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[American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 1

American History 1 Unit 1 Exploration to 1733

1.01 the ancient Americans

There are different theories and beliefs held regarding how the first Americans arrived in North America. Some anthropologists state that the first Americans arrived as early as 22,000 years ago. Some believe that the first inhabitants arrived in small boats following the coastline from Asia to what is present-day Alaska, but the most widely accepted theory at this time is that most of the first inhabitants came over a land bridge which was created during the Ice Age. Question 1. Describe how and when most anthropologists believe the original inhabitants of North America arrived?

The first inhabitants relied on a hunting and gathering economy. Archaeological evidence suggests that they hunted the woolly mammoth and other big game until the Ice Age ended between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago. As groups arrived in North America, some stayed in a certain geographic area while others kept moving south and east all the way to what is now considered Mexico and South America. Between 10,000 and 5000 years ago an agricultural revolution took place in what is today considered central Mexico. People began to plant crops in the different climatic zones created by mountains and valleys. The inhabitants planted maize, gourds, pumpkins, peppers, and beans. Due to this agricultural revolution, groups could stay in one location and not only grow enough food for everyday survival but also actually create a surplus of food. This surplus of food allowed other residents to develop other skills and served as the base for complex societies to exist. Question 2. How did agriculture help create the first complex societies in the Americas?

Around 3000 years ago the first Americans began to form larger communities and build civilizations. Around 1200 BC the Olmec peoples created a civilization in the rain forests along the Gulf of Mexico. The Maya Built a civilization in what is today the Yucatán Peninsula and Guatemala between 250 and 900 A.D. the Aztecs settled into the Valley of Mexico around 1200 A.D. The Inca created an empire that stretched over 2500 miles along the western coast of South America with notable cities especially in what is Peru today. Archaeologists and anthropologists now consider these ancient American cultures on par with other ancient cultures in Africa and Asia. Great cities with large ceremonial centers and stadiums were constructed along with huge palaces, pyramids, and plazas. Question 3. Name and state the location of the first great civilizations in the Americas.

Between 300 BC in 1400 A.D. the Hohokam and the Anasazi settled and planted crops in what is today the American southwest. The Hohokam settled in what is today central Arizona while the Anasazi settled on the tops of mesas, into the sides of cliffs, and canyon floors in what is today parts of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. In the east of what is today the United States the Adena, the Hopewell, and the Mississippian cultures thrived. These cultures often built huge burial mounds. Interestingly enough these cultures also build large-scale earthen mounds in the shapes of animals that can be seen from the air creating interesting debates over the levels and influences of their technology. When Christopher Columbus arrived in the [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 2

Americas in 1492 the Mississippian and the Aztec cultures still flourished but most others had disappeared. Question 4. What were the major early civilizations in Eastern North America?

By the time Columbus arrived in the Americas there were many American Indian societies in North America. No two societies were exactly alike however there were certain similarities in cultural traits, patterns of trade, attitudes towards land use, and certain societal values. The different American Indian societies maintained contact with each other through trade. Certain tribes became well known for specific products. The Ojibwa along the upper Great Lakes collected wild rice while the Taos of the Southwest became known for their pottery. The network of trade routes was so extensive that an English sailor named David Ingram walked all the way from Mexico to the Atlantic Coast following the American Indian trade routes. American Indians tended to regard the land as a source of life and not as a commodity to be sold. This belief would lead to direct conflict with the arriving European settlers who believed in private ownership of land. American Indians tended to disturb the land only for the most important activities such as farming. This also conflicted with European settlers who cleared entire forests for farmland.

Almost all American Indian societies thought the natural world was filled with spirits. The spirits of past generations remained alive to guide the living. There also tended to be the belief that every object possessed the voice that one could hear if they listened close enough. This also tended to conflict with most European settlers beliefs. Some American Indian cultures did believe in one Supreme Being. American Indian societies tended to be based upon groups of families that displayed strong kinship bonds. The young tended to honor the elders and their ancestors. Some cultures tended to be patriarchal while others were matriarchal. Social order was maintained through a division of labor that was assigned based upon gender, age, and status. Two powerful American Indian societies that emerged in Eastern North America in the 15th century were the Iroquois and the Huron. The various Iroquois tribes/nations would form the Iroquois Confederacy made up of five tribes at first and in 1722 admitted the Tuscarora who were driven out of North Carolina as the sixth nation. Each tribe or nation had a voice in a grand council. The Iroquois were matrilineal and would adopt outsiders into the various nations. Even some European settlers were adopted into Iroquois clans resulting from war. This differed greatly from the European attitude towards the American Indian because the Europeans generally believed that they were superior. The early colonial wars between the European powers saw the conflicting European powers try to make alliances with these tribes since it often meant victory in the western frontier.

Question 5. What was the major way that the American Indian tribes maintained contact with each other? Question 6. What major beliefs of the American Indians tended to conflict with the beliefs of the coming European settlers?

1.02. Europe enters the age of exploration and colonization.

Many changes occurred in Europe that contributed to the age of exploration and colonization. One of the most important was the Renaissance. The Renaissance refers to the [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 3 period when Europeans began investigating all aspects of the physical world. A rebirth in knowledge inherited from ancient Greece and Rome became important. Explorers such as Prince Henry of Portugal explored the West Coast of Africa and set up trading posts and were emblematic of the spirit of the Renaissance.

In the late 15th century most Europeans like most Native Americans and most Africans lived in small villages and were bound to the land and to ancient traditions. European societies were based on the social hierarchy meaning rank. Monarchs and nobles held most the wealth and power and were at the top of the hierarchy and at the bottom were the peasants who were in the majority of the people. The nobility maintained their power by offering the peasants land and protection. In return the peasants supplied the nobles with livestock, crops, and military service. It was virtually impossible to move beyond the position into which one was born. Europeans believed that God ordained what position they occupied in society. During the Renaissance however one group that did experience social mobility were the artisans and the merchants. The monarchs supported the merchants because they could tax their profit and use that tax money to fund overseas exploration and expansion.

A major difference between European society and African and Native American societies was the emphasis upon the nuclear family. In Western Europe the household was generally made up of a mother and the father and their children. The division of labor was that men did most of the fieldwork and the raising of livestock while the women helped out in the fields but also provided childcare and household labor.

Another major difference in European society was the presence of a strong unified church. The power of the Roman Catholic Church started to decline after the Crusades that were series of military expeditions to seize the Middle East in the name of Christianity. The Crusades encouraged exploration and expansion in that they sparked an increase in trade and a taste for products from Asia. The Crusades also weakened the power of many European nobles who lost their lives or fortunes in the wars. Monarchs solidified their power as a result and started to fund overseas exploration to increase their wealth and power. The monarchs also gained more authority because as a result of the Crusades the prestige and power of the papacy was questioned and ultimately reduced. In the early 1500s the Reformation divided Christianity in Western Europe between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. This split not only created rivalries between Protestant and Catholic nations but also served as a source for persecuted religious minorities to look for a safe place to practice their religion.

Question 7. How did the Renaissance contribute to European exploration? Question 8. What were three ways in which the Crusades contributed to European exploration?

Further changes also contributed to European exploration and colonization. Trade grew exponentially after the Crusades and many merchants in Italian city-states became rich and powerful from this trade. By the end of the 1400s Europe's population rebounded from the plagues and stimulated the growth of towns. With expanding trade networks a new urban middle-class started to grow and increase in political power. This class was heavily influenced by the ideas of the Renaissance and led to a growing interest in worldly pleasures and the confidence in human achievement. The art created during this period exemplifies the hope and [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 4 promise combined with ancient forms of sculpture and painting. With the trade routes going through the Islamic world, ancient texts and knowledge from Asia and the Middle East would create the conditions for scientific and technological advancement.

Major technological advances centered upon sailing technology. The caravel was a lighter, faster and more maneuverable ship that could navigate the rough seas of the Atlantic Ocean. The Sternpost rudder allowed the caravel a greater degree of control in turning the ship. These advancements also helped the Europeans find alternative ways to the land routes to Asia that became more expensive. European ship builders and captains adopted the use of the compass and the astrolabe. Portugal led the way and European exploration and set up trading posts along the West Coast of Africa. Bartolomeu Dias rounded Africa in 1488 and Vasco de Gama reached India in 1498. Portugal soon had the most profitable trade with Asia and other European nations desired to compete for the same riches. It is within this context that Christopher Columbus approached monarchs of different European nation-states and found a sponsor and Queen Isabella of Spain who was convinced by Columbus that an even shorter route to Asia was possible.

Early in the morning on October 12 1492 a lookout aboard the ship Pinta sighted land. At dawn Columbus went ashore and made contact with people who call themselves the Taino. At first Columbus and his expedition looked favorably upon the Taino and both sides traded. The Spanish even considered the inhabitants as living according to God's wishes in a Garden of Eden like setting. This will not last long as the primary motivations for Spanish exploration was God, gold, and glory. Columbus spent the next 96 days exploring the islands in the Caribbean such as Cuba and Hispaniola as well as the Bahamas. Columbus claimed every island that he saw and landed upon for the crown of Spain. Some debate has surfaced among historians whether Columbus used the term Indian because he believed he was in the Indies or based upon his primary perception that the inhabitants were innocent children of God-en Dios.

Question 9. What technological improvements assisted in European exploration? Question 10. How did Columbus’s viewpoint of the Taino change? Question 11. What was the key reason for Portuguese exploration and colonization and what were the key reasons for Spanish exploration and colonization?

Columbus returned to Spain and thrilled the Spanish monarchs with his stories, native inhabitants, and goods brought back from the Caribbean. The Spanish monarchy funded three more voyages but now Columbus sailed with a fleet of 17 ships and several hundred armed soldiers. Included were five Roman Catholic priests in more than 1000 colonists. The Spanish would impose their will upon the native peoples. This clash would last more than 500 years.

The Europeans used the same system of colonization in the Americas as they did when they formed colonies in what are today the islands off of the coast of West Africa. Before coming to the Americas Spain formed colonies on the Canary Islands. Contrary to some beliefs, the Native Americans did not let themselves be conquered. The inhabitants of Hispaniola defended themselves by using poison arrows but the Spanish had much better weapons. Even when conquered there would often be revolts by the native inhabitants such as the Taino in 1495. This revolt was brutally crushed by Columbus and a few Spanish did question the brutal [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 5 treatment and enslavement of Native Americans. One such Spaniard was Bartolomé de Las Casas. Another factor that contributed to the American Indians defeat was the spread of disease such as measles, mumps, chickenpox, smallpox, and typhus. These diseases often arrived before the European colonizers decimating entire populations. To this day historians disagree over the percentage of Native Americans that were killed by disease but the most respected sources tend to put the figure between 30% and 70%.

With disease reducing the Native American workforce the European colonies turned to Africa for slaves. European slave ships would haul hundreds of thousands of Africans across the Atlantic to work on the plantations in the Americas. It is estimated that at least 12 million Africans would be transported to the Americas as slaves. The Spaniards themselves were divided over the use of Africans as slaves but economic profit seemed to conquer moral objections. De Las Casas actually advocated the use of African slaves instead of Native Americans. The Europeans believed that the African slaves would be easier to handle than the Native Americans. Furthermore, Europeans believed that the African slaves would be more adaptable to the tropical climate and have immunity to diseases that impacted the Native Americans. Finally, the Europeans believed that Africans had first-hand knowledge in the agricultural techniques and crops that were being grown on the American plantations such as sugar. The mortality rate of slaves was extremely high at first due to the brutal treatment they received. To this day historians debate how many slaves died during the voyage that is referred to as the middle passage.

Question 12. What was the response of the American Indians two European colonization? Question 13. What factors led to an easy Spanish conquest of the Native Americans? Question 14. What factors led the Europeans to use Africans as slave labor in the Americas?

A global transfer of goods, plants, and animals occurred between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This transfer is referred to as the Columbian exchange. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 6

The profitability of the Americas rose and tended to inflame European rivalries. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI formulated the Treaty of Tordesillas that was signed in 1494 between Spain and Portugal. They both agreed to divide the Western Hemisphere between them. They drew an imaginary line with the land east of the line along it to Portugal and the land west of the line belonging to Spain. As exploration continued, Spain received most of South America under the treaty while Portugal received what is today Brazil. The English, Dutch, French, and other European nations did not recognize the treaty and started to form colonies of their own around 1600.

In 1500 King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella ordered Columbus to leave Hispaniola due to the native revolts and his brutal treatment of the native inhabitants. To this day historians debate whether or not Columbus's achievements were historic and heroic or a legacy of genocide, cruelty, and slavery. What is certain is that a new society was born that shaped world history.

Question 15. Define and describe the Columbian exchange. Question 16. What effect resulted from the first European colonies in the Americas becoming profitable?

1.03 European empires in the Americas. As a result of Columbus’s voyage to the Americas, a number of conquistadors followed in the search for glory and the lands filled with gold and silver. Cortez landed in Mexico with 600 soldiers, 17 horses, numerous dogs, and 10 cannon. Cortez heard rumors about a fabulous city of gold ruled by the Aztecs. He set the stage for other conquistadors and European conquerors in that he convinced other tribes to support his campaign against the Aztecs. After marching over 200 miles they reached the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan and marveled at the towering temples and an advanced system of irrigation that brought fresh water in from the surrounding countryside. The Aztecs at first thought that Cortez might have been a legendary god returning to his people and agreed to give the Spanish explorer's share of the empires gold. The Spanish became afflicted with what can be called "Gold fever" and forced the Aztecs to mine more and more gold. In 1520 the Aztecs rebelled against the Spaniards and stoned Montezuma to death since they regarded him as a traitor who let the Spanish into Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs suffered from many diseases brought by the Spanish expedition and were weakened. In 1521 the Spanish counterattacked and after several months of brutal fighting conquered and pillaged Tenochtitlan. Cortez laid plans for a colony that would be called New Spain and its capital called Mexico City. In less than three years Spanish churches were built upon the foundations of old native temples, palaces were built, Roman Catholic cathedrals were built, and the University was established. The Spanish used the same tactics to conquer the American Indians that they used when they took Spain from the Moors. The vast majority of Spanish settlers were men who were called peninsulares. Since few Spanish women were present, marriage between the peninsulares and the American Indian women became common. The offspring were known as mestizos. Spanish rule was harsh and brutal. They developed a system called encomienda. In this system the Native Americans farmed, branched, or mind for Spanish landlords who receive the rights to their labor from the Spanish authorities. This system was criticized by some Catholic priests for [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 7 being too cruel and in 1542 the encomienda system was formally abolished by the Spanish monarchy. The Spanish turned to Africa for slaves as labor.

Question 17. How was Cortez able to defeat the Aztecs as easily as he dead? Question 18. Describe the encomienda system.

Other conquistadors explore the Americans including Juan Ponce de Leon who explored Florida starting in 1513. During the same period the French established a post where Jacksonville is presently located. The French used this base to attack Spanish ships that were leaving the Americas loaded with gold. The Spanish sent Menendez de Aviles to drive out the French, which he did and in 1565 founded an outpost called St. Augustine. In 1540 Coronado explored what is today Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The Spanish did not find great deposits of gold but Spanish missionaries followed the conquistadors and established missions. In the winter of 1609-1610 Pedro de Peralta led an expedition north of the Rio Grande and established the capital city called Santa Fe for the Spanish holdings north of New Spain. From Santa Fe missionaries established congregations throughout the Southwest and among the Pueblo peoples. The native inhabitants of New Mexico resisted and rebelled against the Spaniards attempt to force them into slavery and to adopt Christianity. The Pueblo religious leader Pope was brutally punished by the Spanish priests for practicing native religion. In 1680 he led an insurrection over 17,000 people from villages all over New Mexico. They destroyed Spanish churches, executed priests, and drove the Spaniards back into New Spain. The Spanish army regained control after 14 years and brutally subjugated the American Indian tribes of the Southwest. By this time however Spain was losing its primacy in the Americas because in 1588 the English defeated the Spanish Armada and ended Spain's naval dominance in the Atlantic Ocean. The English started to colonize the eastern coast of North America as a result. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 8

Question 19. Name the explorers who came to North America and describe the area that they explored.

The English had difficulty at first trying to establish a permanent settlement in North America. English fishermen would from time to time stop along the coast and re-provision their ships and trade with the Native Americans. Sometimes the American Indians would trade but sometimes fighting broke out almost immediately. In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert received permission from Queen Elizabeth I to establish a colony at present day Newfoundland but Gilbert drowned in the attempt and it was quickly abandoned. In 1584 his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh received permission and attempted to establish a colony on Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina. The first expedition did achieve relatively good relations with the American Indians the Secotans and the Croatoans. Two American Indians Manteo and Wanchese were brought back to England and were welcomed. In 1585 Raleigh sent Sir Richard Grenville to establish a permanent settlement. They met the Spanish and decided to build a fort to protect themselves and protect England's claim from the Spanish. A relief ship was promised in 1586 but it never arrived. The settlers encountered some problems with the American Indians and burned an American Indian village to the ground over the theft of a silver cup. The settlers did not have the capability to be self-sufficient and left with Sir Francis Drake for England when he stopped at the colony. The colonists brought back maize, tobacco, and potatoes to England. The English were surprised and wondered what other riches they may find in North America. In 1587 another attempt was made at colonization but the colonists again experienced hostilities with various American Indian tribes and desired to leave some did but 115 colonists were left behind to secure the area for England including Virginia Dare who was credited as being the first English baby [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 9 born in North America. Due to the war with Spain attempts at resupply and reinforcement failed from England. In 1590 the English did return to find the settlement abandoned with only the word “Croatoan” carved into a post and “CRO” carved into a tree. The Spanish also have a written account of reaching the Roanoke colony location in 1590 and found it abandoned as well. Historians and anthropologists have argued over what became of the settlers. Many accounts from Europeans and American Indians suggest that at least some of the settlers moved in land and lived with one or various American Indian tribes. American Indian oral historical accounts claimed Roanoke settler married into the Hatteras, Eno, Lumbee, Saponi, Shakori, Catawba, and/or the Tuscarora tribes. It is unclear which tribe or tribes or whether this was voluntary for food and survival or involuntary due to conflict with various American Indian tribes that frequented that area. After Jamestown was founded one Powhattan chief stated to the settlers that it was he and his warriors that attacked and destroyed the Roanoke colony. Stories did reach England later regarding the sighting of two English looking males and one English looking female living with the Eno in 1612. The stories suggest that the female was Virginia Dare and that they fled during an attack on Roanoke, moved up the Chowan River but were captured and adopted into the Eno.

Question 20. What problems did the English encounter that caused their first attempts at colonization to fail? [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 10

A key difference emerged between the English and the Spanish governments as far as government support of colonization. The Spanish monarchy directly funded colonization while in England, joint-stock companies invested and funded in the first colonization efforts. Joint- stock companies were companies made up of investors who pooled their money. Those investing more money would have a greater risk but also potential reward. After pooling the investors’ money, the company would approach the monarchy and receive a charter, which was official permission to settle a certain geographic area. The joint-stock company had to maintain the colony but would receive the profit. In 1606 King James I granted a charter to the Virginia Company to settle in the area explored by Sir Walter Raleigh earlier. Raleigh named the geographic area Virginia after Queen Elizabeth I who publicly stated that she would marry no man but instead was married to England. She therefore proclaimed her sexual virginity but historians still debate whether or not she had at least one romantic lover.

Question 21. What key differences existed between England and Spain in funding colonization? Question 22. What is a joint-stock company?

In April of 1607 Captain John Smith led an expedition of almost 150 people on three ships to the shores of Virginia where they formed a settlement that they named Jamestown. Upon the directives of the Virginia Company the settlers looked for gold and silver at the exclusion of all else. The site they chose for Jamestown was close to malarial swamps and questionable clean water sources. Soon disease ran rampant from contaminated water. Hunger ensued and the settlers refused to listen to Smith who ordered that they clear fields and plant crops instead of looking for gold and silver. By the winter of 1607-1608 there were only 38 colonists left. Smith took charge and stated, “that those who will not work, will not eat.” He also negotiated with the Powhatan for food. Smith got badly burned by gunpowder in 1608 and had to return to England leaving the survivors to fend for themselves. In the spring of 1609, 600 colonists arrived to renew and expand the colony. This time they planted fields and raised livestock. This angered the Powhatan due to differing concepts of land ownership and land use. The Powhatan attacked and destroyed much of the colonists’ crops and livestock. As a result the “starving time” ensued that winter. Only 60 of the 600 settlers who arrived that spring survived the year. They survived by eating roots, rats, snakes, and even boiled and ate their shoe leather!

Question 23. Explain the reasons why Jamestown did not prosper at first. Question 24. Why did the Powhatan attack the English settlement in 1609?

That spring the colonists had enough and decided to go back to England. As soon as they reached the mouth of the river, they were met by another English ship. Lord De La Warr was in command of the 150 settlers and he demanded that the “starving time” survivors turn back. De La Warr was not lenient as Capt. Smith was at first. He did not hesitate to whip or hang a colonist who refused to comply with orders. This harsh rule actually helped Jamestown survive since now the colonists could not only grow their own food but also defend themselves. In 1612 John Rolfe cross bred various strains of tobacco and came up with a variety that satisfied the taste of the English. Soon the colonists called this tobacco “brown gold”. England in turn also sold this tobacco to other countries and demand as well as profits soared. The colonists expanded [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 11 the land under cultivation. It became clear to the Virginia Company that more laborers were needed to supply tobacco. They established the headright system in 1618 that granted 50 acres of land for anyone paying the passage for another to go to Virginia. This system had two effects: those wealthy enough either in Virginia or in England to sponsor passage to Virginia accumulated huge tracts of the richest land, and immigration skyrocketed to Virginia. The large tracts of land would become plantations and the wealthy owners would form the aristocracy or sometimes called the plantocracy. A few families would control political, social, and economic power in Virginia for generations to come. Moreover, many of the persons sponsored came over as indentured servants meaning that they contracted themselves to pay off the debt of passage usually within a certain time period. Indentured servitude differed by owner and colony. Many were treated as slaves and did not live long enough to serve out their contracts that were usually between four to seven years. Usually an indentured servant would receive a small plot of land, clothing, and a gun upon completion of servitude. Often the plantation owner controlled all aspects of an indentured servant’s life including marriage. Children of indentured servants were free. Many females were subject to exploitation such as rape. Local laws were passed in which the punishment was extension of indenture. One interesting case in Virginia dealt with a female indentured servant who was raped by the plantation owner. He took her to court and charged her with having “loose morals.” The plantation owner actually won and the woman’s term of indenture was extended! Sometimes indentured servants would run away to a different colony to be free. They easily blended in with the small farmers. The land that they received after service was usually less fertile, rockier, and westward of the original plantation. Often in clearing their land, the former indentured servant would be subject to hostile action of the American Indians. Over 80% of European colonists arrived as indentured servants in the 17th century. Indentured servitude ended with the American Revolution but similar types of work contracts existed for workers until the Contract Labor Law of 1885! [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 12

Question 25. What developments allowed Jamestown to survive and prosper? Question 26. How did the Virginia Company increase tobacco production? Question 27. Describe at least two pros and cons of being an indentured servant.

In 1619 the first ship with approximately 20 Africans arrived in Jamestown. Some of these Africans gained their freedom similar to that of an indentured servant and in turn owned land. Indentured servants were less expensive and therefore utilized most in the 17th century. As more Africans came to the English colonies there were marriages between the Africans and indentured servants. This challenged the social structure that the growing aristocracy wanted to maintain. They preferred a divided and compliant lower class that would compete against each other to keep labor costs low. A series of miscegenation laws were passed in the English colonies starting in the 1650s. These laws forbade legal marriages between Whites and Blacks. These laws would be enforced in Southern states until 1967 with Loving v. Virginia that formally invalidated state laws that prohibited interracial marriage. In the 1650s the colonial courts started a process of racialization of slavery. Africans were now to be considered slaves as opposed to indentured servants. A key difference is that colonial laws recognized that when an indentured servant completed his/her term of indenture, he/she was considered a citizen equal to all other citizens. This was not the case for a slave even when securing his/her freedom. Within the same timeframe some colonial courts started to rule that slaves were slaves for life and children born of slaves were also slaves for life. Again this differed from indentured servants since if an indentured servant had a child the child would be free. Thus what is important to recognize is that in the mid 17th century a system was started in which a person’s race determined their social, political, and economic status for them and their children. By the end of the 17th century this system of hereditary slavery known as chattel slavery became more uniform among the English colonies. With the growing wealth of the colonial aristocracy and the declining preference for indentured servants, African slaves and slaves of African heritage from the Caribbean would become the primary labor force on the Southern plantations. Slavery was legal in all 13 colonies for a time but would die out in the North before the South. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 13

Question 28. List 3 similarities and 3 differences between slaves and indentured servants in 17th century colonial America.

The English colonists brought with them the same general policies towards the American Indian as they did when the English conquered Ireland. Unlike the Spanish they tended not to intermarry or live among the American Indians. The English tended to view the American Indian as wild and savage. The English tended to push the American Indian away by whatever means necessary to secure land that they believed the American Indian was not using fully. As Jamestown grew so did hostility with the Powhatan and led to the Powhatan Wars. The settlers used the army to demand food and labor from the Powhatan. The settlers did not forget what the Powhatan did to help create the “starving time” earlier. When the Powhatan refused to give in to all the demands of the English, the soldiers retaliated by attacking villages, burning them down, and taking hostages. The Powhatan in turn attacked settlers. One of the hostages was Chief Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas. The first phase or the first of the Powhatan Wars ended with a half-hearted truce consolidated by the marriage between Pocahontas and John Rolfe in 1614. By 1622 Chief Opechancanough (Powhatan’s brother) had enough of the English maltreatment of his people and the constant loss of land. He planned a coordinated attack on English settlements on the James River that killed over 340 colonists thus opening the second phase or the second of the Powhatan Wars. The Virginia Company had no choice but to fund more soldiers. This phase was marked by brutality on both sides. A key result of this second phase was that the Virginia Company almost went bankrupt during this war and Virginia was in chaos. As a result in 1624 James I revoked the Virginia Company’s charter and made the colony a royal colony meaning that the monarchy had direct control. In 1632 the wars ceased as the English made treaties with two of the tribes that previously followed the lead of the Powhatan. By 1644 the English had over 10,000 settlers in Virginia and it became clear to the Powhatan that if they ever wanted to retain their lands and possibly reclaim the land between the James and York rivers they needed to act. Again the Powhatan attacked marking the third phase or the third of the Powhatan Wars. Although initially killing more settlers than during the second war, the Powhatan were no match militarily. By 1646 the tribes that were part of the Powhatan alliance were crushed and Powhatan chief Necotowance sued for peace. In 1677 two of the tribes were relegated to reservations after Bacon’s rebellion and were required to pay tribute to the governor of Virginia and is still carried out today! The results paved the way for forcing American Indians onto reservations in the future United States. It also showed that within 70 years the European colonists took control of desired land from the American Indian using a variety of methods including force if necessary. This practice would also be repeated until 1924 with the last of the Apache Wars for a total of 302 years of intermittent warfare!

Question 29. Summarize the causes and effects of the three Powhatan Wars. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 14

By the 1670s there were many former indentured servants on the frontier. Many did not have enough money to buy land and therefore could not vote. Virginia's governor Sir William Berkeley raised taxes that hurt the poor on the Western frontier more than the eastern aristocracy. Furthermore the tax money that was raised tended to be used for purposes that benefited the eastern aristocracy. As conflict increased between the former indentured servants and the American Indians, the settlers criticized the colonial government for not using the tax money to help protect them. In 1675 the issue exploded between the settlers and the Doeg tribe. Brutal fighting took place and a group of frontier settlers murdered 14 friendly Susquehannock members that resulted in expanding the conflicts between the settlers and American Indians. The settlers immediately pleaded to Gov. Berkeley for military support but the governor refused. He as well as the majority of wealthy Eastern planters did not want to finance a war that benefited the poor on the Western frontier. In 1676 Nathaniel Bacon raised an army on his own to fight the Native Americans on the Virginia frontier. Gov. Berkley responded by declaring Bacon's army illegal and demanded that it should be broken up. Bacon marched on Jamestown in September 1676 to confront colonial leaders. They protested that they were being taxed and governed without their consent. Bacon's army set fire to Jamestown and several aristocratic planters fled onto ships. Bacon died soon after leaving the group divided and leaderless. Gov. Berkeley seized this moment and brutally crushed the remaining rebels. As a result of Bacon's rebellion the planter aristocracy became more fearful of the growing power of the former indentured servants. King Charles called Gov. Berkeley to England to explain his actions but the governor died before the meeting took place. Another result was the debate over political power in Virginia especially in the House of Burgesses. The House of Burgesses was the first representative body in colonial American and met for the first time on July 30 1619. As you may recall this was also the year in which 20 African slaves came to Jamestown. The House had the authority to raise taxes and make local laws. The governor who was appointed by the English monarch had the right to veto any legislation. A precedent was set regarding suffrage in that only white male landowners could vote and be elected into the House of Burgesses. This body would serve as an example for other colonies in that by the time of the American Revolution all colonies had a legislative body that was elected. One commonality was that this elected body had the power of the purse and the power to make local laws. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 15

Question 30. What were two key results of Bacons rebellion? Question 31. How did the House of Burgesses set a precedent for future democratic institutions in America?

1.04 Puritan New England Whereas Jamestown was founded for-profit, New England was settled at first in the quest for religious freedom and to escape persecution based upon religious beliefs. The Puritans trace their roots to the English Reformation and the break from the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s. The Anglican Church, as this new Church of England was called, was not controlled by the Pope in Rome. Some Englishmen believed that the church still contained too many Roman Catholic beliefs and practices. Puritans generally wanted to purify the Church of England from all Catholic influences. Furthermore Puritans believed that every worshiper could experience God directly through faith, prayer, and the study of the Bible. The local minister was held in high respect and as a source of religious and moral instruction. All Puritans were not the same. Some Puritans believed in separation completely from the Church of England and they were known as Pilgrims. The Pilgrims first fled to Holland to escape persecution in England but they became concerned after their children started to adopt Dutch customs instead of English customs. In 1620 the Pilgrims got permission to sail to Virginia and establish a settlement. They were blown off course and first sighted land near what is today Provincetown Massachusetts. The Pilgrims realized that they were well north of Virginia and the area described by the Royal charter to establish a settlement. The Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower were fearful that the non-Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower would challenge Pilgrim authority and possibly set sail again. Before disembarking the Pilgrim men signed an agreement called the Mayflower Compact. The Mayflower Compact stated their loyalty to the King and that just and equal laws would be created by the will of the majority. These laws would be binding to the Pilgrims and non-Pilgrims alike. The ideas of consent of the governed and will of the majority would prove to be influential throughout American history. The Pilgrims settlement was called Plymouth Colony and located across Massachusetts Bay from Provincetown. Plymouth is the second permanent English settlement in North America. They received help from the American Indians Squanto and Massasoit who helped the Pilgrims get food and later how to grow their own. The Pilgrims in turn traded with the American Indians. Soon after however, just like Jamestown there was conflict with the American Indians over land. The story of Thanksgiving, although idealized, marks the short time at least when colonists and American Indians helped each other.

Question 32. What is the key difference between Puritans and Pilgrims? Question 33. How has the Mayflower Compact influenced American political institutions? [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 16

Back in England, other Puritans such as John Winthrop faced increasing persecution. They found that their economic and political rights and opportunities were becoming marginalized. In 1629 John Winthrop and other Puritans received a charter for a joint stock enterprise called the Massachusetts Bay Company. Interestingly when the Puritans came to Massachusetts they also transferred the charter and the company's headquarters to New England. It can be said that in doing this they took with them the authority to establish an independent government. In 1630 the ship Arabella landed establishing the Massachusetts Bay colony. Boston became the capital. A large number of immigrants followed within the year coming on 17 ships with over 1000 colonists. Massachusetts Bay colony grew much quicker than Plymouth colony since the Pilgrims were stricter religiously and adopted local codes that some felt were oppressive and too intrusive into their daily lives. The Great Puritan Migration (1630-1642) refers to this period when approximately 21,000 Puritans came to Mass. Bay due to religious persecution in England. Eventually, Plymouth would be incorporated into Massachusetts Bay Colony. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 17

John Winthrop provided strong leadership from the start and provided a vision for the colony through his "City upon a Hill" theme in "A Model of Christian Charity". He believed that a society could be created according to God's will that would prove to be an example for the rest of the world. This idea of being an example for the rest of the world to copy runs throughout American history and has been directly referenced in speeches by several Presidents including Barack Obama. It is important to note that John Winthrop never made mention of establishing a democracy and in fact decreed in some of his sermons that some people were superior in rights and opportunities as compared to others. In practice Massachusetts Bay Colony was more democratic than Europe was during that time. Stockholders and all adult males who belonged to the Puritan church were able to vote. This accounted for approximately 40% of the colony's population in the 1630s. These "freemen" would vote annually for members of the lawmaking body called the General Court that also chose the governor.

Question 34. How did the vision of Massachusetts Bay Colony differ from that of Jamestown? Question 35. Why did Massachusetts Bay Colony grow much larger than Plymouth Colony even though Plymouth was established first?

The Puritan church and the government of Massachusetts Bay were closely related. The leaders came from the Puritan "elect" who believed that they were chosen by God to go to heaven. They felt therefore to criminalize "sins" such as drunkenness, swearing, theft, and idleness. Another key difference between the settlements of Jamestown and Massachusetts Bay was that the Puritans generally came to America as families instead of single men and single women. This family-based approach was even reflected in local ordinances where the community would step in if parents failed to discipline their children. Sometimes they would even remove the children and place them into a more "God-fearing" home. If it became evident that the husband and the wife had an unhappy marriage the community would step in and provide a type of marriage counseling. Even for social offenses, a person may find themselves in the stocks. Another key difference from Jamestown is that the Puritans tended to settle in towns with farmland on the outside. Furthermore since the Puritans believed that one’s salvation depended upon reading the Bible, teaching children to read was considered an important part of life. Additional differences included that the Puritans founded towns with pure drinking water sources and a cooler climate that slowed the spread of disease as a result over 20% of Puritan men lived to reach the age of 80. This life expectancy was almost 30 years longer than those who settled in the swampy Chesapeake area in the South.

Question 36. How was government and religion intertwined in Puritan Massachusetts? Question 37. What are three additional differences between the settlement of Jamestown and Massachusetts Bay?

As previously stated, the Puritans did not advocate a democracy for everybody and did not tolerate criticism or dissent from their interpretation of Christianity. Roger Williams criticized Puritan Massachusetts Bay in his sermons to his congregation in Salem Massachusetts. He declared that the English had no right to take land away from the American Indian unless they purchased it. He later stated that government officials had no right punishing colonists due to their religious beliefs and stated that every person should have free conscience to worship as [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 18 they desire. The general court ordered Williams to be arrested and return to England but he fled instead. He headed south to Narragansett Bay and bargained with the American Indians for land. He called his new settlement Providence that would later become the colony of Rhode Island. In Rhode Island, Williams guaranteed separation of church and state and religious freedom of conscience. These ideas would be echoed by many colonial Americans and influence the relationship between church and state. Anne Hutchinson was a dissenter that challenged the Puritans even more than Roger Williams. She taught Bible readings from her house and stated that people did not need the church or ministers to interpret the Bible for them since the Holy Spirit itself can manifest in every person. Her beliefs were called antinomianism. She challenged concepts regarding the "elect" held by the Puritans. The Puritans believed that some were predestined to go to heaven and these people were called "the elect." The Puritans believed that you could tell if someone was part of "the elect" by their actions and deeds. Hutchinson questioned the need for ministers and churches if one already knew that they were predestined to go to heaven. Hutchinson challenged the entire Puritan social and political structure in her criticisms. The Puritan leadership denounced Hutchinson as a heretic for questioning the colonial structure but also for stating that God could speak directly to anyone but especially women. Anne Hutchinson was banished in 1638 and left with her family and followers to Rhode Island. After her husband died in 1642 she left Rhode Island for Long Island where she was killed later in an American Indian attack. John Winthrop stated that it was God's justice for challenging Puritan ideals.

Question 38. For what offenses did Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson have to leave Massachusetts Bay? Question 39. What colony was founded by Roger Williams and what beliefs were central to its founding?

Soon after the establishment of Rhode Island, Thomas Hooker who was another prominent Puritan clergyman, dissented from the Puritans in Massachusetts Bay regarding the role of representative government in colonial administration. In 1636 he led a group of settlers and founded Connecticut. In that same year the very first constitution was written, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. A major point was that it guaranteed that all free men were able to elect their magistrates using a secret paper ballot. During this same time settlers migrated into territory that would officially become New Hampshire in 1679.

Question 40. Who founded Connecticut and how did it contribute to the formation of democracy in the colonies?

In 1637 the Pequot tried to stop the loss of their land in Connecticut by attacking the settlers. Connecticut made an alliance with the Narragansett who hated the Pequot. This marks another technique that will be used to subdue the American Indians, using ancient grievances to pit one tribe against another thereby weakening both tribes to the benefit of the colonists. The Pequot War was known for the brutality of the colonists. A Pequot fort on the Mystic River was surrounded and set on fire. The colonists shot and killed every Pequot that tried to escape or surrender, even women and children. A chief of the Narragansett that was there for the attack begged the colonists to stop the slaughter but the colonists refused. Only 5 Pequot were left alive out of approximately 400 in the fort. The Narragansett were affected by this event to the extent [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 19 that they communicated to neighboring tribes that if any of the tribes wanted to exist they would have to unify against the colonial threat. Just as in Virginia, the American Indian tribes were exploited and subject to harsh treatment and loss of land. Wampanoag Chief Metacom who was called King Philip by the English organized his tribe and formed an alliance with neighboring tribes to drive the English back. In the spring of 1675 King Philip’s War started with a series of American Indian hit and run attacks on major colonial settlements. The colonial militias attacked in return with the same brutal tactics. The war spread throughout New England and over one half of the colonial settlements were attacked during the war. The New England Colonies formed the New England Confederation and aided each other in defense and attack. This was due in part because of the English Civil War. The colonists asked England for help and received weapons but they had to be paid for by the colonists that hampered economic growth after the war. King Philip was shot in 1676 his body was drawn and quartered and his head was placed on a pike outside of Plymouth for 20 years. His wife and son were sold as slaves to Bermuda as well as hundreds of other American Indians captured during the war. The American Indians could not match the colonists in numbers so the war turned out to be a war of attrition, meaning what side could accept the most loss and keep fighting. By 1677-1678 the war shifted north into Maine and finally the war ended in 1678 with over 600 colonists and 3000 American Indians killed. There are many important results from this war: first the New England colonies could unify themselves for self-defense and for a time at least forget their differences; second, tribes west of the New England settlements took notice of the war and would help the European powers that tended to guarantee them their lands; third, New England was open for settlement as the remaining American Indians made whatever treaty they could to avoid destruction; fourth, New England as a whole lost over 10% of its military age males and coupled with the debt from the war economic growth slowed.

Question 41. What was the major result of the Pequot war? Question 42. Summarize the effects of King Philip's war. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 20

1.05 The Middle Colonies

In 1609 Henry Hudson sailed up the Hudson River for the Dutch who were also looking for a shorter route to Asia. In 1621 the Dutch government granted the Dutch West India Company permission to colonize New Netherland. New Amsterdam would be founded in 1625 and became capital of the colony. In 1655 the Dutch extended their North American claims south near what is today the Delaware River area near Philadelphia by taking over the short-lived Swedish colony called New Sweden. The Dutch capitalized on the fur trade with the American Indians but were slow in attracting settlers from the Netherlands. The Dutch realized that they needed to increase their population or they will potentially lose the colony. The colony opened its doors to a variety of people and attracted Germans, French, Scandinavians, and other Europeans. The colony also attracted Africans both free and enslaved. By the 1660s 1/5 of New Netherlands population was of African ancestry. Generally speaking the Dutch had better relations with the American Indians than the English. The Dutch were interested in securing furs for the lucrative European fashion market. They had no desire to fight the powerful Iroquois that controlled the territory north of New Netherland to the French colonies in Canada and west to the Great Lakes. The Dutch did however get into conflicts with smaller tribes on Long Island and in the Hudson River Valley. Anne Hutchinson was killed during a Dutch war on Long Island. By 1664 the English colonies to the north and to the south had grown to the extent that New Netherland acted as a wedge dividing the colonies. King Charles II granted his brother James the Duke of York permission to drive out the Dutch. When the English fleet arrived in New Amsterdam's harbor governor Peter Stuyvesant called the colony to arms. Stuyvesant was unpopular due to his harsh and autocratic rule and his own colonists refused to take arms against the English. The Dutch surrendered without firing a shot. New Netherland was renamed New York and New Amsterdam became New York City. The Dutch contributed architecture and diversity to the English colonies. They also formed large land tracts in the Hudson River Valley called patroonships. This would serve as the base for the aristocracy in New York. Both future presidents Roosevelt can trace their ancestry back to New Netherland. The Dutch also emphasized economic profit over political or social issues that heavily influenced the development of New York. It should not be surprising that the economic capital of the United States and the world would become New York City.

Question 43. How did the Dutch policy towards American Indians differ from the English? Question 44. What contributions did the Dutch make to colonial society?

William Penn considered Pennsylvania a "Holy Experiment" for Quakers who were being persecuted in England. Penn would be considered a proprietor since he was granted the land due to his father’s service to the King. Quakers believed that all human beings possessed an "inner light" from God. They believed in the equality of all men including American Indians and Africans. They were therefore anti-slavery from the beginning that made Pennsylvania different from other colonies except Georgia that also forbid slavery at the beginning. This is also why they were subject to persecution in England. The Quakers in Pennsylvania did not want to establish a large landowning aristocracy like that found in the southern colonies and in New York so they guaranteed every adult male settler 50 acres of land and the right to vote. The government of Pennsylvania had a representative assembly and guaranteed freedom of religion. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 21

Penn negotiated with the American Indians fairly and a court was established to settle differences between colonists and American Indians. As a result the American Indians respected William Penn and therefore there were no major conflicts, which was different from the southern colonies and the New England colonies. William Penn needed to attract settlers to create a profitable colony. Various immigrant groups from around Europe came to Pennsylvania. Soon the Quakers became a minority in the county. Slavery was introduced and over time even some Quakers owned slaves.

Question 45. Why was Pennsylvania established? Question 46. What were the major differences between policies in Pennsylvania and other colonial policies?

In 1632 King Charles I granted a charter for land north of the Chesapeake Bay to George Calvert who was known as the first Lord Baltimore. His son Cecil named the colony Maryland. Lord Baltimore established the colony as a haven for Roman Catholics. As other settlers moved into Maryland the Act of Toleration was passed. This act guaranteed the freedom of religion for all Christians.

Question 47. Why was Maryland founded?

1.06 More Colonies in the South

In 1663 King Charles II awarded a group of key supporters called the Lord proprietors the land between Virginia and Spanish Florida and became known as Carolina and which would later become North and South Carolina. The proprietors received the land because they supported the Restoration of the monarchy from Puritan rule after the English Civil War. Carolina attracted settlers to the coast especially those coming from the British West Indies. In the West Indies a land enclosure movement took place in which smaller sugar plantations were consolidated into larger plantations. Many of the smaller plantation owners who lost their land migrated to the coastal areas of Carolina and grew rice and indigo. They also brought their slaves and the method of slavery known as the Barbados Slave Code. This code reinforced hereditary slavery, harsh punishment, and the belief that slaves were inferior and to be treated as property. The southern part of Carolina became wealthy and the port of Charleston became the largest city in the Southern colonies as well as the wealthiest city in the South. Charleston and Carolina also made money by capturing and selling American Indians into slavery. The colonists did not look upon the Proprietors favorably because they ruled harshly and did not help the colonists. During Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713) the colonists drove Spanish and French forces away from Charlestown and did not receive help from the proprietors. In 1715 and again in 1718 The Carolinians again had to defend themselves from attacks from Spaniards and their American Indian allies. In 1719 the colonists had enough and petitioned the King to make Carolina a royal colony. The northern part of Carolina had poorer soil but large pine trees that the British would use as masts for sailing ships. The sap from the pine trees was boiled to make tar used to waterproof English ships. This industry would over time lead to the nickname “Tar Heels” that became popular during the American Civil War. In 1732 James Oglethorpe received a charter for a colony that was to be used as a haven for debtors. Oglethorpe named the county Georgia after King George the Second. At first few [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 22 debtors came to Georgia so he was pressured to let other settlers in and eventually allow slavery and drinking of alcohol. Georgia acted as a buffer between Spanish Florida and the wealthy colony of Carolina and Charleston.

1.07 The Growing Colonies and Changing Relationship with England

Geography impacted the colonies in different ways. Soil fertility, climate, and physical geography played a role in economic development and quality of life. One example is that the Southern colonies tended to have greater problems with clean drinking water at first than the New England colonies and this contributed to the lower life expectancy in the South. The warmer climate in the South also contributed to the higher frequency of disease. The Southern colonies had the longest growing season that made agriculture advantageous. The coastal plain with its deep, rich, and fertile soil focused on the production of cash crops. The principle cash crops were rice, indigo, and tobacco. The South also had broad slow moving rivers inland until they reached the fall line. Cash crop plantations could ship their products from piers on the rivers to the coastal ports. West of the fall line is the Piedmont where the soil tended to be rockier and less fertile but was still used to grow a mixture of cash crops and some food crops. West of the piedmont is the Appalachian Mountains that proved to be a barrier to settlers until the first decades of the 18th century. Due to the development of large plantations the South’s population was dispersed with few large cities. The formation of large plantations also tended to promote a self-sufficiency of the plantations that they became like little kingdoms. There was less emphasis placed on community and more on family and family lineage. There was less need for government in everyday life so there tended to develop a belief that the government that governs best is the government that governs least. Since the majority of Southern colonies were founded for economic means, there was a greater diversity in religions than New England but the aristocracy was mostly Anglican. It should not be surprising that these factors also made slavery the preferred method of manual labor on the plantations. The Middle colonies possessed soil and climatic conditions that would lead them to become the breadbasket of the colonies. Corn, squash, beans, and wheat were found to flourish but in some sections tobacco was also grown. This is one reason why slavery was profitable in some of the colonies such as Delaware that remained a slave holding state until the Civil War. The Middle colonies had a greater diversity in economic activity due to the presence of deep harbors and bays that promoted shipping and fishing. The Middle colonies had the greatest diversity of peoples and religions due to the colonization of the Dutch, Swedish, and English. Philadelphia and New York rose as commercial and population centers. The cities resembled the social, political, and economic structures inherited from England. The upper class in the Middle colonies cities benefitted greatly from British economic policies and this group would be an important ally for the British during the various wars. The governments in the Middle colonies varied as far as who was considered a voting citizen but Pennsylvania tended to be the most democratic as far as rights for its varied citizens. The New England Colonies had the rockiest soils so although corn, beans, and squash were grown, the climate and the soils were not suitable for cash crops desired in Europe. Although slavery existed in all 13 colonies, it would die out in New England first due to being not economically necessary and a growing religious opposition. New England has the smallest [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 23 coastal plain but has an abundance of good harbors and fast flowing rivers that would later power mills. The individual New England colonies were the least diversified religiously as the Puritans expelled dissenters. Even after the Revolution the Puritan Church, which was also called the Congregational Church, would be the last tax-supported church in the United States. The New England colonies would diversify their economy to include shipbuilding, trading, fishing, whaling, fur trapping, and the manufacture of rum. The English economic policy towards the colonies was called Mercantilism. In this system raw materials are sent from the colonies to the mother country that then makes finished products and sells them back to the colonies at a profit. The colonists were forbidden from making a wide variety of finished products. Moreover, through the Navigation Acts, the first passed in 1651, the colonists were required to ship their products on British owned ships, manned by British crews, to British ports first. The British also banned the colonies from exporting certain goods to any other nation period. The New Englanders realized that they could make more profit for themselves by illegally trading directly with other nations’ colonies in the Americas such as the French and the Spanish. The British considered this smuggling that could be penalized by confiscation of goods and ships as well as imprisonment. The New England colonies also challenged the restrictions placed upon the colonies as far as producing finished products. The English would pass laws such as the Wool Act and the Hat Act that imposed strict penalties on colonists who tried to produce these products that competed with English factories. It was in New England that the middle class merchants would feel slighted by being kept down economically by Britain first. In 1684 England revoked Massachusetts Charter and turned it into a royal colony because so many New Englanders openly defied the Navigation Acts.

Question 48. How did geography help create three different economic sections in the American colonies?

Question 49. Why would slavery die out first in New England and last in the South?

Question 50. Define mercantilism.

Question 51. Analyze the map of colonial triangular trade and the regional comparison chart of the Southern, Middle, and New England Colonies. Write a paragraph on how the information in the chart “fits” into the map. For example see where slaves come from and where they go. What information in the chart also relates to this? Do they same analysis for the products going to or coming from the other colonial regions. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 24

[American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 25

King James II came to the throne in 1685 and he went even further in trying to force the New England colonies to comply with English rules of trade by consolidating all the colonies north of New Jersey into the Dominion of New England. Worse yet he appointed Sir Edmund Andros to rule New England. Andros immediately caused the colonists to hate him. First, he prosecuted those suspecting of smuggling. Second, he told the colonists that the only rights they possessed were those that he allowed them. This angered the colonists because they believed that they had the rights of Englishmen and were protected by English Law. Third, he questioned whether the Puritan religion should even be allowed to exist. Fourth, Andros suspended all local assemblies. Fifth, Andros created taxes upon the colonists without their consent. It seemed that England was changing their unofficial policy of Salutary Neglect. Salutary neglect refers to unstated policies in which England let the colonies make their own local laws, local taxes, and local administrations as long as the colonists consented to mercantilism and official British policy. England did this because sometimes it would take weeks or even months for a ship to get to America due to wind and sea conditions. There was no way that England could effectively decide on local matters with this time delay so they allowed the colonists to do it themselves. This gave the colonists a sense of “home rule” and government by consent of the governed similar to what was stated in the Mayflower Compact. The New England colonists sent Increase Mather to England to negotiate with the king to get their original colonial charters back and enforced. He also had a list of grievances against Andros. Before Increase even arrived, James II was overthrown during the Glorious Revolution and replaced by William of Orange and his wife Mary. The primary reasons for this revolution is that James II acknowledged that he was Catholic and the Protestant British did not want a line of Catholic Kings ruling their country and James II repeatedly undermined the power of Parliament. As a result of the Glorious Revolution, democracy actually increased in both England and Massachusetts. William and Mary agreed to respect the authority and powers given to the Parliament. The Dominion of New England was abolished and Massachusetts received their charter back in 1691 but with some modifications. First, the king had the power to appoint the governor and second, the Puritans had to allow non-Puritans in the colonial assembly and stop the persecution of non-Puritans in society.

Question 52. What did New Englanders despise James II and Sir Andros? Question 53. How did the Glorious Revolution expand democracy in England and Massachusetts?

After this episode England, which would start to be called Great Britain with the Act of Union in 1707, returned to a period of political salutary neglect. Economically however, Great Britain passed a stricter Navigation Act and tried suspected smugglers in admiralty courts in Britain. The courts in the colonies developed differently in that in America the concept of “innocent until proven guilty” was becoming accepted but in the admiralty courts one was “guilty until proven innocent.” During this time although the king appointed the various colonial governors, the colonial assemblies voted on the payment to the governor. Governors often had their pay used as ransom to approve an advisor or judge that the assembly wanted or even a local ordinance/law. On paper the colonial governor ruled all but behind the scenes the democratically elected assemblies were gaining power much like Parliament did in Great Britain. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 26

Question 54. What was a major difference between colonial courts and admiralty courts? Question 55. How did the colonial assemblies gain power at the expense of the colonial governors?

1.08 Colonial Society- the South

In the early 1700s the vast majority of colonists viewed themselves as loyal Englishmen. Although they wanted more power in making political and economic decisions, they realized that they were better off than those in Great Britain. Their economies were prospering, land was relatively cheap, and social mobility defined as the possibility of rising from the lowest class to the richest class was even achieved by a few. The aristocracy became more powerful economically and politically in America than they could in Europe. A small number of aristocratic families virtually controlled their respective colonies. In Europe you died into the class you were born and people rarely went more than fifty miles from where they were born during their entire lives! Other persecuted groups started to come to the colonies but especially the Southern colonies. Both the Germans and the Scots-Irish first arrived in the Middle colonies but they found out that they were not welcomed. Moreover, when they wanted to buy land, they were offered marginal farmland at the foot of the Appalachians. To achieve their version of the “American colonial dream” they travelled down the Great Wagon Road from Pennsylvania to Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. North Carolina became home to great numbers of the Scots-Irish. Women in the South were second-class citizens. They could not vote or preach. Women were taught the minimal amount of reading, writing, and arithmetic under the belief that too much education would damage a woman’s brain and make her sterile. They were expected to learn social graces, child rearing, and domestic chores. A woman was expected to bow to her husband’s will in all matters. Some husbands even beat their wives to death for disobedience and were never taken to court or even charged with a crime. Most farmers were poor White non- slave owners so often the wife had to also help with the livestock and tend a garden after doing the household chores. As the early 1700s progressed, indentured servitude decreased greatly. As stories about harsh treatment and not being able to get land after indenture spread in Great Britain, less people wanted to come as indentured servants. The aristocracy also viewed the former indentured servants as a threat like in Bacon’s rebellion. The 18th century would see poor whites rise up against the aristocratic controlled governments. The Regulator Movement in North Carolina resulted from Governor Tryon raising taxes in part to construct a palace. Tax collectors were attacked, tar and feathered, and ridden out of town on a rail. One unlucky tax collector lost his nose and ears to Regulators who could not pay the tax and make a profit on their small farm. Later in the 18th century a group of poor whites in Pennsylvania called the Paxton Boys fought the colonial government because they stated that the American Indians were given land for reservations and yet not them. All of these uprisings were brutally crushed but the expense of forming and supplying a militia plus the drag on the colonial economy caused by the violence made the aristocratic rethink their labor supply. As noted, slavery would be racialized and institutionalized in the South. In 1690 there were 13,000 Black slaves in the South. In 1750 there were over 200,000 Black slaves in the South. In West Africa slaves were prepared for the Middle Passage by being branded and [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 27 chained into the holds of ships. Beatings, whippings, and disease led to mortality rate greater than 20% on the ships. Approximately 80% to 90% of slaves coming to the South worked in the fields in the production process of cash crops. Approximately 10% to 20% of slaves were used as household servants, cooks, bricklayers, blacksmiths, teamsters, iron wrights, wheelwrights, and carpenters. Regardless of the position, American slavery was an extremely dehumanizing institution that negatively impacted the psyches of Blacks and Whites for generations. The slaves developed a unique culture and social system under these conditions. Ancient stories were passed down verbally from generation to generation. Education was viewed as it was in Africa, as a vehicle of cultural pride and power. The core unit was the family. Even though slave marriages were not recognized legally, slaves developed marriage ceremonies including such activities as “jumping the broom”, singing, and dancing. If one of the parents of a child were sold to another plantation, another slave would step in following the African proverb that it takes a village to raise a child. Slaves “Africanized” Southern English, music, and dance. Whites would even adopt the drum and the banjo as instruments. Slaves resisted their enslavement through a variety of means. Often they would work as slow as they could without being punished. Tools were purposely broken, illnesses faked, and mass work slowdowns were implemented. During this time running away was hard since all colonies had slaves. During this time a runaway slave tried to runaway to an American Indian tribe on the frontier or in Spanish-Florida. There are multitudes of examples during this time of marriages between runaway slaves and American Indians. In Virginia alone between1736 and 1801, 1279 slaves ran away. Those slaves who were given their freedom or bought their freedom often bought their own relatives so that they would be safe if they had a farm profitable enough to afford the price of purchase. The last resort was slave revolt. The largest in the South was the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina during 1739. The rebellion started with about 20 slaves just outside of Charleston who killed a White overseer and got weapons. They travelled from plantation to plantation killing the Whites, adding weapons, and growing in numerical strength. They started to march south to reach freedom in Spanish Florida. The militia met the rebellion and the runaway army was crushed. The former slaves who were involved were either shot and killed in the battle or tortured and killed afterward. The Stono Rebellion sent shockwaves through the South. As a result stricter slave codes were passed that attempted to dehumanize the slaves even more.

Question 56. Arrange the Southern social classes by highest to lowest and write 1 sentence why you placed that group in that position.

Question 57. What was the impact of the Stono Rebellion?

1.09 Colonial Society- Middle and New England

As the 18th century continued the Middle and New England economies diversified even more. The Middle colonies were not only the breadbasket for the English colonies in America but supplied the British West Indies with corn and wheat since the Caribbean colonies concentrated on cash crops like sugar. New England built 1/3 of all British ships by 1760. In both sections but especially New England a distinct merchant class arose and grew. Philadelphia became the second largest city in the British Empire after London. Its streets were laid out in a mathematical grid pattern. Public squares provided public meeting areas, streets [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 28 were paved, a police force provided a sense of security and whale oil street lamps were used to provide safe passage at night these innovations were copied in other American cities for the next two centuries. A major difference from Europeans did arise. Americans tended to favor houses over apartments. The availability of land in American cities was one reason but another reason was vanity. In America the bigger the house was equated with more prestige and power. This too would be copied for centuries to come and reached its peak in America with the 250 room Biltmore Estate constructed for the Vanderbilt family outside of Asheville, North Carolina in 1895. In the North slaves tended to have more power than those in the South for they could sue and had the right of appeal in the highest colonial courts. They still were treated harshly and just like in the South insurrections took place. In 1712 and in 1741 there were slave uprisings that were brutally crushed. In the 1741 revolt 13 slaves were burned alive and 18 were hanged after a series of suspicious fires. The major slave revolts in the Americas up to 1859 were: 1526 San Miguel de Gualdape(Sapelo Island, Georgia, Victorious)c. 1570 Gaspar Yanga's Revolt(Veracruz, Victorious)1712 New York Slave Revolt(New York City, Suppressed)1733 St. John Slave Revolt(Saint John, Suppressed)1739 Stono Rebellion(South Carolina, Suppressed)1741 New York Conspiracy(New York City, Suppressed)1760 Tacky's War (Jamaica, Suppressed)1791–1804 Haitian Revolution(Saint-Domingue, Victorious)1800 Gabriel Prosser(Virginia, Suppressed)1803 Igbo Landing(St. Simons Island, Georgia, Suppressed)1805 Chatham Manor(Virginia, Suppressed)1811 German Coast Uprising (Territory of Orleans, Suppressed)1815 George Boxley(Virginia, Suppressed)1822 Denmark Vesey(South Carolina, Suppressed)1831 Nat Turner's rebellion(Virginia, Suppressed)1831– 1832 Baptist War(Jamaica, Suppressed)1839 Amistad, ship rebellion(Off the Cuban coast, Victorious)1841 Creole, ship rebellion(Off the Southern U.S. coast, Victorious)1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation(Southern U.S., Suppressed)1859 John Brown's Raid(Virginia, Suppressed) Women in the North were just as oppressed as the women in the South. They were expected to be subservient to men and focus on household chores. They were expected to also help on the farm since the majority of Northerners were also poor White farmers. An added dimension to the oppression of women in New England was strict Puritanism that could reach the fanatic stage. In 1692 such an event swept New England. First a group of young girls accused an African slave, Tituba, of practicing witchcraft in Salem, MA. Tituba was beaten and “confessed” to practicing witchcraft and was thrown in prison. Soon the girls made the same accusation against other women who seemed to be outside of the norm. Some of them had property due to the death of their husbands and it is suspected that the accusing girls were jealous. Those accused of being witches would sometimes state that they were innocent because they themselves were bewitched and they then would accuse another woman. What resulted were the Salem Witch trials but these trials would spread all over New England. Even the Governor’s wife was accused as being a witch! The Puritan religion at the time contributed to the situation since it demanded that witches should be disposed of. By the time the officials hearing the cases realized what was really happening 20 women were killed, another 4 died in prison, and over 150 were imprisoned with some awaiting sentence!

Question 58. Define the merchant class. Question 59. What two causes were at the root of the Salem Witch trials? [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 29

1.10 Intellectual and Religious Movements in Colonial America

The Enlightenment refers to the time in Renaissance Europe that scientists and philosophers looked to science to explain the natural world instead of blind acceptance of religious doctrine. Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton exemplified key scientific thinkers that challenged church doctrine. Copernicus theorized on the heliocentric theory, Galileo and Newton theorized on the role of mathematics in nature. The ideas of the Enlightenment travelled to America in the form of books that were read the most in New England and the Middle colonies due to the higher literacy rates. Benjamin Franklin would be considered the best example of an American Renaissance man of the Enlightenment. Proverbs that explained everyday life were written in Poor Richards Almanac. He invented the bifocals, lightning rod, and is best known for his experiments with a kite, lightning, and a key. He used rational thinking in terms of human society to devise the creation of a postal system, volunteer fire department, and the first anti- slavery society in Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson expanded on the works of such thinkers as John Locke to conclude that all men are indeed created with certain empirical rights and that government needs to function with respect to those rights. Moreover if a government failed to act in accordance with mans’ natural rights in was his duty to overthrow that government. Jefferson as well would experiment with plants, architecture, and even devices such as a letter-copying machine that traced its roots back to the scientific rationalization of the Enlightenment. Deism or the belief that God created the universe then “stepped back” to let the natural laws he created govern the universe also has roots in the Enlightenment. In Puritan New England education was emphasized. Puritans believed that salvation depended upon reading and seeking guidance from the Bible. In Massachusetts’s towns with 50 or more families had to establish an elementary school. When the town grew to 100 families it also had to provide a “prep” school that taught Latin to prepare students for college/seminary. In the Southern and Middle colonies, education was either done in the home or by private tutor for the wealthy. It should not be surprising that the first universities were established in New England by religious groups as seminaries for the training of ministers. The exception was the University of Pennsylvania that was founded as a secular institution. Many of the first universities established in the colonies are today considered among the best in the world. Massachusetts’ K-12 public school system was considered the best in the nation in 2014. The key first universities founded include: Harvard in Massachusetts (1636); the College of William and Mary in Virginia (1693); Yale (1701), the College of New Jersey (subsequently Princeton) (1746); King's College (subsequently Columbia) New York, (1754); the College of Philadelphia (subsequently the University of Pennsylvania) (1755); and Queen's College in New Jersey (subsequently Rutgers)(1766).

Question 60. How did the Enlightenment ideas of Franklin and Jefferson expand American democracy?

Question 61. What was the difference in education among the colonial regions?

As the Puritans had children, they noticed that their children and grandchildren did not demonstrate the same amount of religious fervor that they did. This was crucial in Puritanism (Congregational Church) because showing religious conviction was one way of knowing [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 30 whether you were part of the “elect.” As you recall “the elect” formed the power base in New England and now it was feared that power base may start to disintegrate. Many youth were no longer moved by religious services that they felt focused on ceremony and doctrine. They longed for religious services that were emotional, exciting, and left one feeling “renewed.” In 1662 the Half-Way Covenant was established that allowed the youth to become full members of the “elect” without demonstrating all of the signs that were previously deemed necessary. It seemed that something additional needed to change to religion to be relevant in the youth of Colonial America. Starting around 1730 and lasting well into the latter parts of the 18th century was a religious movement that swept through all 13 colonies and Great Britain called The First Great Awakening. The movement was strongest in the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s with its greatest impact in New England. The First Great Awakening would result in huge growth of Baptists and Methodists in the backcountry of the Middle and Southern colonies. The Presbyterian Church would also experience change but to a lesser degree. The First Great Awakening divided the Congregationalists into “Old Lights” and “New Lights”. The “Old Lights” preferred the older type of services while the “New Lights” favored the exciting and empowering services. Huge revivals took place and many people experienced “conversion” and/or “rebirth.” Both free and slave Blacks not only converted to Christianity but depending on the church went with the Whites to service and there were even cases of Black ministers preaching to both Blacks and Whites in the same church at the same time. Many Whites touched by the Awakening believed in the Spiritual Equality of Blacks. Presbyterian minister Samuel Davies became known for converting extraordinary numbers of African slaves to Christianity and argued that slaveholders must teach slaves to read so they can read the word of God and be saved. This over time would prove divisive since some argued that spiritual equality was the most important therefore how can you maintain belief in moral, intellectual, and societal inferiority?

The First Great Awakening started in New England. Jonathan Edwards believed that salvation depended upon people emotionally attached to the word of God. Preaching from his pulpit in Northampton, MA Edwards started to give fiery sermons including the famous “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” Soon some other ministers also followed his lead creating over 98 schisms or divides within the Congregationalist Church. These divisions gave people a sense of empowerment over their spiritual health and destiny. In a few churches the members actually chose who their minister was going to be. This is another important step in democracy formation because if people could choose who would lead them to “everlasting life” they should be able to choose their political leaders and political policy. George Whitefield travelled throughout all the colonies giving fiery sermons in his revivals. Whitefield maintained that one had to repent for committing sins and do good works that reflected God’s will. Even the Deist Benjamin Franklin supported Whitefield and devoted over 45 issues of his paper The Gazette to Whitefield’s work because he favored the colonists performing community good works that increased unity. It should be noted that both of these Great Awakening ministers owned slaves and believed in spiritual equality only. Whitefield also helped in the formation of democracy because now every colony experienced the same social event and had a common thread. For the most part the individual colonies viewed each other as competitors up until the Revolution. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 31

The First Great Awakening impacted and empowered women to a spiritual degree as well. Women became more introspective of their own spirituality and of their children. Phyllis Wheatley a slave who was brought from Africa wrote extensive poems and essays regarding her life. She was the first Black poet published in America. She was so moved by her conversion to Christianity that devoted an entire poem to Whitefield upon his death in 1770.

Question 62. What was the First Great Awakening? Question 63. Discuss three ways the First Great Awakening helped form democracy in the colonies.

1.11 European Conflict Shapes the Founding and Evolution of Colonial America

It is important to understand how conflict within England shaped the American colonies as well as the conflicts between England, France, and Spain. As previously mentioned the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 ushered in England’s colonization of the Americas. One reason for the conflict between the Spanish and the English was the seizure of Spanish galleons loaded with gold heading for Spain. The English did not have a strong navy at that time and did not want to start an all out war so they used privateers or pirates to attack the Spanish ships. Another reason was the religious differences between European nations. England as a Protestant nation incurred the wrath of both Spain and France that remained Catholic. Religious minorities were persecuted harshly in all countries. This served as a motivating factor for the settlement of New England, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and to an extent Georgia. Within England itself religious turmoil resulted in a Civil War in which the Puritans would rule the country from 1648-1660. King Charles I would be executed and a Commonwealth would be formed. The best-known Puritan leader/general was Oliver Cromwell. At first it was hoped that parliament and the Puritan leaders would institute key reforms that would improve the quality of life. As time went on harsh laws and genocidal persecution of Catholics occurred. The turmoil in England led to salutary neglect and colonists organizing self-defense. The New England colonies supported the Puritan government while colonies such as Virginia supported the monarchy. Maryland suffered turmoil as the Puritans tried to subjugate the Catholics. Quakers were executed in Massachusetts. In 1660 the monarchy was restored with Charles II and this event is called the Restoration. The result in the colonies was the consolidation of Connecticut into a single colony, Carolina was awarded as a proprietary colony, and the Calvert’s were temporarily restored to power in Maryland that was also a proprietary colony. New Jersey colonies were also formed under proprietors. The Restoration started a slow process in which colonies would start to be consolidated and later become royal colonies.

Question 64. What factors contributed to the wars between England and France? Question 65. How did the English Civil Wars divide the colonies?

King Williams War 1688-1697 is the name given for the colonial war against French colonies that was part of a larger European War. In fact, as the colonial powers in Europe battled for supremacy their colonies would also be in the war. During this war the American Indians were important in that European nations did not send in large amounts of troops. The Iroquois and the French were already fighting over trade and territory around Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 32

The New England colonists allied themselves with the Iroquois and fought the colonists of New France and their Indian allies. Most of the fighting occurred in New England and New France. The New England colonists failed to capture Quebec that was the capital of New France. The fighting was bloody and savage. The French attacked as far south as Albany, NY. The New Englanders captured the capital of Acadia, Port Royal. New Englanders desired this area because these ports were closer to the rich fishing grounds called the Grand Banks. As the war went on the Iroquois became upset at the New Englanders since the French destroyed Iroquois villages and the Iroquois believed that their allies did not help defend them. Many New Englanders became upset at their colonial masters when the war ended and the European nations agreed to set the colonial boundaries where they were before the war. A few questioned why did they fight since they did not receive any rewards. Queen Anne’s War 1702-1713 stemmed again from European conflicts regarding who was recognized as successor to the Spanish throne. In the American colonies fighting was intense and brutal between the English and the French. The American Indians on both sides played crucial roles in attacking settlements and determining the balance of power on the continent. In the South attacks and counterattacks occurred between Spanish Florida and Carolina. As previously mentioned, Charlestown (Charleston) was the best port and richest city in the Southern English colonies. The Spanish, who had explored and constructed forts in that area prior to English colonization, wanted to add that territory to Spanish Florida. They did not succeed and most of the American Indian villages long the southern part of what is now Georgia were destroyed. Just as in King William’s War, the fighting between New France and New England was vicious and destructive. Again the English failed to capture Quebec but did capture Port Royal again in 1710. After back and forth fighting throughout the war on Newfoundland the French retreated. The disputes of the war were settled temporarily in the Treaty of Utrecht 1713. In the South, Spanish Florida was considerably weakened. The British saw the vulnerability of Carolina and Charlestown and would establish Georgia as a buffer and debtor colony in 1732. In 1711- 1713 in the Northern part of Carolina, the Tuscarora fought a separate war to protect their land from settlers and were defeated. They migrated north to the Iroquois nation where the remnants still live on reservations near Niagara Falls, NY. In 1712 North Carolina was separated from South Carolina. North Carolina was settled by more independent minded colonists who tended to live on smaller farms as compared to the huge plantations in South Carolina. North Carolinians were viewed as being rude, discourteous of “superiors”, and generally of a lower class. High concentrations of the Scots-Irish settled in the Piedmont and are reflected today by the vast number of Presbyterian Churches in the Charlotte, NC area. North Carolina was divided off to make it more easily ruled but as previously mentioned the settlers did not care for the proprietors and it would become a royal colony in 1729. Finally, Nova Scotia would be given to Britain and troubles would begin with the Acadians who refused to pledge loyalty to the British monarchy. Between 1755-1764 over 11 thousand Acadians were forcibly deported from Acadia and left in the swamps of the Mississippi River delta. There despite great hardship they would forge a unique culture that is called Cajun today. War of Jenkins’ Ear 1739-1742 this war between Britain and Spain began reportedly because of British violation of Spain’s mercantilism. As previously mentioned all European colonial nations benefitted by the using their colonies for raw materials and then selling them finished products in return. Other European countries were forbidden from trading with another’s [American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 33 colonies directly. Supposedly Capt. Jenkins, who was an English captain, was caught by the Spanish illegally trading with Spanish colonies. To send a message to other smugglers they reportedly cut off his ear and told Captain Jenkins to tell the English King that more such actions will take place if warranted. Fighting took place in the Caribbean, Florida, and Georgia. Oglethorpe successfully repelled all attacks on Georgia. The war merged into King George’s War. King George’s War 1742- 1748 was primarily fought between New England and New France colonies. Again fighting was brutal and casualties mounted on both sides. Colonists from New England invaded New France and colonists from New France invaded New England as far south as Saratoga, NY. The key battle was the taking of the French fort Louisburg that was the largest fort in the St. Lawrence Bay area. The American colonists suffered heavy casualties taking the fort. In fact some historians state that Massachusetts alone lost 8% of its adult male population between 1745-1746 alone! Again some New Englanders got upset at Britain when the peace treaty gave Louisburg back to the French. It seemed that British policy treated Europeans better than their colonists in every sense of the word.

Question 66. What were the key results of King William’s and King Anne’s War? Question 67. What role did mercantilism play in the War of Jenkins’ Ear? Question 68. Why were some New Englanders upset at the end of King George’s War? War (Name in Name in Dates in Results Colonies)[American HistoryEurope, 1] Dates [Unit 1America J. Michalski] 34

King William’s War of the 1689-1697  The balance War League of of power Augsburg, between 1688-1697 England and France is maintained

Queen Anne’s War of Spanish 1702-1713  Nova Scotia War Succession, becomes 1702-1714 British possession

King George’s War of 1742-1748  Louisbourg War Austrian returns to Succession, French 1739-1748 control  British settlers begin westward movement  Iroquois neutrality challenged 

French & Indian Seven Years’ 1754-1763  All territory War War, 1756- east of 1763 Mississippi is transferred from French to British control  Florida goes from Spain to Britain  British debt mounts

[American History 1] [Unit 1 J. Michalski] 35

*Based on The American Journey: A History of the United States by Goldfield, et al.

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