Words of Latin and Greek Origin in the Scientific Prose Style (The Field of History)

WORDS OF LATIN AND GREEK ORIGIN IN THE SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE (THE FIELD OF HISTORY)

Diplomová práca

LUCIA STRUHÁROVÁ

ŽILINSKÁ UNIVERZITA V ŽILINE FAKULTA PRÍRODNÝCH VIED

Vedúci diplomovej práce : Mgr.Zdenka Kráľová, PhD. Konzultant : PaedDr. Marta Kadorová Komisia pre obhajoby : Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry

Stupeň odbornej kvalifikácie: magister Dátum odovzdania práce: 2006-04-15

ŽILINA 2006 CONTENTS

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..4 1. AN OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE………………………………………………………………..6 1.1 Pre-history period………………………………………………………..6 1.2 Old English Period……………………………………………………….7 1.3 Middle English Period…………………………………………………...9 1.4 Modern English Period…………………………………………………11 2. THE INFLUENCE OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGES ON THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY……………………………………………....15 2.1 New words of classical origin in English ...……………………………15 2.1.2 Affixes…………………………………………………………...15 2.1.3 Compounds ……………………………………………………..16 2.2 Greek and the Greek alphabet…………………………………………..17 2.2.1 Greek affixes …………………………………………………...17 2.2.2 Greek numerals…………………………………………………19 2.3 Latin and the Latin alphabet …………………………………………...21 2.3.1 Latin affixes ……………………………………………………21 2.3.2 Latin numerals …………………………………………………23 2.3.3 Latin abbrevations……………………………………………...24 2.4 Mythology and religion ………………………………………………..26 3. THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY………………………………………..29 3.1 Basic lexicological units of speech …………………………………….30 4. STYLE OF LANGUAGE……..…………………………………………..32 4.1 Functional styles ……………………………………………………….32 4.1.1 Scientific prose style……………………………………………34 4.2 Science …………………………………………………………………37 4.2.1 Medicine………………………………………………………...37 4.2.2 Botany ………………………………………………………….38 4.2.3 Zoology…………………………………………………………39 4.2.4 Astronomy………………………………………………………39 4.2.5 Pharmaceutics and Chemistry………………………………….40 5. INTERFERENCE OF GREEK AND LATIN IN THE FIELD OF HISTORY………………………………………………….………………41 5.1 The investigation ……………………………………………………….41 5.1.2 Words from the period of Antiquity…………………………….45 5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect …………………………………………..45 5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect …………………………………….48 5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning ………………………………………….50 5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect ……………………………………...52 5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect ……………………………………...54 5.2 Interpretation of particular results ……………………………………...55 Conclusion ….………………..………………………………………………..57 Résumé………….…………………………..………………………………….59 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...61 Appendix ...…………………………………………………………………….63 Introduction

A language presents the highest form of communication and its value is obvious. The history and wealth of different nations has remained in great works from such fields as literature, history, art, music, science and many other spheres of human life. English speaking countries had and still possess the great power in the world and therefore English has spread to all the continents, especially in the last several hundred years. By reason that a language is a dynamic system, various languages have influenced each other during their historical development. The English language is not an exception. The greatest changes have been made in its vocabulary system that has accepted a lot of new words from other languages. On the other hand, English has also enriched word-stock of many different languages through English borrowings. Two main languages that have played an important role within the English language development are Greek and Latin. Consequently this work pays attention to these classical languages and is divided into the following five main chapters:

1. An outline of the development of the English language 2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary 3. The English vocabulary 4. Style of language 5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history

The first chapter indicates the English language development with the emphasis on Latin and Greek and their interference on the English vocabulary. As English has absorbed words from these classical languages through all its existence and development, there is applied the influence of classical languages, and partly of other languages, from the very beginning i.e. from the times of the first civilisations to today’s Modern period. The following second chapter deals with classical affixes and bases as they also helped the English language to extend. Moreover, several Latin abbreviations are presented as they are extensively used in the written form of English. The work continues with the composition of layers of the English vocabulary. Because this chapter also deals with the problem of lexical units named words and terms, the distinction between them is implied. A list of functional styles and their descriptions, particularly of the scientific prose style is presented in the fourth chapter. The examples of terms of Greek and Latin origin are present within more fields of science. The last fifth chapter deals with the main concern of this work - the study of words of Latin and Greek origin in the scientific prose style in the field of history. At first the investigative method will be applied for revealing the origin of English words. Moreover, there will be implied several approaches for categorizing of words of classical origin as comparative, etymological, morphological and lexicological. A sample of words covering the ten pages will serve as a basis for futher statistics that will be used to see the influence of Latin and Greek within the period of Antiquity. Its particular results can be observed from corresponding graphs. Moreover, graphical illustrations can also be found in the chapters 5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning and 5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect. 1. An outline of the development of the English language

English, like other languages, has been shaped through many centuries. It has been exposed to various changes during this long process. Any epoch of the language development has gone along with variations in vocabulary, spelling or pronunciation. Althought English belogs to the Indo-European family of languages this common ancestor is not the only factor that influenced today’s form of English. Some language changes have arisen as the direct result of the social situation, invasions, mixtures of tribes, migrations, wars, contacts with different nations. Apparently, the English language has been modified from one generation to another. Then it is appropriate to look at English from the diachronical point of view and begin with the historical development of the English language. There exist several time divisions of the English language development. According to Donald (1980, p.7) we recognize three main periods in the history of English:

Old English Period (450 - 1150) Middle English Period (1150 - 1500) Modern English Period (1500 - )

1.1 Pre-history period

Britain is an island, but this was not always true. It became one of the world-wide islands only after the last ice age, around 5000 BC. Its name “comes from the word “Petrani”, the Creco-Roman word for the inhabitants of Britain.” (McDowall, 1997, p.8) Probably the first people living in Britain were humans that appeared about 250,000 BC - during the warmer period of the Ice Age. Within following Stone and early Bronz Ages, non-Indo-European people inhabited the British Isles. Firstly, groups of fishers, hunters, gatherers started to settle down and occupied Britain. Later, around 3000 BC, Neolithic people came to Britain from Europe (Iberian peninsula or North African coast) and started to implement their way of life including various knowledges, techniques, ideas and methods. After several hundred years, the cultural life of Neolithic Britons was enriched by the arrival of new groups of people, called the “Beaker” people. They came to Britain after 2400 BC from Europe and they brought single culture, language (probably Indo-European) and new skills (bronze tools). As Britain attracted various human races more and more, the language of these prehistoric inhabitants was completely wiped out and replaced by a new language and culture. This happened at the time, when a new kind of Indo-European settlers, important ancestors in the British history - technically advanced Celts, came to Britain probably from central Europe or southern Russia, around 700 BC. Similarly, the Romans began to conquest British Isles in the first century AD. They brought reading together with writing skills to Britain and so Latin began to be used in writing and speech. But it was only the language of rich landowners and dwellers who spoke also Greek. Illiterate peasants still used Celtic language. Later, German invaders from northern Europe conquered a great part of today’s England and started to settle after AD 430. They were illiterate and came from three powerful Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes.

1.2 Old English Period (450 - 1150)

The period of Old English began in the fifth century AD when the Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain. Before their arrival, various Latin words had enriched their language - as a result of the Roman domination over Germany. Therefore when Angles and Saxons came to England their vocabulary already included some borrowed words that mostly referred to trade, warfare and agricultural products as e.g. : straet (street), ciese (cheese), butere (butter), win (wine), cuppe (cup), pund (pound), copor (copper), pipor (pepper). The name of the first tribe, the Angles, served as a basis, from which names representing their language, Englisc, and their new home, Engla-land, were derived. “The strength of Anglo-Saxon culture is obvious even today. Days of the week were named after Germanic gods: Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor (Thursday), Frei (Friday).” (McDowall, 1997, p.11). Moreover, the Germans established settlements and towns such as Birmingham, Nottingham or Southampton. Also some of Anglo-Saxon names denoting kingdoms Essex, Sussex, East Anglia, Middle Essex, Wessex still exist in the present days. The word aldermen, which was used to refer to local officials, can also be found in the present English vocabulary. During the Anglo-Saxon domination, the manorial system gently grew up and the society started to be divided into classes. The period from the sixth to the eight century had also visible influence on the English vocabulary. Missionaries from Rome settled down in Canterbury and spread their new faith, Christianity, through the country. Learning and culture flourished and number of monasteries was set up. During this period new objects, concepts, ideas were introduced by Christianity and so words from Latin and Greek came into English and became quickly domesticated e. g.: altar, angel, anthem, apostle, bishop, candle, church, clerk, devil, idol, martyr, mass, minster, monk, pope, priest, prophet, psalter, rule, school, temple. Latin influenced not only the language of education and Church but also everyday life beet, camel, cancer, cap, elephant, elm, fever, plant, plaster, sock, spend, turn. It should be noted that number of “Latin words taken over by Old English was relatively small, certainly smaller than that which was taken over from Latin by many other European languages at that period.” (Vachek, 1991, p.98) Moreover, it should not be forgotten that the Romans had in hands a great power over large British areas for several hundred years. They provided words of everyday living cytel (kettle), disc (dish), pyle (pillow) into the English vocabulary during that period. Soon they established their own culture and their land, Roman Britain, was represented by their towns. Some of these towns grew out of Celtic military camps. Even today there exist some city names e.g. Doncaster, Chester, Leicester, Gloucester, Winchester, Colchester that consist of the Latin term, castra (military camp).

The British Celts were driven away and many of them became slaves of Anglo- Saxons. So they left extremly small number of words that were adopted to the English vocabulary. There were very few Celtic borrowings as cradol (cradle), cross (cross), cursian (curse), binn (bin). The majority of words of the Celtic origin represent names of some cities York, Downs, London, Leeds and rivers Exe, Esk, Avon, Evan, Thames, Dover, Stour, Severn, Usk, Ux. Also names of kingdoms were derived from the Celtic language Kent, Deira, Bernicia. Moreover, Latin terms colonia (settlement for retired soldiers), vicus (village) or portus (port) were part in the Celtic place names as e.g. Colchester, Norwich, Woolwich, Bridport, Devonport. Towards the end of the eight century new invaders from Norway and Denmark, called Vikings, had been attacking Britain several times. Nowaday capital city of Ireland, Dublin, was founded by them. According to McDowall (1997, p.15) the word, Vikings, probably meant either “pirates” or “the people of the sea inlets”. Later they settled, lived together with the Anglo-Saxons and quickly accepted Christianity. Their language, Old Norse, also marked English. Scandinavian words were quickly domesticated, because of the close relationship between Old English and Old Norse. The political situation of those days caused that only a few of Scandinavian loanwords penetrated into the English vocabulary. Many of first loan-words that were absorbed by English dealt with military and legal fields such as battle, fellow, fleet, husband, knife, law. But later, a huge amount of Scandidavian words was assimilated into the everyday usage bag, cake, call, egg, gap, gate, happy, ill, leg, loose, low, raft, raise, score, seat, skin, skill, sky, snub, take, thrust, ugly, want, weak, window, wing, wrong. There should be noted that many Scandinavian borrowings are recognized thanks to letters sk- at the beginning of words as for example skin, skill, skirt, sky. Scandinavian place names Inverness, Woodthorp, Grimsby had its origin in Old Norse. Also the personal pronoun they and the possessive pronoun their are adapted from Scandinavian.

1.3 Middle English Period (1150 - 1500)

The greatest event that played an important role not only in the British history but also in the history of the English language development was the arrival of Norman French and the Norman Conquest. These events marked the beginning of the new Middle English Period. In 1066, Duke of Normandy defeated the Saxon army with its leader Harold in the well-known Battle of Hastings. Soon, Duke William and his people became representatives of the rulling class. Most of Anglo-Saxon lands passed to the Norman barons and they started to occupy important posts in church, army, government, law. These facts greatly affected the new period of the English language history that followed. Both languages, English and French were used simultaneosly, one by the upper and one by the lower class. English was spoken by peasants, whereas Norman French became the official language of Britain used by aristocracy, nobility. English and French had only a slight influence on each other at the beginning of these times.

The French language was the official language of the administration for almost three hundred years and its words penetrated into various spheres of human life. This fact is obvious in a variety of words that stretched the English vocabulary at that times e.g. allow, autumn, boil, change, cover, double, enjoy, enter, face, flower, joy, letter, manner, nice, occupy, pale, plate, please, river, search, supper, sure, table, travel, use. The earliest French borrowings were prisun (prison), castel (castle), were (war). Later terms from administration and government administration, authority, chancellor, council, country, court, crown, government, office, parliament, power, state were added to the English vocabulary. Various titles denoting nobilities baron, count, countess, duke , feudal, manor, noble, peer, prince and words connected with art, architecture and entertainment arch, beauty, cards, castle, cellar, chimney, colour, couch, curtain, dance, design, image, lamp, leisure, paint, palace, pleasure, porch, sport, table, trump came into English from the French language. The sphere of military was enriched by words as aid, armour, arms, army, battle, captain, company, defeat, dragoon, enemy, escape, force, lance, navy, officer, peace, sergeant, siege, soldier, troops, vessel, victory. New words appeared also in the religion abbey, archangel, Bible, clergy, Creator, chapel, chaplain, charity, divine, glory, miracle, paradise, passion, pray, preach, religion, sacrifice, saint, Saviour, service, Trinity, vice, Virgin, virtue and also in the field of law accuse, acquit, attorney, case, court, crime, damage, false, guilt, heir, interest, jury, justice, marriage, money, penalty, poverty, rent, session. Normans maintained the class system that was partly developed by Anglo- Saxons. Feudal duties were established during the reign of Duke William.The term feudalism has its origin in the french word feu that according to Scots Law meant “a right to the use of land, houses, etc in return for payment of feu-duty, a fixed annual payment.” Considerable phenomenon is the usage of different terms when reffering to domestic animals on the one hand and on the other hand to meal prepared from that animals. The names of animals became from Old English that was used by peasants – cows, sheep, swine, ox, calf, bear, deer – whereas meals were represented by words of the French origin – mutton, beef, pork, veal, bacon, venison.

Later, English and French were mingled and spoken both at the same time. So as French aristocrats learned and picked up some English words, uneducated classes used borrowed words from French in the current speech. As people had the knowledge of both these languages, they started to merge them into the one English language. Therefore the English vocabulary was greatly enriched. Then it is hardly surprising to come across synonyms such as e.g. begin (English origin) and commence (French origin), conceal-hide, odour-smell, desire-wish, happiness-felicity.

There should be mentioned that Latin existed and represented mainly the language of Church and schools, i.e. the language of educated people, at those days. Famous universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were established. Latin was also used in fields such as philosophy or science.

1.4 Modern English Period (1500 - )

The period of Modern English started around the year 1500 and has lasted until the present days. During this period, Renaissance, an important intellectual movement from Italy began to spread. All aspects of everyday life started to recover slowly after hard times and declensions in the population, plague “Black Death”, hundred years war between France and England, starvation, high prices. The period of Renaissance can be characterized “by the rapid advance of the sciences, a renewal of interest in the Greek and Roman classics, the rise of nationalism, and by such events as the Protestant Reformation, the invention of the printing press, and the discovery of the New World.”(Donald, 1980, p.10) It is evident that Latin and Greek loanwords penetrated into the English vocabulary and into various branches of human life not only in the two previous mentioned periods, but also in the period of Modern English. Classical loans from such spheres as theatre, literature and rhetoric affected the cultural life not only of the English people. “At that time, writers all over Europe try to imitate, as closely as possible, the language and style of distinguished Latin authors.” (Vachek, 1991, p.104). At this point it must be emphasized that the names of nearly all literary genres and their related terms are of Greek (or Latin) origin e.g. amatory, biography, bucolic, comedy, drama, elegy, encomium, novel, ode, oration, encyclopedia, epic, epigram, epistolary, epitome, fable, fiction, poetry, prose, romance, satire, tradegy. This is also the case with poetic and rhetorical terms as alliteration, anacoluthon, anaphora, aposiopesis, apostrophe, ellipsis, euphony, hyperbole, irony, metonymy, oxymoron, pleonasm, simile, synecdoche, zeugma and others. The borrowings from classical languages as accomodation, anticipate, apostrophe, contradictory, exact, explain, fact, monopoly, reliance, submerge can be found in literary works of William Shakespeare or Thomas Moore. Other fields that adopted terms from classical languages were politics, law and other related fields censor, compete, confiscate, delict, negotiate, politics, proletarian. Some loans that are hard to classify according to specific areas were absorbed into the everyday English language aborigines, colony, comic, culminate, depopulate, dialect, enthusiasm, epoch, erace, gradual, hesitate, immigrate, implicate, indignant, intelligent, introduce, opponent, relaxation, relevant, peninsula, perforate, persist, regulate, secure, sporadic and many others.

The rapid progress of various branches of science in the last hundred years has caused the growing amount of Latin and Greek scientific terms in the English language such as acid, analysis, antenna, appendix, atom, axis, contemplate, diagnosis, diagram, exist, formula, function, maximum, method, minimum, nucleus, phenomenon, rabies, radius, skeleton, species, spectrum, theory.

The new terms that expanded the English vocabulary were not only loanwords from classical languages. Many terms were coined by various combinations of Latin and Greek elements and words such e.g. encyclopaedia, protestant, telepathy, telegraph, telescope were created. This process still continues, especially in the field of several branches of science e.g. allergy, antibiotic, chromosome, cyclotron, kleptomania, leukemia, orthopedic, protein, protoplasm, psychiatry, schizophrenia. The combination of classical elements may be realized by combining the Greek roots only as allergy, antibiotic, hormones, protein, stratosphere, telephone or new Latin terms are produced by combination of only Latin roots facsimile, introvert, quantum, radioactive, relativity. Composite words that contain the Latin together with the Greek root as e.g. sociology, television, petroleum, claustrophobia, automobile are known as hybrids.

The English vocabulary was marked not only by Latin and Greek, but also distinct languages and cultures touched the English language. Dutch, Italian, Spanish, German, Portuguese, Slavonic and others influenced English gently, thanks to trade, art, architecture, politics, music and many other spheres of human life. Military and nautical terms represent e.g. (Italian) alarm, cartridge, colonel, firm, pistol, squadron, (Spanish) armada, barricade, breeze, cannibal, cargo, embargo, escapade, flotilla, (Dutch) bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, keel, skipper, (French) brigade, corps, marine, police, reconnaissance. Also fields as architecture and art absorbed various words (Italian) balcony, cupola, loggia, (Dutch) easel, landscape, sketch, (French) ballet, ensemble, essay, genre. Field of music was mainly influenced by the Italian language aria, bass, canto, cello, concert, duet, finale, piano, replica, sonata, sonnet, solo, soprano, stanza, tenor, violin. Many terms of the Italian origin penetrated into the English vocabulary through French. Some English terms denoting fashion and food also came from other languages as (Italian) macaroni, pizza, vermicelli, (French) blouse, champagne, chemise, corsage, cravat, menu, soup.

The discovery of the New World caused contacts with different new objects, ideas, cultures, changed the style of living. Variety of words enriched the English vocabulary and some of them became used in everyday life (Italian) canteen, barrack, manage, pilot, (Spanish, Portuguesse) amok, banana, canoe, cafeteria, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, maize, mandarin, mosquito, mulatto, negro, pilot, ranch, sherry, teak, tobacco, tomato, (German) kindergarten, lebensraum, plunder, stroll, waltz, (French) ball, café, coguette, cortege, detail, hotel, machine, moustache, picnic, progress, restaurant, ticket. Finance, commerce and industry adopted terms as (Italian) ducato, florin, million, (German) cobalt, nickel, zinc. Also Czech (robot), Russia (Lunik, sputnik, Soviet, steppe, vodka, troika), India (bungalow, jungle, jute, khaki, loot, punch, pyjamas, yoga, thug) and American Indians (moccasin, opossum, skunk, tomahawk, wigwam) borrowed its terms to English. Everyday words as e.g. check, divan, pajamas, tiger came from the Persian language and terms such as admiral, caravan ,cotton, sirup, sash, sofa from Arabic. Moreover, the English language absorbed words from such languages as Greenland Inuit (anorak), Hawaiian (hula), Finnish (sauna), Africaans (aardvark), Chinese (kung fu), Japanese (kimono), Malay (ketchup), Australian Aboriginal (dingo), Tahitian (tattoo), Maori (kiwi), West African (storey house). The considerable influence of Greek and Latin on the English language is evident from the previous text. However, the impact of classical languages on the English vocabulary is much greater. This fact can be observed in the following chapters. 2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary

2.1 New words of classical origin in English

Greek and Latin belong to the Indo-European language family. Classical words were absorbed into the English vocabulary either directly from Latin and Greek or by way of French. But also many Greek terms were Latinized, it means they were adopted to English through Latin. Moreover, the Greek language left lesser mark on the English vocabulary than Latin. The vocabulary is the most open part of the language system. From times of the Old English to the Modern English period, the English vocabulary has been expanded severalfold as a result of e.g. expansion over new lands, progress of culture and literature as it is stated in the first chapter. Moreover, word formation processes and the replacement of old words and meanings by new ones greatly enriched the English language inspite the fact that many other words were lost and forgotten.

2.1.2 Affixes

One way how to form new words is by the word formation process called affixation, in other words by adding affixes to the stem of a word. Affixes that are attached to the beginning of a word are called prefixes. On the other hand affix forms added to the end of a word are called suffixes. The fact that learners of English may find the knowledge of classical affixes beneficial is one of the reasons why this chapter also concentrates on this area. Almost every prefix has its special meaning that can help us recognize the meaning of the whole word, in spite we are unfamiliar with it. According to Krill (1990, p.59) some prefixes “assume no special meaning. In such cases, the meaning of the root to which they happened to be attached is intensified.” The recognition and classification of words into particular word classes according to their suffixes can be another advantage. The ability to recognize classical suffixes could also be helpful in various transformations of words from nouns into verbs, verbs into adjectives and so on. 2.1.3 Compounds

Another word-building type that is together with conversion and affixation among the most productive word formation processes, is so-called compounding. Compounds were already represented by several classical examples in the chapter 1.4 Modern English Period, therefore the principle of compounding was outlined and it is evident that “new words are produced by combining two or more stems” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.104). According to Antrushina, Afanasyeva and Morozova there exist three types of compounds. The first of them form compounds that are combined without any linking elements as e.g. bedroom, bookcase, film-goer, honey-moon, TV-set, T-shirt, wallpaper and are called neutral. Compounds formed by a linking vowel or consonant such as Anglo-Saxon, handicap, spokesman belong to the second group, called morphological compounds. The last type, syntactic compounds, are combined by the aid of speech elements as articles, prepositions and others, for example brother-in-law, good-for-nothing and so on.

The chapters above concentrated on two word formation processes, affixation and compounding, in general and so the following chapters deal with Greek and Latin affixes and bases in more detail in that they represent productive means of creation of many English words. 2.2 Greek and the Greek alphabet

The Greeks present one of the civilizations that greatly influenced the English language. They were wise and creative people that affected almost every sphere of their life. The direct contact between English and Greek was developed mostly during the period of Renaissance.

THE GREEK ALPHABET The Greeks adapted the alphabet into their own language from their trade partners called the Phoenicians.

Greek name Greek name

  ’άλφα alpha  νυ nu   βητα beta  ξι xi    γάμμα gamma  ’όμικρόν omicron  δέλτα delta  πι pi    ’έψιλόν epsilon  ‘ρω rho  ζητα zeta   σιγμα  sigma

 ’ητα eta  ταυ tau  θητα theta  ’υψιλόν upsilon  ’ιωτα iota  φι phi  κάππα kappa  χι chi   λάμβδα lambda  ψι psi  μυ mu  ’ωμέγα omega 

2.2.1 Greek affixes

Several of Greek affixes are presented in the following charts. Each chart contains either the list of prefixes or suffixes together with their meanings and examples. Moreover, suffixes are divided into noun-, adjective- and verb – forming and therefore lists in charts correspond to this classification. Greek affixes and their meanings are quoted from English Words from Latin and Greek Elements by M.A.Donald (1980). More examples of Greek affixes can be seen in the appendix 1.

Greek prefixes

Before consonant Before vowel Meaning Example α’- a- an- not, without anarchism, atheist α ντί anti- ant- against, opposite antithesis, antihistamine δυς- dys- dys- bad, disordered, dyspepsia, difficult dyslexia, dysfunction ευ eu- ev- good,well euphoric, euphemism υ πε  ρ hyper- hyper- above, excessive, hyperactive, over hypersomy hypersensitive υ πό hypo- hyp- under, below hypogeal, hypothesis μετά meta- met- after, beyond, metabolism, change metaphysics

Greek suffixes

Adjective-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -al pertaining to, like, belonging to, hysterical, visual, having the character of abnormal -an, -ian pertaining to, like, one concerned with theologian, australian, academician -ic, -tic pertaining to, like egoistic, geometric -ics, -tics art, science, study of politics, genetics -oid like, having the shape of adenoid, scleroid -ous, -ious full of, pertaining to, like anonymous Noun-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -archy rule by patriarchy, oligarchy -ism belief in, practice of, condition of animalism, spritualism - ist one who believes in, one engaged in protagonist, specialist -logy science of, systematic study of kynology, mycology -t, -te he who, that which militant -y, -ia quality of, state of, act of cheesy, leukemia

Verb-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -ize (-ise) to make, to do something with, specialize, criticize to subject to verbalize, sensitize

2.2.2 Greek numerals

As roots of English compounds may be represented by different word classes, various words may also be produced by combining parts of Greek words representing numerals with English ones. In that there exist a huge amount of such words and because they do not belong to one particular area only, they are commonly used in almost every branch of science. Therefore they can also be found in the scientific prose style dealing with the field of history.

Greek Cardinal numeral English meaning Base Example ‘έν (μόνος) hen (monos) one, single hen-, mon- monarch δυ ο dyo two dy- dyadic τρεις treis three tri- triangle τέσσαρες tessares four tetr(a)- tetrarchy τέτταρες tettares four tetr(a)- tetraatomic πέντε pente five pent(a)- pentagon ‘έξ hex six hex(a)- hexagon ‘επτά hepta seven hept(a)- heptathlon ’οκτώ oktō eight oct(a)- octave ’εννέα ennea nine enne(a)- ennead δέκα deka ten dec(a)- decathlon ‘εκατόν hekaton hundred hect- hectare χίλιοι chilioi thousand kil(o)- kilometer

Moreover, there are other Greek numerical bases that are parts of English words. For instance, the Greek word ‘ήμισυς provides the root hemi- („half“) that could be found in such words as hemisphere, hemistich, hemistrumectomy.

The following chapter concentrates on Latin and follows similar arrangement of chapters as the previous one dealing with Greek. Besides Latin bases and affixes, Latin abbreviations are presented as they are largely used in the English language. 2.3 Latin and the Latin alphabet

Latin was the language of the ancient Romans. They, unlike the Greeks, were not devoloping their own cultural life, but they were absorbing Greek literary forms and philosophical theories. Greek and Latin were in contact during various periods in the past. Etruscans, ancestors of Romans, were already influenced by Greek culture and language, because Greeks kept colonies in the southern Italy.

THE LATIN ALPHABET

The English alphabet used today is basically the same as that used by the Romans in the past. The classic Latin alphabet consisted of 23 letters:

A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u (v) x y z

It is obvious that some Latin words or their roots are still used in different languages, even though Latin is the language that is no more spoken. The following text deals with the English words formed with the help of the Latin affixes that are still in common use in English.

2.3.1 Latin affixes

There should be stated that many of suffixes which appear in Greek are found also in Latin. The following charts present some of Latin affixes and contain quotations of affixes and their meanings from English Words from Latin and Greek Elements by M.A.Donald (1980). A larger list of Latin suffixes is presented in the appendix 2.

Latin prefixes

Prefix Meaning Example ab-, a-, abs- away, from abdicate, abduct, abjure circum- around circumlocution, circumstance, circumvent dis-, di-, dif- apart, in different directions, disqualify, disable, not disantvantage, disagree extra-, extro- outside, beyond extrovert, extranet, extraction in-, im- in, into, against inside, imprint not immortal, involuntary post- after, behind postmortal, post-war, post-modernism sub-, sus-, suc- under, up from under, secretely subaqua, subjection super- above, over super-ego, superimpose

Latin suffixes

Adjective-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -able, -ible able to be, able to, tending to eatable, permissible -al, -ial, -eal pertaining to, like, belonging to medical, equal, natural having the character of surreal, dictatorial -ant, -ent, -ient person who, that which arrogant, participant, absent -ary pertaining to, connected with, planetary, primary, having the character of obituary -ive tending to, inclined to passive, imaginative -ous, -ious, -eous full of , having the character of, like gorgeous, numerous

Noun-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -ance, -ancy quality of –ing, state of –ing abundance, assistance -ary, -arium place for antiquary, planetarium -ate office of, holder(s) of the office of delegate, directorate -ence, -ency quality of –ing, state of –ing absence, confidence -ment result of, means of, act of, state of unemployment, excitement -ion act of, state of, result of rebellion, production -or state of, result of horror one who does, that which does adaptor, toreador, orator

Verb-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -ate to make, to do something with compensate, nitrate to subject to, to take translate, negotiate -(i)fic making, causing pacific, specific -igate, -egate to make, to drive congregate, delegate

2.3.2 Latin numerals

As well as Greek numerical bases occur in some English words the same is true with Latin numerical roots as can be seen in the chart below. These words are widely spread and cover large areas of human interest. Therefore they are used in miscellaneous fields of science. The scienfific prose style, area of history, also includes such kind of words.

Cardinal numeral English meaning Base Example ūnus, -a, -um one un- unicycle duo, -ae, -o two du- duel trēs, tria three tri- triacontane quattuor four quadr(u)- quadrant quīnque five quint- quintan sex six sext- sextuple septem seven sept(em)- septempartite octō eight oct- octagon novem nine novem- November decem ten decem- December centum hundred cent- centena mīlle thousand mill- millennium

There exist several other Latin numerical bases found in English. For istance, the Latin cardinal number sēmi that means „half“ can be found in such English words as e.g. semicircle, semicoma, semiconductive, semicular or cardinal numbers prīmus (“first”), secundus (“second”), tertius (“third”) are used in English words such as primacy, primal, secondary, secondo, tertiary, tertio.

Similarly the Roman numerals can be found in a number of sciences and beacause they are also extensively used in the field of history, the most common Roman symbols are presented in the table below. Various numerical values are produced with different combinations of such symbols.

I = 1 X=10 C=100 M=1000 V= 5 L=50 D=500

2.3.3 Latin abbrevations

When the same words are used frequently in the written form it is effective to use abbreviations. Latin abbreviations are used so largely that it is not hard to find them also in the scientific prose style. Abbreviations that are presented in the charts below could be find also in the field of history. The following Latin phrases together with their corresponding abbreviations and English meanings are quotated from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill (1990). Several Latin abbreviations and expressions are still employed in formal writings in English. The chart below presents a few of such Latin abbreviations.

Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning circā ca. approximately, around et cētera etc. and other things, and so forth exemplī gratiā e.g. for example id est i.e. that is notā bene n.b. mark well opere citātō op.cit. in the work cited post scriptum p.s. written after ut dictum ut dict. as directed vidēlicet viz. that is to say, namely The following chart contains several examples of academic titles that are in common use within the English language.

Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning Artium Baccalaureus A.B. Bachelor of Arts Baccalaureus Artium B.A Bachelor of Arts Artium Magister A.M. Master of Arts Magister Artium M.A. Master of Arts Scientiae Baccalaureus Sc.B. Bachelor of Science Scientiae Magister Sc.M. Master of Science Jūris Doctor J.D. Doctor of Law Philosophiae Doctor Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy

Abbreviations are also used as a reference to various aspects of time. This fact has a very close relation to the field of medicine where we use abbreviations as an indication when e.g. medication should be taken.

Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning annō Doiminī A.D. in the year of the Lord ante merīdiem a.m. before moon post mēridiem p.m. after noon bīs in diē b.i.d twice a day quāque hōrā q.h. every hour māne et nocte m. et n. morning and night si opus sit s.o.s. if necessary

Moreover, symbols representing units of English money have their origin in Latin as for e.g. symbol for the pound sterling - £ (libra), shilling - s. (solidus), pence - d. (denarius).

As the 1st chapter shows the English vocabulary was enriched by various languages and fields of human activity. One of the areas that had a notable influence on English was mythology and religion. The following chapter provides several classical words and phrases belonging to this field. 2.4 Mythology and religion

The lines below deal shortly with the history and religion of the Greeks and the Romans as words that belong to the field of mythology and religion could also be found in the field of history. It is evident that any kind of faith is somehow connected with the history. In most cases religion or mythology together with history represent inseparable parts, one is unimaginable without the other and that is the reason why this chapter is included in this work. “In the area of theology Hesiod’s Theogony (Race of the Gods) composed about 700 B.C., stands as the earliest Greek work devoted strictly to their gods, the Olympians.” (Krill, 1990, p.208). Also Greek unforgettable legends present their supernatural gods as e.g. Zeus (the sky god), Apollo (the sun god), Aphrodite (the goddess of love), Athena (the goddess of wisdom) and others. At that times people believed in omens, i.e. they tried to predict future by means of various phenomena. Words such as ominous, abominate, augurs, auspicium, monster are connected with this kind of foretelling. Many words from the Greek mythology possess very interesting historical meaning. The following examples can serve as an illustration: Chimera was a fire-breathing creature that was a mixture of three animals. It had lion’s had, goat’s body and dragon’s trail. Herculean is the word derived from Hercules that was the strongest hero in the Greek mythology. The goddess Hera believed that he would die in one of the acts which she required from him. Labyrinth was a construction with several complicated ways. King Minos ordered to built this structure in an ambition to imprison the Minotaur (a monster - half man, half bull) that would eat King’s enemies placed in the labyrinth. Odyssey was the Greek hero who is also present in Homer’s poem. After the Trojan War Odysseus had experienced adventures accompanied by the anger of the gods. Finally he came back to his family. Siren was a nymph (part woman, part bird) that used a magic singing to lure sailors and destruct them. Even though Odysseus had heard the nymph’s song he survived, because he had been bound to his ship. Titanic is a word connected with the word Titans that had been rulers of the universe. These children of Earth and Heaven had been in the war with Olympian gods that finally defeated them.

The Romans conquered a large deal of the world including Greece and spread their language throught the Italy to their provinces and colonies. Similarly the introduction of Christianity was the instrument of the Latin extension. It reached various parts of Europe and became the chief religion. As was stated earlier in the first chapter a lot of Greek words and borrowings influenced Latin at that times - the basic language of Roman Catholic Church. Even today people are borrowing names of famous historical personalities from Bible. For example, when someone is a traitor we refer to him as a Judas or a misbeliever is called a doubting Thomas.

Classical words such as animism, baptism, canonical, catholic, censorship, communion, creation, eulogy, evangelism, evolution, hierarchy, immortality, incarnation, inspiration, liturgy, monastery, obscene, occult, parable, prophecy, sacrament, schism, spirituality, synagogue belong to the area of religion and spirutalism. The following table presents several of Latin (Greek) mottoes from biblical or classical literature that are used in areas of government and education even today. Such phrases usually “contain an uplifing message or espouse a virtue, such as courage, hope, justice, truth, wisdom or knowledge.” (Krill, 1990, p.242) Others concentrates mainly on religion.

Latin / Greek Motto Translation Ad majōrem Deī glōriam To the greater glory of God. Deī sub nūmine viget Under the providence of God it flourishes. In Deō spērāmus In God we trust. Incipit vīta nova A new life is beginning. ПІΣТЕІ ТΗΝ ΑΡΕТΗΝ, ΕΝ ΔΕ Courage is your faith, but knowledge ТНΙ ΑРΕТΗΙ ТΗΝ ГΝΩΣΙΝ in your courage. Vēritās Christō et ecclēsiae Truth to Christ and the church. The chart above contains quotations of Latin and Greek mottoes and their translations from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill (1990).

It was already stated that the vocabulary of the English language has undergone many changes. It should also be mentioned that the English vocabulary does not represent a homogeneous system but it can be classified into layers and so the following chapter presents such a view on the English vocabulary. 3. The English vocabulary

Elements of the English vocabulary are interrelated, interconnected and independent. However, according to some linguists it is hard to classify the vocabulary precisely into a system. According to Galperin (1981, p.70) the vocabulary of the English language is divided into:

1. the literary layer 2. the neutral layer 3. the colloquial layer

These layers, except one-neutral layer, are divided into subgroups that share a common feature within a layer, called aspect. The common words of above mentioned layers form so-called the standard English vocabulary. The scheme of the English vocabulary can be seen in the appendix 3. Antrushina, Afanasyeva and Morozova (2001, p.38) refer to words that are classed under the Galperin’s literary layer as formal and on the other hand to words belonging to the colloquial layer as informal words. As various languages have affected English to such an extent that borrowed words form a dominant element in the English vocabulary, it can be said that “ ‘current’ English is a mixture of words derived from different languages at different times.” (Wright, Hope, 1996, p.204) According to Wright and Hope the majority of words that are used today come back to the period of Old English. From Old English and Old Norse words representing various word classes penetrated into the English language, for instance articles (the), prepositions (at, up), conjuctions (and), pronouns (they, their), verbs (take, want), nouns (battle), adjectives (happy), adverbs (almost). From such languages as Latin, Old French, French for example adjectives (different), verbs (allow, enter) and nouns (court, mixture) were absorbed by the English vocabulary. It is evident that words that are most commonly used and by help of which phrases are formed - are the oldest one. This closed class of words can be found in all kinds of texts as they form an informal or neutral stratum of the vocabulary. On the other hand, words that have their origin in Old French, French and Latin tend to be used in more formal styles. Moreover, words derived from Germanic languages i.e. Old English and Old Norse are much more shorter than the classical or French ones to which we usually refer as “long” words. This fact can be seen in the following examples: rise (German) – mount (French) – ascend (Latin), ask – question – interrogate. It is obvious that German words are less abstract than French ones and simirarly French words are less abstract than Latin ones.

3.1 Basic lexicological units of speech

The aim of this work is the investigation of classical terms in the scientific prose style, therefore the text below concentrates on the difference between two grammatical units, terms and words. Words are studied in a branch of linguistics called Lexicology. Before the distinction between words and terms will be outlined, it should be pointed out that there is no precise and sufficient definition of a word. Moreover, linguists do not agree on several problems dealing with terms, as can be seen in the following lines. A word can be defined as “a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity.” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.10) So the word is a grammatical unit that functions within the sentence or its part and convey one of its meanings, it means the word is capable of getting the new meaning. On the other hand, a term is “a word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a particular branch of science, technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept peculiar to this particular acitivity.” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.33) In other words it can be said that in fact all terms are words that are used within one or more fields of science, but not all words represent terms as e.g. if they are used in the colloquial speech. In that it is evident that terms are mainly used in the scientific prose style, thus it can be said that terms belong to the style of the scientific language. Also terms, unlike words, can be substituted by other terms with more simplicity. Although terms belong to special literary vocabulary of English, as can be obvious from the appendix 3., when they become well-known to common people they enter the neutral stratum of the vocabulary. At this point a question whether a term loses its terminological status or not arises. Another problem is that some linguists claim that terms should be monosemantic, but in fact there exist not only a large number of polysemantic terms, but also terms synonymous in their meanings.

The next chapter concentrates on the functional styles of the English language, as the style of scientific prose represent one of them. Moreover, there are also present some fields of human acitivity where this type of style is used. 4. Style of language

The word style is used in a variety of senses for example the life style, the style of behaviour, painting, dancing, living, speaking, writing. It is evident that all objects that are classified under the same kind of style share some common features e.g. healthy life-style, diplomatic style of behaviour etc. The word style is derived from the Latin word stilus that was used in a completely different sense as it is used in English nowadays. A branch of general linguistics, Stylistics, deals with spoken and written styles of language i.e. with certain types of texts. These types of texts are called functional styles of language. “Stylistics means the study of style, with a suggestion, from the form of the word, of a scientific or at least a methodical study.” (Turner, 1973, p.8) There exists a great number of heterogenous definitons of the word style in Stylistics. But all these definitions somehow suggest that style is some kind of an individual “language” that is used by an individual author. For instance, Vachek (1991, p.125) writes “Style we regard as individual, unifying character which is present in any work resulting from intentional activity.” Also Seymour Chatman provides the most frequent definition of style and claims that “Style is a product of individual choices and patterns of choices (emphasis added) among linguistic possibilities.”(Galperin, 1981, p.12) Another field of investigation in Stylistics is the study of special language means called expressive means and stylistic devices dealing with the aesthetic function of language, synonymous ways of expression, emotional colouring of ideas, individual manner of author’s expression etc.

4.1 Functional styles

Functional styles represent mainly a part of the standard English literary language. The development of writing caused that English literary language was devided into several subsystems and every one of these obtained particular features and distinctive style of writing. A functional style of language can be characterized as “a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.” (Galperin,1981, p.33)

There exist several divisions of functional styles in language. Galperin (1981, p.33) distinguishes 5 types of functional styles:

1. The language of belles-lettres 2. The language of publicistic literature 3. The language of newspapers 4. The language of scientific prose 5. The language of official documents

Each of the above mentioned functional styles contains several substyles. These substyles share common features within particular functional style and moreover within particular substyle.

Functional styles Division Description of a FS 1.The belles-lettres A. The language of poetry aesthetico-cognitive function, Style B. Emotive prose genuine lingustic features, huge C. The language of the amount of words with more than drama one meaning, personal attitude of the author, colloquial language, individual selection of language means and vocabulary 2. Publicistic style A. Oratory and speeches deep influence on recipients, B. The essay persuasive, coherent, logical C. Journalistic articles structure of utterances, emotional words, individual style 3.Newspaper style A. Brief news items informative , instructive and B. Advertisements and influential character, individual announcements style - specific vocabulary C. The headline D. The editorial 4.The style of A. The language of use of special system of clichés, official documents business documents terms and set expressions, use B. the language of legal of abbreviations, conventional documents symbols, contractions, use of C. of diplomacy of words in their logical D. of military documents dictionary meaning, greetings, conventional phrases, informative in character The table above contains the classification of functional styles and the most important features of each style. The next chapter deals with the scientific prose style in more detail and so this type of functional style is not present in the table.

4.1.1 Scientific prose style

The aim of the scientific prose style is “to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc.” (Galperin, 1981, p.307) According to Galperin (1981, p.34) the scientific prose style can be devided into the following three substyles:

. The language style of humanitarian sciences . The language style of “exact” sciences . The language style of popular scientific prose

Galperin (1981, p.307) says that there are several main features that characterize the scientific prose style:

1. logical sequence of utterances The utterances are interdependent. Scientific prose style is the one in which the utterances are arranged in such a logical way that is hardly found in any other functional style.

2. use of terms Every science possesses its own terminology. However, it is possible to find the same terms in more than one science as a result of exchanging terms among various branches of science. Also many scientific and technical terms used outside a particular science acquire new meanings. This process is called de-terminization. Terms used in the scientific prose style are concise and unambiguous. It should also be stated that there is no other field that produces new words in such extent as an area of science. These new words are called literary coinages or neologisms. The words naming new concepts as a result of the development of the science are called terminological coinages. As noted in previous chapters neologisms often consist of Latin or Greek elements.

3. sentence – patterns can be divided into the following tree types: a) postulatory Every scientific work is based on facts that are known and therefore need no proof. b) argumentative Writer’s ideas, arguments within sentences by the help of which he sum up the result of his investigation. c) formulative Formulative sentence-patterns are author’s expressed ideas that represent theories of a principle.

4. quotations and references Any piece of the scientific prose contain quotations that fit into the context. “A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand.”(Galperin, 1981, p.186) Quotations are accompanied by references to authors quoted or reffered to, titles of works, places and years works were published etc. 5. foot – notes Foot-notes are used when some idea is connected with the context but it is not logical to use this idea in the context because it can interrupt coherence of the text.

6. impersonality The science “must be ‘invariant to all observers’ and experiments, not experimenters, were the centre of interest.” (Turner, 1973, p.181) This is one of the reasons why the impersonal style is implied by authors of scientific works. The impersonality is emphasized by the use of passive constructions and frequent use of verbs as suppose, assume, conclude, point out and others. Another indicator of impersonality is an extensive use of abstract nouns that are formed from adjectives or verbs. Since language of science concentrates on facts therefore it must be unemotianal, objective, factual.

It should be pointed out that there are used so called supra-phrasal units, that is units larger than a sentence, in all the types of functional styles. For instance, a paragraph may serve as an example of such supra-phrasal unit. “A paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end.” (Galperin, 1981, p.198) There are different requirements for the usage of the paragraph in different functional styles. The paragraph, as a linguistic category, can be charecterized by the use of purely linguistic means as intonation, pauses, semantic ties, etc. When the paragraph is built on logical principles, it is used as a logical category and so there must be coherence and unity of ideas expressed. This is the case with the scientific prose style as it is noticeable from the beginning of this chapter. The paragraph in the scientific prose style usually has a topic sentence that indicates the main ideas within the paragraph.

Moreover, the scientific prose style could also be found in other functional styles and their substyles. At this point it should be stated that there is some transformation of the style of scientific prose as it is used for special purposes wanted to be achieved in another functional style. Therefore it is possible to use scientific language in belles- lettres style or in other functional styles. From the chart in the chapter 3.2.1 Functional styles and from this chapter it is obvious that there are some features shared within more functional styles. For instance, logical sequence and connectivenes of utterances within paragraphs is important besides the scientific prose style also in the publicistic style. Or another example is the usage of non-emotinal words in both scientific prose style and the style of official documents.

4.2 Science

Many names representing particular branches of science have their origin in Latin or Greek as for instance philosophy, chemistry, biology, medicine and they together with many other worldwide known words form a group of international words. This chapter deals with several fields of science that have been influenced by classical languages to a large extent, as it is already known that Latin and Greek have been important languages in the developing terminology of various sciences in the past and even today. The charts in each chapter below contain quotations of Latin, Greek and English phrases, bases and meanings from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill (1990).

4.2.1 Medicine

One of the branches of science greatly influenced by classical languages is the field of medicine. The fact that modern medical terminology contains a great number of words of Latin and Greek origin is not surprising as many works dealing with medical subjects dated to ancient times have survived to this day. Some medical examples denoting external body parts are presented in both Latin and Greek in the chart below. Greek English base Latin English base Meaning πρόσωπον prosop- faciēs faci- face στόμα(τος) stom(at)- ōs, ōris or- mouth χειλος ch(e)il- labium labi- lip χείρ ch(e)ir- manus manu- hand δάκτυλος dactyl- digitus digit- finger κνήμη cnem- crūs, crūris crur- leg γόνυ gon(y)- genu genu- knee

It is known that Latin universal technical names are given to specific medical conditions or diseases in the field of medicine and therefore they are used all over the world. The following table presents several of such examples.

Latin phrase English phrase anorexia nervōsa nervous loss of appetite maculae albidae white spots partus caesareus Cesarean birth angīna pectoris pain of the chest encephalītis neonātōrum brain inflammation of new-borns

4.2.2 Botany

Many classical terms are also found in the field of botany. Scientists were interested in plants and animals and their categorizing already in the antiquity. Since the 18th century Latin has become the basic language for assigning names to plants, animals and other subjects connected with botany thanks to scientist Carolus Linnaeus that followed Aristotle’s scientific classifications made in Greek. The following table presents several scientific binomial names of some specific trees and plants.

Latin name English name Aeschylus hippocastānum horse chestnut Citrus sineenis orange Liriodendron tulipfera tulip tree Mālus pumila apple Abiēs balsamea balsam fir Pīnus resinōsa red pine Cholorophytum comōsum spider plant Begonia semperflōrēns wax begonia Gladiōlus psittacinus gladiola Narcissus incomparābilis daffodil

4.2.3 Zoology

As there were developed several divisions of plants and trees in the field of botany, scientists established several classifications of animals and their related topics also in the field of zoology. Today all animals, from the smallest to the largest one, are identified with its binomial Latin names. The table below contains several examples of simple Latin names as well as scientific binomial terms denoting animals.

Latin name English name aquila eagle canis dog tīgris tiger ursus, ursa bear Equus caballus domestic horse Ailuropoda melanoleuca giant panda Delphīnus delphis common dolphin

4.2.4 Astronomy

Modern technologies used today did not exist in ancient times and so several speculations and theories about the Earth and universe were established by a number of scientists and philosphers. Already “the Egyptians and Babylonians were quite active in the study of the stars.” (Krill, 1990, p.229) All planets’names of the solar system have their origin in classical languages in that they were named after Greek or Roman gods as can be seen below.

English name Latin Venus Venus, Veneris Roman god of love and beauty

Mars Mars, Martis Roman god of war

Uranus Uranus Greek sky god, personification of “heaven” Pluto Pluto Roman god of the underworld

Moreover terms denoting signs of the zodiac for instance Leo, Aries, Scorpius, Taurus have their origin in classical languages as well as names of constellations and stars such as e.g. Aquila, Cassiopeia, Draco, Orion, Pegasus, Vulpecula.

4.2.5 Pharmaceutics and Chemistry

“Just as thousands of words unique to medicine and other sciences have entered the English language from Greek and Latin, so also is the case with chemistry and pharmacy.” (Krill, 1990, p.234) Symbols denoting chemical elements are derived not from English but from their Latin names as it is obvious from the following chart.

Latin Abbreviation English argentum Ag silver ferrum Fe iron hydrargyrum Hg mercury plumbum Pb lead stannum Sn tin

5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history

Each language is a great and complex system and so it is studied from variuos angles by many linguistic sciences. These branches of science help people to understand a lot of possible questions about languages as for e.g. why there exist so many languages in the world, how they are related or why some words we use in one language are similar or even the same in the other one. Similarly, this work might help see the richness of the English vocabulary in that various languages have influenced each other to such an extent that even sometimes it is impossible to specify the origin of a particular word. As noted earlier words of classical origin can be found in various fields within the English language so the field of history is not an exception to this fact. The very term history that is used in various senses and contexts has its origin in Greek. What does this word suggest? The statement that the history can be understood as a chain of events might be sufficient enough. The history is present in books, magazines, media and so it has become a part of the everyday human life, althought it might happen unconsciously. Also the fact that modern people know more about the past than ever before is undisputed. Within a minute we can see or learn about something that in fact lasted for several hundred years. We can witness the great transformation from the first civilisations, through wars, revolutions, economic, cultural, political changes and life to a modern man. People retain their past in the form of memoirs, experiences, photographs, letters, various objects important for them. Alike the history of religion, nations, cultures, customs, science etc. has retained in different forms. For instance, there remained scarce books about history of almost everything through the use of “written word”.

5.1 The investigation

Practical part of this work consists in finding out the foreign nature of English words. This is also the major task of the linguistic science called Etymology that studies the origin of words. The English book of history The Western Experience served as a material for the exploration of classical origin of English words in this field. We may distinguish the following historical periods:

Primeval Ages - 3000 B.C. Antiquity 3000 B.C. - 500 Middle Ages 500 - 1492 Modern Times 1492 - 1918 Recent Epoch 1918 -

It must be said that words of classical origin occur in large numbers in English. For the reason that this work is limited and there is not enough space for all such words that occur in the above mention book, the list of words presented in the appendix 4. contains words of Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity only. Words found in the appendix 4. are presented in their basic form but for illustration their derivations can be seen in the chapters below within the morphological aspect. The appendix 4. is available on CD-ROM that is attached to this work. As words of Latin or Greek origin occur in all the historical periods the following lines show several examples of words found in other four periods:

Primeval Ages abandon Latin (bannum) proclamation calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month domesticate Latin (domus) house excercise Latin (arcere) to restrain fashion Latin (facere) to make gorilla Greek (gorillai) name given to wild, hairy people Homo erectus Latin (Hom rctus) upright man Homo sapiens Latin (Hom sapins) wise man irrigate Latin (irrigare) to water mathematics Greek (manthanein) to learn territory Latin (terra) earth, land valid Latin (valere) be strong

Middle Ages aggressive Latin (aggredi) to approach, attack Byzantine Latin (Byzantinus) art style, later in reference to the complex, devious, and intriguing character of the royal court of Constantinople discussion Latin (discutere) dash to pieces effect Latin (efficere) work out, accomplish farmer Latin (firmus) firm period Greek (periodos) cycle, circuit, period of time philosopher Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdom protect Latin (protectus) protect, cover in front qualification Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality to rule Latin (regula) straight stick, standard sacred Latin (sacrre) sacred theme Greek (tithenai) put down, place

Modern Times activity Latin (agere) to do, set in motion, drive, urge, chase colonist Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice change Latin (cambire) exchange expertise Latin (experiri) try out impact Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash against missionary Latin (mittere) to send monarch Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one occupant Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business product Latin (productus) something produced rival Latin (rivalis) a rival superstition Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive fear of the gods traditionally Latin (traditus) deliver, hand over

Recent Epoch appeal Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon, name balance Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans chapter Latin (caput) head decade Greek (dekas) group of ten destruction Latin (destruere) tear down figure Latin (fingere) make, shape legal Latin (lex) law million Latin (mille) thousand minister Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistant rapidly Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatching reform Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alter summary Latin (summa) whole, gist 5.1.2 Words from the period of Antiquity

The following five chapters are arranged according to the approach that is used for the analysis of words of the classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity. There is a sample of English words of Latin or Greek origin present in each chapter.

5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect

Each word has its own one or more meanings althought there are some words in English that denote similar or even the same things. Words used in any language can be classified into various semantic fields according to their meaning and relationship among objects they represent e.g. bread, butter, wine can be classified under the semantic field named food. Consequently the first classification of words applied is according to the semantics of words. Words of classical origin from the period of Antiquity are placed into several semantic groups, which names are related to human life and interest at those times (art, education, government, religion, science). It must also be stated that many of words are hard to classify and therefore they are placed among general words. And on the other hand several words may belong to more than only one semantic field. Words sharing common features are divided into the following semantic fields:

1. art architecture, bust, collonnade, comedy, drama, inspiration, museum, picture, portray, prologue, style, talent, theme

2. a change of status (words denoting a change of status) collapse, conquer, consolidate, desert, destruction, enlarge, enclose, expanded, explosion, intrusion, locate, modify

3. education alphabet, Aristotle, cuneiform, diameter, docile, Horace, language, letter, pi (π), scholar, Socrates

4. general words and words hard to classify attempt, condition, control, decision, estimate, exclusive, included, level, movement, normal, preserve, severe, sudden, transmit

5. geographical names and objects Athens, Babylon, delta, Egypt, lake, Macedonia, Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, mountain, Orient, Re, river, valley

6. government administration, court, dynasty, empire, govern, judgement, legal, military, occupation, official, politics, province, reign, rule, state

7. land agriculture, area, country, farming, grain, nature, province, region, street, territory, terrace

8. man’s products bust, channel, chant, compass, discovery, fable, invention, monument, pyramid, sphinx, survey, stele, story, tower, villa

9. metals and currency bronze, coin, copper, drachma, florin, metal 10. names of people or gods Achilles, Antigone, Aphrodite, Aristotle, Cleopatra, Epicurus, Horace, Lucius, Julius, Pericles, Pindar, Socrates, Themistocles

11. numbers, measures and words connected with them dual, dozen, inch, million, mile, meter, unique

12. words denoting people citizen, collector, commoner, creator, Egyptian, expert, genius, historian, human, invander, judge, slave, Macedonian, mother, noble, parent, Roman

13. qualities and features beauty, character, feature, fertility, honor, identical, immense, original, parallel, particular, patience, permanent, primitive, principal, special

14. relations adultery, commitment, compete, discussion, dispute, divorce, enemy, incest, jealous, offend, rivalry

15. religion creation, Christian, demon, divine, miracle, monotheism, Nike, pray, resurrection, salvation, spirit, temple, Venus

16. science astrology, calendar, cure, diagnosis, diameter, geography, germ, mathematics, medicine, mythology, planet, suffix, surgery, symptom, theory, Venus

17. words denoting “something written” or “someone who writes” almanac, biography, catalog, chapter, chronicle, document, epigram, scribe, script, sign, testament, text

18. time almanac, chapter, chronicle, date, era, future, interval, Lunar, millenium, minute, November, Paleolithic, period

5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect

Words found in the period of Antiquity belong to various word classes. As it was stated earlier there is only the basic form of words applied in the appendix 4. and so this chapter provides a list of words that are derived from them. According to Yule (1985, p. 60) we disthinguish the following types of morphemes:

free morphemes  ordinary words

bound morphemes  derivational New words are produced by means of affixation and therefore often belong to a different word class as the word they were derived from.

 inflectional These morphemes indicate aspects of the grammatical function of words (singular, plural, comparative, past tense and so on.) It is worth to say that there occurs the past form of the verbs very frequently, but it is not surprising as the investigation was made in the field of history and verbs denote things that had happened in the past. The similar case is with the singular and plural form of nouns. Several examples are chosen for the illustration of all the forms of particular basic words that can be found in the period of Antiquity. This fact is obvious from the lines below.

Basic word Derivational Inflectional morphemes morphemes change exchange (ex)changes, (ex)changed, (ex)changing Christ Christian(ity),christen Christians connect interconnected, connection connected, connections constant constantly, constancy defeat defeater, defeation, defeating, defeated, defeats defeated defeations Hellene Hellenistic, (Pan)Hellenic Hellenes individual individuality, individualism individuals, individualities individualized, individually, individualist(ic,ally) loyal (dis)loyalty, loyally, loyalties loyalist military militarism, militarily, militia militarization, militarist(ic), militarized rival rivalry, unrivalled rivals, rivalling, rivalled slave slavery, enslave(ment) slaves tyranny tyrannical(ly), tyrannized, tyrants tyrannize, tyrant 5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning

Sometimes the meaning of words has remained the same from the past to the present days and sometimes it has been changed completely. It is also the case with the investigated words from the period of Antiquity. This chapter provides a couple of words of classical origin for the illustration of both above mentioned possibilities. From appendix 4. it is obvious that more words of classical origin remained their original meanings to the present. Even some words used in English today do not mean exactly the same as the words they are derived from, but their new meaning is connected with their primary one logically, for example the English word advice meant in my view in Latin.

Words with unchanged meaning:

ability Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handy complete Latin (completus) fill doubt Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion fidelity Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherence Greek Greek (Grakoi) a Greek import Latin (importare) bring in, convey olive Greek (elaia) olive paradox Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinion senior Latin (senior) older theory Greek (theoria) contemplation, theory

Words with changed meaning:

adorn Latin (ordo) order amateur Latin (amatorem) lover calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month era Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coin falcon Latin (falx) sickle place Greek (plateia) broad prestige Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's tricks problem Greek (proballein) propose strategy Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is spread out temenos Greek (temenos) to cut

The following graph shows percentual presentation of English words that retained their original Greek or Latin meaning to the present and on the other hand words used in a completely different sense as the classical words they are derived from. 1 words with changed meaning words with unchanged meaning 2

Fig. 1. Shift of meaning of English words

5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect

This chapter provides another point of view on words of classical origin. As it can be seen in the appendix 4. there exist several English words that have their origin in the same Latin or Greek word. The sample of words in the following table shows that some English words derived from the same classical word denote completely different things today. It should be stated this chapter does not concentrate on morphemes of derivated English words. The table below presents both the classical word and its meaning and English words derived from the particular classical base (right column). the classical word meaning example of the English word

caput head capital chapter chief

civis townsman city civilization

finis end final financial fine

nasci be born nation nature

ordo order adorn ordain order ordinary

stare to stand constant contrast stage state

tribus one of the three political/ ethnic divisions of the tribe original Roman state tribute

unus one unique unit

videre to see envy evident revise

villa country house villa villein

The major part of the graph below presents English words that are derived from the common classical base. It means that there must be at least two English words that are derived from the same Greek or Latin base. The other part of the graph is created by such English words when there is only one English word derived from one classical word.

words with common classical base 1

2 other words

Fig. 2. Common classical origin of English words

5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect

Words of classical origin did not appear all at the same time in the English language and consequently the last approach consists in the grouping of words according to the time words of Latin and Greek origin appeared and started to be used in the English language. It should be stated that majority of words of classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity appeared in English in the period from the 11th to the 19th century. The lines below contain examples of such words that are arranged uplink according to centuries. 13th century: year capital 1225 Latin ( caput) head mayor 1297 Latin (major) large, great

14th century: Babylon 1362 Greek (Bab-ilani) the gate of the gods genius 1390 Latin (gignere) beget, produce prologue 1300 Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a prologue 15th century: column 1440 Latin (columna) pillar, top, summit dynasty 1460 Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power succumb 1489 Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie under

16th century: anarchy 1539 Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leader collect 1573 Latin (collectus) gather together 1573

17th century: compete 1620 Latin (competere) strive in common, to come together, agree series 1611 Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, put

5.2 Interpretation of particular results

This chapter provides three interpretations of the words of classical origin. Each point of view is accompanied by a particular graph for illustration. The first analysis of words was made according to the ten pages chosen randomly from the period of Antiquity. A further investigation showed that from all the words covering the ten pages (3500) there is 2048 words of classical origin. In percentual formulation it is 59 % that present words of Latin and Greek origin and 41% representing words of other than the classical origin. The graphical illustration can be seen in the graph below. 1words of other than classical origin

2words of Latin and Greek origin

Fig. 3. Amount of English words of classical origin according to the above mentioned statistics

Later statistics was applied according to whether words of classical origin found earlier were of Greek or Latin origin. It was found out that from all the words of classical origin (2048) there are 311 words, that is 15% of Greek and the rest, that is 1737 (85%) of Latin origin. This fact can be observed in the following graph. 1words of Greek origin

2words of Latin origin

Fig. 4. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin according to the above mentioned statistics

As all the words of classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity are present in the appendix 4., consequently the last graph illustrates the proportion between the words of Latin and Greek origin applied in the above mentioned historical period.

1words of Greek origin

2words of Latin origin

Fig. 5. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin according to appendix 4. . Conclusion

English belongs to the most widely used languages. This fact is not surprising as the English language is the native language of such great nations as USA or Great Britain. In the past English has been in contact with various languages but as the most influential are considered classical languages i.e. Latin and Greek. This work proves that the interference of Greek and Latin on the English language has been enormous. Because we want to show that classical languages have already been extending the Eglish vocabulary from the times of Old English, the work starts with the brief description of the English language development. For illustration, words of classical origin that penetrated into the English language in particular historical periods are presented in each subchapter. As Latin and Greek are not the only languages that helped the English vocabulary to expand there are also mentioned other main influential languages. The following second chapter deals with Greek and Latin in more detail. A list of Greek and Latin affixes is presented as they are used frequently in everyday English. Similarly a lot of English words consists of classical roots representing numerals and so examples of such English words together with classical numerals and bases are applied in this chapter. Moreover, there can be observed examples of Latin abbreviations as they are known and used quite frequently in English. One subchapter is devoted to Greek and Latin religion as we always come across allusions about faith of people and mythology in the field of history. The next third chapter pays attention to the structure of the English vocabulary. The main concern of this chapter is to show the possible distinction between two lexical units i.e. words and terms. The last chapter of the theoretical part concentrates on functional styles and their classification. The chart with functional styles together with their main features is presented. As the purpose of this work is the field of scientific prose style there is the special subchapter dealing with this type of functional style only. In that scientific prose style is the “language” of science there are chosen several fields of science and particular classical examples in the following subchapter. The founding and consistent analysis of words of classical origin is the major interest of the practical part. Because of limitations for this work we chose words of Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity. But for illustration there can be found several examples of words belonging to other historical periods. There are applied five approaches according to which the further analysis of words was made. Each approach is presented in the special subchapter. At first words are placed according to their semantics into the eighteen semantic fields. As these words could also be used outside the group they are classified into it can be stated that such words of classical origin cover large areas of human interests and many of them are used in the everyday English. The second approach provides several examples of words of Latin or Greek origin together with all their forms they occur in the period of Antiquity. The most frequent form of words is the past tense in that they describe historical events. The following third aspect consists in classifying of English words according to whether their present meanings differ from their original one or not. The fact that more words have the same or similar meanings as the classical words they are derived from is obvious from the particular graph. The major task of the fourth approach was the research of English words that have their origin in the same classical word. The number of such words is not very high as it is also evident from the appendix 4. The next etymological point of view shows several examples of words of Latin and Greek origin together with the year they had occured in the English language. From the following statistics it is obvious that words of classical origin cover a great number of English words. Moreover, there is a greater number of words of Latin origin than words of Greek origin in English. These facts can also be seen from particular graphs that accompany this subchapter. This work may serve as a helpful material for further study of Latin and Greek within the English language. It could be a model for the investigation of classical words in other areas than the field of history. Moreover, both teachers and students might benefit from this work as they can enrich their English vocabulary. This work may also extend the knowledge teachers and students have about Greek and Latin and finally about English. Teachers could use the information given in the work during their lessons. Also students would better understand the meaning of English words if they are familiar with Latin and Greek affixes and bases.

Résumé Anglický jazyk patrí k najpoužívanejším svetovým jazykom. Táto skutočnosť nie je prekvapujúca, keďže angličtina je materský jazyk takých mocných krajín ako USA alebo Veľká Británia. V minulosti sa anglický jazyk dostal do kontaktu s rôznymi inými jazykmi, z ktorých za najvplyvnejšie sa považujú dva antické jazyky t.j. latinčina a gréčtina. Táto práca je dôkazom toho, že latinčina a gréčtina mala veľmi veľký vplyv na anglickú slovnú zásobu. Keďže antické jazyky ovplyvňovali slovnú zásobu anglického jazyka už v časoch Starej angličtiny, táto diplomová práca začína stručným historickým vývojom anglického jazyka. V každej podkapitole sú pre ilustráciu uvedené slová antického pôvodu, ktoré prenikali do angličtiny v jednotlivých obdobiach jej vývinu. Taktiež je tu zmienených niekoľko ďalších významných jazykov, ktoré mali vplyv na rozšírenie anglickej slovnej zásoby. Nasledujúca druhá kapitola sa podrobnejšie zaoberá latinským a gréckym jazykom. Sú tu uvedené predpony a prípony antického pôvodu, vzhľadom k faktu, že sa bežne používajú v každodennej angličtine. Navyše, mnoho anglických slov je utvorených z antického základu reprezentujúceho slovný druh číslovky. Preto sa v tejto kapitole nachádzajú príklady takýchto anglických slov spolu s antickými číslovkami a slovnými základmi. Podobným prípadom sú latinské skratky, ktoré sú tiež známe a pomerne často vyskytujúce v angličtine. Keďže v oblasti histórie veľa krát narazíme na zmienky o mytológii a viere človeka, jednu podkapitolu sme venovali antickému náboženstvu. V tretej kapitole sme sa zaoberali slovnou zásobou anglického jazyka a jej štruktúrou. Hlavným cieľom tejto kapitoly je poukázanie na prípadný rozdiel medzi dvomi lexikálnymi jednotkami t.j. slovami a termínmy. Hlavnou problematikou poslednej kapitoly patriacej do teoretickej časti sú Funkčné jazykové štýly a ich klasifikácia. Jednotlivé jazykové štýly sú usporiadané do prehľadnej tabuľky, v ktorej sú naviac uvedené ich hlavné znaky. Keďže zámerom tejto diplomovej práce je výskum v oblasti vedecko-odborného štýlu, jedna podkapitola sa zaoberá výlučne týmto funkčným štýlom. Je zrejmé, že vedecko-odborný štýl je hlavným “jazykovým prostriedkom” v oblasti vedy. Vzhľadom k tomuto faktu sa v tejto kapitole nachádadza niekoľko vedeckých disciplín, v rámci ktorých sú uvedene príklady latinských a gréckych slov. Praktická časť tejto práce pozostávala z vyhľadávania a následnej analýzy slov antického pôvodu. Keďže je táto práca obmedzená počtom strán, zamerali sme sa na slová latinského a gréckeho pôvodu patriace do obdobia Staroveku. Pre ilustráciu sme uviedli aj príklady slov antického pôvodu z iných historických období. Na analýzu jednotlivých slov sme použili päť metód, z ktorých každá zodpovedá osobitnej kapitole. Nájdené slová sme najprv rozdelili podľa ich významu do osemnástich sémantických polí. Keďže roztriedené slová môžu byť použité aj mimo skupiny do ktorej boli zaradené, prišli sme k záveru, že slová antického pôvodu pokrývajú širokú oblasť ľudskej činnosti a záujmov. Taktiež v každodennej angličtine je možné nájsť veľké množstvo slov latinského a gréckeho pôvodu. Druhý prístup poskytuje vzorku slov antického pôvodu, ktoré sú uvedené v ich základnom tvare a tiež vo všetkých ďalších tvaroch v akých sa nachádzajú v období Staroveku. Najčastejšie používanou morfémou je minulý čas slovies, keďže sa odvolávajú na udalosti, ktoré sa odohrali v minulosti. Nesledujúce hľadisko spočíva v roztriedení anglických slov podľa toho, či sa ich súčasný význam odlišuje od pôvodného. Z príslušného grafu je zrejmé, že väčšina anglických slov má v súčasnosti taký istý alebo podobný význam ako slová z ktorých sú odvodené. Dominantnou úlohou štvrtej použitej metódy bolo vyhľadanie anglických slov, ktoré vznikli z rovnakého antického základu. Z prílohy 4. je evidentné, že počet týchto slov nie je veľmi vysoký. Nasledovný etymologický aspekt poskytuje niekoľko príkladov slov latinského a gréckeho pôvodu zároveň s rokmi ich výskytu v anglickom jazyku. Fakt, že angličtina má veľké množstvo slov antického pôvodu vyplýva z nasledovnej štatistiky. Z tejto kapitoly je zrejmé, že väčšina anglických slov má svoj pôvod v latinčine. Konkrétne výsledky výskumu sú znázornené graficky. Táto diplomová práca môže poslúžiť ako pomocný materiál pre ďalšie štúdium latinčiny a gréčtiny v rámci anglického jazyka. Taktiež je možné použiť ju ako vzor pre výskum antických slov v iných oblastiach ako je oblasť histórie. Učitelia aj žiaci by mohli nájsť úžitok v tejto práci a obohatiť si svoju slovnú zásobu a tiež si rozšíriť svoje doterajšie vedemosti o latinčine a gréčtine a nakoniec aj o angličtine. Učitelia môžu používať informácie zahrnuté v práci počas svojich vyučovacích hodín a prednášok. Navyše, znalosť latinských a gréckych prípon, predpôn a základov by mohla pomôcť študentom k lepšiemu porozumeniu významu anglických slov. Bibliography ATKINSON, M. - BRITAIN, D. - CLAHSEN, H. - RADFORD, A. - SPENCER, A.: Linguistics. Cambridge : CUP, 1999. 438 p. ANTRUSHINA, G.B. - AFANASYEVA, O. V. - MOROZOVA, N. N.: English Lexicology. Moscow : Drofa, 2001. 287 p. BERNDT, R.: History of the English Language. Germany : VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie Leipzig, 1982. 240 p. HOPE, J. - WRIGHT, L: Stylistics (A practical coursebook), London: Routledge, 1996. 237 p. HORECKÝ, J. – ŠPAŇÁR, J.: Latinská gramatika. Bratislava : SPN, 1993. 317 p. HORNBY, A.S.: Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictioanry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. 1428 p. CAMBRIDGE Advanced Learner’s Dictionary [CD ROM]. Version 1.0. Cambridge University Press 2003. System requirements: Windows 95/98/NT4/2000/ME/XP CHAMBERS, M. - GREW, R. - HERLIHY, D. - RABB, T.K. - WOLOCH, I. : The Western Experience. Palatino: Ruttle Shaw and Wetherill, 1991. 1331 p. DONALD, M.A.: English Words from Latin and Greek Elements. Tuscon Arizona : The University of Arizona Press, 1980. 290 p. GALPERIN, I.R.: Stylistics. Moscow : Vysšaja škola, 1981. 336 p. GREEN, T.M.: The Greek and Latin Roots of English. New York : Ardsley house, 1990. 156 p. HAYNES, J.: Style. London and New York : Routledge, 1995. 89 p. HRABOVSKÝ, J. – Špaňár, J.: Latinsko-slovenský a slovensko-latinský slovník. Bratislava: SPN, 1987. 1222 p. KRILL, R. M.: Greek and Latin in English Today. USA : Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1990. 250p. KVETKO, P.: English Lexicology. Bratislava: AMOS PedF UK, 1999. 135 p. MCDOWALL, D.: An Illustrated History of Britain. UK : Longman, 1997. 188 p. PASSWORD. Anglický výkladový slovník so sloveskými ekvivalentmi. Bratislava: SPN, 1993. 860 p. PC Translator ® 2002 (GB) [CD ROM]. Version 1.0.0.1. TEOS Trenčín & LangSoft 1989-2002. System requirements: Windows 95/98/NT4/2000/ME/XP

PRACH, V.: Řecko - český slovník. Praha: Scriptum, 1993. 588 p. RASTORGUYEVA, T.A.: A History of English. Moscow : Vysšaja škola, 1983. 347 p. TURNER, G.W.: Stylistics. England: Penguin Books Ltd, 1973. 256 p. VACHEK, J.: Chapters from Modern English Lexicology and Stylistics. Praha : Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, 1991. 221 p. VERDONK, P.: Stylistics. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2002. 124 p. YULE, G.: The Study of Language. Great Britain : Cambridge University Press, 1985. 219 p.

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Appendix 1. GREEK AFFIXES Greek prefixes

Regural form Before vowel Meaning Example amphi- amph- both, around amphitheatre, amphibious ana- an- back, again, up anaesthesia, analogue apo- ap- from, off apologetic cata- cat- down, against, very catadioptre dia- di- through, across, diaglyph, diagonal, between diameter, diaphragm ec- ex- out, out of exaggerate, eccentric en-, em-, el- en-, -em,-el in , into encapsulate, enarthrum endo-, ento- end-, ent- within endoscope epi- ep- upon, to, epicolic, in addition to epicentral exo-, ecto- exo-, -ecto outside, external exodus, exorcise para- par- beside, disordered parachromatopsia peri- peri- around, near perimeter pro- pro- before, in front of prognosis pros- pros- toward, in addition to prostration syn-, sym-, syl-, sy-, sys with, together, alike symbiosis, sympathy

Greek suffixes Noun-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -arch one who rules patriarch, monarch -cracy rule by, type of government democracy -crat one who advocates or practices rule by bureaucrat -gram thing written autogram -graph writing, instrument for writing barograph, autograph -graphy writing, art or science of writing calligraphy -ician specialist in, practitioner of physician, electrician -ite one connected with, inhabitant of (also used to denote chemicals, minerals..) anthracite -ma, -m, -me result of dilemma, stigma -mania madness about, passion for bibliomania, pyromania -maniac one having a madness or passion for kleptomaniac -meter measure, instrument for measuring, photometer, number of feet in poetry speedometer -metry art or science of measuring geometry -nomy science of, system of laws physiognomy -phobia abnormal fear of homophobia, pedophobia - phobe one who fears or hates Anglophobe -sis, -se, -sy, -sia act of, state of, result of synthesis, amnesia -scope instrument for viewing, to view thermoscope, rhinoscope Appendix 2. LATIN AFFIXES

Latin prefixes

Prefix Meaning Example ad-, ac- to, toward adopt, admit, adhere ambi- both, around ambient, ambiguity ante- before, in front of antecedent, anteroom con-, com-, co- with, together, very cooperate, cohabit contra-, contro- against contrary, contradict de- down, of, thoroughly deprecate, defrost e-, ef-, ex- out, from, completely exacerbate, effective, ex -wife infra- below, beneath infralinear, infrapatellar inter- between, among interaction, intercession intra-, intro- within introduce, introvert non- not noncomformity ob-, oc- toward, against, completely obstruct, obdurability per- through, wrongly, completely perambulate, perdition pre- before, in front of preside, premature pro- forward, in front of, for probation, prognosis re-, red- back, again reactivate, realign retro- backward, behind retrograde, retrospect se-, sed- aside, away separate, secret tra-, tran-, trans- across, through transcontinental ultra beyond, exceedingly ultralight, ultraviolent

Latin suffixes

Adjective-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -acious tending to, inclined to audacious -an, -ane, -ian pertaining to, like, belonging to, Lutheran, optician, having the character of suburban -ar pertaining to, like, belonging to, triangular, popular, having the character of spectacular -ate possessing, being, characterized by passionate, affectionate -ic, -tic pertaining to, like romantic , scenic, plastic -id tending to, inclined to stupid, lurid -il, -ile pertaining to, like, belonging to, sterile, fragile having the character of senile -ile able to be, able to, tending to reptile -ine pertaining to, like, of feminine -itious tending to, characterized by repetitious -u(lent), -(o)lent full of, disposed to malevolent, turbulent -ory tending to, serving for illusory, advisory -ose, -iose full of verbose -ulous tending to, inclined to tremulous -ous tending to, inclined to conspicious, poisonous

Noun-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -acity quality of being inclined to capacity -acy quality or state of being or having adequacy, federacy -i(mony) quality of , state of harmony -(i)tude quality of, state of exactitude, latitude -ity, -ety, -ty quality of, state of polarity, variety -(u)lence, -(o)lence state or quality of being full of violence, turbulence -men result of, means of, act of, state of specimen -ory ,-orium place for laboratory, observatory -rix she who does testatrix -ure act of, result of pleasure, posture -y quality of, state of, act of, result of affinity, sterility

Verb-forming suffixes Suffix Meaning Example -esce to begin, to become coalesce -(i)fy, -(e)fy to make verify, specify, crucify The diminutive suffix In Latin a diminutive suffix was used to reflect smallness of an object.

Suffix Meaning Example -cule, -(i)cle little folicule, clavicle -el little vessel -il(e) little chervil, codicil -ol(e), -ule little capsule Appendix 3. THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY ACCORDING TO GALPERIN (1981, p.71) Appendix 4. WORDS OF CLASSICAL ORIGIN BELONGING TO THE PERIOD OF ANTIQUITY (3200 B.C – 500) abduct Latin (abducere) lead away ability Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handy abolish Latin (abolescere) to die out, decay little by little abrupt Latin (abruptus) broken off, precipitous, disconnected absent Latin (absentem) be away absolute Latin (absolutus) to set free, make separate absorb Latin (absorbere) to swallow up absurd Latin (absurdus) out of tune, senseless abstract Latin (abstrahere) to drag away abundant Latin (abundantia) fullness abyss Greek (abyssos) bottomless acanthus Greek (akanthos ) flower with thorns accept Latin (acceptare) take or receive willingly accelerate Latin (accelerare) quicken accident Latin (accidentum) happen, fall out accompany Latin (companionem) bread fellow, messmate accomplish Latin (accomplere) to fill up account Latin (computare) calculate accumulate Latin (accumulare) to heap up in a mass acquisition Latin (acquirere) get in addition accuracy Latin (accuratus) prepared with care, exact acquiesce Latin (acquiescere) to have a rest acquire Latin (aequirere) gain, profit acropolis Greek (akropolis) citadel act Latin (agere) to do actual Latin (actualis) active acute Latin (acutus) sharp, pointed add Latin (addere) add to, join address Latin (directus) straight, direct adequate Latin (æquus) level, even, just adjust Latin (adjuxtare) to bring near administer Latin (administrare) serve, manage admire Latin (admiratus) admire adopt Latin (adoptare) to choose adorn Latin (ordo) order adult Latin (adultus) grow up, mature adultery Latin (adulterare) to corrupt advance Latin (abante) from before adverse Latin (adversus) turned against, hostile advice Latin (mi est visum) in my view advocate Latin (advocatus) to call aegis Greek (Aigis) the shield of Zeus or Athena aesthete Greek (aisthanesthai) to perceive, to feel affect Latin (affectre) to strive after, to affect, influence affirm Latin (affirmare) to make steady, strengthen, corroborate affront Latin (frons) forehead age Latin (aevum) lifetime, period of life agent Latin (agere) to do aggression Latin (aggredi) to approach, attack agora Greek (ageirein) to assemble agriculture Latin (agri + cultura) cultivation of land aim Latin (aestimare) appraise alien Latin (alienus) of or belonging to another allege Latin (allegare) to dispatch, cite ally Latin (alligare) bind to alluvial Latin (alluere) wash against almanac Greek (almenichiakon) calendar alphabet Greek (alphabetos) Greek alpha and beta altar Latin (altare) burnt offerings amateur Latin (amatorem) lover ambiguity Latin (ambiguus) having double meaning, shifting, changeable, doubtful ambition Latin (ambitus)to go around amenity Latin (amoenus) pleasant amnesty Greek (amnestia) oblivion amount Latin (admontem) mountain analogy Greek (analogia) proportion analysis Greek (analyein) to break up anarch Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leader ancestor Latin (antecedere) precede anchor Greek (ankyra) anchor, hook ancient Latin (ante) before angel Greek (angelos) messenger annex Latin (annexare) to bind to annihilate Latin (annihilare) to reduce to nothing anonym Greek (anonymos) without a name anthropomorphic Greek (anthropos) human being antique Latin (antquus) former, ancient anual Latin (annus) year anxiety Latin (anxietatem) anger apathy Greek (apathes) without feeling apex Latin (apex) summit, peak, tip apostle Greek (apostellein) send away, send forth appeal Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon, name appear Latin (apparere) to appear appease Latin (pacem) peace approach Latin (appropiare) go nearer appropriate Latin (appropriatus) to make one's own April Latin (Aprilis) (month) of Venus aqueduct Latin (aquæductus) conveyance of water arbitrary Latin (arbitrarius) witness, judge arch Latin (arcus) a bow, arch archeology Greek (archaiologia) archeology archetype Greek (archetypos) archetypal architect Latin (architectus) architect archive Greek (arche) rule, government archon Greek (arkhon) ruler area Latin (area) flat piece of unoccupied land, open space arena Latin (harena) place of combat aristocracy Greek (aristokratia) government, rule of the best arm Latin (armata) to arm, act of arming arrogance Latin (arrogantem) assuming, overbearing, insolent art Latin (ars) art article Latin (artus) joint, limb artifice Latin (artificium) of or belonging to art ascetic Greek (askein) to exercise, train, to train for athletic competition, practice aspect Latin (aspectus) seeing, looking, appearance assemble Latin (assimulare) to make like, think like, to gather together assert Latin (serere) join, connect assess Latin (taxare) to evaluate, estimate assign Latin (assignare) to mark out, to allot by sign assist Latin (assistere) assist, stand by associate Latin (associatus) join with assume Latin (assumere) to take up aster Latin (aster) star astonish Latin (extonare) to thunder astrology Greek (astrologia) telling of the stars astronomy Greek (astronomia) arranging, regulating of stars athlete Greek (athletes) contestant in the games atmosphere Greek (atmosphaera) the air of a locality atom Greek (atomos) uncut atrium Latin (atrium) central court or main room of an ancient Roman house atrocity Latin (atrocitatem) cruelty attempt Latin (temptare) to try, test attend Latin (attendere) give heed to, to stretch toward attention Latin (attentus) to heed attitude Latin (aptitudinem) fit attract Latin (trahere) to draw, pull attribute Latin (attributus) assign to audacity Latin (audacis) brave audience Latin (audire) to hear audit Latin (audire) to hear aura Greek (aura) breath, breeze austere Greek (austeros) bitter, harsh authentic Greek (authentes) one acting on one's own authority author Latin (auctor) enlarger, founder authority Latin (auctor) enlarger, founder autocracy Greek (autokrates) ruling by oneself automatic Greek (automatos) self-acting autonomy Greek (autonomos) independent, living by one's own laws avenge Latin (vindicare) to claim, avenge, punish axis Latin (axis) axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky balance Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans bankrupt Latin (rupta) to break baptize Greek (baptizein) to immerse barbar Greek (barbaros) foreign, strange, ignorant barber Latin (barba) beard barrage Latin (barra) bar, barrier base Latin (bassus) thick, stumpy, low beast Latin (bestia) wild creature beauty Latin (bellus) fine, beautiful benefactor Latin (benefactum) good deed benefit Latin (benefactum) good deed besiege Latin (sedere) sit bias Greek (epikarsios) slanting, oblique bible Greek (biblion) paper, scroll, the ordinary word for book bill Latin (bulla) decree, seal, document, amulet for the neck biography Greek (biographia) biograhpy biology Greek (biologia) study of life bishop Greek (episkopos) watcher, overseer blasphemy Greek (blasphemein) to speak evil of bound Latin (bodina) boundary, boundary marker branch Latin (branca) a claw, paw brave Latin (pravus) crooked, depraved brilliant Latin (berillus) beryl, precious stone bronze Latin (bronzium) bronze brute Latin (brutus) heavy, dull, stupid bucolic Greek (boukolos) herdsman burlesque Latin (burra) trifle, nonsense, flock of wool bust Latin (bustum) funeral monument, tomb, funeral pyre calamity Latin (calamitatem) damage, disaster, adversity calculate Latin (calculus) reckoning, account, pebble used in counting calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month camera Greek (kamara) vaulted chamber camp Latin (campus) open field campaign Latin (campus) a field canal Latin (canna) reed cancel Latin (cancelli) grating, lattice candidate Latin (candidatus) white-robed canon Greek (kanon) rule capacity Latin (capere) to take capital Latin ( caput) head captive Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize capture Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize career Latin (carrus) chariot, car cartography Latin+ Greek (carta graphein) cartography castrate Latin (castrationem) to castrate, prune catacomb Latin (catacumbae) the region of underground tombs catalog Greek (katalogos) a list, register catastrophe Greek (katastrephein) to overturn catholic Greek (katholikos) universal, general cause Latin (causa) a cause, reason, judicial process, lawsuit cavalry Latin (caballus) horse cede Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leave celebrate Latin (celebratus) to frequent in great numbers, assemble to honor celibacy Latin (cælebs) unmarried cell Latin (cella) small room, hut cemetery Greek (koiman) to put to sleep census Latin (censere) to appraise, value, judge center Greek (kentein) to prick century Latin (centum) hundred ceremony Latin (cærimonia) awe, reverent rite certain Latin (certus) determined, decide chain Latin (catena) chain challenge Latin (calumnia) trickery chamber Latin (camera) a chamber, room champion Latin (campus) field (of combat) chance Latin (cadentem) to fall change Latin (cambire) exchange channel Latin (canalis) groove, channel, waterpipe chant Latin (canere) sing chaos Greek (khaos) abyss, that which gapes wide open, is vast and empty chapter Latin (caput) head character Greek (kharax) pointed stake chariot Latin (carrum) chariot charisma Greek (charis) grace, beauty, kindness charm Latin (canere) to sing chaste Latin (castus) pure, chaste cheap Latin (caupo) petty tradesman, huckster chief Latin (caput) head chisel Latin (caesellum) to cut chivalry Latin (caballus) a horse choir Latin (chorus) choir choral Latin (chorus) choir chronicle Greek (chronika, biblia) (books of) annals chronology Greek (chronlogy) chronology church Greek (kyrios) ruler, lord circle Latin (circulus) small ring circuit Latin (circuitus) a going around circulate Latin (circulare) to form a circle circumstance Latin (circumstare) stand around circus Greek (kirkos) a circle citadel Latin (civis) townsman city Latin (civis) townsman civivilian Latin (civis) townsman claim Latin (clamare) to cry out, shout clan Latin (planta) offshoot class Latin (classis) political class clause Latin (clausula) a closing, termination clergy Greek (kleros) lot, inheritance client Latin (cliens) follower, retainer climate Greek (klinein) to slope, slope of the Earth from equator to pole climax Greek (klinein) to slope clinic Greek (klinikos) of the bed close Latin (claudere) to close, block up, put an end to, enclose, confine coalition Latin (coalitus) fellowship coast Latin (costa) a rib code Latin (caudex) trunk of a tree, block of wood, book, set of statutes coerce Latin (coercere) to control, restrain coherent Latin (cohærentem) cohere coin Latin (cuneus) a wedge coincide Latin (coincidere) to fall upon coliseum Latin (colosseum) amphitheater of Vespasian at Rome collaborate Latin (collaborare) work with collapse Latin (collapsus) fall together collateral Latin (collateralis) accompanying, side by side collect Latin (collectus) gather together collision Latin (collidere) strike together colonnade Latin (columna) pillar colony Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice, tend, guard, respect color Latin (colos) a covering, conceal colossal Greek (kolossos) giant column Latin (columna) pillar, top, summit combat Latin (combattere) to beat, fight combine Latin (combinatio) joining comedy Greek (komodios) singer in the revels comfort Latin (confortare) to strengthen much command Latin (commendare) to recommend commemorate Latin (commemorare) to call to mind comment Latin (comminisci) to contrive, devise commerce Latin (commercium) trade, trafficking commission Latin (commissionem) delegation of business commit Latin (committere) person to whom something is committed commodity Latin (commoditatems) fitness, adaptation common Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or many communicate Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or many company Latin (companio) bread fellow, messmate comparative Latin (comparare) make equal with, liken comparison Latin (comparare) make equal with, liken compass Latin (compassare) to pace out compassion Latin (compati) to feel pity compel Latin (compellere) to drive together compensate Latin (compensare) to weigh one thing (against another) compete Latin (competere) strive in common, to come together, agree compilation Latin (compilare) to snatch together, plunder, heap complete Latin (completus) fill complex Latin (plectere) to plait component Latin (componere) to put together composite Latin (compositus) to put together compose Latin (pausare) to cease, lay down comprise Latin (comprehendere) contain, involve compromise Latin (compromissus) to make a mutual promise compulsion Latin (compellere) compel compute Latin (computare) to count, sum up comrade Greek (kamara) vaulted chamber concentrate Latin (centrum) centre concept Latin (concipere) to take in concern Latin (concernere) to sift, mix, as in a sieve conclude Latin (concludere) to shut up, enclose concrete Latin (concrescere) to grow together concubine Latin (concubina) to lie with condition Latin (condicionem) agreement, situation conduct Latin (conductus) to lead or bring together confederate Latin (confoederatus) to unite by a league confer Latin (conferre) to bring together, compare confess Latin (confessus) to acknowledge confidence Latin (confidentem) to trust confiscate Latin (confiscare) confiscate conflict Latin (conflictus) to strike together confront Latin (confrontare) assign limits, adjoin confuse Latin (confundere) to pour together, to confuse congenial Latin (comgenialis) agreeable congregate Latin (congregare) to herd together conglomerate Latin (conglomeratus) to roll together, a ball connect Latin (connectere) to fasten together conquer Latin (quaerere) seek conscience Latin (conscientia) knowledge within oneself, a moral sense consequence Latin (consequentem) to follow after consider Latin (considerare) to observe, think about consist Latin (consistere) to stand firm consolidate Latin (consolidare) to make solid constant Latin (stare) to stand constitution Latin (constitutus) to fix, establish construct Latin (construere) pile up together, build consult Latin (consulere) to deliberate, take counsel consume Latin (consumptionem) a using up, wasting contact Latin (contactus) a touching contemporary Latin (contemporarius) with time contempt Latin (contemptus) scorn contend Latin (contendere) to stretch out, strive after contest Latin (contestari) to call to witness, bring action context Latin (contextus) a joining together continent Latin (continentem) hold together continue Latin (continuus) uninterrupted contradict Latin (contradicere) speak against contrast Latin (contrastare) to withstand contribute Latin (contribuere) bring in together, to grant control Latin(contrarotulare) check against a duplicate register controversy Latin (controversus) disputed, turned against convene Latin (convenire) unite, be suitable, agree convention Latin (convenire) come together conversate Latin (conversationem) act of living with convert Latin (convertere) turn around, transform convey Latin (conviare) to accompany on the way convict Latin (convictus) life togehter copper Greek (Kupros) Cyprus copy Latin (copia) plenty, means core Latin (cor) heart corporate Latin (corpus) body corpus Latin (corpus) body correct Latin (corrigere) make straight, put right correspond Latin (correspondere) correspond corrupt Latin (corruptus) to destroy, spoil, bribe cosmopolitan Greek (kosmopolites) citizen of the world cosmos Greek (kosmos) orderly arrangement council Latin (concilium) group of people, meeting counsel Latin (consilium) plan, opinion country Latin (contra) opposite courage Latin (cor) heart, which remains a common metaphor for inner strength course Latin (cursus) a running race or course court Latin (cortem) enclosed space courtesan Latin (cortem) enclosed space covenant Latin (convenire) come together create Latin (creare) bring forth, make, produce creature Latin (creatura) thing created credible Latin (credibilis) that can be believed credit Latin (credere) entrust, believe creed Latin (credo) to believe, heart to put crime Latin (cernere) to decide, to sift crisis Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge criterion Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge critic Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge cross Latin (crux) cross crown Latin (corona) crown, wreath, garland crucial Latin (crux) cross crucify Latin (crucifigere) to fasten to a cross crude Latin (crudus) raw, rough cruel Latin (crudelis) cruel cubicle Latin (cubare) to lie down, bend oneself cult Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worship cultivate Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worship, tended, cultivated culture Latin (colere) inhabit, cultivate cuneiform Latin (cuneus) wedge cure Latin (cura) care, concern, trouble currency Latin (currentum) to run cursive Latin (cursus) a running custom Latin (suescere) become accustomed cycle Greek (kyklos) circle, wheel cylinder Greek (kylindein) to roll cynic Greek (kynikos) dog-like dagger Latin (daca) Dacian knife danger Latin (dominus) lord, master date Greek (daktylos) date, finger, toe deacon Greek (diakonos) servant of the church, religious official debt Latin (debere) owe decade Greek (dekas) group of ten decapitate Latin (decapitatus) cut off a head decease Latin (decessus) death, departure December Latin (decem) ten decision Latin (decisionem) decision, agreement declare Latin (declarare) make clear decline Latin (declinare) to bend from, inflect decorate Latin (decus) an ornament decree Latin (decretum) to decree, decide, pronounce a decision deduce Latin (ducere) to lead defeat Latin (diffacere) undo, destroy defect Latin (deficere) to fail, desert define Latin (definire) to limit, determine, explain degree Latin (degredare) to step deliberate Latin (deliberare) to consider carefully delicate Latin (delicatus) alluring, delightful, dainty, addicted to pleasure delta Greek (daleth) tent door demagogue Greek (demagogos) leader of the people demand Latin (demandare) entrust, charge with a commission deme Greek (demos) people, land democracy Greek (demokratia) rule for common people demon Greek. (daimon) lesser god, guiding spirit, tutelary deity demonstrate Latin (demonstrare) to point out, show depart Latin (departire) divide depend Latin (dependere) hang down depict Latin (depictus) to paint down deposit Latin (deponere) lay aside, put down, deposit depress Latin (deprimere) press down descend Latin (descendere) to climb down description Latin (describere) write down, transcribe, copy, sketch desert Latin (deserere) forsake, to abandon designate Latin (designare) mark out, devise despot Greek (despotes) master of a household, lord, absolute ruler destiny Latin (destinare) make firm, establish destroy Latin (destruere) undo results of building destruction Latin (destruere) tear down detect Latin (detectus) uncover, disclose determine Latin (determinare) set limits to devastate Latin (devastare) lay waste completely device Latin (divisus) to divide devil Greek (diabolos) accuser, slanderer devote Latin (devotionem) dedicate by a vow diadem Greek (diadein) to bind across diagnosis Greek (diagignoskein) discern, distinguish diagonal Greek (diagonios) from angle to angle dialect Greek (dialegesthai) converse with each other dialogue Greek (dialogos) speak across diameter Greek (diametros) diagonal of a circle diaspora Greek (diaspeirein) to scatter about, disperse dictate Latin (dictare) say often, prescribe different Latin (differre) distinguish from difficult Latin (difficilis) not easy diffuse Latin (diffundere) scatter, pour out digest Latin (digerere) to separate, divide, arrange dignity Latin (dignus) worthy, proper, fitting dilemma Greek (dilemma) double proposition diligent Latin (diligere) value highly, love, choose dimension Latin (dimetri) to measure out diploma Latin (diploma) official document conferring a privilege direct Latin (directus) straight disaster Greek (dis- + astron) away, without stars discipline Latin (disciplina) instruction given to a disciple discover Latin (discooperire) uncover discrete Latin (discernere) to separate, distinguish discuss Latin (discutere) dash to pieces disk Greek (dikein) throw dismember Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, part disparity Latin (disparitatem) inequality disperse Latin (dispergere) to disperse display Latin (displicare) to scatter dispute Latin (disputare) to discuss disrupt Latin (disrumpere) break apart, split distant Latin (distantem) standing apart, separate, distant distinct Latin (distinguere) define, orientate distort Latin (distorquere) to twist different ways, distort distribute Latin (distribuere) deal out in portions disturb Latin (disturbare) throw into disorder diverse Latin (diversus) different in character or quality divine Latin (divus) god division Latin (dividere) to divide divorce Latin (divertere) to separate, leave one's husband, turn aside docile Latin (docere) teach doctrine Latin (doctor) teacher document Latin (docere) to show, teach dogma Greek (dokein) to seem good, think domain Latin (domus) house dome Greek (doma) house, housetop dominant Latin (dominari) to dominate dominate Latin (dominari) to dominate donate Latin (donum) gift doubt Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion, to have to choose between two things doury Latin (durus) hard dozen Latin (duodecim) twelve drachma Greek (drakhme) an Attic coin and weight, a handful drama Greek (dran) to do, act, perform drastic Greek (dran) to do, act, perform dual Latin (duo) two duke Latin (ducere) to lead duplicate Latin (duplicatus) to double duty Latin (debitus) to owe dynamic Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power dynasty Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power echo Greek (ekho) sound eclipse Greek (ekleipein) to orsake a usual place, fail to appear, be eclipsed eclogue Greek (ekloge) selection economy Greek (oikonomos) manager, steward ecumenical Greek (oikos) house, habitation edict Latin (edicere) publish, proclaim educate Latin (educatus) bring up, rear, educate efface Latin (facies) face effect Latin (efficere) work out, accomplish efficient Latin (efficere) to do, make elaborate Latin (elaborare) work out, produce by labor elect Latin (electionem) pick out, select elegant Latin (elegantem) choice, fine, tasteful element Latin (elementum) element elevate Latin (elevatus) lift up, raise eliminate Latin (ex limine) off the threshold elite Latin (eligere) choose eloquent Latin (eloqui) speak out emancipate Latin (emancipare) declare (someone) free, give up one's authority over embryo Greek (embryon) young animal, fruit of the womb, that which grows emergence Latin (mergere) dive, plunge eminent Latin (eminentem) stand out, project emotion Latin (emovere) move out, remove, agitate emperor Latin (imperare) to command emphasis Greek (emphainein) to show, indicate empire Latin (imperare) to command encounter Latin (incontra) in front of endow Latin (dotare) bestow endure Latin (indurare) make hard enemy Latin (inimicus) enemy, unfriendly energy Greek (energos) active enforce Latin (fortis) strong engineer Latin (ingenium) ability enjoy Latin (gaudere) rejoice enlarge Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentiful, liberal enormous Latin (enormis) irregular, extraordinary, very large enter Latin (intra) within enthusiasm Greek (entheos) inspired, possessed by a god entitle Latin (intitulare) inscription title envoy Latin (inviare) send on one's way envy Latin (invidere) envy, cast an evil eye upon ephor Greek (ephoros) overseer epic Greek (epos) word, story, poem epicure Greek (Epicouros) Athenian philosopher epigram Greek (epigraphein) to write on, inscribe episode Greek (epeisodion) addition epistle Latin (epistellein) send to epitome Greek (epitemnein) cut short, abridge epoch Greek (epekhein) to pause, take up a position equal Latin (æquus) level, even, just equator Latin (æquare) make equal, equate equestrian Latin (equus) horse equivalent Latin (aequivalere) to have equal power era Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coin erect Latin (erigere) raise or set up erosion Latin (erodere) gnaw away erupt Latin (erumpere) break out, burst forth escape Latin (excappare) get out of one's cape eschatology Greek (eskhatos) last, furthest, remote establish Latin (stabilis) stable estimate Latin (aestimare) to value, estimate, assess ethics Greek (ethos) moral character ethnic Greek (ethnos) band of people living together, nation, people evacuate Latin (tradere) deliver, surrender evaluate Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of value event Latin (evenire) to come out, happen, result evident Latin (videre) see evolve Latin (evolvere) unroll exact Latin (exigere) to drive out, demand, measure exaggerate Latin (exaggeratus) heighten, amplify, magnify examine Latin (exigere) weigh accurately example Latin (emere) take excavate Latin (excavatus) to hollow out exceed Latin (excedere) depart, go beyond excellent Latin (excellentem) elevated except Latin (exceptus) take out excercise Latin (arcere) to restrain excess Latin (excedere) to depart, go beyond exclusive Latin (excludere) isolate, exclude execute Latin (executivus) throw, cut, shot exegesis Greek (exegeisthai) explain, interpret exempt Latin (eximere) release, remove exile Latin (exul) banished person exist Latin (existere) stand forth, appear exodus Greek (exodus) a going out exotic Greek (exotikos) foreign, from the outside expand Latin (expansum) to extend expedient Latin (expedire) make fit or ready, prepare expedite Latin (expeditus) make fit or ready, prepare, free the feet from fetters expend Latin (expendere) pay out expense Latin (expensa) disbursement experience Latin (experientia) try experiment Latin (experiri) try out expert Latin (experiri) try out expiate Latin (expiare) atone completely explain Latin (explanationem) to make plain or clear, explain explicit Latin (explicitus) unfold, unravel, explain exploit Latin (explicitum) a thing settled, ended, displayed explore Latin (explorare) investigate, search out explode Latin (explodere) drive out by clapping exponent Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain export Latin (exportare) carry away expose Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain expound Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain express Latin (expressare) represent, describe, to press out expulsion Latin (expellere) drive out exquisite Latin (exquisitus) carefully sought out extend Latin (extendere) stretch out external Latin (externus) outside, outward extinct Latin (extinguere) quench, wipe out, obliterate extirpate Latin (extirpare) root out extort Latin (torquere) to twist extract Latin (extractus) draw out extraordinary Latin (extraordinarius) out of order extravagant Latin (extravagans) wander, special extreme Latin (extremus) outermost, utmost exuberant Latin (exuberare) be abundant, grow luxuriously fable Latin (fabula) story, play, fable, that which is told face Latin (facies) appearance, form, figure facile Latin (facilis) easy fact Latin (facere) do, make faculty Latin (facultatem) power, ability, wealth fail Latin (fallere) deceive, be lacking or defective faith Latin (fidere) to trust falcon Latin (falx) sickle family Latin (famulus) servant fame Latin (fama) story, rumour fanatic Latin (fanum) temple fantasy Greek (phainesthai) appear, to imagine, have visions farm Latin (firmus) firm fascinate Latin (fascinare) bewitch, enchant fatal Latin (fatalis) ordained by fate fate Latin (fatum) thing spoken (by the gods), one's destiny favor Latin (favorem) good will or support feature Latin (facere) make, do, perform federate Latin (foedus) a league ferment Latin (fervere) to boil, seethe fertile Latin (fertilis) rich, productive fest Latin (festum) feast fiction Latin (fingere) to shape, form, devise, feign, to knead, form out of clay fidelity Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherence figure Latin (fingere) make, shape final Latin (finis) end finance Latin (finis) end fine Latin (finis) end fiscal Latin (fiscus) treasury, purse, basket made of twigs fix Latin (fixus) to fix, fasten florin Latin (florem) flower flower Latin (florem) flower fluid Latin (fluere) to flow focus Latin (focus) hearth, fireplace foil Latin (fullo) one who cleans cloth, fuller force Latin (fortia) strong foreign Latin (foris) outside, out of doors form Latin (forma) mold, shape, beauty formidable Latin (formido) terror, dread fortify Latin (fortis) strong fortune Latin (fortuna) chance, luck forum Latin (forum) marketplace founding Latin (fundatus) a founding fragment Latin (frangere) break frenzy Latin (phrenesia) delirious frequent Latin (frequentare) visit regularly friction Latin (fricare) to rub frieze Latin (frisium) embroidered border front Latin (frontem) forehead, that which projects fruit Latin (fructus) fruit, produce, profit frustrate Latin (frustratus) to deceive, disappoint, frustrate fuel Latin (focalia) right to demand material for making fire function Latin (fungi) to perform fund Latin (fundus) bottom, piece of land fundamental Latin (fundamentum) foundation fury Latin (furia) violent passion, rage, madness future Latin (futurus) going to be, about to be genealogy Greek (genealogia) genealogy general Latin (genus) race, kind genius Latin (gignere) beget, produce gentile Latin (gens) race, clan genuine Latin (gignere) beget geocentric Greek (geocentric) in the centre of earth geography Greek (geographia) description of the earth's surface geometry Greek (geometria) measurement of earth or land, geometry germ Latin (germen) sprout, bud gesture Latin (gestus) gesture, carriage, posture gladiator Latin (gladius) sword glory Latin (gloria) great praise or honor glutton Latin (gula) throat gorgon Greek (gorgos) terrible govern Greek (kubernan) steer or pilot, ship, direct grace Latin (gratus) pleasing, agreeable grade Latin (gradus) to walk, step, go grain Latin (granum) seed grammar Greek (graphein) to draw or write grand Latin (grandis) big, great, full-grown grandiose Latin (grandis) big granite Latin (granum) grain grant Latin (credentem) to believe, to trust gravity Latin (gravis) heavy grief Latin (gravis) weighty griffin, gryphon Greek (gryps) curved, hook-nosed grocer Latin (grossus) coarse (of food), great, gross gulf Greek (kolpos) bay, gulf, bosom gymnasion Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train naked gymnasium Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train naked habit Latin (habitus) condition, demeanor, appearance, dress harmony Greek (harmos) joint, harmony hegemony Greek (hegeisthai) to lead heir Latin (heres) heir, heiress helot Greek (Heilotes) helots hero Greek (heros) demi-god, defender, protector hexameter Greek (hexametros) six meters hierarchy Greek (hierarches) high priest, leader of sacred rites hieroglyph Greek (hieroglyphe) sacred carving history Greek (histor) learned man homicide Latin (homicidium) act of killing of a man homosexual Greek (homos+sexus) same sex honor Latin (honorem) honor, dignity, office, reputation horizon Greek (horizein) bound, limit, divide, separate horror Latin (horrere) to bristle with fear, shudder host Latin (hostis) enemy, stranger hostage Latin (obses) hostage hostile Latin (hostis) enemy human Latin (humanus) human being humiliate Latin (humilis) humble hygiene Greek (hygies) healthy, living well hymn Greek (hymnos) song or ode in praise of gods or heroes hypocrisy Greek (hypokrinesthai) play a part, pretend, answer hypothesis Greek (hypothesis) base, basis of an argument, supposition, a placing under hysteria Greek (hystera) womb idea Greek. (idein) to see identical Latin (identitas) identity, the same identity Latin (identitas) identity, the same idiot Greek (idiotes) layman, person lacking professional skill idol Greek (eidos) form illusion Latin (illudere) mock at, to play with illustrate Latin (illustrare) light up, embellish, distinguish imagine Latin (imaginari) imagine imitate Latin (imitatari) to copy, portray, imitate immense Latin (immensus) immeasurable, boundless immutable Latin (immutabilis) unchangeable impact Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash against imperative Latin (imperare) to command imperial Latin (imperialis) of the empire or emperor impetus Latin (impetus) attack, assault, onset, impulse, violence, vigor, force, passion implicit Latin (implicitus) prove, make out import Latin (importare) bring in, convey impress Latin (imprimere) press in impulse Latin (impulsus) a push against, pressure, shock, incitement, instigation incest Latin (incestus) unchaste, impure inches Latin (uncia) a twelfth part include Latin (includere) to close incorporate Latin (incorporare) unite into one body increase Latin (increscere) to grow incredible Latin (incredibilis) that cannot be believed indicate Latin (indicare) point out, show indispensable Latin (indispensabilis) indivisible individual Latin (individuus) indivisible industry Latin (industria) diligence, to build infantry Latin (infantem) infant inflate Latin (inflare) blow into, puff up influence Latin (influentem) to flow into inform Latin (informationem) outline, concept, idea infuriate Latin (in furia) in a fury infusion Latin (infundere) to pour into ingenious Latin (ingenium) inborn talent inhabitant Latin (inhabitare) to live in inherit Latin (inhereditare) to appoint as heir initiate Latin (inire) to go into, enter upon, begin innovate Latin (innovatus) to renew or change inquire Latin (inquirere) inquire inscription Latin (inscriptus) to write on or in anything insect Latin (insectum) animal with a notched or divided body, cut into insist Latin (insistere) persist, dwell upon, stand upon inspirate Latin (inspirare) inspire, inflame, blow into instance Latin (instantia) presence, earnestness, urgency, a standing near institute Latin (institutionem) institution instruct Latin (instructus) arrange, inform, teach instrument Latin (instruere) arrange, furnish insult Latin (insultare) to assail, to leap upon intact Latin (intactus) untouched, uninjured integer Latin (integer) whole intellect Latin (intellectus) intellect, concept, sense intelligent Latin (intelligentem) discerning intensity Latin (intendere) to stretch out, strain intercession Latin (intercessionem) a going between interest Latin (interresse) to concern, make a difference, be of importance interior Latin (interior) inner internal Latin (intern) within, between interpret Latin (interpres) agent, translator interrupt Latin (interruptus) break apart, break off interval Latin (intervallum) space between palisades or ramparts intervene Latin (intervenire) to come between, interrupt intimate Latin (intimare) make known, announce intricate Latin (intricatus) entangled intrigue Latin (intricare) entangle intrinsic Latin (intrinsecus) interior, internal introduce Latin (introductus) to lead in, bring in, to introduce introspection Latin (introspicere) to look into, look at intrude Latin (intrusus) to thrust, push invade Latin (invadere) to invade invent Latin (inventus) devise, discover, find invest Latin (investire) to clothe in, cover, surround investigate Latin (vestigium) footprint, track invincible Latin (invincibilis) unconquerable invoke Latin (invocare) call upon, implore iris Greek (iris) a lily, iris of the eye, messenger of the gods irony Greek (eiron) dissemble irrigate Latin (irrigare) to water isolate Latin (insula) island issue Latin (exire) go out isthmus Greek (isthmos) narrow neck of land item Latin (item) likewise, just so January Latin (Januarius (mensis)) (the month) of Janus jealous Greek (zelos) jealousy, enthusiasm jewel Latin (jocus) pastime, sport journal Latin (diurnalis) daily judge Latin (judicem) to judge July Latin (Julius) name of a Roman gens jury Latin (jurata) an oath, an inquest justice Latin (justus) upright, just labor Latin (laborare) toil, pain labyrinth Greek (labyrinthos) maze, large building with intricate passages lake Latin (lacus) pond, lake, basin, tank lamp Greek (lampein) to shine language Latin (lingua) tongue, speech, language lapse Latin (lapsus) a slipping and falling, flight (of time), falling into error large Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentiful laurel Latin (laurus) laurel tree league Latin (ligare) to bind legal Latin (lex) law legend Latin (legenda) legend, story, (things) to be read legible Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to read legion Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to read legislate Latin (legis lator) proposer of a law leisure Latin (licere) be permitted lethargy Greek (lethargos) forgetful, inactive through forgetfulness latrine Latin (lavatrina) washbasin, washroom letter Latin (littera) letter of the alphabet level Latin (libra) balance, scales lever Latin (levare) to raise lexicography Greek (lexikographos) to write wordbook liberate Latin (liber) free library Latin (liber) book, paper, parchment, the inner bark of trees limit Latin (limitem) a boundary, embankment between fields, border line Latin (linum) flax, linen linear Latin (linea) string, line linen Latin (linum) flax, linen linguist Latin (lingua) language, tongue liquid Latin (liquere) be fluid literal Latin (lit(t)era) letter literate Latin (lit(t)eratus) educated, learned, one who knows the letters literature Latin (lit(t)era) letter liturgy Greek (leitourgos) one who performs a public ceremony or service, public servant locate Latin (locus) place logic Greek (logos) reason, idea, word loyal Latin (lex) law lubricate Latin (lubricus) slippery lunar Latin (luna) moon luxury Latin (luxus) excess, extravagance, magnificence lyceum Greek (lykeion) grove or garden with covered walks near Athens where Aristotle taught lyric Greek (lyra) lyre machine Greek (makhana) device, means magistrate Latin (magister) chief, director magnificent Latin (magnificus) magnificent majesty Latin (major) large, great major Latin (major) large, great manage Latin (manus) hand manifest Latin (manifestus) caught in the act, plainly apprehensible, clear, evident manipulate Latin (manipulus) handful, sheaf manner Latin (manus) hand monogram Greek (monogrammon) a character formed of several letters in one design monotony Greek (monotonos) monotonous, of one tone manual Latin (manus) hand manufacture Latin (manufactura) hand work manuscript Latin (manu scriptus) written by hand marriage Latin (maritatus) to wed, marry, give in marriage marry Latin (maritus) married man, husband martial Latin (martialis) of Mars or war martyr Greek (martys) martyr, witness mass Greek (maza) barley cake, lump, mass, ball massacre Latin (macellum) provisions store, butcher shop master Latin (magister) chief, head, director, teacher material Latin (materia) matter, stuff, wood, timber mathematics Greek (manthanein) to learn matron Latin (mater) mother mature Latin (maturus) ripe, timely, early maximum Latin (maximus) greatest mayor Latin (major) large, great measure Latin (mensura) a measuring, a thing to measure by mechanic Greek (mekhanikos) an engineer, resourceful, inventive, pertaining to machines medal Latin (medialia) little halves mediate Latin (medius) middle medicine Latin (medicina) the medical art medium Latin (medium) middle medieval Latin (medi(um)) middle age meditate Latin (meditatus) to meditate, to think over, consider melancholy Greek (melankholia) sadness, black bile member Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, part memory Latin (memor) mindful mental Latin (mens) mind mention Latin (mention) calling to mind mercenary Latin (merces) pay, reward, wages merit Latin (meritum) desert, reward, merit metal Greek (metallon) mine, ore, metal metamorphosis Greek (metamorphoun) to transform metaphor Greek (metapherein) transfer, carry over meter Greek (metron) measure methaphysics Greek (ta meta ta physika) the (works) after the Physics method Greek (methodus) scientific inquiry, method of inquiry metropolis Greek (metropolis) mother city migrate Latin (migrare) to move from one place to another mile Latin (mille) thousand military Latin (miles) soldier millenium Latin (mlle annus) thousand years million Latin (mille) thousand mineral Latin (minerale) something mined miniature Latin (minium) red lead minimum Latin (minimum) smallest (thing) minister Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistant minor Latin (minor) lesser, smaller, junior minute Latin (minuere) make small miracle Latin (mirus) wonderful mirror Latin (mirus) wonderful missile Latin (missile) weapon that can be thrown mission Latin (mittere) to send mix Latin (mixtus) to mix mobile Latin (movere) to move model Latin (modus) measure, standard modern Latin (modus) measure modify Latin (modus) measure, manner moment Latin (momentum) movement, moving power, instant monarch Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one money Latin (Moneta) a title of the Roman goddess Juno, in or near whose temple money was coined monk Greek (monakhos) monk monogamy Greek (monogamos) monogamous monopoly Greek (monopolion) right of exclusive sale monotheist Greek (monos+theos) believe in only one god monster Latin (monstrum) monster, monstrosity, omen, portent, sign monument Latin (monumentum) memorial moral Latin (moralis) proper behavior of a person in society mortal Latin (mortalis) subject to death mortar Latin (mortarium) mortar, crushed drugs mosaic Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song motif, motive Latin (movere) to move motion Latin (movere) to move motto Latin (muttire) to mutter mountain Latin (montanus) mountainous move Latin (movere) move, set in motion multiple Latin (multiplus) manifold mundane Latin (mundus) world muscle Latin (musculus) a muscle, little mouse muse Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song museum Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song music Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song mutilate Latin (mutilatus) to cut or lop off myrrh Greek (myrrha) was bitter mystery Greek (myein) to close, shut mythhology Greek (muthologia) science of myths narration Latin (narrare) to tell, relate, recount, explain, to make acquainted with nation Latin (nasci) be born nature Latin (nasci) be born navy Latin (navis) ship neglect Latin (neglegere) choose to gather pick up Neolithic Greek (neo+lithos) New Stone Age nerve Latin (nervus) sinew, tendon neutral Latin (neutralis) of neuter gender noble Latin ((g)nobilis) well-known, famous, renowned, of superior birth nomad Greek (nomos) pasture normal Latin (normalis) made according to a carpenter's square note Latin (nota) letter, note, a mark, sign notion Latin (notus) known notorious Latin (notus) known November Latin (novem) nine nucleus Latin (nucula) little nut number Latin (numerus) a number, quantity nurse Latin (nutrix) wet nurse nurture Latin (nutrire) to nourish, suckle obedience Latin (oboediens) obey obelisk Greek (obeliskos) a spit, pointed pillar, needle obey Latin (oboedire) obey, pay attention to, give ear, listen to object Latin (obicere) to throw in the way, present, hinder obligate Latin (obligationem) an engaging or pledging, a binding obol Greek (obolos) a spit, needle obscene Latin (obscenus) offensive, boding ill, inauspicious obscure Latin (obscurus) covered over, dark, obscure, indistinct observe Latin (observare) watch over, guard, look to, attend to obtain Latin (obtinere) hold, take hold of, acquire obverse Latin (obvertere) to turn toward or against occasion Latin (occasum) fall down, go down occupy Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business, employment ocean Greek (okeanos) the great river or sea surrounding the disk of the Earth October Latin (octo) eight octopus Greek (oktopous) eight-footed ode Greek (aeidein) sing offend Latin (offendere) strike against, stumble, commit a fault, displease offer Latin (offerre) to present, bestow, bring before office Latin (officium) doing work oil Greek (elaia) olive oligarchy Greek (oligarkhia) government by the few olive Greek (elaia) olive omen Latin (omen) omen opera Latin (opus) a work operate Latin (operari) to work, labour opinion Latin (opinari) think, judge, suppose, opine opponent Latin (opponere) oppose, object to, set against opportunity Latin (opportunitatem) fitness, suitableness, favorable time opprobrium Latin (opprobare) to reproach, taunt opress Latin (oppressus) to press against optimism Latin (optimus) the best optimum Latin (optimus) the best oracle Latin (oraculum) divine announcement, oracle oral Latin (os) mouth, opening, face, entrance oration Latin (orare) speak before a court or assembly, plead orbit Latin (orbita) wheel track, course, orbit ordain Latin (ordo) order order Latin (ordo) order, sequence ordinary Latin (ordo) order organize Latin (organum) instrument, organ orgy Greek (orgia) secret rites origin Latin (oriri) arise ornament Latin (ornare) equip, adorn orthodox Greek (orthodoxos) having the right opinion ostracism Greek (ostrakizein) to ostracize oval Latin (ovum) egg pacify Latin (pacificus) peaceful, peace-making pagan Latin (pagus) rural district, district limited by markers pain Greek (poine) punishment palace Latin (palatium) palace Paleolithic Greek (paleos+lithos) Old Stone Age palette Latin (pala) spade, shoulder blade panache Latin (pinnaculum) small wing, gable, peak panel Latin (pannus) piece of cloth panic Greek (Panikos) the god of woods and fields who was the source of mysterious sounds that caused contagious, groundless fear in herds and crowds, or in people in lonely spots panorama Greek (horan) to look, see pantheon Greek (pantheion) all gods papa Latin (papa) a child's word paper Latin (papyrus) paper, paper made of papyrus stalks papyrus Greek (papyros) any plant of the paper plant genus parade Latin (parer) arrange, prepare, adorn paradox Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinion paragraph Greek (paragraphein) write by the side parallel Greek (parallelos) parallel paralyze Greek (paralyein) disable, enfeeble paranoia Greek (paranoos) mentally ill, insane parasite Greek (parasitos) person who eats at the table of another parent Latin (parere) give birth part Latin (partem) part, piece, side, share participate Latin (participare) participate particle Latin (particula) little bit or part partisan Latin (partem) part, piece, side, share partner Latin (partitionem) portion passion Latin (passio) passion pasture Latin (pastus) to feed, graze patient Latin (patientem) patient patriarch Greek (patriarches) the leader of a family patrician Latin (patres conscripti) Roman senators, fathers patricide Latin (patricidium) to kill a father patriot Greek (patris) fatherland patron Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protector pattern Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protector pay Latin (pax) peace peace Latin (pax) treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of war peasant Latin (pagus) country or rural district pediment Latin (pedamentum) vine-stalk, prop penalty Greek (poine) blood-money, fine, penalty, punishment penetrate Latin (penetratus) to put or get into, enter into peninsula Latin (pæninsula) almost an island people Latin (populus) people percent Latin (per centum) by the hundred perfect Latin (perfectus) completed perimeter Greek (perimetros) circumference period Greek (periodos) way around rounded sentence, cycle, circuit, period of time permament Latin (permanere) remain through perpendicular Latin (perpendere) balance carefully persecute Latin (persecutionem) pursue, start a legal action persist Latin (persistere) continue steadfastly person Latin (persona) human being, character in a drama, mask perspective Latin (perspicere) inspect, look through persuade Latin (persuadere) persuade pessimism Latin (pessimus) worst, bottom-most phase Greek (phasis) appearance (of a star), phase (of the moon) philippic Latin (orationes Philippicæ) speeches made by Cicero against Marc Antony philosophy Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdom phonetic Greek (phonein) to sound with the voice phrase Greek (phrazein) to express, tell physics Greek (physike) natural science pi Greek (pi) Greek letter pictogram Latin (pictus+gram) pictogram pictograph Latin (pictus +graph) pictograph pictorial Latin (pingere) to paint picture Latin (pingere) to paint pinnacle Latin (pinnaculum) gable pious Latin (pius) dutiful, kind, devout pirate Greek (peiran) to attack, make a hostile attempt on, try placate Latin (placare) to calm, appease place Greek (plateia) broad plague Latin (plaga) stroke, wound plain Latin (planus) flat, even, level plan Latin (planus) flat, even, level plane Latin (plantum) flat surface planet Greek (planasthai) to wander plant Latin (planta) sole of the foot plantation Latin (plantare) to plant pleasant Latin (placere) to be acceptable, be liked, be approved plebeian Latin (plebs) Roman plebs plunge Latin (plumbum) lead poem Greek (poein) to make or compose point Latin (pungere) prick, pierce poison Latin (potare) to drink policy Greek (apodexis) proof, declaration polis Greek (polis) city politics Greek (politika) politics pollute Latin (polluere) to soil, defile, contaminate polytheism Greek (polytheos) polytheistic, of many gods pomp Greek (pempein) to send pontifex Latin (pontifex) pontifex pontoon Latin (pontonem) flat-bottomed boat pope Greek (papas) patriarch, bishop, father popular Latin (populus) people populace Latin (populus) people port Latin (portus) port, harbor, entrance, passage portion Latin (portionem) share, part portray Latin (trahere) to draw forth, reveal, expose to drag pose Latin (pausare) to halt, rest, pause position Latin (ponere) to lay down, put, place positive Latin (positus) put, place possess Latin (possidere) to possess post Latin (postis) post potent Latin (potis) powerful, able, capable power Latin (potis) able, powerful practice Greek (prattein) to do praetor Latin (prætor) one who goes before, a consul as leader of an army praise Latin (pretium) price pray Latin (prex) prayer, request, entreaty preach Latin (predicare) to proclaim publicly, announce prerogative Latin (prærogere) ask before others precedent Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leave precious Latin (pretium) price predecessor Latin (praedecessor) somebody who has departed before predict Latin (prædicere) foretell, advise, give notice prejudice Latin (præjudicium) prior judgment prelude Latin (præludere) to play beforehand for practice, preface prepare Latin (præparare) prepare presence Latin (praesentare) make present preserve Latin (praeservare) guard beforehand press Latin (pressare) keep on pressing pressure Latin (pressura) action of pressing prestige Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's tricks pretense Latin (prætendere) stretch in front, put forward, allege prevalent Latin (prævalentem) to be more able prevent Latin (prævenire) come before, anticipate, hinder prey Latin (praeda) booty price Latin (pretium) reward, prize, value, worth priest Latin (presbyter) presbyter, elder prime Latin (primus) first primeval Latin (prim ævus) first age primitive Latin (primus) first prince Latin (princeps) first, chief, prince principal Latin (principalis) first in importance principle Latin (princeps) first, chief, prince prior Latin (prior) former, superior prison Latin (prehendere) to take private Latin (privatus) isolated, not in public life, privare to deprive privilege Latin (privilegium) law applying to one person, privilege probable Latin (probare) to try, to test problem Greek (proballein) propose proceed Latin (procedere) go forward, advance process Latin (processus) procedere proclaim Latin (proclamare) cry or call out product Latin (productus) something produced profess Latin (professionem) public declaration proficient Latin (proficere) accomplish, make progress, be useful profile Latin (filum) thread profound Latin (profundus) deep, bottomless, vast, obscure, profound prognosis Greek (progignoskein) come to know beforehand program Greek (prographein) to write publicly progress Latin (progressus) progress project Latin (projectum) something thrown forth proletariat Latin (proles) offspring, progeny prologue Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a prologue prolong Latin (prolongare) to prolong, extend prominent Latin (prominere) jut or stand out promiscuity Latin(promiscuus) mixed, indiscriminate promise Latin (promissum) a promise prompt Latin (promptus) brought forth, at hand, ready, quick proof Latin (proba) a proof propaganda Latin (propaganda) committee of cardinals property Latin (proprius) your own, particular, special prophecy Greek (prophetia) gift of interpreting the will of the gods proportion Latin (proportionem) comparative relation, analogy prospect Latin (prospectus) view, outlook prosperity Latin (prosperitatem) good fortune prostitute Latin (prostituere) to expose to prostitution, expose publicly protect Latin (protectus) protect, cover in front protest Latin (protestari) declare publicly, testify, protest prototype Greek (prototypon) a first or primitive form provide Latin (providere) look ahead, prepare, supply province Latin (provincia) territory under Roman domination provision Latin (providere) look ahead psychology Greek (psykhe+logia) study of soul public Latin (populus) people publish Latin (publicus) public pulley Greek (polos) pivot, axis pungent Latin (pungere) to prick, pierce, sting punish Latin (poena) penalty pupil Latin (pupilla) little girl-doll, orphan, ward, minor pure Latin (purus) pure, innocent purport Latin (portare) to carry pursuit Latin (prosequi) follow up pyramid Greek (pyramis) pyramid quaestor Latin (quaerere) to inquire qualify Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality to quality Latin (qualis) of what sort quantity Latin (quam) how, how much quarrel Latin (queri) to complain, lament quarry Latin (quadrare) to square quarter Latin (quartus) fourth quotate Latin (quotare) to number radical Latin (radix) root radius Latin (radius) staff, spoke of a wheel, beam of light rage Latin (rabies) madness, rage, fury rapacious Latin (rapere) seize rapid Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatching ratify Latin (ratus) fixed, valid ratio Latin (ratio) reckoning, calculation, business affair, procedure, reason ray Latin (radius) ray, spoke, staff, rod real Latin (res) matter, thing reality Latin (realis) real existence realm Latin (regimen) system of government, rule reason Lation (ratus) to reckon, think rebel Latin (rebellare) to rebel, wage war against receipt Latin (recipere) to receive receive Latin (recipere) to receive receptacle Latin (recipere) to hold, contain recite Latin (recitare) read aloud, repeat from memory recognize Latin (cognoscere) know record Latin (recordare) bring back to the heart recover Latin (recuperare) to recover recruit Latin (crescere) to grow rectangle Latin (rectangulum) a triangle having a right angle redeem Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy back redemption Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy back reflect Latin (reflexionem) a reflection, a bending back reform Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alter refuge Latin (refugium) place to flee back to refute Latin (refutare) drive back, repress, repel, rebut regent Latin (regens) ruler, governor regime Latin (regimen) rule, guidance, government region Latin (regere) to rule regular Latin (regula) rule regulate Latin (regula) rule reign Latin (regnum) kingship, dominion, rule, realm reject Latin (reicere) to throw back relapse Latin (relabi) slip back relation Latin (relationem) a bringing back, restoring relevant Latin (relevare) to raise, alleviate reliance Latin (religare) fasten, bind fast relief Latin (relevare) to raise, lighten religion Latin (religio(n)) obligation, reverence reminiscence Latin (reminisci) remember, recall to mind remorse Latin (remordere) to vex, disturb, to bite back remote Latin (remotus) afair off, remote reparate Latin (reparare) restore repeat Latin (repetitus) do or say again report Latin (reportare) carry back represent Latin (praeesse) be in front of republic Latin (respublica) public interest, the state repudiate Latin (repudium) divorce, rejection reputate Latin (reputatus) reflect upon, reckon require Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in return requisite Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in return resemble Latin (simulare) to copy resent Latin (sentire) perceive, feel reside Latin (residere) to remain behind, rest resist Latin (resistere) to resist, to stand back, withstand resolve Latin (solvere) to loosen, dissolve, untie resource Latin (surgere) to rise respect Latin (respectus) regard, act of looking back at one response Latin (responsum) answer responsible Latin (respondere) to respond restore Latin (restaurare) repair, rebuild, renew restitution Latin (restitutus) restore, rebuild, replace restrict Latin (restringere) restrict, bind fast, restrain result Latin (resultare) spring back, reverberate resurrect Latin (resurgere) rise again retribution Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paid reveal Latin (revelare) reveal, uncover, disclose revenue Latin (revenire) return, come back reverence Latin (revereri) to revere revise Latin (revisere) look at again, visit again revive Latin (revivere) to live again revolt Latin (revolvitare) to overturn, overthrow revolution Latin (revolution) to revolve turn, roll back rhetoric Greek (rhetor) orator rhytm Greek (rhythmos) measured flow or movement, rhythm ridicule Latin (ridere) to laugh rigor Latin (rigidus) hard, stiff, rough, severe rite Latin (ritus) religious observance or ceremony, custom, usage rival Latin (rivalis) a rival river Latin (ripa) river bank, shore roll Latin (rotula) small wheel romance Latin (Roma) Rome rostrum Latin (rostrum) name of the platform stand for public speakers in the Forum in ancient Rome rotate Latin (rotare) revolve, roll royal Latin (rex) king ruin Latin (ruere) to fall, headlong, collapse rule Latin (regula) straight stick, standard rural Latin (rus) open land, country rustic Latin (rus) open land, country sacred Latin (sacrre) sacred sacrifice Latin (sacra) sacred rites saint Latin (sanctus) holy, consecrated salary Latin (salarium) salary, stipend, oldier's allowance for the purchase of salt salvation Latin (salvare) save sample Latin (exemplum) a sample sandal Greek (sandalion) sandal sanitation Latin (sanus) healthy, sane sarcophagus Greek (sarkophagos) limestone used for coffins, flesh-eating satire Latin (satira) satire, poetic medley satisfy Latin (satisfacere) satisfy save Latin (salvus) safe scandal Greek (skandalon) stumbling block, trap with a springing device scarce Latin (excerpere) pluck out scene Greek (skene) scene, stage, tent or booth sceptic Greek (skeptesthai) to reflect, look, view scheme Greek (skhema) figure, appearance, the nature of a thing schism Greek (skhizein) to split scholar Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare time school Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare time science Latin (scire) to know, to separate one thing from another, to distinguish scope Greek (skopein) to look scribe Latin (scribere) write script Latin (scribere) write sculpture Latin (scalpere) to carve, cut season Latin (serere) to sow seclude Latin (secludere) shut off, confine second Latin (sequi) follow secret Latin (secretus) set apart, withdrawn, hidden sect Latin (secta) manner, mode, following, school of thought section Latin (secare) to cut secure Latin (securus) without care, safe seduce Latin (seducere) lead away, lead astray segment Latin (secare) to cut select Latin (selectus)hoose out, select senate Latin (senex) old man, old senior Latin (senior) older sense Latin (sensus) perception, feeling, undertaking, meaning sentiment Latin (sentire) to feel sepulcher Latin (sepulcrum) grave, tomb serene Latin (serenitatem) clearness, serenity serf Latin (servum) slave series Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, put serious Latin (serius) weighty, important, grave sermon Latin (sermonem) discourse, speech, talk, a stringing together of words service Latin (servus) slave set Latin (secta) a following several Latin (separe) to separate severe Latin (severus) stern, strict, serious sexagesimal Latin (sexaginta) sixty sex Latin (sexus) state of being either male or female, gender siege Latin (sedere) sit sign Latin (signum) mark, sign, token image, seal significant Latin (significans) meaning, force, energy silent Latin (silere) silent simplify Latin (simplex) single sincere Latin (sincerus) honest single Latin (singulus) one, individual, separate site Latin (sinere) to leave, allow put situation Latin (situatus) to locate slave Latin (Slavic) slave society Latin (socius) companion soldier Latin (solidus) a Roman gold coin solemn Latin (sollemnis) formal, ceremonial, traditional solid Latin (solidus) firm, whole, entire solon Greek (Solon) name of early lawgiver of Athens solve Latin (solvere) to loosen, untie, solve, dissolve sophist Greek (sophos) wise, clever sorcery Latin (sors) lot, fate, fortune sound Latin (sonus) sound source Latin (surgere) to rise space Latin (spatium) room, area, distance, stretch of time special Latin (species) kind spectacle Latin (spectare) to view, watch speculate Latin (specere) to look at, view spend Latin (expendere) to weigh out money, pay down sphere Greek (sphaira) globe, ball sphinx Greek (Sphinx) the strangler spiral Greek (speira) coil, twist, wreath spirit Latin (spiritus) of breathing, of the spirit splendid Latin (splendere) be bright, shine sponsor Latin (sponsus) give assurance, promise solemnly sporadic Greek (spora) a sowing square Latin (quattuor) four stable Latin (stabilis) steadfast, firm stadium Latin (stadium) stadium stage Latin (stare) to stand state Latin (stare) to stand stagnate Latin (stagnatum) standing water station Latin (stationem) a standing, post, job, position statistics Latin (stare) to stand statue Latin (stare) to stand stele Greek (stele) standing block, slab stimulate Latin (stimulus) goad, stake stoa Greek (stoa) colonnade, corridor stoicism Greek (stoikos) pertaining to a member of or the teachings of the school founded by Zeno stop Latin (stuppare) to stop or stuff with tow or oakum story Latin (historia) picture, story strait Latin (stringere) bind or draw tight strategem Greek (strategein) to be a general, command strategy Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is spread out street Latin (sternere) pave, throw down stress Latin (stringere) draw tight structure Latin (struere) to construct studio Latin (studere) be diligent study Latin (studere) be diligent stupendous Latin (stupendus) be stunned style Latin (stilus) stake, instrument for writing subdue Latin (subducere) draw, lead away, withdraw subordinate Latin (subordinatus) placed in a lower order, made subject subsist Latin (subsistere) stand still or firm substance Latin (substans) stand firm, be under or present subtle Latin (subtilis) fine, thin, delicate, finely woven suburb Latin (suburbium) an outlying part of a city success Latin (succedere) come after succumb Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie under sudden Latin (subire) come up, go secretly suffer Latin (sufferire) to bear, undergo, endure, carry or put under suffix Latin (suffixus) fastened suit Latin (secutus) to attend, follow sum Latin (summa) whole, gist summit Latin (summus) highest superb Latin (superbus) grand, proud, sumptuous superstition Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive fear of the gods supply Latin (supplere) fill up, complete support Latin (supportare) bear up suppose Latin (supponere) put or place under suppress Latin (supprimere) press down, stop, check, stifle supreme Latin (supremus) highest sure Latin (securus) free from care, untroubled, heedless, safe secure surgery Greek (kheirourgos) working or done by hand surplus Latin (superplus) excess, surplus survey Latin (supervidere) oversee survive Latin (supervivere) live beyond syllable Greek (syllabe) a syllable, several sounds or letters taken together symbol Greek (sumbolon) mark sympathy Greek (sympathes) having a fellow feeling, affected by like feelings symptom Greek (sympiptein) to befall synagogue Greek (synagein) to gather, assemble synchronism Greek (synchronos) quality of being synchronous synonym Greek (synonymon) word having the same sense as another system Greek (histanai) set up to, cause to stand tactics Greek (taktike techne) art of arrangement talent Greek (talanton) balance, weight, sum tangible Latin (tangere) to touch tarsus Greek (tarsos) ankle, sole of the foot, rim of the eyelid task Latin (tasca) a duty tavern Latin (taberna) shop, inn, tavern, hut, shed tax Latin (taxare) evaluate, estimate, assess, handle, censure, charge technique Greek (tekhne) art, skill, craft, method, system technology Greek (tekhnologia) systematic treatment teleology Greek (teleologia) teleology temenos Greek (temenos) to cut temperature Latin (temperare) to moderate temple Latin (templum) sacred place, place for worship tempo Latin (tempus) time temporary Latin (tempus) time, season tempt Latin (temptare) to feel, try out, attempt to influence, test tenacious Latin (tenax) tough, holding fast tenant Latin (tenere) hold, keep tendency Latin (tendere) tend, be inclined to tense Latin (tendere) to stretch term Latin (terminus) end, boundary line terrace Latin (terra) earth, land terrain Latin (terra) earth, land territory Latin (terra) earth, land terror Latin (terrere) fill with fear, frighten terse Latin (tersus) wiped off, clean, neat test Latin (testum) earthen pot Testament Latin (testis) witness testimony Latin (testimonium) evidence, proof, testimony tetrarch Greek (tetrarkhes) leader of four companies, tetrarch text Latin (textus) texture, context theater Greek (theatron) theater, place for viewing theme Greek (tithenai) put down, place theogony Greek (theogonia) generation or birth of the gods theorem Greek (theorein) to consider theory Greek (theoria) contemplation, theory tholos Greek (tholos) round building with a conical roof throne Greek (thronos) elevated seat, chair, throne title Latin (intitulare) inscription title toga Latin (toga) cloak or mantle tolerate Latin (tolerans) to bear, endure, tolerate tomb Greek (tymbos) burial mound, grave, tomb tone Greek (tonos) vocal pitch, raising of voice, accent, key in music topography Greek (topographos) describing a place torch Latin (torquere) to twist total Latin (totus) all, whole, entire toxic Greek (toxicon) poison (for use on arrows) tower Greek (tyrsis) castle, building trace Latin (tractus) track, course, a drawing out tradition Latin (traditus) deliver, hand over traffic Latin (transfricare) to rub across tragedy Greek (tragodia) a dramatic poem or play in formal language and having an unhappy resolution traitor Latin (tradere) deliver, surrender tranquil Latin (tranquillus) tranquil transact Latin (transactus) accomplish, drive or carry through transcend Latin (transcendere) climb over or beyond, surmount transit Latin (transition) a going across or over translate Latin (translatus) translate transmit Latin (transmittere) send across transport Latin (transportare) carry across treasure Greek (thesauros) store, treasure, treasure house treat Latin (tractare) manage, handle, deal with, drag about triangle Latin (triangulum) triangle tribe Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the original Roman state tribune Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the original Roman state tribute Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paid trilogy Greek (trilogia) series of three related tragedies performed at Athens at the festival of Dionysus trinity Latin (trinus) threefold, triple trireme Latin (triremis) ancient ship with three rows of oars triumph Greek (thriambos) hymn to Dionysus triumvir Latin (tres viri) three men trouble Latin (turbidare) to trouble, make turbid tumult Latin (tumultus) commotion, disturbance turbulent Latin (turba) turmoil, crowd turmoil Latin (trimodia) vessel containing three modii turn Latin (tornus) turning lathe tutor Latin (tutorem) guardian, watcher type Greek (typtein) to strike, beat typical Greek (typos) impression tyranny Greek (turannos) tyrant ultimate Latin (ultimus) last, final unify Latin (unificare) make one unique Latin (unus) one unit Latin (unitatem) oneness, sameness, agreement universe Latin (universum) the universe universal Latin (universus) all together, whole, entire urban Latin (urbs) city usual Latin (usus) custom uterus Latin (uterus) womb, belly utility Latin (utilis) usable utopia Greek (outopos) nowhere vacant Latin (vacare) to be empty vacillation Latin (vacillare) sway to and fro vague Latin (vagus) wandering, rambling, vacillating, vague valerian Latin (Valerius) the personal name valid Latin (valere) be strong valley Latin (vallis) valley value Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of value vapor Latin (vaporem) exhalation, steam, heat variety Latin (varius) various vegetarianism Latin (vegere) to be alive, active, to quicken vegetation Latin (vegetare) to grow, to enliven vehicle Latin (vehere) to carry venerate Latin (venus) beauty, love, desire vengeance Latin (vindicare) to set free, claim, avenge venial Latin (venia) forgiveness, indulgence, pardon venture Latin (aventura) a thing about to happen vernal Latin (ver) spring verse Latin (versus) verse, line of writing version Latin (versionem) a turning vertical Latin (vertex) highest point vessel Latin (vascellum) small vase or urn, a ship veteran Latin (vetus) old veto Latin (veto) I forbid vicar Latin (vicis) turn, change, exchange, substitution vicious Latin (vitiosus) faulty, defective, corrupt victim Latin (victima) person or animal killed as a sacrifice victory Latin (victoria) victory view Latin (videre) see vigor Latin (vigere) be lively, flourish, thrive villa Latin (villa) country house villein Latin (villa) country house vindicate Latin (vindicare) to set free, lay claim to, assert, avenge vindictive Latin (vindicta) revenge violent Latin (violentus) vehement, forcible virgin Latin (virginem) maiden, unwedded girl or woman virile Latin (virilis) of a man, manly virtue Latin (vir) man virulent Latin (virus) poison vision Latin (videre) to see visit Latin (visitare) to go to see, come to inspect vital Latin (vita) life vivid Latin (vivus) alive vocabulary Latin (vocabulum) word, name, noun vocal Latin (vox) voice voice Latin (vocem) voice, sound, utterance, cry, call, speech, sentence, language, word voluntary Latin (voluntas) will vote Latin (votum) a vow, wish, promise, dedication voyage Latin (via) road, journey, travel vulgar Latin (vulgus) the common people, multitude, crowd, throng vulgate Latin (vulgus) the common people vulnerable Latin (vulnus) wound wall Latin (vallus) stake, palisade zeal Greek (zelos) zeal, ardour, jealousy, eager rivalry Poďakovanie

Moja vďaka patrí mojej konzultantke PaedDr. Marte Kadorovej, ktorej cenné rady a inštrukcie mi boli veľkou pomocou.

Acknowledgement

My gratitude belongs to my consultant PaedDr. Marta Kadorová, whose valuable pieces of advice and instructions were very helpful for me. Čestné vyhlásenie

Čestne prehlasujem, že problematiku diplomovej práce som riešila a napísala samostatne na základe preštudovaného materiálu a použité zdroje som na príslušných miestach uviedla.

Declaration of originality

I, the undersigned, solemnly declare that this diploma work is the result of my own independent research and was written solely by me using the literature and sources listed in the Bibliography.

Žilina, 12. apríl 2006 ………………………………… Lucia Struhárová