Snow Leopard Panthera Uncia
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Snow leopard Panthera uncia
Schreber (1775)
STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION
Review paper
Master of Science (Wildlife science)
BY ASHWINI KUMAR UPADHYAY
2003 CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 CLASSIFICATION 1.3 EVOLUTIONARY VIEWS 1.4 TAXONOMY OF THE SNOW LEOPARD
CHAPTER 2 STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION 2.1 AFGHANISTAN 2.2 BHUTAN 2.3 CHINA 2.4 INDIA 2.5 MYANMAR 2.6 MONGOLIA 2.7 NEPAL 2.8 PAKISTAN 2.9 RUSSIA 2.10 KYRGYZSTAN 2.11 KAZAKHSTAN 2.12 TAJIKISTAN 2.13 UZBEKISTAN
CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF SNOW LEOPARD.
CHAPTER 4 ECOLOGY OF THE SNOW LEOPARD 4.1 HABITAT 4.2 MOVEMENT 4.3 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY 4.4 FEEDING HABITS 4.5 BEHAVIOUR 4.6 DISEASES
CHAPTER 5 CAPTIVE POPULATIONS
APPENDICES
REFRENCES ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks are due to "Almighty god" the most merciful, who bestowed upon me the capability to achieve this goal .I owe my gratitude to Prof.H.S.A.Yahya,
Chairman, Department Of Wildlife Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for his guidance and being a source of encouragment to me. I feel immense pleasure to express my gratitude to Dr.Jamal.A.Khan, my supervisor for his guidance and constant source of inspiration throughout the entire review writing.
I am thankful to my all teachers Prof.Wajahat, Mr.Afifullah Khan and especially
Dr.Satish Kumar, for taking the voluntarily the task of proof reading and suggestions. I am thankful to all research scholars and seniors who in one way or the other helped me in writing the review. I am also thankful to seminar incharge
Mr.Anis for his help in finding the literature. My good wishes to Samina, Sadia, and Wajahat for their moral support and friendly nature. I am also thankful to
Peter Graham (ISLT) for his help in providing the references because of which only this review paper could come into present form.
Even these words are less to express my sincere regards and love to my mummy and sisters who always encouraged me. Without their love, I could not have achieved this. CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION If the lion is the “King of the beasts”, and the tiger is the “King of the jungle”, the snow leopard is surely “Queen of the high mountains of Asia”. The snow leopard has adapted to one of the most challenging environments in our world (Jackson.P, 1995). Snow leopard inhabits the mountains of central Asia over a 1.5 million-sq.km area. The core of their distribution ranges from
Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal,
Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan but most of the range is in Tibet and other parts of the China (Fox and Du, 1994). Snow leopard is mainly associated with rocky mountains and they are also found in arid and semi-arid shrubland, grassland or steppe (Fox, 1989; Jackson, 1992), while in parts of the Tien Shan they occur in open conifers forest (Koshkarev, 1984). Weighting 25-75 kg, it is the lone member of the genus Uncia. The snow leopard is solitary, crepuscular, and preys on mountain ungulates such as Markhor (Capra falconeri), Ibex
(Capra ibex), Bharal (Psuedois nayaur), and Himalayan Tahr (Ovis ammon), domestic stock, and smaller mammals such as Hares and Marmots (Marmota spp) (Wharton, 1991). The breeding season occurs towards the end of winter. Two-Five young cubs are born in a concealed den. Sexual maturity is reached when 2-3 years old
(Petzsch, 1968; Koivisto et al., 1977; Rieger, 1980).
Captive snow leopards are known to have reached 21 years of age, mostly are unable to reproduce after 14 years of age (Blomquist, 2002). The main reason for population decline of snow leopard is considered to be the hunting of the large ungulates from many areas of the high Central Asian mountains
(Schaller, 1977; Cai et al., 1999; Fox et al., 1991b; Jackson, 1992). Large scale poisoning programs of Pika and Marmot (Marmota spp.) conducted in Tibetean plateau also contributed to population decline of the snow leopard (Smith et al.,
1990; Miller & Jackson, 1994). Apart from this demand for snow leopard bones from the Chinese traders (Liao, 1988), as well as demand for garments of snow leopard fur were once highly priced which is no longer in trend but one comes across "novelty" furs for sale throughout China, Taiwan and in Mongolia (Nowell
& Jackson, 1996). The snow leopard has been accorded protection under the
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 and also included in Appendix-Ι of the
CITES. Uncia uncia is also protected in national legislation across most of its range with hunting bans in Bhutan (only in protected areas, which cover most of snow leopard range of this country), China, India, Kazakhstan, Nepal, Pakistan,
Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia. 1.2 CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Felidae Subfamily: Pantherinae Genus: Uncia
Species: Uncia uncia
1.3 EVOLUTIONARY VIEWS The genus Uncia is a small, primitive and is often included within the family Felidae (Schreber, 1775; Gray, 1854; Pocock, 1916). Although Uncia superficially resembles large cats, a number of authors have suggested that the genus should be Panthera only (Dang, 1967). Much of the confusion surrounds the taxonomy of the snow leopard at the genus level of nomenclature. As snow leopard shows structural similarities in skull common with lions, tigers and jaguars, it should be kept in the subfamily-Pantherinae (Dang, 1967). Grzimack
(1972), had another thought and recommends that the name Uncia uncia, divides the subfamily Pantherinae into two different groups: one group having snow leopard as a lone species and other group including the remaining big cats-lion, tigers, jaguars and other leopards. As the only cat in the genus Panthera without elastic ligament in their hyoid bones is the snow leopard Uncia uncia, which screams, should be separate genus Uncia (Hast, 1987). According to Brandt (1870) and Tscherski (1892) reported, upper
Pleistocene fossil remains of the snow leopard from Altai caves. Remains of
“Felis sp 1” from locality 1 of Choukoutien described by Pie (1934) and compared with the snow leopard seem to belong to Panthera pardus (Hemmer,
1968). “Felis cf. pardus” from locality 3 of Choukoutien (Pie, 1936) was determined as Uncia uncia by Kurtén (1960), but was declared wrong by
Hemmer (1971). Thenius (1969) described some resemblances of two presumably lower middle Pleistocene mandible fragments from Stránská skála
(CSSR) with the snow leopard, but these probably represent Panthera pardus
(Hemmer, 1971). Remains of “Leopardus irbisoides” Woldrich from the Upper
Pleistocene of Austria likewise do not belong to Uncia uncia but to the lynx
(Thenius, 1957).
1.2 TAXONOMY OF THE SNOW LEOPARD The survey of the literature revealed that the "Uncia uncia" is the most appropriately proposed. Some contexts noted in the generic summary are mentioned below with explainations
Uncia Gray, 1854 Uncia Gray, 1854: Type species Felis irbis Ehrenberg (1830) by tautonomy,
the name irbis being derived from the common name of the snow leopard,
and by restriction by revisors who removed from the genus other species
assigned by Gray to uncia. Leopardus Matschie, 1895: It included in this genus the species pardus and
onca; the type species of Uncia was referred as subspecies of L. pardus.
No type species was fixed.
Uncia uncia (Schreber, 1775) Snow Leopard, Ounce
Felis uncia Schreber, 1775: Type locality unknown, fixed by Pocock (1930)
to the Altai Mountains. Ognev (1935) considered the southern slope of the
Kopet-Dagh Mountains as the type locality.
Felis irbis Ehrenberg, 1830: Type locality Altai Mountains.
Felis uncioides Horsfield, 1855: Type locality Nepal.
Uncia uncia: Pocock, 1916b: first use of the current name combination.
Although Zukowsky (1950) reported Uncia uncia schneideri was based on one specimen from Sikkim population having the same features as type specimen. Stroganov (1962) distinguished the central Asiatic snow leopard,
Uncia uncia uncia, from the subspecies of Tibet and northwestern China, Uncia uncia uncioides, by coat color and pattern.
But, many authors do not believe that subspecies of the snow leopard exist (Ellerman-Morrison & Scott, 1952; Novikov, 1962; Wildt et al., 1992a) the former considered Uncia uncia to be very diverse in its distribution splitting it up into two sub-species. Similarly Fox (1994) gives the reason that the gap between the main southern snow leopard population and the northern population in Russia and Mongolia may differ genetically. On the other hand the snow leopard is reported to migrate upto 600km from the former USSR according to Heptner &
Sludskii (1972). Koshkarev (1990), which again made a question, mark on whether there are sub-species of the Uncia uncia. CHAPTER 2
STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION
2.1 AFGHANISTAN
1* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Potential habitat of the snow leopard in India has been estimated to be about 80,000 sq.km, 50,000 sq.km and 17,653 sq.km by Fox (1989), Fox (1994),
Hunter & Jackson (1997) respectively. Sayer (1980) and Adil (1997) did not give any population estimate of snow leopard in Afghanistan. There are sightings of snow leopard from Big Pamirs, the Wakhan corridor, and the Small Pamirs
(specifically the Qule Chaqmaktin, Tegar Qarom and Berget valleys). In Zebak the southern part of Badakhshan it is also reported. Local people have sightings in Ajar valley but are not substantiated. Previously snow leopard were widely hunted (Petocz, 1978), some 50 to 80 snow leopards were shot annually before soviet invasion (Rodenburg, 1977).
Listed as an endangered species, the snow leopard is rare and its members are certainly declining due to high monetary value of fur and still wide spread fur trade in Afghanistan. It is regularly hunted because of lack of any ban against hunting and trade in Afghanistan near the heavily bombed Tora Bora, Talibans stronghold. It is noted that frequent firing and bombardment in 2001 appeared to have forced wildlife, including snow leopards and its prey species, to lower altitudes, where they are more vulnerable to be killed by hunters (Khan, 2002).
However, accurate up-to-date information on the current distribution and status of the species is lacking (Adil, 1995). 2* THREATS AND CONSERVATION Snow leopard and their large prey species such as Marco Polo sheep
(Ovis ammon polii), Ibex (Capra [ibex] sirbirica), and Markhor (Capra falconeri) were heavily hunted in many parts of its range, during the protracted war of 1980's &1990's. Subsequently there is an increase of fires and habitat destruction registered. In the past, a ban was imposed on hunting snow leopards
(Rodenburg, 1977). The management of wildlife even before the war was minimal, mainly imposed as a declaration of wildlife Sanctuaries for royal hunting. Reserves established in late1970's under an UNDP/FAO programme include the Ajar Valley Wildlife Sanctuary (50,000 hectares) and the Pamir-i-
Buzurg Wildlife Sanctuary (67,938 hectares) in the Wakhan Corridor (Sayer,
1980). The war coupled with food and fuel shortage, and the people need for money, placed a very heavy toll on wildlife (Adil, 1995). With the Talibans regime gone now, this present scenario is getting worse as snow leopard being hunted and traded by refugees to buy a safe passage across the border (Pearce,
2002).
3* CONCLUSION Now that war has ended and in interest of rehabilitation care should be taken to implement measures to restrict hunting, especially during breeding season. Areas, which harbour snow leopard, should be preserved, through formulating strategies. Surveys to estimate snow leopard populations are essential for formulating national snow leopard protection and management policy. 2.2 BHUTAN
4* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION The potential snow leopard range in Bhutan is 15,000 sq.km (Fox, 1994).
But 7,349 sq.km was estimated, out of which 57% of potential snow leopard range is within protected area system (Hunter & Jackson, 1997). The total area of potential snow leopard habitat had been assumed as having a density of one cat per 100 sq.km then there are 100 snow leopards in the Bhutan (Jackson & Fox,
1997b).
Jigme Dorje National Park (4,350 sq.km) is reported to have very low density of snow leopard (Jackson & Fox, 1997b; Jackson et al., 2000) attributed to the open terrain and moist climate. Along with it sightings of snow leopard by people in Torsa Strict Nature Reserve (650 sq.km), Kulongchhu Wildlife
Sanctuary (1184 sq.km), Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary (755 sq.km) yet needs to be confirmed through surveys. Whereas snow leopard presence in Black Mountain
National Park (1,730 sq.km) is not possible because of extensive forest cover isolating it from main distributional range of snow leopard, similarly in case of
Thrumshingla National Park (890 sq.km) because of too heavy forest cover snow leopard presence is unlikely (Jackson & Fox, 1997b).
5* THREATS AND CONSERVATION The principle threats to snow leopard are by incidental poaching and killing by herdsmen in face of livestock depredation (Jackson & Fox, 1997b). But fortunately due to highly inaccessible habitat threats are minimal. Trade in snow leopard pelts or body parts are almost non-existing apart from the grazing competition between yaks and blue sheep affecting snow leopard indirectly.
Law in Bhutan bans hunting of all mammals, snow leopard is given special protection by severe fines imposed to persons killing snow leopard. Forest and Nature Conservation Act-1995 also gives protection to the prey species of snow leopard.
Long term conservation management plan has been implemented in Jigme
Dorji National Park (Wikramanayake, 1995).
6* CONCLUSION Pro-conservation development programmes must be initiated like awareness-raising and community education, alternate economic opportunities for local people, along with scientific surveys and studies should be taken as soon as possible to gather baseline data which will help in formulating conservation plans. 2.3 CHINA
7* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION The total area of snow leopard habitat in China is estimated to be about
1,100,000 sq.km with 2,000-2,500 individuals (Fox, 1994), whereas potential habitat was estimated as 1,824,316 sq.km by Hunter & Jackson (1997), making
China the most important country with as much as 60% of snow leopard range.
Approximately 6% of this is to be under protected coverage (Hunter & Jackson,
1997). Snow leopards are present in six provinces or autonomous regions
(Quinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Xinjiang and Xizang or Tibet), but are on the verge of the extinction in Inner Mongolia. The snow leopard is severely affected throughout China, but especially in Quinghai province. The distribution of snow leopard in China has changed dramatically for several decades. The distribution areas have lessened then before in Qinghai, Gansu and Sichuan whereas increased in Xinjiang province but Yunnan province is a new province added to the snow leopard distribution in China recently.
In Inner Mongolia province the districts i.e. southern flanks of Yinshan and Wulashan have reported snow leopard (Yonzu, 1997). But it is said to be on the verge of extinction and its continued survival is unlikely (Wang & Schaller,
1996). Now Daqing Shan is the new area where snow leopard is sighted (Ma
Jianzhang et al., 2002).
Shanxi province harbors very less snow leopard occasionally occurring in different areas of it (Yongzu, 1997). Xinjiang province has a known distribution of about 750 snow leopards as
1,70,000 sq.km of suitable snow leopard habitat is present (Schaller et al.,
1988a). In the districts of Tuomuer Feng area, Baichug, Akshi, Korla, Yuli,
Tianshan, where snow leopard was earlier reported by Yongzu (1997), which recently has disappeared (Jianzhang et al., 2002). But the districts of Taxkorgan,
Hami, Ruoqiang, and Qiemo were reported to be harbouring snow leopard
(Yongzu, (1997); Jianzhang et al., (2002). Whereas in the districts Altay, Borjin,
Qinghe, Tacheng, Manas, Bolê Wenquan, Turpan, Luntai, Pishan, Minfeng, and
Hertian, the snow leopard distribution has been reported for the first time
(Jianzhang et al., 2002).
In Qinghai province the total population of snow leopard is estimated to be about 650 with an occupied range of 65,000 sq.km (Schaller, 1988b). The districts, which are reported, by Yongzu (1994), but where the snow leopard has now dissappeared are Tongde, Xinghai, Haiyan, Ganca, Delingha, Mangnai,
Changjiang, Huashixia, Altun, Guide, Huzhu, and Kunlun, whereas the districts
Zodoi, Qumarêb, Zhidoi, Yushu, Dulan, Qilian, Menyuan, Golmud, Menyuan,
Golmud, Maqên, Baima, Tianjun, Guinan, Nangqên, Chindu, Madoi, Darlag are reported to have been under the snow leopard distribution (Yongzu, 1994;
Jianzhang et al., 2002). Recently the districts Juzi and Dasoden are for the first time where snow leopard has been reported (Jianzhang et al., 2002).
Gansu province is having only nine districts with snow leopard reported by Liao & Tan (1988). Zhang Yongzu (1997) listed 16 districts out of which in
Jonê, Lintan, Kangle, Hezheng, Yongchang, and Tianzhee the snow leopard is no more distributed (Jianzhang et al., 2002), where as districts Maqu, Luqu, Xiahe, Zhugqu, Têwo, Zhangye, Sunan, Subei, Aksay, Wuwei are still having snow leopard (Jianzhang et al., 2002). The district Linxia has also recently been added to the list of districts with snow leopard (Jianzhang et al., 2002).
In Sichuan province snow leopard is probably in low numbers in various areas (Schaller, 1998). The districts Kanding, Ya’an, Liangshan no longer fall in snow leopard distribution range (Jianzhang et al., 2002). Whereas Baoxing,
Dêgê, Ganzê, Batang, Xiaojin, Jinchuan, Wenchuan are reported to come under the distribution ranges as reported by Yongzu (1997) & Jianzhang et al. (2002).
But there is change in distribution in districts Baiyu, Shiqu, Zoige, Seda,
Tianquan, Zuhuo, Pingwu, Derong, Dayi, Ganzê, from where snow leopard is reported earlier (Jianzhang et al., 2002).
In Xinzang province the status and distribution of snow leopard is sporadic across the whole province (Schaller, 1998). All the districts are reported to have snow leopard i.e., Qamdo, Zogang, Gyirong, Dêngqên, Baqên, Tingri,
Lholong, Qüxù, Pondo, Xigazê, Paqu, Sa’gya; Lhasa; Nagqu, Damxung, Nyemo,
Xainza, Burang, Shuanghu (Yongzu, 1997; Jianzhang et al., 2002).
8* THREATS AND CONSERVATION Although China is home to the largest snow leopard population but the evidence suggests that it is also the biggest market for snow leopard skins, bones and live specimens (Dexel, 2002). There are examples when wild snow leopards have been taken by zoos to attract visitors (Bo, 2002), like in March 1997; a snow leopard rescued from water reservoir was delivered to Urumqi Zoo (Net Urumqi,
2002). Herdsmen do not historically hunt snow leopard for profit but occasionally due to livestock depredation they poison them and regard the snow leopard as a pest (Yun et al., 1998). But it has recently increased due to market demand. This growing trend in lack of awareness among herdsmen of the importance of snow leopard conservation and wildlife protection laws & penalties reflect the situation of their troubled economic status. As till early 1990’s, the punishment was simply confiscation of their weapons and a fine ranging from US $ 60 to $ 1200. Trade in tiger bones after the ban has shifted to snow leopard, which are used as a substitute in the traditional Chinese medicines. Even there are reports of snow leopard meat served in the year 2000 in Sichuan (Bo, 2002).
9* CONCLUSION Campaign to raise awareness about snow leopard & mountain eco-system conservation among local communities of the snow leopard range should be started. Awareness should be created among traditional Chinese medicine manufacturers, pharmacies and customers. Besides, with community development programmes should be introduced to reduce the economic pressure.
Wildlife conservation law enforcement should be stepped up on the trading routes, especially in Songpan & Kashgar of Xinjiang (Bo, 2002). A monitoring system of snow leopards in every province of China should be set up to get more details on distribution and population information and on the basis of which protection and management policy for snow leopard could be implemented. 2.4 INDIA
10* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION A number of population estimates for the snow leopard have been made earlier in various geographical regions of India. There are possibly 400 snow leopards in the entire Himalayas (Dang, 1967). Mallon (1984) estimated about
200 individuals in Ladakh alone. Whereas Fox et al. (1991) arrived at about 400 individuals in the North West India and about 100 in Sikkim and Himanchal
Pradesh. Later on the basis of the habitat availability in India i.e., 75,000 sq.km
Chundawat et al. (1988) & Fox (1994) arrived at a range of 200-600 individuals.
Snow leopard distribution is found in open, rolling habitats where, shrubs and outcrops offer cover for stalking in as the Tibetean plateau (Mallon, 1984;
Schaller et al., 1988; McCarthy, 2000).
Snow leopards are present on the Southern slopes of Great Himalayas & their range in India falls in Trans-Himalayan region. In India the states of Jammu
& Kashmir (8,521 sq.km), Himanchal Pradesh (3,429 sq.km), Sikkim
(850sq.km), Arunchal Pradesh (2,589sq.km), Uttaranchal (3,238sq.km) are having habitat suitable for the snow leopard under the protected areas
(Chundawat et al., 1986). Of these protected areas two are National Parks (NP) and three are Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS) in the Trans -Himalayas that are Hemis
High Altitude National Park (4,100sq.km) of Jammu & Kashmir and Pin Valley
National Park (675sq.km) of Himanchal Pradesh and Karakoram Wildlife
Sanctuary (5,000sq.km) of Jammu & Kashmir, Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary
(4,000sq.km) of Jammu & Kashmir, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (1,401sq.km) of
Himanchal Pradesh. There are nine National parks and Eleven Wildlife Sanctuary in the Greater Himalayan Zone which are as follows Gangotri National park
(2,390sq.km) of Uttranchal, Kanchendzonga National Park (1,784sq.km) of
Sikkim, Great Himalayan National Park (754sq.km) of Himanchal Pradesh,
Nandadevi National Park (630sq.km) of Uttranchal, Govind National Park
(472sq.km) of Uttranchal, Kishtwar National Park (400 sq.km), and Dachigam
National Park (141sq.km) of Jammu & Kashmir, Valley of Flowers National Park
(88sq.km) Uttranchal, Namdhapha National park (1,985sq.km) of Arunachal
Pradesh and Wildlife Sanctuaries being Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary
(957sq.km) Uttranchal, Sangla Wildlife Sanctuary (650sq.km) of Himanchal
Pradesh, Askot Wildlife Sanctuary (600sq.km) Uttranchal, Govind Pashu Vihar
Wildlife Sanctuary (481sq.km) of Himanchal Pradesh, Lipa-Asrang Wildlife
Sanctuary (31sq.km) of Himanchal Pradesh, Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary
(4,149sq.km) of Arunchal Pradesh, Sechu Tuan Nala Wildlife Sanctuary
(103sq.km) of Himanchal Pradesh, Sainj Wildlife Sanctuary (90sq.km) of
Himanchal Pradesh, Kanawar Wildlife Sanctuary (54 sq.km) of Himanchal
Pradesh, Manali Wildlife Sanctuary (32sq.km) of Himanchal Pradesh may have snow leopards. Many of the Protected areas in the Greater Himalayas are having very small areas as snow leopard habitat and to such extent that they are not yet documented. And three National Parks and Five Wildlife Sanctuaries are such that presence of snow leopard is very doubtful because of small amounts of alpine habitat present in these protected areas is separated by snow leopard range by extensive forest cover (Jackson, 2002). 11* THREATS AND CONSERVATION The snow leopard is often killed because it is seen as a menace to livestock (Chundawat et al., 1988). Mallon (1984) reported the killing of over ten snow leopards in the Central Ladakh in the early 1980’s due to livestock lifting.
One of the main reasons for this is low density of prey species leading to increased depredation on domestic stock (Oli et al., 1994; Mishra, 1997; Jackson,
2000; Bhatnagar & Wangchuk, 2001). The entire Trans-Himalayas region has international borders, along with Pakistan, (POK) Pakistan held Kashmir or with
China. Numerous stretches along these borders are disputed territory and good snow leopard habitat occurs along it (Fox et al. (1991); Shah (1996); Chundawat
& Qureshi (1999); Bhatnagar & Wangchuk (2001). Often due to sensitive nature of the region the wildlife departments have little control over the region. The heavy presence of defence forces must be having effect with problem compounded as; snow leopard is endemic to these places of the country only
(Bhatnagar et al., 2001). Wildlife disease can be damaging and may lead to the extinction of small population of snow leopard. Illegal trade in snow leopard pelt or body parts may be occurring in the region (Wright & Kumar, 1997). As India has Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 at the national level along with separate
Jammu & Kashmir State having three state legislations for the protection and prohibiting trade in snow leopard and its products as well as prey species. India is a signatory of CITES (1972). India has launched project Snow leopard in 1986 for providing management and staffing recommendations for thirteen snow leopard Protected areas. 12* CONCLUSION There has been no systematic survey of the snow leopard in its range other than by Fox et al. (1989) & in Jammu & Kashmir by Jackson (2002) that should be taken up on the priority along with information on the diseases, which are effecting the snow leopard populations. By reducing the conflict of livestock depredation and the people’s dependence on livestock the grazing competition between wild and domestic herbivores can be reduced. And by creating Trans- boundary conservation areas (TBCA) large snow leopard habitat can be restorated (Singh, 2002). 2.5 MYANMAR (BURMA)
13* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION A small area is potential habitat in Myanmar along the Yunnan border
(Hunter & Jackson, 1977). Few Bharal have been reported, here but presence of snow leopard is not reported till date (Jackson, 2002). A focussed survey along
4,700sq.km area of high mountains will verify whether snow leopard is present or not. The only potential protected area is Mt.Hkakaba Raza National Park, which harbours blue sheep (Wikramanyake et al., 1998; 2001). 2.6 MONGOLIA
14* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Total habitat range of snow leopard is estimated as 1,03,000 sq.km,
1,30,000 sq.km, and 90,000 sq.km by McCarthy, 2000; Mallon, 1984; Schaller et al., 1994 respectively, which is very different from what Hunter & Jackson,
(1997) estimated as 2,77,836sq.km with latter estimation based on GIS modelling
(Jackson, 2002). Mongolia's total snow leopard population is estimated about less than 300 (Thornback & Holloway, 1976), 500-900 (Bold & Dorzhzunduy, 1976)
& 1000 (Schaller et al., 1994). Out of 21 provinces (locally called aimags) in which surveys were conducted for population estimation results came out varying from 800 to 1700 individuals (McCarthy, 2000). The distribution of the snow leopard is mainly in the Altay and trans-Altai Gobi mountain ranges, with smaller populations in Khangai, Hanhohiy Uul and Harkhyra Uul ranges (Jackson, 2002).
According to the survey conducted by McCarthy (2000), South Gobi, Central transAltai, and Northern Altai, areas have the highest densities. About ten protected areas harbour snow leopards (McCarthy, 2000). Protected areas harboring snow leopards are Transaltay Gobi Strictly Protected Area, Khokh
Serkh, Otgontenger Strictly Protected Area, Tsagaan Shuvuut Strictly Protected
Area, Turgen Uul Strictly Protected Area, Gobi Gurvansaikhan National
Conservation Park, Altai Tavaan Bogd National Conservation Park, Burhan
Buudai Nature Reserve, Alag Khairkhan Nature Reserve, and Eej Uul National
Monuments (McCarthy, 2000; Jackson, 2002). 15* THREATS AND CONSERVATION The principle threat is the reduction in prey species, namely argali (Ovis vignei) and ibex (Capra [ibex]) due to trophy hunting, depredation of livestock resulting in retaliatory trapping and killing by shepherds. Hunting and poaching mainly for pelt. Trophy hunting was once legal in Mongolia but now as snow leopard is registered in the Mongolian Redbook and is protected from hunting under the Hunting Law-1995 which establishes a penalty for killing of a snow leopard. Mongolia has become party to CITES on 4 May1995 making legal instruments in the country at the right place (Tserendeleg, 1995). With the active involvement of International Snow Leopard Trust and local people a conservation programme making nomadic population stewardship is started with name Irbis
Enterprises that is showing good results (McCarthy et al., 1999).
CONCLUSION In Mongolia, as nomadic way of life and due to present economic difficulties it is only through more self sustaining enterprises like Irbis enterprises lifestyle upgradation and awareness regarding the snow leopard importance in the rural population could be created along with right implementation of laws. 2.7 NEPAL
16* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION The snow leopard range is from northern areas bordering Tibet with the largest populations occurring in the western parts (Mustang, Mugu, Dolpo and
Humla districts) (Jackson, 1979; Schaller, 1977). Several studies indicate that the snow leopard distribution is wider in Western Nepal but relatively narrow in the
Eastern Nepal (Jackson & Ahlborn, 1990). Snow leopards are reported in Mugu and Dolpo by Jackson & Ahlborn (1989); Schaller (1977), whereas in Manang and Myagdi districts it has been reported by Oli (1991) and Bajimaya et al.
(1991) respectively and snow leopard has also been sighted in Gorkha and
Mustang areas of Nepal Himalayas. Protected areas comprise 26.7% of the total area of 27,432 sq.km estimated as potential habitat for the snow leopard by
Hunter & Jackson (1997). The total amount of potential range is about 30,000 km.sq with country population of 150-300 animals (Jackson, 1979), which was later on increased to 350-500 individuals using habitat suitability model by
Jackson & Ahlborn, (1990). Snow leopard presence is confirmed in all of the following protected areas by Ahlborn & Jackson (1990), Dhungel (1994), Kattel
& Bajimaya (1997) for Langtang National Park (1,710sq.km); Shey-Phoksundo
National Park (3,555 sq.km); Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (1,325sq.km);
Annapurna Conservation Area (7,629sq.km); Sagarmatha National Park
(1,148sq.km); Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (2,035sq.km); Manaslu
Conservation Area (1,663sq.km); Elevated portions of the Makalu-Barun
National Park & Conservation Area. 17* THREATS AND CONSERVATION Mainly poaching for pelt, which is of economic benefit, retailatory action for livestock depredation, local people dependency upon livestock, which directly or indirectly affect the prey species, destruction of the habitat, are the main threats (Bajimaya, 1995). In Nepal, the National Parks & Wildlife Conservation
Act-2029 (1973) of Nepal has listed snow leopard in Appendix-I. Nepal is also a signatory to the CITES-1972. But since to people dependency on livestock is very high they are reluctant in supporting conservation of snow leopard. So integrated conservation and development program has been started leading to sustainable use of resources and reduced dependency upon Protected area resources, are incorporated in management program of Protected areas.
18* CONCLUSION By pursuing further studies on the grazing competition of domestic stock with prey species of snow leopard and depredation by snow leopard on the domestic stock will provide the information utilizing which a holistic approach should be taken to formulate management plan for snow leopard involving local people, so that they could be made aware of importance of snow leopard. With skill and livelihood upgradation for local people must be the priority in that management plan. 2.8 PAKISTAN
19* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Pakistan have 80,000sq.km snow leopard range (Fox, 1994) and Schaller
(1976) has estimated snow leopard population at about 300 individuals. Snow leopard occurs in the Hindu Kush range in Northwest Frontier Province's Chitral
District, in Karakoram Range of the Northern Areas of Gilgit, Hunza and
Baltistan districts. A good population is reported from the Shimshal area in
Hunza. But presence of snow leopard in Azad Kashmir Province is not confirmed
(Roberts, 1977). Potential snow leopard habitat is estimated as 81,016sq.km of which 6.6% is under Protected areas (Hunter & Jackson, 1997). Total area of
Protected area supporting snow leopard habitat is 3190 sq.km.
In Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) the protected areas harboring the snow leopard with potential snow leopard habitat are: Chitral Gol National Park
(77.8sq.km) Agram Besti Game Reserve (25sq.km), Goleen Gol Game Reserve
(442sq.km), Gahrial Gol Game Reserve (48sq.km).
Northern area is having the following: Khunjerab National Park
(2669sq.km), Baltistan Wildlife Sanctuary (414sq.km), Kargah Wildlife
Sanctuary (443sq.km), Nazbar Nallah Game Reserve (334sq.km) are protected areas where presence of snow leopard is confirmed (Ahmed, 1997).
20* THREATS AND CONSERVATION The main threat to the snow leopard is due to loss of prey populations, killing by herdsmen as retailatory action, poaching for their pelt. Due to loss of prey species the domestic stock is the next target of snow leopard leading to conflict with herdsmen resulting in retailatory action, so grazing competition of the domestic stock and dependence of local people on it do leads to many threats to snow leopard (Malik, 1997). The conflict between Pakistan & India and war- ravaged Afghanistan has made the habitat of the snow leopard in these border regions under sever stress (Haider, 2002).
Recently in 2002 a Peshwar based group dealing in fur had sent a live snow leopard to Dubai was uncovered (Haider, 2002). Although Pakistan has adapted a promising conservation strategy by establishment of conservation areas under UNDP sponsored project. In addition, The Mountain Areas Conservancy
Project (MACP) of UNDP/IUCN delineated four areas or conservancies totaling
16,300sq.km, where community based biodiversity conservation initiatives are undertaken (Jackson, 2002). Along with legal provisions and conservation education programmes. As snow leopard is given a status of protected animal in all its range provinces. Similarly protection is given to prey species.
21* CONCLUSION As a result of various measures taken, positive changes have started coming as on April 1998 a female snow leopard was not killed in retaliation of attack on domestic goat but was rescued and released. On enforcement aspect
Pakistan has still lot more to do the implementation. 2.9 RUSSIA
1* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Russia have potential snow leopard habitat of about 1,31,000sq.km
(Jackson, 2002). Altay & Sayan ranges bordering Mongolia harbour about 40 individuals of snow leopard (Fox, 1989b). Eastern Sayan Mountains do not have confirmed sightings, although tracks are reported (Medvedev, 1990). A core population of 20-30 individuals also exists in Central and Eastern Sayan region
(Koshkarev, 1996), whereas Southern Siberia resided about 80-snow leopard
(Smirnov et al. 1990). Hunter & Jackson (1997) estimated potential habitat at
302,546 sq.km with 4.6 % of it under protected area. Only two protected areas i.e. Sayano Shushensky State Nature Reserve (389sq.km) and the Altaiskiy State
Nature Reserve (864sq.km) have confirmed reports of snow leopard.
However, snow leopards are also reported from short-term reserves
(Poyarkov et al., 2002) estimation of the population as 150-200 individuals for
Ininskiy (1,030sq.km), Kosh-Agachskiy (2413sq.km), Shavlinskiy (1780sq.km),
Khindiktig-Kholskiy (3,200sq.km) areas.
2* THREATS AND CONSERVATION Mainly poaching and man-made disturbances in the range area are the main threats. Snow leopard as a species is protected at National level (Red book of IUCN, Red of Russian federation & CITES). All these protection measures make the legal frame for snow leopard conservation in Russia (Poyarkov, 2002). 3* CONCLUSION For the prevention of poaching, special mobile corpses have already been setup at local level, with rights to perform regulative as well as supervising and coordinating information with other federal agencies. Working out a policy compensating for the livestock depredation with innovative ideas and programs addressing the long-term conservation of the snow leopard with inter regional co- ordination (Poyarkov, 2002). 2.10 KYRGYSTAN (KIRGIZIA)
4* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Snow leopard population in Kirgizia was estimated around 113-157 individuals (Koshkarev, 1989), whereas in the year 1992, Koshkarev estimated snow leopard population around 800 individuals along with adjacent regions of
Kazakhstan. With 1,052 sq.km of the available snow leopard habitat in Kyrgystan snow leopard occurs in Terskei Alatau and Ferganskiy mountains as well as Tien
Shan near China and Kazakhstan (Braden, 1982; Koshkarev, 1989). Hunter &
Jackson (1997) estimated potential habitat as 126,162 sq.km with 1.1% under protected area. The area is distributed as 182-1167 sq.km in Besh-Aral'skiy State
Reserve, 173-190 sq.km in Issyk-kul'skiy Reserve, 182-242 sq.km in Narynskiy zakaznik Reserve, the 237 sq.km Sary-Chelekskiy Nature Reserve and the 194 sq.km Ala Archa National Park.
5* THREATS AND CONSERVATION Main threats are shooting of snow leopard by shepherds, fragmentation of the habitat, death due to sarcoptosis and reduction in prey species population due to hunting, extensive development in livestock husbandry (Koshkarev, 1989).
Although hunting of snow leopard is forbidden in Kyrgystan since the 1950's but a "Zoocombinat" enterprise was allowed earlier to capture live specimens but which is now closed. Because of Independence, Zookombinat's hunter and trappers began seeking new income opportunities by snow leopard hunting and trapping illegally. Government recently established Sarychat-Ertush Nature
Reserve in the central TienShan. Apart from this since 1991, the Issyk-kul’skiy
Biosphere Reserve was nominated as part of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB). In March 1998, German Society For Nature Conservation
(NABU) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with Ministry of
Environment for thwarting snow leopard poachers as an authority to conduct operations, interrogate check for weapons and testify in courts. Made debut in
January 1999 called GruppaBars have shown effect by many cases it has caught
(Dexel, 2002).
6* CONCLUSION Some scientific study along with a long-term management plan should be formulated keeping in view the participation of the local and their livelihood generation. 2.11 KAZAKHSTAN
7* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION Hunter & Jackson in the year 1997 estimated potential snow leopard habitat around 71,079 sq.km with only 1.7% of which is under protected areas.
Along the Khigizskiy Range and Tasskiy Alatau bordering Kyrgystan, in the
Sarytau Mountains near Alma Ata and Dzungarsky Altau in South were reported to have 65-70 snow leopards in 8,200 sq.km (Annenkov, 1990). Zailiskiy Alatau or Northern Tien Shan has about 20 snow leopards (Zhirjakov, 1990).The Alma
Ata Sanctuary, located in the northern Tien Shan in the Zailisky Alatau has about
20 snow leopards (Zhirjakov, 1990). Aksu Dzhabagliy state reserve (744 sq.km) and Alma Atinskiy Nature Reserve (915sq.km) are also reported to have snow leopard. Markakol'skiy State Reserve is (714 sq.km) which may have snow leopard (Jackson, 2002).
8* THREATS AND CONSERVATION Deliberate poaching for the pelt, habitat loss due to human activity and retaliatory killing by shepherds in response to predation upon livestock are the major threats (Loginov, 1995). The snow leopard is legally protected in the
Republic of Kazakhstan since 1972 and Red book of Kazakhstan (1978);
Kazakhstan is also a signatory country to CITES since 1993.
CONCLUSION There should be some committee or organization under government looking into the conservation of the snow leopard, creation of the breeding centre on snow leopard with purpose of reintroducing them to the wild (Loginov, 1995). 2.12 TAJIKISTAN
9* STATUS AND CONSERVATION Very brief information is known relating to this country. Sokov (1990) estimated about 200-300 snow leopards, and 80-100 individual snow leopards are estimated by Bururukov & Muratov (1994). Snow leopard are said to occur in central and western parts in Zeravshanskiy, Gissarskiy, Karateginskiy and Petr
Pervyi mountains, Hazratishog and Darvaskiy Mountains and in the Gorno-
Badahshansk area, including the Pamirs. Hunter & Jackson (1997) estimated potential snow leopard habitat as 78,440 sq.km with 13.3% under protected area.
Snow leopard is found in (161 sq.km) Ramit state Reserve and (197 sq.km)
Dashti-Dzhumskiy Reserve (Sokov, 1990). Also reported from (300 sq.km)
Iskanderskul'skiy lake reserve, (680sq.km) Muzkul’skiy, (5,006sq.km) Pamisskiy and (510 sq.km) Sangvorskiy short time reserve.
10* THREATS Trade of pelts, live animals and snow leopard hunting with CITES permit is reported (Dexel, 2002).
11* CONCLUSION Implementation of rules along with some immediate initiative must be taken atleast to curb the trade in live snow leopard specimens. 2.13 UZBEKISTAN
12* STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION This country is on the far west of the snow leopard range being reported from the Turkestanskiy, Chatkalskiy and Gissarskiy ranges bordering Tajikistan and Kyrgystan (Braden, 1982). With total estimated population is 50 individuals
(Sludskiy, 1973 cited in., Braden, 1982). Hunter & Jackson (1997) have estimated the snow leopard habitat present in the country as 13,834 sq.km of which 5.8% is under protected area status. Snow leopard is reported from (106 sq.km) Zaaminskiy State Reserve, (324 sq.km) Uzbek National Park, and (875 sq.km) Gissarskiy State Reserve. The Chatkal'skiy State Reserve has two areas
111sq.km and 242sq.km in size, also harbouring snow leopard (Jackson, 2002).
13* THREATS Despite having so small population, on an average ten individuals were annually found killed (Volozheninov cited in., Dexel, 2002). Trade in snow leopard pelt still continues which local people hunt selling to foreigners
(TRAFFIC, 1998).
14* CONCLUSION Formulation and Implementation of the severe punishment should be initiated for killing of the snow leopard and its prey species. CHAPTER 3
DESCRIPTION AND MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE
SNOW LEOPARD
This elusive cat of the high mountains has a length of head and body of 1 m to 1.30 m; the tail about 0.8 to 1 m and 75 to 90% of the head and body length; height at the shoulders is 0.6m; weight is 25 to 75 kg. The head is relatively smaller. Hair on the flanks is about 25mm long in summer, on the belly and tail about 50mm; in winter, hair on the back is 30 to 55 mm, on the sides about
50mm, on the belly up to 120mm, and on the tail to 60mm, ground colour is a pale grey to a creamish smoke grey, shading to a lighter whitish tint on the under parts of the body. Spots on the head, neck and lower limbs are solid. Large rings or rosettes, most enclosing some small spots, appear on the sides of the body and on the tail. A median longitudinal row, formed by fairly compact elongated spots and two lateral rows of elongated rings, extends on the back to the root of the tail.
In juveniles, these longitudinal bands on the hinder portion of the back are frequently formed by solid black stripes, which in the course of growth break up into large spots whose centres become paler.
The skull is relatively short and broad. The characteristic shape, with a depression of the skull at the upper end of the nasal bones and a highly vaulted and broadened forehead, is caused due to wide expansion of the nasal cavity, probably as an adaptation to the cold habitat of the species. Nasal bones are especially broad at the nasal opening (Hemmer, 1966; Pocock, 1917a), Greatest length of the skull is 165 to 200 mm, condylobasal length 155 to182 mm, the basal length 144 to169mm zygomatic breadth 114 to 139mm, length of the mandible 112 to 133mm, The suspensorium of the hyoid is imperfectly ossified (Pocock, 1916a, 1916b). The lower molar (m1) has a short paraconid (p4) has short protoconid and broad anterior portion. (p3) is high and anteroposteriorly short protoconid and broad posterior and anterior portion. (p4) has anteroposteriorly short metacone and long paracone and a small breadth behind the deuterocone. Upper and lower canines have relatively round cross section (Schmid, 1940).
Some adaptations, which makes snow leopard capable of living in such harsh climatic conditions, are (Sharma, 1994): -
1) Hair colouration: To cope with increased humidity and frequent ultraviolet radiation have a lighter colour of fur to match the surroundings for camouflage and to absorb less heat in the cold climate (Glober’s law). The bases are darker, providing protection against ultraviolet radiation at high altitudes.
2) Large furry tail: The thick legs and disproportionately long tail of snow leopard are the most suitable adaptations for coping extreme cold. The tail is rolled around the body like a blanket and keeps the animal warm and insulated.
3) Large nostril: The large nostrils are furnished inside with extensive air sacs. For utilizing more oxygen from the rarefied air.
4) Limb modifications: snow leopards have broader paws on their short legs, which prevents the animal from sinking in the snow. 5) Subcutaneous fat: These provide solar insulation to the animal. In snow leopard the tail functions as food storage. CHAPTER 4
ECOLOGY OF SNOW LEOPARD
4.1 HABITAT Throughout most of its range, the snow leopard is associated with steep terrain broken by cliffs, ridges, gullies, and rocky outcrops with arid and semi- arid shrubland, grassland, or steppe vegetation. It is generally found at elevations between 3000 - 4500 m (9800 - 14,800'), although it occasionally goes above
5500 m (18,000') in the Himalaya in the summer, and at the northern limits of its range it can be found between 600 - 1500 m (2000 - 4900').
In Mongolia and on the Tibetan Plateau, the snow leopard can be found in relatively flat country, especially if ridges offer suitable travel routes, and shrub and rock outcrops provide sufficient cover. During winter it may descend to lower elevations, but in summer it moves back up the mountain to the steepest and most remote terrain.
Some parts of its range, such as the massifs of the Gobi Desert of
Mongolia, Tibet's Chang Tang, and the northern rim of Ladakh, are virtually devoid of vegetation. In Pakistan and India, the snow leopard is reported to migrate down into oak, fir or rhododendron forest for the winter, and in parts of
Russia it is reported to remain in conifer forest all year round, although it generally avoids dense forest.
A geographical model of potential snow leopard habitat has been constructed by country (Hunter & Jackson, 1997) over the snow leopard's total range. The lower elevation limit generally followed a north-south vertical gradient and ranged from 1220 m (4000') in Mongolia to 3353 m (11,000') in eastern Nepal. The upper elevation limit was 5120 m (17,000') except in China, where it was extended to 5490 m (18,000') to include the high plains of the
Tibetan Plateau, an area used by snow leopards. Unsuitable habitat was excluded, such as permanent snowfields and water bodies. The potential habitat was then divided into "fair" and "good" categories based on slope (0 - 30˚ slope = fair; greater than 30˚ slope = good). Marginal use areas such as population centers and transportation corridors were also assigned to the "fair" category. The resulting total/good/fair potential habitat overall was 3.0 million sq.km (1.2 million sq mi)/0.55 million sq.km (0.21 million sq mi)/2.5 million sq.km (0.97 sq mi).
The corresponding areas by country were represented in the table below.
Table 1 COUNTRYWISE POTENTIAL HABITAT DISTRIBUTION (Fox, 1994) S.no Country Potential Snow leopard Habitat Thousands of sq.km Thousands of sq.mi Total Good Fair Total Good Fair 1 Afghanistan 120 33 85 46 13 33 2 Bhutan 7.3 1.3 6.1 2.8 0.5 2.4 3 China 1800 290 1500 690 110 580 4 India 89 34 55 34 13 21 5 Kazakhstan 71 15 56 27 5.8 22 6 Kyrgyzstan 130 33 93 50 13 36 7 Mongolia 280 21 260 110 8.1 100 8 Myanmar 4.7 3.1 1.6 1.8 1.2 0.62 9 Nepal 27 12 15 10 4.6 5.8 10 Pakistan 81 32 49 31 12 19 11 Russia 300 41 260 120 16 100 12 Tajikistan 78 27 51 30 10 20 13 Uzbekistan 14 5.1 8.8 5.4 2 3.4 This model identifies Myanmar as a potential range state for the snow leopard for the first time, and attributes 60 % of the total potential show leopard habitat to China. (Hunter & Jackson, 1997). 4.2 MOVEMENT The snow leopards are unless on a kill is highly mobile (Jackson &
Ahlborn, 1988). Altitudinal range in Tajikistan is from 1500 to 4000m; in the
Himalayas during summers is from 2700m to 6000m & during winter is 1800m
(Ognev, 1935; Stroganov, 1962). Where as in Altau mountain system it ranges as low as from 600m to 1200m (Novikov, 1956;Strognov, 1962). There is a school of thought that snow leopard being cold adapted animal seems to be prevented by climatic factors from spreading over other than high mountains or oreal regions
(Hemmer, 1972). But the studies conducted in the Gobi Altai has revealed that here snow leopard freely crossed desert between separate mountains massifs and maximum distances of a traverse across desert being 60km, and most commonly
40km (McCarthy, 1997).
A study conducted in 1984 by Koshkarev in Tien Shan has revealed that movement of snow leopard is associated with basic forms of relief when moving through the mountains, which are
1. Crests of watersheds
2. Rivulets, hollows, mountain slopes
3. Talus slopes
4. Moraines, snowfields, glaciers
5. Paths (connecting various relief forms.)
At the time snow leopards very rarely and for short times use the bottoms of valleys (Matyushkin, 1977). The three primary factors determining the movement are said to be
Distribution of game in the territory
Local relief
Ability of the animal to use the relief
Among all the above listed factors (Koshkarev, 1984) held the distribution of prey animals in the territory responsible as leading factor, which determines all the basic movements of the snow leopard.
4.3 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY The breeding or mating season in the wild is January to Mid-March
(Jackson & Ahlborn, 1988). In female snow leopard the estrus in captive condition is recorded by Rieger (1984) of 2-12 days and the estrus cycle recorded by Freeman (1975) of 15-39 days. Birth taking place in May-June after a gestation period of 98-104 days recorded in captivity by Jones (1977) and
Freeman (1975). Litter size is recorded in captivity and in wild is of 1-5, usually
2-3, exceptionally up to seven (Heptner & Sludskii, 1972; Blomquist & Sten,
1982; Wharton & Freeman, 1988). The cub’s eyes open about seven days after birth. At about two months cubs will eat their first solid food. By three months cubs start following the mother learning how to hunt and other snow leopard behavior. At the age of 18 to 22 month in the wild young ones disperses. Siblings may stay together briefly after the mother leaves. In captive conditions the sexual maturity is recorded at the age of 2-3 years in females while males mature by age
4. The age at last reproduction is recorded as 15 years in captivity. 4.4 FEEDING HABIT Snow leopard is the chief natural predator of Bharal (Pseudonis nayaur),
Marco polo sheep, Shapu, Ibex Markhor (Capra falconeri sp.), Musk deer
(Moschus moschiferus), Cape hare (Oistulus roylei), Wooly hare (Oistulus lepus) and the Long tailed marmot (Schaller, 1977).
Scat analysis by Schaller (1977) showed that droppings consists of 50% of domestic goat and sheep, 31% Markhor. Nath (1982) reported the presence of
Dzo (yak+cow), Pony, Donkey, Sheep and Dog. Many investigative data reveals that snow leopard also attacks yak (Sharma, 1994). It is also reported that Takin
(Budorcas taxicolor) and Serow (Capricornis summatraensis) are rare victims
(Schaller, 1985). Snow leopards are opportunistic hunters and also hunt snow cock, monarch pheasants, and red-legged partridge.
4.5 BEHAVIOUR Snow leopards display flexible behaviour. Snow leopard is active in early morning and late evening and at night. Jackson (1988) in his study reported that males are significantly more active around dawn (0400-0755) and dusk (1600-
1955) but exhibited less expected level of activity during daytime (0800-1555).
Females were significantly more active during dusk. Apart from above reported activity pattern in areas where snow leopards are disturbed, snow leopards are nocturnal (Fox et al., 1981). Often patrolling mountain ridges, traveling seven km in one day mostly up and down valley. Spending most of the time on rocky broken terrain rather than flat regions. Males maintain specific home ranges. Marking territories with Scent marks, urine spraying and feaces and by making scrapes, usually at the junction of steep valleys sides and the flat bottomlands. Males and females have overlapping ranges and pairs have been seen to hunt and eat together.
Walking, running, leaping, and climbing movements are as in the other members of the Pantherinae. Postures are basically the same as in other
Pantherinae. Sleeping positions depending on the temperature vary from stretched to rolled up as found in other members of Pantherinae. Snow leopards wash the face with the licked forepaws. Eating usually is done in squatting posture. Normal excrementing and urinating usually is accompanied by scraping with the hind paws (Hemmer, 1972).
4.6 DISEASES The diseases of the snow leopard are of various origins, which include viral, bacterial, parasitic, nutritional, and metabolic. Zoo studies showed that disease related to metabolism and helminthes are the major ones. Among helminthes parasite, the toxocora is mainly prevalent. Causing diarrhea and not mainly responsible for mortality. The rickets is metabolic disease found in snow leopard population in zoos.
By a study on the causes of the mortality in the snow leopard population in the zoos showed that. Pneumonia, feline infectectiouse peritonitis, infectious rhinotreachitis, salmonellosis and tuberculosis are the causes (Chakraborty,
2001). CHAPTER 5
CAPTIVE POPULATIONS
The history of captive snow leopard points to the year 1891 when London zoo acquired an unsexed specimen from Bhutan (Godman, 1891; Sclater, 1896).
After that in the year 1894 London zoo acquired a male (Flower, 1894). By the year 1903 –New York, Berlin, Moscow and London all had snow leopards in the zoos for exhibiting (Peel, 1903). Whereas in India Delhi zoo was the first zoo to have snow leopard in the year 1967, Calcutta zoo became the second but unfortunately these could not thrive in the hot climate (Chakraborty, 2001).
Worldwide population of captive snow leopard is about 650 individuals seen in approximately 150 zoos worldwide (Wharton, 2001). Copenhagen zoo was the first zoo to have claim for the first successful captive breeding. In India
Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park was successful in breeding snow leopard (Chakraborty, 2001). Now having a population of about 22 individuals
(Arora perr. comm., 2003). APPENDIX: 1 Distribution of snow leopard Population estimates countrywise (Fox 1994)
S.no Country Area of Estimated Literature Source Habitat (km2) Population 1 Afghanistan 50,000 100 - 200 Fox, 1994 2 Bhutan 15,000 100 - 200 Fox, 1994 3 China 11,00,000 2,000- 2,500 Schaller, 1990; Jackson, 1992 4 India 75,000 200 - 600 Chundawat et al., 1988; Fox et al., 1991a 5 Kazakstan 50,000 180 - 200 Annenkov, 1990; Zhirjakov, 1990 6 Kyrgyzstan 1,05,000 800-1,400 Zhirjakov, 1990 7 Mongolia 90,000 500-1,000 Green, 1988; Schaller et al., 1994 8 Nepal 30,000 350 - 500 Fox, 1994 9 Pakistan 80,000 100 - 200 Schaller 1976, 1977 10 Russia 1,30,000 50 - 150 Smirnov et al., 1990 11 Tajikistan 1,00,000 120 - 300 Sokov, 1990 12 Uzbekistan 10,000 10 - 50 Braden, 1982 APPENDIX: 2
Density estimates of snow leopard from various studies: -
Prime habitat: 0.05 - 0.08 individuals/sq km (0.13 - 0.2 individuals/sq mi); average over their entire distribution: 0.004 individuals/sq km (0.01 individuals/sq mi) (Fox, 1994) Langu Gorge, Nepal: 0.05 - 0.1 individuals/sq km (0.13 - 0.26 individuals/sq mi); southeast of Langu Gorge: 0.012 individuals/sq km (0.03 individuals/sq mi); Nar Phu, Nepal: 0.043 individuals/sq km (0.11 individuals/sq mi); Ladakh: 0.007 individuals/sq km (0.02 individuals/sq mi) and in other areas of Ladakh 0.058 and 0.083 individuals/sq km (0.15 and 0.22 individuals/sq mi); Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China: 0.0035 - 0.0053 individuals/sq km (0.009 - 0.014 individuals/sq mi) (Jackson & Ahlborn, 1989).
The average density of population of snow leopard in the highest central region of the Tunkinskiy Ridge [Russia, just north of the border with Mongolia] according to data gathered is 1.5 individuals/100 sq km (3.9 individuals/100 sq mi) (Koshkarev, 1998). Schaller (1998) cited several estimates of snow leopard density that varied considerably, depending on the size of the survey area and intensity of research:
Estimates based on small areas that were selected for study based on a substantial population:
5- 10 (excluding small cubs)/100 sq km (13 - 26/100 sq mi) (Nepal)
4.8 - 6.7/100 sq km (12 - 17/100 sq mi) (Nepal)
3.6/100 sq km (9.4/100 sq mi) within an area of 275 sq km (106 sq mi) (Mongolia)
Estimates for large areas:
1.0 - 2.0/100 sq km (2.6 - 5.2/100 sq mi) in 15,000 sq km (5800 sq mi) of Ladakh
0.8/100 sq km (2/100 sq mi) in 8200 sq km (3200 sq mi) of the Dzungarian Alatau in Kazakhstan 1.0/100 sq km (2.6/100 sq mi), with a variation of 0.8 - 4.7/100 sq km (2 - 12/100 sq mi), depending on survey site, in 65,800 sq km (25,400 sq mi) of the Tien Shan in Kyrgyzstan,
Koshkarev (1984) noted that an average density of about 1/100 sq km (~3/100 sq mi) over large tracts appeared to be typical of the three last estimates above. APPENDIX: 3
Home Range of snow leopard calculated in different studies: -
Prime habitat: 10 - 30 sq km (4 - 12 sq mi); average over large areas: 75 - 100 sq km (30 - 40 sq mi) (Fox, 1994) Langu Gorge, Nepal: 12 - 39 sq km (4.5 - 15 sq mi) (average = 21 sq km (8 sq mi)) (Seidensticker & Lumpkin, 1991) REFERNCES
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