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Innovations in Electrodermal Activity Data Collection and Signal Processing: a Systematic Review

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Innovations in Electrodermal Activity Data Collection and Signal Processing: a Systematic Review sensors Review Innovations in Electrodermal Activity Data Collection and Signal Processing: A Systematic Review Hugo F. Posada-Quintero and Ki H. Chon * Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 25 November 2019; Accepted: 11 January 2020; Published: 15 January 2020 Abstract: The electrodermal activity (EDA) signal is an electrical manifestation of the sympathetic innervation of the sweat glands. EDA has a history in psychophysiological (including emotional or cognitive stress) research since 1879, but it was not until recent years that researchers began using EDA for pathophysiological applications like the assessment of fatigue, pain, sleepiness, exercise recovery, diagnosis of epilepsy, neuropathies, depression, and so forth. The advent of new devices and applications for EDA has increased the development of novel signal processing techniques, creating a growing pool of measures derived mathematically from the EDA. For many years, simply computing the mean of EDA values over a period was used to assess arousal. Much later, researchers found that EDA contains information not only in the slow changes (tonic component) that the mean value represents, but also in the rapid or phasic changes of the signal. The techniques that have ensued have intended to provide a more sophisticated analysis of EDA, beyond the traditional tonic/phasic decomposition of the signal. With many researchers from the social sciences, engineering, medicine, and other areas recently working with EDA, it is timely to summarize and review the recent developments and provide an updated and synthesized framework for all researchers interested in incorporating EDA into their research. Keywords: electrodermal activity; sympathetic function; EDA data collection; EDA signal processing; EDA data quality assessment 1. Introduction Sweat gland activity modulates the conductance of an applied current [1–4]. Such modulations produce electrodermal activity (EDA), a term that comprises the changes in electrical conductance of the skin. Increased sweating augments the electrical conductance of the skin, because although sweat contains minerals, lactic acid, and urea, it is mostly water. Thermoregulation is the primary function of most sweat glands, but those located on the plantar and palmar sides of the hand are known to be more concerned with grasping performance, rather than with temperature control. These sweat glands are more responsive to psychological stimuli rather than to thermal stimuli [4]. This phenomena is most evident in hands and feet because of the high density of eccrine glands in those areas; however, emotion-evoked sweating involves all eccrine sweat glands [5]. Therefore, EDA is believed to represent a quantitative functional measure of sudomotor activity, and consequently, an objective assessment of arousal [6,7]. Sudomotor activity is connected to the sympathetic function, and has the potential to be used for the evaluation of the autonomic function and assess the level of cognitive arousal [8–10]. EDA makes it theoretically possible to estimate the time and amplitude of stimuli generated from control centers in the brain by interpreting the manifestation of their arrival at the skin level, which is observable in the EDA signal [4]. Sensors 2020, 20, 479; doi:10.3390/s20020479 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors Sensors 2020,, 20,, x 479 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 2of of 18 18 The single effector model of the sweat glands is the most generally agreed-upon model for EDA. The changesThe single in the effector level model and phasic of the shifts sweat of glands the EDA is the are most the outputs generally of agreed-upon such a model. model Sweat for comes EDA. throughThe changes varying in the numbers level and of phasicducts in shifts the sweat of the glands EDA are at thedifferent outputs levels, of such depending a model. on Sweat the level comes of sympatheticthrough varying arousal. numbers The sweat of ducts ducts in can the be sweat thought glands of as at a di setfferent of variable levels, resistors depending wired on thein parallel, level of whichsympathetic is the principle arousal. 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In this manner,The changesneurotransmitter in the level involved of sweat in in the the mediation ducts produce of eccrine observable sweat gland variations activity in EDA is acetylcholine, [11]. whichThe is neurotransmitterthe primary neurotransmitter involved in the mediationof the parasympathetic of eccrine sweat nervous gland activity system, is acetylcholine,rather than noradrenaline,which is the primarywhich is neurotransmittertypically associated of with the parasympatheticperipheral sympathetic nervous activation system, [12]. rather For thanthat reason,noradrenaline, at one point which in history, is typically both associated the sympathetic with peripheral and parasympathetic sympathetic branches activation of the [12 ].ANS For were that thoughtreason, atto one control point EDA. in history, However, both theit is sympathetic currently accepted and parasympathetic that human branchessweat glands of the have ANS predominantlywere thought tocholinergic control EDA. innervation However, from it issudomo currentlytor fibers accepted linked that uniquely human sweatto the glandssympathetic have chainpredominantly [5,13]. Studies cholinergic that simultaneously innervation fromrecorded sudomotor sympathetic fibers action linked potentials uniquely in to peripheral the sympathetic nerves andchain EDA [5,13 provide]. Studies evidence that simultaneously for the solely recorded sympathe sympathetictic control actionof EDA; potentials a high correlation in peripheral between nerves burstsand EDA of sympathetic provide evidence nerve activity for the solelyand the sympathetic amplitude of control the rapid of EDA; transient a high events correlation in the EDA between was shownbursts of[14]. sympathetic nerve activity and the amplitude of the rapid transient events in the EDA was shown [14]. Basics of the Signal Analysis of EDA Basics of the Signal Analysis of EDA The most salient characteristic of an EDA signal is the occurrence of skin conductance responses (SCRs)The resulting most salient from characteristican underlying of sympathetic an EDA signal reaction is the to occurrence a stimulus. of The skin SCRs conductance are the rapid responses and smooth(SCRs) resultingtransient fromevents an noticeable underlying in the sympathetic EDA signal reaction (Figure to 1). a At stimulus. least three The pathways SCRs are lead the to rapid the productionand smooth of transientSCRs: hypothalamic events noticeable control, in contralateral the EDA signal and basal (Figure ganglion1). At influences least three (involves pathways one pathwaylead to the of production excitatory ofcontrol SCRs: by hypothalamic the premotor control, cortex contralateral and another and pathway basal ganglion of exhibitory influences and excitatory(involves oneinfluences pathway in of the excitatory frontal controlcortex), byand the the premotor reticular cortex formation and another in the pathwaybrainstem of [13,15,16]. exhibitory Theseand excitatory pathways influences imply different in the frontal functional cortex), roles and associated the reticular with formation the central in mechanisms: the brainstem activation [13,15,16]. ofThese the pathwaysreticular implyformation different is functionalassociated roles with associated gross movements with the central and mechanisms:increased muscle activation tone, of hypothalamicthe reticular formation activity iscontrols associated thermoregulatory with gross movements sweating, and amygdala increased activation muscle tone, reflects hypothalamic affective processes,activity controls premotor thermoregulatory cortex activity sweating, occurs in amygdala situations activation requiring reflects fine motor affective control, processes, and prefrontal premotor corticalcortex activityactivity occursis associated in situations with orienting requiring and fine attention motor [11,17,18]. control, and All prefrontalthese processes cortical influence activity the is EDAassociated signal. with orienting and attention [11,17,18]. All these processes influence the EDA signal. Figure 1. EDAEDA signal signal and and an an isolated isolated SCR. SCR. Measures of the SCRs are used to evaluate a subject’s response to event-related experiments (“startle-like” stimuli) stimuli) or or tonic tonic stimuli stimuli tests tests (like (like a change in condition, workload, workload, cognitive cognitive stress, stress, and so forth). In In event-related event-related experiments, experiments, the the occu occurrencerrence of of an an SCR is expected after the stimulus SensorsSensors 20202020, 20,, x20 FOR, 479 PEER REVIEW 3 of 318 of 18 Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18 is applied. In such experiments, the SCRs are usually called the event-related SCRs (ERSCRs) [13]. is applied. In such experiments, the
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