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Home , Gravitational redshift, Redshift

1 2.1 Basics of the Relativistic : Global Geometry and the of the Part I

2 (1905) • A fundamental change in viewing the physical space and time, now unified in • Postulates equivalence among all unaccelerated frames of reference (inertial observers) • Reconciles classical electrodynamics and coordinate and transformations • Novel effects: – c is the maximum velocity – Lorentz contraction – – Equivalence of and – Explains the anomalous precession of Mercury’s 3 (1915) • An even more fundamental change regarding the space and time, and /energy, connecting them • Postulates equivalence among all frames of reference (including accelerated ones), and is thus the theory of Presence of mass/energy determines the geometry of space Geometry of space determines the of mass/energy • Introduces of space, predicting a number of new effects: – deflection by – Gravitational etc. etc. 4 The Mach’s Principle: The gravitational interaction of mass in the universe causes all inertial forces. In an empty universe, there would be no inertia.

Einstein argued that gravity can be regarded as an inertial force: “A frame linearly accelerating relative to an inertial frame in special relativity is locally identical to a frame at rest in a ”. He explored this idea in a famous thought experiment with elevators and rockets.

The equivalence principle results in two effects: • Light should be /redshifted in a gravitational field • Light paths in a gravitational field should be curved 5 Einstein already predicted the gravitational deflection of light in 1911. Here is his letter to G. E. Hale in 1913, asking him about the possibility of observing the light deflection around the .

6 Confirmation of the GR

Eddington’s 1919 eclipse observations “confirmed” Einstein’s relativistic prediction of a = 1.78 arcsec Later observations have provided more accurate evidence of light deflection due to the influence of GR

7 General Relativity Remember the key notion: Presence of mass/energy determines the geometry of space Geometry of space determines the motion of mass/energy

Thus, the distribution of the matter and energy in space must be consistent with its spatial geometry Mathematical expression of that statement is given by the Einstein equation(s) Their derivation is well beyond the scope of this class, but here is just a little flavor… 8 The Einstein Equation(s) A tensor equation - a shorthand for 16 partial differential eqs., connecting the geometry and mass/energy density:

Gµn =

where:

Spacetime Gµn = The Einstein tensor Matter geometry distribution Rµn = The Ricci tensor gµn = The tensor R = The Ricci scalar

Tµn = The stress-energy tensor and isotropy requirements reduce this set of 16 eqs. to only 1, G00 = T00 , which becomes the Friedmann Equation 9 Introducing the Gravitation is an attractive force, so what is to prevent all matter and energy falling to one gigantic lump? Einstein introduced a negative potential term to balance the attractive gravity:

l could be thought of as an integration constant, or a new constant of , or a new aspect of gravity The Einstein Equations now become:

This is the cosmological constant. Note that the theory does not specify its value, or even the sign! 10 The Equivalence Principle is:

A. All men are created equal B. All inertial frames are equivalent C. Mass is equivalent to energy D. The laws of should be the same in all reference frames E. Two sides of an equation are the same

11 2.2 Basics of the Relativistic Cosmology:

Global Geometry and Dynamics of the Universe

Part II 12 The Relativistic cosmology uses some symmetry assumptions or principles in order to make the problem of “solving the universe” viable. The Cosmological Principle states that At each epoch, the universe is the same at all locations and in all directions, except for local irregularities

Therefore, globally the Universe is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic at any given time; and its dynamics should be the same everywhere Note: the Perfect Cosmological Principle states that the Universe appears the same at all times and it is unchanging - it is also homogeneous in time - this is the basis of the “Steady State” model 13 Homogeneity and Isotropy

Homogeneous but not isotropic Isotropic at but not homogeneous

Homogeneous and Isotropic

14 So, is the Universe Really Homogeneous and Isotropic? Globally, on scales larger than ~ 100 Mpc, say, it is - so the cosmological principle is valid

Distribution on the sky ! of 65000 distant radio sources from the Texas survey, a cosmological population

… and of course the CMBR, uniform to better than ∆T/T < 10-5, after taking the dipole out 15 So, is the Universe Really Homogeneous and Isotropic? But not so on scales up to ~ 100 Mpc, as shown by the large-scale structure

… and that is OK 16 What is the Global Geometry of the Universe? Generally, it can be curved

The curvature will depend on its matter-energy content …

… and it will determine its global dynamics and evolution

17 Metric and Spacetime Geometry of space can be generally defined through the metric, enabling one to compute the between any two points:

where gab is the . Indices {a,b} run 0 to 3, for the spacetime (0 is the time dimension, 1,2,3 are the spatial ones, i.e., xyz) In a simple Euclidean geometry, it is a diagonal unit tensor (matrix): gaa = 1, ga≠b = 0, where {a,b} = {1,2,3}

The metric coefficients gab are generally functions of the spacetime position, and a proper theory of spacetime has to specify these functions 18 Metric: Quantifying the Geometry

• The geometry of spacetime is completely specified by a metric, gµn • A special relativistic, Euclidean case is the Minkowski metric:

• A general case for a GR, homogeneous and isotropic universe is the Robertson-Walker metric:

where k = –1,0,+1 for a (negative,flat,positive) curvature19 Robertson-Walker Metric Polar coordinates are useful if all directions are equal (space is isotropic): 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ds = c dt − R (t)[[dr + S k ( r ) d ϕ ] where $ sin r, (k =1) Positive space curvature ! Negative space curvature Sk (r)= #sinh r, (k = −1) ! " r, (k = 0) Flat (Euclidean) space If the spatial dimensions expand or contract with time: & dr 2 # ds2 c2dt 2 a2 (t) r 2d 2 r 2 sin d 2 = − $ 2 + θ + θ φ ! %1− kr " R(t) a t ≡ where ( ) is the 20 R0 Robertson-Walker Metric is:

A. Metric in a Euclidean space B. General expression of a spacetime metric C. General metric in polar coordinates D. A special case for a homogeneous and isotropic space E. How far can Robertson walk

21 2. 3 The Expanding Universe

22 Expansion Relative to What? Comoving and Proper Coordinates There are fundamentally two kinds of coordinates in a GR cosmology: • Comoving coordinates = expand with the universe Examples: – Unbound systems, e.g., any two distant – of massless quanta, e.g., • Proper coordinates = stay fixed, space expands relative to them. Examples: – Sizes of , molecules, solid bodies – Gravitationally bound systems, e.g., Solar system, ,

galaxies … 23 Expansion into What? Into itself. There is nothing “outside” the universe (Let’s ignore the hypothesis for now) A positive curvature universe is like the surface of a sphere, but in one extra dimension. Its volume is finite, but changes with the expansion of space. A flat or a negative curvature universe is infinite in all directions; the comoving coordinate grid stretches relative to the proper coordinates In either case, there is no “edge”, and there is no center (homogeneity and isotropy) 24 Quantifying the Kinematics of the Universe

We introduce a scale factor, R(t) commonly denoted as R(t) or a(t): a spatial distance between any two unaccelerated frames which move with their comoving coordinates t This fully describes the evolution of a homogeneous, isotropic universe Computing R(t) and various derived quantities defines the cosmological models. This is accomplished by solving the Friedmann Equation 25 The Cosmological Redshift

26 Redshift as Doppler Shift

27 Cosmological Redshift A more correct approach is to note that the wavelengths of photons expand with the universe:

The two approaches are actually equivalent 28 Propagation of Light Our view of the Universe depends upon the propagation of light through the . To understand this, we need to consider the paths of null . Suppose an observer sits at r=0. Consider radial light rays. Given that ds=0, then

Suppose a light ray is emitted at a time t1 at a distance r1 and is received today (r=0) at t0

29 Propagation of Light

Remembering that for a comoving source at distance r, the coordinate is fixed, then

Hence, in an expanding universe there will be a redshift

30 Hubble’s Law If we consider a nearby source, then we can write

then

Hence, we can see we can derive Hubble’s law from the Robertson-Walker metric. Hubble’s “constant” H(t) gives the instantaneous expansion rate.

31 Is Energy Conserved in an Expanding (or Contracting) Universe?

• Consider of photons • Consider potential energies of unbound systems

32 Cosmological Redshift is:

A. The due to the universal expansion B. A consequence of General Relativity C. A measure of the expansion factor D. Due to the curvature of space E. Due to the non-

33 2.4 The Friedmann Equation

34 Deriving the Friedmann Equation Can derive the evolution of R(t) using mostly Newtonian mechanics, provided we accept two results from General Relativity: 1) Birkhoff’s theorem: for a spherically symmetric system, the force due to gravity at radius r is determined only by the mass interior to that radius. 2) Energy contributes to the gravitating mass density, which equals: u energy density ρ + -3 m c 2 (ergs cm ) of radiation and relativistic particles density of matter 35 € Deriving the Friedmann Equation

36 37 Which means that the expression inside the brackets must be constant

38 And finally:

39 The Friedmann Equation A more complete derivation, including the cosmological constant term, gives:

The Friedmann Eqn. is effectively the equation of motion for a relativistic, homogeneous, isotropic universe. In order to derive cosmological models from it, we also need to specify the equation of state of the “cosmological fluid” which fills the universe. 40 The Friedmann Equation:

A. Is a special case of the Einstein equations B. Is an equation of motion for the universe C. Describes an expanding universe D. Describes a universe contracting due to its self-gravity E. Is valid in any spacetime

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