds such as phenolic compounds and fiber. capacity) can offer an effective protection for the Cholesterol-reduced processed cheese spread target molecules against adverse conditions in hu- was made by cross-linking β-cyclodextrin. This man gastrointestinal tract. Consequently, it would treatment led to removal of 91.5% of cholesterol. be expected to see more and more functional pro- The composition of cholesterol-reduced cheese cessed cheese with potential health promoting ac- spread was similar to that of the control cheese. tivity in the market in the nearest future.

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اجلنب املعامل: �أ�سا�سيات و�إمكانيته لتطوير منتجات �أف�ضل ً�صحيا ال�سيد علي، �إميان الدخاخني، خالد ال�سعدين، ن�صرة دبور، �إيهاب خ�ضر معمل الأغذية الوظيفية والأغذية العالجية، ق�سم علوم وتقنية الألبان كلية الزراعة )ال�شاطبي(- جامعة الإ�سكندرية، الإ�سكندرية، م�صر يحظى اجلنب املعامل بقبول كبري لدى امل�ستهلكني ًنظرالتنوع مكوناته وكذلك لتعدد ا�ستخداماته مما ي�سمح ب�إنتاج العديد من املنتجات املتميزة بطعوم وتركيب وخوا�ص وظيفية خمتلفة. ويف الوقت احلا�ضر مت االهتمام باجلنب املعامل كغذاء واعد قادر على �إمداد اجل�سم بالعديد من املواد والعنا�صر الغذائية الالزمة. ويلقي هذا اال�ستعرا�ض املرجعي ال�ضوء على املو�ضوعات التالية: تطور �إنتاج وا�ستهالك اجلنب املعامل يف م�صر، املكونات االأ�سا�سية الالزمة ل�صناعة اجلنب املعامل )االأجبان الطبيعية، بروتينات اللنب، �أمالح اال�ستحالب( عالوة على �إلقاء ال�ضوء على اجلنب املعامل امل�شابه )من حيث تق�سيمه، تركيبه، �أهم م�صادر الربوتينات والدهون الداخله يف �صناعته(. كما ي�شمل هذا اال�ستعرا�ض املرجعي املحاوالت ال�سابقة واملن�شورة يف املراجع والتي تهدف �إىل �إنتاج جنب معامل وظيفي ب�إ�ضافة بع� ضاملواد الن�شطة ًحيويا مثل الفيتامينات، االألياف الغذائية، االأنيولني، اال�سرتوالت النباتية.

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