Environmental Quality
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Chapter 9 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
9.1 State Of The Philippine Environment
The environment has played significant formative role both in the traditional way of life of the Filipino people and in their socio-economic development. However, it is estimated that 65% of fishing families are living below the poverty line; many are land less and lack access to the credit and technical assistance which could improve their standard of living. They have small cash incomes, subsisting on local resources such that their lives and destinies are intimately linked to the sustainability of these resources. They will turn to these resources with or without conservation. For the most part they manage for themselves, but sometimes, they need help. It is in this respect that community-based tourism could play a significant role both as a protector of the environment and a provider of an efficient alternative base of livelihood for these people.
Sustainability of the environment and its resources implies the wise use (development) and careful management (conservation) of individual species and communities together with the habitats and ecosystems on which they depend. It requires that some of the areas be retained as close to their natural states as possible - Safeguarding habitats for plant and animal production, preserving genetic resources, protecting scenic spots, and enjoying our natural areas. In some cases, limited uses such as fishing, rotational tree felling, and use by tourists may be permitted on a sustainable basis. The country's experiences in the past show that an explosive population growth coupled with rapidly dwindling resources has brought about short-term economic development mostly at the expense of environmental imperatives. This fact has aggravated the social and economic conditions of the greater portion of the population making ecological concerns serious socio-economic issues. Today, these issues bring about problems with far-reaching effects that go beyond socio- political boundaries
The existing environmental scenario in the Philippines is best described in terms of the status of its resources, their use, management, and their impacts on the people. Coral reefs, for example, are among the oldest and richest living communities of plants and animals on earth and constitute a very important component of the Philippine coastal zone. They are highly productive complex communities sustained primarily by coral-algal symbiosis. Historically considered as one of greatest natural treasures of the country, they are home to about 488 species of corals, 971 species of benthic algae, and 2,000 ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) species of fish (Fortes 1996). They are sources of many varieties of food, shoreline protection from waves and storms, replenishment source of sand for beaches, aesthetic and recreation, tourism attraction, mineral extraction (sand, coral rubble aggregate, quarry stone), medicines, scientific research, educational resource, habitat for rare species, and concentration of high bio-diversity. A single reef may contain 3,000 species of corals, fish and shellfish. The Philippines, with 27,000 sq. km of coral reef area, has the largest area of coral reefs in the world.
Nearly one- third of all fish species live on coral reefs, while others are dependent on reefs and sea-grass beds at various stages in their life cycles. Although estimates as to the amount of fish that can be harvested from reefs vary, it should be possible to take some 15 metric tons per sq. km without destroying stocks. Almost 55% of the fish consumed by Filipinos depend on coral reefs. It is estimated that 10 to 15% of the total marine fisheries production is contributed by coral reefs.
Gomez et al. (1994), from the 1991 data, gives the status of Philippine coral reefs. Summarized below, this is in terms of live coral cover with the following ratings: excellent = 75-100%; good = 50-74.9%; fair = 25-49.9%; and poor = 0-24.9%. The number of sites in the country where studies were conducted and their percentages (in parentheses) are also given:
L I V I N G C O R A L C O V E R ______Sites Excellent Good Fair Poor ______
Luzon 336 (1005%) 12(3.6%) 86(25.6%) 146(43.4%) 92(27.4%)
Visayas 363 (100%) 24(6.6%) 95(26.2%) 131(36.1%) 113(31.1%)
Mindanao 43 (100%) 3(7.0%) 6(14.0%) 13(30.2%) 21(48.8%)
TOTAL 742 (100%) 39(5.3%) 187(25.2%) 290(39.0%) 226(30.5%)
Sea-grass beds, a discrete community dominated by flowering plants with roots and rhizomes (underground stems), thrive in slightly reducing sediments and normally exhibiting maximum bio-mass under conditions of complete submergence (Fortes 1989). Sea-grasses support large numbers of epiphytic organisms the bio-mass of which may be almost as great as that of the sea-grasses themselves. Ironically, in the Philippines where the second highest sea-grass diversity in the world is found, Sea-grass ecosystem has been a focus of scientific inquiry only in the last 15 years
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) and, as an object of natural resource management only in the last 5 years (Fortes 1995).
Fish and shrimp are probably the most important components of the beds, although coastal villages derive their sustenance from other components of the grass beds. The major invertebrates found in the beds are shrimps, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, crabs, scallops, mussels, and snails, while the major vertebrate species include fishes, reptiles, and mammals. Some endangered species of sea turtles are found in Philippine sea-grass beds which include the green sea turtle, the Olive Ridley, the loggerhead, and the flat-back. Snakes are also a common inhabitant. The sea cow (dugong), a mammal which is endangered all along its range of distribution in the world, is almost completely sea-grass-dependent (Fortes 1995).
The economic usefulness of a sea-grass bed resides primarily in the fisheries it supports. In the Philippines, coral reefs with their associated sea-grasses potentially could supply more than 20% of the fish catch (McManus 1988). A total of 1,384 individuals and 55 species from 25 fish families were identified from five sea-grass sites in the country. All members of these families have economic value mostly as food and aquarium specimens. Five times as many fish live over sea-grass beds as over sea floors made up of mud, shells, and sand (Lean, et al. 1990).
Sea-grass beds have the potential to filter sewage, thus reducing the threat from pollution which would otherwise affect coral reefs and mangroves. They are also biotic heavy metal reservoirs or sinks in the marine environment. The habitat is also known to stabilize the coast due to its ability to trap sediments. As an eco-tone or transition zone between coral reefs and mangrove forests in tropical coasts, it is an area of tension between these two habitats, supporting a rich diversity of species from adjacent systems and provide primary refuge for both economically and ecologically important organisms. As such, sea-grass habitats are sensitive to fluctuations because species coming from their neighboring systems encounter "marginal conditions" and are at the extremes of their tolerance levels to environmental alterations. This sensitivity makes sea-grasses useful indicators of changes not easily observable in either coral reef or mangrove forest.
Mangrove forests are the communities of trees that are found in sheltered environments since they are shallow-rooted and both trees and seedlings are subject to uprooting and the landform over which they develop can be eroded and scoured by waves and currents. They also favor areas with high terrestrial sediment inputs which are important sources of inorganic nutrients.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) In 1918, the country's mangrove forests were estimated to be 5,000 sq. kilometers. By 1970, this had gone down to 2,880 sq. km and only a remaining 2,420 sq. km a decade later. Recent estimates indicate that the resource comprises only 1,397.25 sq. km, although the Philippine Forestry Statistics for 1993 gives the most recent estimate of total mangrove cover at 1,234 sq. km (Fortes 1996). In the Philippines, 68 families of fish inhabit mangrove areas. These areas are also a source of firewood, charcoal, tannin and dye barks and serve as land builders and buffer against typhoons and wave action.
Two major environmental problems confront the integrity of our natural resources: (1) environmental degradation particularly via soil erosion and deforestation; and (2) pollution of air, water, and land. Only about 25% of the total land area of the country has adequate forest cover. On the basis of slope, the ideal forest cover should be about 54%. The country has been losing its forest at the rate of about 105,000 ha annually, and roughly 6,500,000 ha need immediate reforestation. With deforestation comes heavy soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and reservoirs, flash floods, and drought. In turn, there is the attendant loss of bio-diversity and sudden changes in hydrological regimes.
Deforestation-induced erosion is estimated to be about 1 billion cubic meters of materials every year, subjecting 17,000,000 Filipinos to risk in erosion-prone areas. With erosion comes the deterioration of agricultural lands, increase of flood occurrence, reduced water supply, siltation of reservoirs, canals, and rivers, destruction of buildings, roads and public works, and depletion of wildlife and other natural resources. It has been estimated that soil erosion and hydrological deterioration of the watersheds in forest lands set the country back by about 6.7 billion per year in terms of losses in productivity and utility in infrastructures and other off-site costs.
Pollution from oil spills, and discharges from ships, and sewage, industrial effluent, and domestic wastes have caused damage to various resources in the coastal zone. In 1987 alone, the mining firms generated about 63,172,742 dry metric tons of mine tailings, discharged mostly in Lingayen Gulf off Pangasinan, Calancan Bay in Marinduque, and part of Tanon Strait off the coast of Toledo City in Cebu. Seventy percent (70%) of the water pollution load in Metro Manila and other major urban centers is due to domestic wastes. Destructive fishing methods have severely jeopardized marine life and the decline in fish catch statistics reflects the long-term adverse effects of these degradative agents on the aquatic ecosystems.
Similarly, noise and odor pollution are becoming increasingly a concern especially in the metropolis. Noise is traceable mainly to the operations of mechanical equipment and machinery of industrial and manufacturing firms and becoming a major complaint by
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) residents living near plants for the manufacture of animal feeds, tanneries, piggeries and poultry farms, and some chemical plants.
In addition to man-made sources of environmental degradation and potential health hazards, communities of all levels and types must contend with natural hazards. The impact of these hazards to the environment is oftentimes acute and recovery is usually slow. Loss of human lives, reduction in agricultural productivity and destruction of physical resources can be severe following landslides, earthquakes, lahars, or volcanic eruptions.
9.2 Aims of the Study
In specific terms, this section of the Tourism Master Plan aims to:
Evaluate the present and future environmental impacts of tourism with emphasis on the six provinces of the region where recommended projects are to be developed;
Identify specific resource requirements to mitigate adverse environmental impact and formulate a program that would protect, prevent and enhance the environment of the study area that would be utilized as a tourism resource;
Identify development guidelines and practices to be adopted in the granting of clearance for construction tourism facilities/plants especially in identified tourism sites; and Assist in the preparation of profiles of identified projects and in the pertinent sections of the planning reports.
Conceptually and in general terms, it aims to ensure that the natural systems as tourism resources in the region meet the requirements of human systems for the present and future generation.
9.3 Conceptual Framework and Approach
An integrated framework and approach is being adopted in the study. This has some major features which include:
it is multi/inter- sectoral/agency/disciplinary;
it addresses well-defined issues; it creates opportunities to link planning to implementation; ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) it directs research at questions of direct relevance to resources management;
it involves those affected by management schemes in all phases of the strategy; and
it promotes sharing of experience among resource managers.
The above features ensure that the product: has continuity; has defined boundaries; has institutional identity as an independent organization or a network of organizations; integrates all uses of the environment, including actual and potential; and is culturally and spiritually responsive.
In the identification of the issues, certain criteria were used. These include: urgency and significance; impact on a good number of stakeholders; replicability; time, funding, expertise, and resource availability; opportunities for short-term, tangible success; and social and political acceptability.
The planning process itself incorporates the gathering of available information, developing a matrix of existing information, developing a regional resources plan; and considering the conceptual framework and critical analysis of available infrastructure and other resources.
The objectives are formulated in relation to the various uses identified in the regional development plan. In defining the objectives, it is essential that problems to be solved are clearly identified and appropriately defined.
The assessment of available resources includes a tally of facilities, laboratories, infrastructure, research and training. It is indispensable for examining feasibility of undertaking projects or programs as well as providing a rational criteria for allocating resources based on a given set of priorities of plans, projects and programs. It also includes an assessment of qualified personnel, the time available for the activities, and the institutional framework. An important component of this activity is public consultation. Some degree of uncertainty is unavoidable in any planning, so that a reasonable procedure for public involvement should be instituted when appropriate.
Evaluation is in the form of workshops, inclusion of other case studies, and economic analysis. While options may emerge in the assessment stage, it is at the evaluation stage where definitive options and alternatives are made, including criteria for selection and the expected outcome and probable consequences.
Implementation of the activity is the actual execution of the plan.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) The conceptual framework is useful as a basis for analysis. Hence, management is viewed as a system in which natural and human inputs are processed to yield useful outputs and environmental and natural systems effects are generated. It is thus conceptualized as having three dimensions:
the management process which comprises the various steps involved in planning (e.g. play formulation and design) and implementation (e.g. construction, operation and maintenance);
the management system elements (e.g. physical facilities to be built and operated, implementation tools, and institutional and organizational arrangements); and
the management activities required to achieve specific project purposes or outputs (e.g. access to fishing zones, navigational rights, tourism resort establishments).
This analytical framework is a diagnostic tool which allows one to examine management in terms of specific tasks that can be analyzed along the three dimensions. The analysis of any specific case of management can proceed by starting with one dimension, for example, management process, and for one component of that dimension -planning for example- examining the components of the other two dimensions -management activities and management system elements. Thus in the planning phase, we can examine the management element dimension for specific tasks required for management and operation of a coastal area in terms of the physical facilities and operating rules ("things to be done"), implementation tools ("ways of getting things done") and institutional and organizational arrangements needed to ("get things done").
9.4 Priority Tourism-Cum-Environment Issues in the Region
Environmentally, the country's bleak situation is one in which the natural environment has almost completely broken down (FREED 1994). This is generally true for both terrestrial and coastal environments. While the government has not been remiss in offering solutions to improve the situation, these solutions give shortterm benefits to selected groups and degrade the environment at society's cost (Lacanilao 1996).
In Region III, the last two decades witnessed tremendous pressure from an increasing population who are in need of wood and land to till and settle on. This pressure contributed to the massive destruction of the region's forests. In addition, there was over-exploitation of its timber resources. The inadequacy of forest development, management, and ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) conservation efforts was brought about by poor execution of forest management programs, ineffective enforcement of forestry laws, inadequacy of policies and institutional arrangements for forest protection and development. Political pressure gave low priority to forest conservation and environmental protection. This was the prevailing scenario in most other regions in the country a few years back (PTMP 1990).
Deforestation at rates known to be among the highest in the world has significantly eroded what the forestry sector has contributed to the national economy. The average annual deforestation rate had been as high as 300,000 ha per year in the late 1960's and was still going on at rates higher than 150,000 ha per year in the early 1980's. However, the rates had been estimated to be less than 100,000 ha per year in 1990 (DENR Statistics 1990). At present, there are only about 6.46 million ha of forests (exclusive of brushland), 1.79 million ha of which are non-productive, and only about a million hectares are virgin forests. On a regional basis, the biggest forest losses in the Philippines took place in Region IV (804,000 ha), Region X (491,000 ha), Region II (485,000 ha), Region VIII (446,000 ha, and Region XII (424,000 ha) (Forest Management Bureau Statistics 1993).
In the more urbanized areas in the region, the environmental problems are closely tied up with socio-economic issues. Hence, the key issues related to tourism in Region III can be placed under three broad categories: biophysical issues; socio-cultural issues; and institutional/policy issues. This categorization, however, is artificial as these issues are interconnected and interdependent (Fortes and McManus 1994). If they are separated in this report, it is only for convenience in presentation to facilitate ease in their understanding.
9.4.1 Biophysical Issues
The priority biophysical issues confronting Region III are:
degradation of ecosystems and habitats;
declining water quality and pollution;
declining coastal fisheries;
endangered species and wildlife; and
hazards including earthquake and flooding.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) There is massive denudation of forest areas, causing erosion and depletion of water supply. Inadequacies of the cities' solid waste (garbage) management and sewerage system have aggravated the situation, so does the proliferation of squatters and its adverse material input to the immediate environment. At the capital towns and cities, there is congestion of the central business district by ambulatory and vehicular traffic causing air pollution. In many cases, obsolescence and inadequacy of the slaughter houses has been mentioned as a perennial issue. One issue underlying all the above is the lack of basic knowledge on ecology and information on environmental issues.
The pace of human activities such as industrialization, development of recreational areas along the coasts, and agricultural land uses, are accelerating in many parts of the region. These activities have led to well documented declines of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves. On the other hand, natural perturbations such as typhoons, waves, and volcanic activity likewise constitute physical issues which can also be responsible for the decline. However, they do not seem to be as widespread as man-induced changes. Pests, diseases, population and community interactions similarly pose as stressors which have affected natural ecosystems in the region.
The major long-term threat to aquatic populations in the region is derived from eutrophication. A particular problem in embayments with reduced tidal flushing, nutrient loading or eutrophication results from wastewaters which reach the coasts from industrial, commercial and domestic facilities, inadequate septic systems, boat discharge of human and fish wastes, and storm drain run-off carrying organic waste and fertilizers. Its direct impact is the enhancement of growth in many plant forms resulting in reduction of light. Ultimately the cause of nutrient loading along coasts is people; increased population density increases the problem.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) One common pervasive problem in the entire region is garbage disposal. The data below reflect the magnitude of the issue (National Statistics Office 1990):
Classification of Households by Usual Means of Garbage Disposal (1990)
Distribution, %
- Total household 1,163,205 100.00
- picked up by garbage truck 134,202 11.54
- dumped in individual pit (not burned) 118,288 10.17
- burning 802,508 68.99
- composting (later used as fertilizer) 21,065 1.81
- burying 41,644 3.58
- feeding to animals 22,401 1.92
- others 23,097 1.99
Hence, almost 70% of the total household in Region III still adhere to the age-old practice of burning their garbage. On the other hand, garbage is picked up by trucks in only 12% of this total.
The adverse impact of lahar in some of the provinces in the region is an important consideration in the tourism development effort of the local governments. The area of land covered by lahar, prone to lahar deposit and prone to siltation (in land management units, in ha) is given below:
Lahar Affected Lahar Prone Siltation Prone warm lowland 24,791 39,145 30,087 warm cool upland 2,523 1,564 9 warm cool hilly land 7,522 1,729 1,097 cool highland 8,124 4 0 miscellaneous 9,359 5,182 3,863
TOTAL 52,319 47,624 35,056
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) In the order of decreasing magnitude of actual effect of lahar, the provinces in Region III may be arranged as follows:
Zambales > Pampanga > Tarlac > Bataan > Nueva Ecija > Bulacan
In terms of their being prone to such effect, the order is as follows:
Tarlac > Zambales > Pampanga > Nueva Ecija > Bataan > Bulacan
In terms of their being prone to siltation, the order is as follows:
Pampanga > Zambales > Nueva Ecija > Bataan > Tarlac > Bulacan
9.4.2 Socio-cultural Issues
The degree of environmental consciousness of the inhabitants at the sites was closely tied up with their livelihood activities. This is a natural inclination of the kind of people whose greater parts of their lives are dependent on the status of the immediate environment and its resources. Cutting and uprooting of trees were done only as these were useful in enclosing their livestock or poultry they raised, or their small plots where they grow corn and rootcrops, and gardens where they grow colorful ornamentals. Bamboo, the most commonly cut plant, naturally and abundantly grows at the foot of the low hills. These materials find several uses not only in the immediate area, but even outside the municipality as household support.
Largely because of the "Clean-and-Green Project" of government, the backyards of most of the houses in the vicinity were clean, regularly swept of fallen leaves. Burning of dried leaves is a common practice, especially late in the afternoon or early morning in order to drive mosquitoes and pests. In some households, the age-old practice of applying embers at the foot of fruit trees for better yield still goes on. Refuse from domestic activities were thrown into open pits a few meters away from the front of the houses. There was a general tendency of the people to aesthetically blend the atmosphere of their houses to the immediate conditions of the natural surroundings.
However, these environmentally friendly attitude of the people is rapidly being eroded by socio-cultural issues which include:
poverty and conflict, especially over the use of, and loss of access to, natural resources;
rapid population growth;
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) the limited involvement of resource users in management activities,
low credibility of the government (loss of people's trust); and
absence of a shared vision.
The other equally important issues include: lack of sensitivity to gender concerns; public health; and certain misconceptions which have guided man's interaction with his environment.
The causes of the first major issues are well identified and their solutions are relatively well laid out; hence, they need not be elaborated in this report. On the other hand, the misconceptions which have misguided people's actions towards their environment need to be mentioned. Indeed, there are perceptions that guide most of man's interactions with the environment. They have an unclear perception of what the environment is in relation to themselves, the view being often anthropocentric, not socio-centric nor naturalistic. In addition, development is predicated largely upon environmental exploitation, not its protection, as the latter is not yet a perceived social need but an expensive and time-consuming activity. Environmental preservation and the pursuit of economic goals are considered in conflict with one another because they are based on two incompatible basic principles: the ecological principle of 'stability', as a precondition of the sustainability of ecological systems, and the economic principle of 'growth', as the inherent logic of economic systems. The important point about these different viewpoints is that they will remain divergent so long as groups have different interests and different sources of information and knowledge (Fortes 1995).
Taken for granted partly because of the limited involvement of the people in planning and management, a 'shared' vision for the environment is nowhere in sight. For the last two decades, the DENR has made vision statements which changed as rapidly with the change in the administration. More importantly, these visions have been formulated largely without incorporating what the people want their environment to be, hence, the results are almost parochial statements that alienate the people, making them feel that they do not 'belong' (Fortes 1996b). With this scenario, how can one expect them to actively participate in government projects?
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) 9.4.3 Institutional/Policy Issues
The priority institutional/policy issues are:
low level of institutional capability for area management (especially at the local level, the capacity to implement sound policies is very limited);
government's inadequacy to address the problem of dealing with commercial operators and implementing existing rules and guideline;
lack of mechanisms to limit free-access nature of some resources; and
lack of national policy on strategic development of the coastal zone (especially a strategy that addresses the causes of habitat degradation).
"Political interference and mismanagement is a 'normal' ingredient in any developmental effort in less developed countries. This results from misguided priorities arising from meager information base, lack of expertise, political favoritism and inefficient bureaucracy in the face of a dire lack of financial resources. The much needed but least felt 'political will' to support the new movement of environmental protection is locked in the traditional bureaucracy and political elite in the region. Unfortunately, mitigative efforts being undertaken by the government and private sectors are insufficient, ineffective and largely socially unacceptable (Fortes 1996b)."
9.5 Tourism-Environment Symbiosis
The Philippine Tourism Master Plan (PTMP) has recognized that tourism is an important pillar supporting the country's development effort. It is a major industry especially in small areas that offer people little less, bringing in jobs, revenues, and foreign exchange. But because tourism, although a non-extractive resource use, must necessarily draw upon the environment and its resources for its survival, the cost to the country of a pervading yet backward environmental program is significant such that sustained tourism development will not materialize without a viable environmental sector. The existing environmental crisis is necessarily linked both to the poverty of coastal and mountain dwellers and to the unabated degradation imposed by the national effort to industrialize and attain higher productivity. This condition has a negative impact on activities that attract visitors.
Millions of years before man came into being as a species on this planet, nature or his environment has been in existence, with its evolved structure (or its framework) and function (the processes that occur within this framework). These two elements
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) complimented each other, later ensuring the continued survival of organisms under a condition of high ecological integrity. The latter was to be the basis of the wondrous 'balance of nature' or 'ecological balance' we so painstakingly try to maintain today. Discounting the occurrence of natural catastrophes, it was when man started to 'dominate' nature, overemphasizing his role especially as a geologic agent that brought the environmental crisis we currently face. Today, this crisis directs the course of our very survival both as a race and as inhabitants of this planet. Indeed, the viability of our planet is decreasing at an alarming rate as a consequence of human interference with the natural environment. Hence, the most significant contribution of man to nature's integrity was his disruption or modification of the intricate balance that ensured and is still ensuring his own survival. This disruption or modification man does from ignorance or even indifference, failing to realize that all those other living and non-living things are essential to his survival. In developing countries, this is being undertaken largely to address his basic as well as peripheral needs. Indeed, we have to develop a new rationale and an ethic to come up with sound decisions when nature conservation competes with other human objectives.
9.5.1 Tourism as a Partner in Environmental Protection
The country has 69 national parks with a total area of about 470,000 ha and about 160 marine protected areas. With adequate protection, these areas can become important parts of planned and informal tourist flows. The Tourism Master Plan for Region III (TMPIII) envisions to work hand in hand with the IPAS in incorporating protected areas into national planning for tourism development. National parks, managed nature reserves, and multiple use management is to use an integrated approach since any major management initiative involves the central government, local authorities, the military, fishermen, farmers, and other resource users, local people, scientific and technical experts, businessmen, and many other interests.
The major environmental resources that attract visitors to come to the country include:
Physical and chemical characteristics - earth (mineral resource, land form, unique physical features) and water (ocean, rivers, underground, quality);
Biological condition - flora (endangered species, barriers, corridors), fauna (birds, reptiles, fish and shell fish, coral, insects, endangered species, barriers, corridors);
Sociocultural factors - land use (wilderness, open spaces, wetlands, forestry, agriculture, commercial, industrial, mining and quarrying), recreation (hunting, fishing, boating, swimming, camping and hiking, picnicking, resorts), aesthetic and human interests (scenic views and vistas, wilderness qualities, landscape design, ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) unique physical features, parks and reserves, monuments, rare and unique species and ecosystems, historical and archaeological sites, and objects); and
Ecological relationships (food chains and community interactions).
In a rare case in El Nido, northern Palawan, it was shown (Hodgson and Dixon 1988) that with continued logging in the uplands, tourism revenue would be reduced by 10% per year between 1988 and 1991 due to the degradation of water quality and marine life on which the diving resorts depend. With the logging ban, the 1987 - 1996 gross revenue (predicted at USD 47.4 million) is USD 39 million more than the gross revenue under the option with continued logging.
To cap this section, it is worthwhile quoting Jeffreys (1987): "An ambiguous relationship exists between tourism and the environment. Since tourists may want to see and appreciate particular environmental attributes, it is in the interest of those who wish to profit from those visitors to protect those attributes. From this comes the concept that tourism is a boon and benefit to conservation because it places a "dollar value" of the environment. Ecologically conscious people, it is argued, should support the tourist industry.
9.5.2 Tourism as a Potential Risk Factor
Potential environmental impacts of tourism-related activities depend on the phase of the project (PTIVIP 1991). At the pre-construction phase, the following direct impacts are expected:
impact on land use through speculation in anticipation of development;
impact of uncertainty on economic and social attributed of nearby areas;
impact on other planning and provision of public services; and
acquisition and condemnation of property from project, with subsequent dislocation of families and businesses.
At the construction phase, the following impacts have been identified:
displacement of people;
land, water, air, and noise pollution;
soil erosion and disturbance of natural drainage;
interference with water table;
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) destruction of or damage to wildlife habitat, parks, recreation areas, and historic sites;
aesthetic impact of construction activity and destruction of or interference with scenic values;
commitment of resources to construction; and
safety hazards.
Indirectly, tourism development affects contiguous land use, regional development patterns, demand for housing and public facilities, impact on use of nearby environmental amenities; differential usefulness for different economic and ethnic groups; impact on life-styles of increased mobility and other factors; and impact of improved facility on transportation and related technological development.
The dynamic nature of the environment is reflected in the various overlapping biophysical, economic, institutional, and organizational boundaries. Consequently, conflicts arise. An analysis needs to be conducted of Philippine land use conflicts so that at least qualitative assessments could be made of the likely trade-off which will arise. In relation to the coastal environment, these conflicts include (SURP 1996):
conflicts over values, disagreements over interests, facts, and non-substantive disagreements;
parties to coastal conflicts include users of its resources and government agencies which implement and administer coast-related legislation;
direct users include those who directly participate in coastal operations; indirect users include environmental groups , the public who do not use the coasts and the future generations;
intractable coastal use conflicts involve value differences, which usually occur between direct and indirect users (these are often philosophical conflicts);
interaction occurs with increasing frequency among direct users who share the same coastal environment and who are pursuing the same or related coastal resources;
actual conflict or imagined conflict, the later rooted in differing perceptions of facts and probabilities of impacts; and
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) among government agencies which implement coastal legislation at local, regional, and national levels.
The rationale behind the application of the precautionary principle is obvious: to safeguard the integrity of the environment and resources upon which livelihood of people depends. In less developed areas in Region III especially those who would be directly affected, this is yet unacceptable due to the simple reason that lives depend upon the use of those resources. But to mention the impacts of tourism activities and the corresponding response(s) of the environment, some documented examples are given below. These responses result from the changes brought by the activities on some of the biophysical parameters1 of the environment:
TOURISM-RELATED ACTIVITIES SOME ECOLOGICAL RESPONSES
Managed Ecosystem Biological displacement Agriculture and farming Change in species composition Forestry Lowered species diversity Ranching Reduction of standing stock Aqua-and mariculture Reproduction failure Nearshore catch fisheries Overutilization of selected species
Smothering of sedentary species Construction and Transportation Mass kills Dredge and fill activities Respiratory stress Airfields Inhibition of photosynthesis Causeways and roads Food chain concentration Harbors Diseases of stock Shipping Recruitment failure Electric power generation Increase in dominance feature Urban and resort development Encouragement of pests Sanitary sewage discharge Solid waste disposal Water development and control Shoreline management and use Land clearing and site preparation Coastal resource uses
1 Includes: temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, salinity, hydrology/ oceanography siltation/sedimentation, water pollution, toxic substances, physical disruption, soil erosion, debris and solid waste, change in cover, overexploitation, disruption of migration, disturbance of behavior, overloading, encroachment
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Impacts of the Proposed Projects
Table 9.1gives the known and probable impacts of the 21 proposed projects on the immediate environment at the selected sites in Region III. For ease in presentation, these impacts are categorized into minor, moderate and major. In the context of the project, a minor impact is that which emanates from a project that is not required a project description nor an EIA sensu DENR DAO 96-37 (DENR: DAO 96-37 Procedural Manual). A major impact, on the other hand, is that which is expected of projects and undertakings categorized as Environmentally Critical Projects (ECPs) and projects located in Environmentally Critical Areas (ECAs). A moderate impact is that which is somewhere in-between the two other categories, and because of the indeterminate or transitory nature of the impact, the project may or may not be required to have an EIA.
It should also be emphasized that prior to the implementation of any mitigating measure, it is assumed that proper planning on the part of management has been made. This is in relation to the consideration of environmental imperatives in the analysis of management's strength, weaknesses, opportunities on threats (SWOT). In addition, the success of the undertaking rests heavily on the strict compliance to the requirements of the EIS system.
9.5.3 Environmental Capacity
The Environmental (also known as Receiving, Absorptive, or Assimilative) Capacity (sensu United Nations Environment Programme) is an inherent feature of the environment which enables it to accommodate a particular activity without undesirable impacts. It is a high-order interactive environmental management technique. Unfortunately, with the present state of our knowledge of local conditions at the tourism highways and loops being proposed, we are faced with the inevitability of several sources of uncertainty in real-life conditions to be used in gauging the environmental capacity at these sites. Hence, we could only propose a general and probabilistic, as opposed to a deterministic, approach in describing the Environmental Capacity for Region III.
Based on scientific research, the assessment of Environmental Capacity is site- and activity-specific. In Region III, the capacity of the terrestrial and aquatic environments to support the basic activities of the people and the biological processes which maintain ecological balance among the habitats and their components could only be assessed if data on the following parameters are known: (1) the resource base of the people; (2) extent of the major habitats; (3) degree of dependency upon these resources and habitats; (4) production and consumption rates; and (5) degree of the ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) disturbance/destruction both from natural and man-influenced forces. Unfortunately, reliable data on these parameters are incomplete or almost unknown.
Although cursory at this stage, certain related and indirect parameters, could be useful as indices to describe Environmental Capacity at the proposed tourism sites. These parameters include population density, natural sources of income, agricultural/fishery production/consumption from the immediate habitats, and some observations on the extent of degradation/destruction of the natural terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. In the region, especially in Nueva Ecija and Zambales representing the two extremes in environmental conditions, with the former the more pristine, the latter the more disturbed, it can be assumed that their dependence upon aquatic and land resources is from moderate to high, as other minor sources of income (e.g. services) have been possible. In Zambales, the existing conditions of the coral reefs, seagrass beds, the seaweed communities, and their associated fisheries indicate a minimal amount of destruction, especially from man-induced activities. Disturbances are mostly in the form of impacts from natural stressors (e.g. winds and waves). It is thus reasonable to assume that the carrying capacity of the environment has not yet been reached nor even approximated by the existing activities (developmental or livelihood) on the part of the population.
9.6 Environmental Sustainability with Tourism
Addressing effectively our environmental crisis requires more decisive measures and a rational approach to environmental trends as these apply to tourism activities. Along this line, the CLTIVIP attempts to promote and implement tourism development programs based on: (1) objective environmental management and protection; (2) social equity in access;(3) benefit-sharing in resource use; and (4) a national framework which acknowledges nature-based limitations in the pursuit of development. Specifically, the development Plan tries to:
integrate the economic and environmental aspects into the decision-making process;
strengthen and provide the required expertise on environmental management in the existing machinery for planning from the local levels;
strictly comply to and support the strengthening of the EIS systems and cost- benefit analysis in order to ensure the proper pricing of natural resources, while promoting the conservation of biodiversity and the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems; ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) encourage and support training of relevant personnel at all levels in the various aspects of environmental management in order to facilitate permeation and inculcation of environmental consciousness in all agencies concerned with tourism;
develop site-specific tourism plans based on sound understanding of the ecosystems' dynamics on which natural resources are based;
develop a databank on resource and environmental information to facilitate decision-making;
focus on rural development which induces growth in these areas;
promote environmental education;
strengthen citizen's participation;
fully support programs and efforts on sustainable development of the environment and its resources; and
support the national strategy to develop a broad national public awareness program in support of conservation and protected areas.
9.6.1 General Environmental Principles and Guidelines
The basic principles that underlie sound management of the environment and its resources draw principally from the fundamental concepts of ecology and socio- economics. They form the functional framework of a highly effective approach to resource management -community-based approach. In addition they dictate the current trends in global tourism development characterized by: (1) the emergence of "ecotourism'; (2) the increasing sensitivity of tourists to environmental and cultural issues; (3) the expansion of high-quality and specialty tourist attraction; (4) the shift of corporate developers towards tourist attractions which protect, rather than destroy natural resources; (5) the proliferation of NGO's involved in environmental protection; and (6) increase in governmental control of tourism development to protect fragile environments and to avoid destructive impacts.
These general principles that have guided us include:
The paramount principle that guides our work is maintaining ecological integrity,
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) As a developing country, the Philippines has to meet certain social and economic needs in the coastal and terrestrial zones; however, meeting these needs must not jeopardize their ecological integrity; In meeting these needs, we are guided by the well known and accepted principles of conservation biology -the precautionary principles (`vorzorgeprinzip'). These latter principles emphasize the need for care and caution when alterations in the natural environment are considered, especially when scientific data about a natural system is lacking or when an area is unusually susceptible to damage. The following premises are the basis of the precautionary principles:
- nature is valuable in its own right;
- authorities must be willing to take action in advance of full, formal, scientific proof,
- people proposing a change are responsible for demonstrating that the change will not have a negative effect on the environment,
- today's actions are tomorrow's legacy; and
- all decisions have a cost, exercising caution may mean some people must forgo opportunities for recreation or for profit.
Land and coastal use planning is fundamentally ecosystem-based, hence, all issues must be dealt with in a wider context and within a timeframe that spans not only immediate needs, but political and ecological time scales as well;
The sciences play a critical and ongoing role in planning and management of the environment;
The regulatory role of the DENR in implementing and enforcing the plan on behalf of the Pilipino people cannot diminish. In the execution of this role, the public should be involved to the greatest degree possible;
The plan recognizes and respects the historical and traditional uses of the environment that are consistent with ecological integrity and sustainable development;
People must recognize that businesses in the zone cannot expect to enjoy the same conditions as they would outside this zone; the opportunity to operate a business in, for example, the coastal zone is a privilege, not an inherent right;
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) The impact that development outside the coastal zone has on its ecosystems must be kept to a minimum;
Residents and businesses affected by changes due to the plan must be treated fairly; and
In implementing our recommendations, collaborative and voluntary initiatives should be used in preference to punitive measures.
In environmental terms, areas to be selected for tourism must consider the following criteria:
a. Ecological Criteria
1. diversity - the variety or richness of ecosystems, habitats, communities, and species, with areas having the greatest variety receiving the highest ratings. However, this criterion may not apply to simplified ecosystems, such as some pioneer or climax communities, or areas subject to disruptive forces, such as shores exposed to high energy wave action;
2. naturalness - the lack of disturbance or degradation. Degraded systems will have little value to fishes or tourism, and make little biological contribution. If restoring degraded habitats is a priority, a high degree of degradation may score highly.
3. dependency - the degree to which a species depends on an area, or the degree to which an ecosystem depends on ecological processes occurring in the area. If an area is critical to more than one species or process, or to a valuable species or ecosystem, it should have a high rating.
4. representativeness - the degree to which an area represents a habitat type, ecological process, biological community, physiographic feature, or other natural characteristic.
5. uniqueness - whether an area is one of a kind. Habitats of endangered species occurring in only one area are an example. To keep tourism impact low, tourism may be prohibited but limited research and education permitted. Unique sites should always have high ratings.
6. integrity - the degree to which the area is a functional unit -an effective, self- sustaining ecological unit. The more ecologically self-contained an area is, the more likely its values can be effectively protected, and so a higher rating should be given at such areas. ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) 7. productivity - the degree to which productive processes within the area contribute benefits to species or to humans (eutrophic areas are exceptions). 8. vulnerability - the area's susceptibility to degradation by natural events or by activities of people.
b. Praomatic criteria
1. urgency - immediate action should be taken, lest values within the area may be transformed or lost.
2. size - which and how much of various habitats need to be included in the protected area. The protected area must be large enough to function as an ecological unit to receive a high rating.
3. degree of threat - present and potential threats from direct exploitation and development projects.
c. Economic criteria
1. importance to species - the degree to which certain economically important species depend on the area.
2. importance to fisheries - the number of dependent fishermen and the size of the fishery yield.
3. nature of threats - the extent to which changes in use patterns threaten the overall value to people.
4. economic benefits - the degree to which protection will affect the local economy in the long term.
5. tourism - the existing or potential value of the area to tourism development that is compatible with the aims of conservation.
Hence, a wide spectrum of inputs is required in the selection of a site for tourism. The overall objective, especially in the less developed sectors of the provinces.in Region III, is to ensure that the communities acquire a "decent quality of life". This means the absence of poverty, the latter being the inability of a family to meet its minimum basic needs for survival (food, nutrition, health, water and sanitation, and clothing), security (shelter, peace and security, and income and livelihood), and empowerment (basic education and functional literacy, community participation, and psychosocial development). ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) It is likewise useful for tourism planners to possess a working knowledge on which areas in their respective jurisdictions may or may not be subject to varying degrees of development. Hence, the following,areas are 'environmentally critical', meaning, that they are to be 'left alone' to maintain their natural integrity without human intervention, or, if there is an objective need for development, these be subjected to the utmost care backed by all applicable rules and knowledge - technical or traditional.
The Twelve Environmentally Critical Areas
1. All areas declared by law as national parks, watershed, reserves, and wildlife reserves and sanctuaries; 2. Areas set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots; 3. Areas which constitute the habitat of any endangered or threatened species of indigenous Philippine wildlife; 4. Areas of unique historic, archaeological, or scientific significance; 5. Areas which are traditionally occupied by cultural minorities or tribes; 6. Areas frequently visited and/or hard-hit by natural calamities; 7. Areas with critical slopes; 8. Areas classified as prime agricultural lands; 9. Recharge areas of aquifers; 10. Water bodies; 11. Mangrove areas; and 12. Coral reefs.
In the face of the current environmental crisis the country is facing, the need arises for a reappraisal of existing paradigms and/or a shift to new and more relevant ones (Fortes 1996). In the broader context, the ingredients for such a shift have been made clear: "...poverty must be eradicated through community movements and people empowerment,- the economy must be resuscitated through the broad-based provision of access to and mobilization of resources and investments for higher value, higher multiplier and higher efficiency goods and services; the environment must be rehabilitated and sustainably managed; and the government machinery must be reoriented and restructured towards more democratic, more responsive, people-based, and area-oriented approaches of realizing sustainable development" (FREED 1994). Hence, below are some of the paradigms which have emerged out of the need to refocus environmentally related efforts which obviously did not work well or are inappropriate under existing conditions. Their understanding and application will serve as a useful tool in tourism development:
The conventionally perceived economic growth is no longer tenable as the unquestioned objective of economic development policy. The old concept of growth (`throughput growth') with its reliance on an ever-increasing throughput of energy and other natural materials, cannot be sustained, and must yield to an ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) imaginative pursuit of economic ends that are less resource intensive (Goodland et al. 1992).
There is pervasive shift from mere growth to development. Growth means simply that things get bigger. But when systems develop they get better, more efficient; there is a trend to decouple growth from environmental degradation;
Producing more with less through conservation, higher efficiency, technological improvements, and sound recycling;
Economic logic tells us that there is a need for a reorientation and adoption of policies to the management of scarce, not abundant, resources (Daly 1992). This means that economic policy should be designed to increase the productivity of natural capital (natural resources) and its total amount, rather than to increase the productivity of human-made capital and its accumulation;
In conflicts between biophysical realities and political realities, the latter must eventually give ground (Goodland et al. 1992). The environment will transit to sustainability: the choice is between society planning for an orderly transition, or letting physical limits and environmental damage dictate the timing and course of the transition;
There is a shift toward an economy of conservation, with incentives to integrate environmental values into business practices. This means recycling, remanucfacturing, and a repair economy in which the developing world would enjoy many advantages ;
The newly developing sectors of society need to find a different pathway, shaping their own models of development that bypass the ruinous, resource depleting cycle the older more developed sectors went through. The essential fuels of the transition to sustainability - capital and technology- are scarce in these developing sectors, so it is imperative for them to optimize the use of these resources in ways which also take advantage of their main resource - people;
There a shift toward an economy promoting long-term investment and capital gains, rather than short-term profit maximization. This means new approaches to taxation, and a new corporate vision which extends beyond the next quarterly dividend;
There is a shift to a savings culture, rather than one built on immediate consumption; and
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Recognition and acceptance of a new paradigm of economic development where natural resources are sustainably used over long time-frame (integrationalequity) and where benefits hit the mass base of marginal populations.
These shifts in paradigms require a quick but intensive learning process. Business e.g. tourism has proven itself capable of adapting to rapidly changing circumstances, and can do so in the present circumstances.
Originally proposed for the development of tourism in Boracay Island and adopted in the national tourism master plan, the provisions of the Environmental Code for Tourism Development should be adhered to. The code focuses mainly on environmental criteria but it should be emphasized that there are other criteria (e.g. social and economic) that should similarly be considered. In addition, although the effort for now is in Region III, the real intention is to refine and validate the guidelines so that these will be useful in similar undertakings in other parts of the country.
Adherence to the above principles and key themes and paradigms ensures that the master plan for tourism development in Region III would be effective, responsive to the needs of the people, and acceptable by them. With these desirable features:
It should provide a framework for achieving effective coordination across a complex array of national, regional, and local institutional arrangements. The objective is to ensure efficient utilization of increasingly scarce public institutional resources;
It should provide a framework for transferring skills, knowledge and technology smoothly and rapidly to developing Philippine coastal industries. The objective is to deepen and widen Philippine capacities and competencies in coastal and marine- based industries, sciences and technologies;
It should provide a framework to ensure protection of coastal and marine environments and conservation of their living and non-living resources. It should identify present, future, existing, and potential conflicts. The objective is to ensure that the Philippines meet its national and international obligations on protection and conservation and ensure that development takes place on a sustainable basis; and
It should provide a basis for future development and utilization of the coastal environment and resources. It should, in particular, provide a framework for encouraging and facilitating sustainable coastal and marine-based resources,
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) manufacturing and services industries. It should articulate strategies to facilitate marine technology development.
Appendix 2 gives the World Charter for Sustainable Tourism adopted in Spain in 1995. It was likewise adopted at the Conference on Sustainable Tourism for the 21st Century in Algarve, Portugal in the same year. It is a product of decades of effort on the part of both public and private sectors worldwide, addressing the interaction between tourism and the environment. Readers are advised to consider the provisions of the charter in making plans for tourism development.
9.6.2 Strategies and Action Plans
In the Philippines, there is an urgent need to undertake and sustain research activities focused on topics which are relevant, pragmatic, and easily understood in the administrative circles. When properly undertaken, these serve as the base of most developmental activities (e.g. tourism) in the coastal zone. Among others, these topics should include: inventory and stock assessment; mapping and classification; community and ecosystem dynamics; socio-economic studies; and evaluation of management policies and programs.
Only by taking a vigorous proactive conservation stance on modification to the environment and one that is actively supported by the highest offices of government will there be any hope of slowing, stopping and reversing the trend of habitat loss. Hence, the goals of research and development in the Philippines and in the region should be considered within an environmental and resource use framework.
Currently, research and development efforts on Philippine coastal and marine ecosystems suffer from a lack of purposeful objectives and long-term goals for meeting the challenge of sustainable use (Fortes 1995). These objectives and the actions that specifically address them include (after Fortes 1994, adapted in part from Holligan & de Boois 1993):
OBJECTIVE 1:To determine the role coastal ecosystems play in the maintenance of the integrity of the coastal zone as a tourism resource.
Action 1: Undertake a time series analysis to monitor the status and rate of expansion or area reduction of the ecosystems in Bataan and Zambales.
Action 2: Assess the impacts of habitat changes on the associated fisheries and dynamics of the ecosystems.
Action 3: Define, implement and evaluate functional restoration of critical sites using transplant optimization techniques including the maintenance of genetic diversity of restored habitats and investigation of habitat resiliency.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Action 4: Apply applicable techniques to value both direct (e.g. fisheries) and indirect (e.g. ecological functions as nurseries) goods and services from the habitats.
OBJECTIVE 2:To determine the response of coastal ecosystems to environmental forcing factors brought about by tourism activities.
Action 1: Undertake intensive process studies and dose-response experiments focused on pollution, sedimentation and fluxes in temperature and salinity.
Action 2: Simulation experiments and prognostic modeling for predictive management of target components over a wide range of space and time scales (e.g. fish and prawn fisheries; endangered species) .
OBJECTIVE 3:To determine how land use patterns and human activities affect the morphodynamics of coastal ecosystems.
Action 1: Undertake socio-economic data analysis of the associated impacts of tourism.
Action 2: Help develop a consistent national policy on coastal resources management.
OBJECTIVE 4:To intensify interhabitat connectivity studies (coral reef-seagrass bed- mangroves).
Action 1: Investigate physical processes linking the ecosystems.
Action 2: Investigate the nutrient fluxes between the ecosystems.
Action 3: Investigate animal migration patterns among the ecosystems.
Action 4: Assess the effects of human impacts as a link between these habitats.
OBJECTIVE 5:To establish indices useful in developing scientific and socioeconomic bases for the integrated management of the coastal resources.
Action 1: Incorporate seagrass beds in marine protected areas.
OBJECTIVE 6:To translate the understanding under the aegis of a Philippine Coastal Environmental Information Network (PCEIN).
Action 1: Introduce information technology.
Action 2: Systematize data acquisition and handling.
Action 3: Undertake massive information campaign at all levels of society.
a. Action Plan for the Protection of Species of Special Concern
The giant clams are a protected species in the Indo-Pacific. One of its uses is as an aquarium species and a curio for tourism. The project funded by ACIAR/AIDAB (Australia) is the most direct and significant attempt to address the problems of the conservation of the species in the country. Local counterpart funding was provide by
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) the then Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) and more recently by the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD). In terms of mariculture and growth studies, these two institutions have shared resources.
A goal of breeding the giant clam should include studies on its growth, maturation and survival rates. Since the clam is also marketed for its shells, genetically improving the characteristics of the shells would help market the clam. In addition to culture, the other areas of research and study that should be pursued include stock assessment, biology and conservation, growth and production rates, reproduction and larval rearing, socio-economics, parasites, predators, and diseases. In a significant attempt towards giant clam conservation, the UP Marine Science Institute has experimentally deposited seedlings in pilot places such as Anilao, Batangas and Hundred Islands in Alaminos, Pangasinan. The plan is "...to get the involvement of the fishermen in managing their own clam culture in selected areas in the country. It is envisioned that a large breeding population in strategic places will naturally reseed other reefs which are open for everybody to exploit."
The plan of action to protect the giant clam resources includes:
Research - to define ecological requirements for maintaining stable clam population; distribution and high-use areas; human impacts on the animals and on seagrass beds; population dynamics;
Resource management - selection and establishment of clam sanctuaries; policy review, proper implementation and strict enforcement of rules; active participation of NGO's and local governments in the conservation program; and
Information and Education Campaign - distribution of information materials and radio plugs; campaigns to parallel research thrusts, focused and regionspecific to accommodate cultural and socioeconomic norms.
In the case of dugongs and sea turtles, the action plan for their protection and conservation is for the most part subsumed under the plan for that of seagrasses upon which their survival is intimately linked. The World Conservation Union listed the dugong and sea turtles as "vulnerable to extinction" while the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) listed the former in Appendix I (except in Australia where it is in Appendix II, allowing indigenous tribes to hunt them).
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) b. Coral Reefs: the ICRI Framework for Action
At ICRI Workshop held in Dumaguete 29 May-2 June 1995, it was agreed that effectively addressing management, capacity building, research and monitoring, and review is the key to the protection and sustainable use not only of coral reefs and their resources but of the associated seagrass beds, mangroves and soft bottom communities as well. The specific actions are given below:
1. In terms of management:
encourage governments to develop and adopt integrated coastal management measures;
enforcement of regulations;
encourage governments and funding agencies to consider the ICRI framework in project and program design and implementation;
encourage, where appropriate, an intersectoral systems approach to planning and management;
encourage improved coordination among international organizations, donors and NGOs to provide more effective programs at the regional and national level;
encourage prompt implementation of the outcomes of FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and the Global Program of Action to Protect the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities;
promote awareness and action by the global tourist community to minimize individual and collective impacts of tourism community to minimize individual and collective impacts of tourism on coral reefs and related ecosystems;
promote the establishment and effective management of coastal and marine protected areas for coral reefs and related ecosystems, within the framework of customary international law as exemplified by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea;
promote the regulation of international trade in endangered and threatened reef associated species through the CITES, and improve its implementation where required;
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) encourage governments to develop and promote mechanism for regulating international trade in species that are illegally harvested,
encourage governments to develop legislation, policy and institutional capacity to apply environmental assessment to development activities;
promote appropriate technologies, including voluntary programs and economic incentives and best management practices, for control of land-based causes of marine pollution;
promote and replicate successes in integrated coastal management, including community - based management, as appropriate; and
support management measures to improve the socioeconomic condition of local communities through such means as retraining and sustainable alternative livelihood development.
2. In terms of Capacity Building
encourage regional organizations to assist countries and communities implementing ICRI, for example through measures including: preparation of project proposals; and implementation of small grant programs;
establish, strengthen and sustain mutually supportive networks of centers of expertise in management of coral reefs and related ecosystems;
base human resource development strategies on needs assessments and ensure that they address: the diversity of cultures, traditions and governance structures; increased community awareness and involvement; evaluation of the effectiveness of training; and the need to target children in awareness raising;
improve coordination and targeting of the education and human resource development programs provided by development partners;
support formal and informal environmental education programs for all levels of the community on the subject of coral reefs and related ecosystems, with curricula and materials tailored to the interests and needs of the regions and end-users;
encourage maximum use of national and regional expertise in management, research and capacity building activities; ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) support the development, identification and dissemination of materials which address the interests and needs of the region;
increase the relevance to ICRI of existing donor scholarship programs by: devoting a proportion of scholarship awards to environmental studies; and encouraging thesis and dissertation studies carried out in home countries; and
encourage the private sector's role in management of coral reefs and related ecosystems through: use of appropriate technologies; development of a trained and educated workforce; and innovative approach to better environmental operating standards.
3. Research and Monitoring:
Research and monitoring programs should address biological, physical, social, cultural and economic studies and should be carried out over time periods appropriate to their objectives. They should be supported by information management, interpretation and dissemination. In the collection of data for both research and monitoring, resource users should be involved to the maximum extent practicable:
promote the involvement of managers in the development, conduct, interpretation and application of research and monitoring programs;
promote and assist the development and application of resource assessment methods that: allow for rapid assessment to establish baselines and initiate management; and can be used in Geographic Information and Decision Support Systems;
promote the development of a Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network under the Coastal Zone Module of the Global Ocean Observing System by incorporating and, as necessary, establishing or strengthening regional needs;
encourage studies of coral reefs and related ecosystems which address, among others, priority management issues of individual coastal site and the synergies between human effects and natural variations as causes of stress and degradation in coral reefs and related ecosystems; develop programs to involve communities, resource users, the private sector and others in monitoring the condition of coral reefs and related ecosystems; and
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) encourage regional and international forums which bring together managers and scientists to identify priority information requirements for management of coral reefs and related ecosystems.
4. Review
review of the state of coral reefs and related ecosystems and of action taken to implement the ICRI Framework for Action should be conducted at national, regional and international levels on a regular basis;
the four yearly cycle of the international coral reef symposia provides an excellent opportunity to discuss the ecological condition of coral reefs. This should be matched by an equivalent program to review the effectiveness of implementation of actions in accordance with this Framework for Action;
at the international level, the UN Commission on Sustainable Development provides an appropriate forum for review international actions taken at all levels by governments, international organizations and agencies;
UNEP should be encouraged to review the implementation and success of the ICRI Framework for Action through relevant programs including the Regional Seas Programmes; and
similarly the IOC through the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, should be encouraged to produce reports on the ecological condition of coral reefs and related ecosystems for discussion at the quadrennial International Coral Reef Symposia and other relevant international forums.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) c. Forest Management
For Region III, the National Forestation Program (Watershed Rehabilitation Project) of the Philippines (1989-1993) reported the following accomplishments in critical watersheds:
Watershed Location Total Area Total Target Accomplishment % Project (ha) (ha) (ha) ______
Balog-Balog Tarlac 28,100 1,264 794 63
O'Donnell Tarlac 29,300 1,969 1,469 75
Talavera Nueva Ecija 37,300 4,686 4,686 100
Sta. Cruz Zambales 12,440 1,103 703 64
For the period 1988-1993, a total of 9,898 Certificates of Stewardship Contract (CSCs) have been issued in Region III. In addition, 82.61 km of access road, 478.93 km of graded trail, and 957.85 km of footpath have been constructed under Loan 1 package of the government as of December 31, 1993. Interestingly, Region III was not a recipient of the funds earmarked for seed production areas, seed orchard development, and national provenance trial. It was not also included in studies which investigated the diseases on forest tree species in reforestation projects. The Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau (ERDB) of the DENR, however, made observations on pests in some trees in Bagac, Bataan. Average survival rates of reforestation trees in Region III was 55.33% for the period 1988-1991.
For the last 20 years, the Forestry Code has been in place. This is also true for other related legislation on forestry conservation and use. However, forest denudation in Region III continued, resulting in the reduction of virgin forests which could be a major tourism resource. Land use conversion (from forest land to agricultural land) has been most pronounced.
The law should be creatively marketed to provide the appropriate stimulus to regulate human conduct vis-a-vis the forestry resources (Oposa 1995, personal communication). Compliance to laws must be packaged in a manner 'so sweet' that it is made irresistible. On the other hand, non-compliance must be made to appear so undesirable with the swift, painful and public execution of sanctions.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) d. Protected Areas System
The CLTMP envisions to be an agent of the nationwide Integrated Protected Areas System (IPAS) that covers habitats and species in the terrestrial, wetland, coastal, and marine environments, especially those which are unique to the region. It initiates management and supportive activities in priority areas selected both for conservation and tourism by reflecting its current planning capabilities in budgetary allocations to priority sites. Its focus on socio-economic aspects and community organization work promotes awareness, identify buffer zones, and develop innovative livelihood alternatives with and for communities that will wean their dependence from protected areas. The CLTMP supports the national strategy to develop a broad national public awareness program in support of conservation and protected areas.
There are over 160 marine protected areas (MPAs) and 69 national parks identified for the Philippines (GBRMPA/WB/IUCN 1995). These are ecosystems exhibiting high levels of biodiversity and productivity and other critical habitat areas where legislation exist providing limited use in these areas. Only within the past 20 years has the concept of protecting certain marine areas become widely accepted. Since then, however, this idea has taken hold and hundreds of MPAs have been established around the globe. As their number has increased rapidly, so, too, have their diversity and complexity (World Conservation Monitoring Center 1990). MPAs vary dramatically in size, design, purpose, approach, name, and effectiveness. This is very true for the Philippine MPAs.
The categories of marine protected areas and their corresponding conservation objectives are given below. A clear understanding of this relationship is essential in planning coastal areas where any or combinations of these categories exists:
CATEGORY OF MPA a/
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE I II III IV V VI VII Vill IX X maintain natural state 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 maintain ecological diversity 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 conserve genetic resources 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 1 provide education, research 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 1 conserve watershed condition 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 control erosion, sedimentation 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 produce protein from wildlife 2 3 3 3 1 3 provide tourism, recreation 1 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 provide products sustainably 3 2 3 1 3 protect heritage sites 1 3 1 3 1 3 2 1 protect scenic beauty, space 3 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 maintain open options, multi-use 3 3 2 1 stimulate sustainable use of marginal areas, rural devt 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 2 2
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) a/ Source: Adapted from IUCN (in press); 1, primary objective for management of area and resources: 2, not necessarily primary, but always included as an important objective; 3, included as an objective where applicable and whenever resources and other management objectives permit; I, Strict Reserve; II, National Park; III, Monument/Landmark; IV, Managed Reserve; V, Protected Landscape/Seascape; VI, Resources Reserve; VII, Anthropological Reserve; VIII, Multiple Use Area; IX, Biosphere Reserve; X, World Heritage Site
e. Coastal Land Use and Zoning
Over the past decade there has been increasing interest in the concept of environmental development planning. Its purpose is to achieve an environmental development plan which is economically acceptable. However, most land use planning decisions were made not providing the proper regard for coastal areas and these were formulated principally on the basis of economic and technical criteria, emphasizing development that supports infrastructure while minimizing development costs and maximizing economic advancement (ADB 1992). When the natural environment was considered, it was often viewed as an economic constraint on development. Flooding, slope stability, soil structure and seismic activity were seen as environmental factors draining development resources and these are usually made environmentally benign through engineering solutions (SURP 1996). The improper regard to environmental factors in development planning "...has led to significant environmental degradation, irreversible loss of precious ecological and natural resources, and in many instances hazard to life and property, unanticipated social costs, loss of amenity and quality of life" (ADB 1992). In addition, too much concentration on overall economic growth, has engendered socio-economic disparities which in turn led to the creation of urban slums and their attendant effect on water supply and sanitation. Hence, there is a dire need to modify development planning to incorporate protection of nature and her resources and provision of an acceptable habitation for even the poorest of the poor.
While land use planning is relatively more developed in the Philippines, an acceptable and comprehensive coastal zone planning is yet to be developed. Such a plan should aim to create sustainable competitive advantages in coastal and marine industries including the application of Science & Technology and thereby contribute to industrial diversification and new opportunities for employment creation. It should also act as the catalyst to improve coordination between and within public and private sectors. The coastal zone is ordinarily understood as that portion of land influenced by the sea and that portion of the sea influenced by the land (for its definition, see Appendix 2). Hence, it is being subjected to diverse uses from marine production to tourism and recreation, industrial sites, energy facility sites, and agricultural production, among others. The special significance of the Philippine coastal zone lies in the fact that it is the focus of intense urban and industrial pressure. Its natural resources are critical to the livelihood base of the people and in this area, many historical and cultural
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) resources are found. The marine realm may be of equal if not greater importance to people but for a developing country like the Philippines where resources to explore the oceanic parts are wanting, this portion of the sea is virtually unknown. Hence, owing to its fragile ecology, the coastal zone needs special planning consideration and management.
The purpose of this section is to suggest a framework for such a plan, focusing on tourism concerns. This framework is multi-dimensional and is framed around four key elements (modified from ADB 1992):
Framework for a Comprehensive Coastal Land Use Plan
Institutional Coordination Coastal S & T Coastal Zone Coastal & Infrastructure Planning Environmental Protection Coastal Development
The coastal zone planning guidelines is of considerable importance to the town planning process in general and tourism in particular, especially for our coastal municipalities. The national government and local government units have the joint responsibility for the management of our coastal resources. Correlatively and in line with its function of regulating town planning and zoning activities, the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB) is incorporating the coastal zone concept into the town planning process through the adoption of supplementary guidelines which. are here presented. These guidelines are prepared to assist DENR and the LGUs' planners and technical personnel particularly at the provincial and municipal levels in the joint formulation of comprehensive land use plans that incorporate coastal and associated unclassified lands of the public domain. It is intended to provide standard procedures and criteria for coastal resources use and allocation. Specifically, it provides for (SURP 1996):
a participatory, cross-sectoral allocation of coastal resources to their users;
a mechanism for the integration of the Coastal Land Use Plan, Forest Land Use Plan with the Provincial and Municipal Comprehensive Land Use Plans;
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) an upscaling of coastal land allocation decisions from the barangay and municipal levels to the provincial level using the appropriate biophysical integrators of coastal landscapes; and
adjustment of the coastal allocation and land use planning decisions with the available data, maps, and information under a given resource and ecological condition.
As in all planning procedures, the steps involved in coastal planning include (adapted from ADB 1992):
Coastal Planning Procedure
Background Project Information Arrangements New Environmental Developments Resources Impacts of new Developments Tentative Test Plan Tentative Plan Final Plan Evaluate Plan
The overlapping biophysical, economic, institutional and organizational boundaries in the coastal zone makes it a highly dynamic system. A consequence is that some of the country's coastal communities and settlements are experiencing incompatibilities or conflicts in land use. In addition, there is the sporadic and uncontrolled physical growth of communities as well as from the fragmented perception and understanding of natural resources, i.e., locating marginal settlements in flood prone areas, swamplands converted into fishponds or agricultural lands converted to urban or industrial use.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) 1. Major Coastal Ecosystems and their Subsystems
From an ecological point of view, and as discussed above, the three major support systems of the tropical coastal zone are the coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves. But there are other 'subsystems' associated with the coasts, arising from site-specific or local physical, chemical and biological processes (SURP 1996). But more important perhaps, in view of tourism, is the fact that these subsystems are partly created by the 'need' of coastal inhabitants to meet their basic life requirements. Some of these subsystems were created by years of 'trial and error' and experiments the natives have to undergo to survive (e.g. cultivated lands, pasture lands, brackishwater ponds). Hence, we have here the first or earliest signs of incompatibilities in the use of habitats and resources. On the other hand, with these early attempts to utilize indigenous knowledge, what appeared to be an incompatible use at the outset became compatible through application or addition of energy subsidies. In the process, this practice became acceptable and, to existing norms, sustainable. This is the basis of certain practices which are currently allowed ('legalized') even in areas where the uses of the habitat and its resources are incompatible with its intrinsic function or functions.
For the purpose of this master plan, the following are the subsystems of the Philippine coastal zone. The reader is advised to refer to Appendix 2 for the definition of terms:
Subsystems of the Philippine Coastal Zone
woodlands pasture lands brackishwater ponds wastelands freshwater swamps marine waters cultivated lands tidal flats seabed freshwaters beaches coral reefs dunes brackishwater swamps seagrass beds mineralized areas estuaries mangroves small islands
2. Coastal Zone Utilization Guidelines (adopted from SURP 1996)
A clearer understanding of the interrelationship between the functions of nature and man's uses of her resources is facilitated by a serious attention to both theoretical and pragmatic considerations and assumptions. These are given in some detail below. It should be pointed out that the resulting matrices are no more than a guide to help evaluate a given purpose or activity. It suggests a framework within which data can be systematically and comprehensively organized into a whole, but familiarity with the specific locality and some ingenuity on the part of the planner or user are certainly required. What it does is first dismantle all the facets of the system (the coastal zone), examine separately all the components (subsystems), then reassemble them. Hence, ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) this allows us to have not only a comprehensive impression of the value of the components in their entirety, but also from the analysis, an excellent way of investigating the impacts of human intervention on nature. Thus, it points to the extent to which a certain function can be regarded as sustainable. In this context, 'sustainable' is used in the sense that making use of the function in question does not change or deplete the ecosystem or its subsystems and consequently, no loss of functions can occur (de Groot 1992). We should remember that functions are not always compatible with one another, so that our attempts to regulate nature frequently lead to less favorable results than were expected. With the knowledge which functions will be lost and the economic and social values of these functions, we can judge what a given entity is really costing us and what the most sensible decision is for our particular purpose. Hence, if we wish to achieve a truly sustainable use of nature, we should become extremely selective, and remain within the carrying capacity of the given system or subsystem.
f. Nature's intrinsic functions: the basis of compatibility or incompatibility of man's use of natural resources
To deal with the pressing environmental problems as these affect tourism, we need to identify which among the different resource uses are compatible or incompatible with nature's intrinsic functions. There are countless situations in which a clearly defined and systematically applied knowledge of actual value and use of resources is indispensable if a sound decision is to be made. Such situation arises when a choice must be made among various possible uses for a given area such as agriculture, forestry, mining, urban development, waste disposal, or conservation of the natural state. In these cases, an environmental impact assessment or a cost-benefit analysis will become a matter of routine and a part of a standard procedure. Hence, the environment will be increasingly subject to regulation and control, and government entities, industries, and even the academe will have to keep accounting records of the influence of their activities on the natural environment. Coastal planning becomes of paramount importance in this respect.
What are the functions of the natural environment? In this chapter, the functions of the natural environment are a set of universally accepted goods and services which the natural environment can provide (de Groot 1992). Goods are those which can easily be expressed in terms of money (e.g. minerals, fish, raw materials). On the other hand, services are those whose values may be indirectly estimated or perhaps can openly be described when assessing intangible features such as climate-control, or oxygen provider, source of cultural and spiritual inspiration. Human welfare and the quality of life depend directly or indirectly on the availability of environmental goods and services ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) in many ways. Their availability is largely controlled and sustained by ecological processes operating in natural and semi-natural ecosystems such as oceans, coral reefs, seagrass beds, woodlands, grasslands, lakes, cultivated fields, deserts, ice sheets, and myriad of other systems which blanket the earth and compose the biosphere.
g. "Function-Utilization" Matrices
Below are the coastal zone subsystems and their suggested utilization, taking into consideration the essential elements of planning for sustainable development of the environment. Two matrices are given below to show two relationships: between the subsystems and their uses (A); and among these uses (B).
Matrix of Coastal Zone Subsystems and Their Suggested Utilization
A 'Subsystem-Utilization'Matrix U T I L I Z A T I O N
SUBSYSTEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1. woodlands x o x x o x x x x x x x 2. wastelands x o o x o o o o x x x x 3. cultivated lands -- o x x x x x x x x x x 4. freshwaters x x o x o o o x o o o o 5. dunes x o x x o o o x x x x x 6. mineralized areas o o o o o o o x x x x x 7. pasture lands o o o o o x x x x x x x 8. freshwater swamps o x x x o o o o o o o x 9. tidal flats x x o x o o o x o o o o 10. beaches x o x o o o o x x x x x 11. brackishwater swamps o -- o x o o o o o o o x 12. estuaries x x x x o o o o o o o o 13. brackishwater ponds x x x x o o o x x - - - 14. marine waters x x x x o o o o o o o o 15. seabed x x o x x o o o x o x x 16. coral reefs x x x x o x x x o o o o 17. seagrass beds x x o x o x x x o o o o 18. mangroves x -- x o o o x x o o o o 19. small islands o o o o o o x o o o o o
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) B. 'Utilization-Utilization' Matrix
U T I L I Z A T I O N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1. agriculture - 2. forestry o - 3. mining o o - 4. residential o o - 5. recreation o o o - 6. commercial/industrial o o o o - 7. major infrastructure x x o o o o 8. waste disposal x o o x x x x - 9. navigation x x o x o x x x - 10. fishing o x x x o x x x - 11. aquaculture o x x x o x o x o o - 12. seaweed farming x x x x o o x x o o o -
(x, not compatible use; o, permissible use; --, intended use)
The suggested uses of the coastal zone are viewed in two contextual frameworks: (1) their allowed or legal or acceptable uses, reflecting their adherence to existing rules, mandates or social norms, backed by existing knowledge on the system, hence, the adoption of "o" (or permissible) option in the matrix; and (2) their compatibility or non- compatibility with the known functions of the subsystems, hence, "x" (or not compatible) option. The dashed lines designate that the use of a particular subsystem is as it is intended to be, e.g. a fishpond is for producing fish or for the fishing industry.
For practical purposes and when an option is permissible, it would imply that the pertinent or prescribed conditions are to be effectively and satisfactorily met by the implementors. Whenever and wherever applicable, the pertinent rules, regulations, and guidelines of the appropriate agencies, such as the HLURB, DENR-EMB (for Environmental Impact Assessments), BFAR (for fishery regulations), DENR (for the management and disposition of foreshore areas), BFD (for mangrove areas), and others shall govern the use of the coastal zone.
Some degree of arbitrariness in the declared use of a particular system or subsystem of the coastal environment is expected. As was manifest during the training on land use planning in Batangas (02 December 1996), this is an offshoot of several factors which include: (1) the broad range of variabilities of one system or subsystem along geographic or even topographic gradients; (2) the particular traditional use of the local inhabitants; (3) the present 'economic pressure' to utilize the resource; (4) available knowledge, expertise, and resources to use the resource; and (5) the nature of the resource. Nevertheless, the choice of the specific use of such resources would depend highly upon their biophysical and ecological status as explained above. It should be emphasized that the "vorzorgeprinzip" (precautionary principle) is the rule, wherein it is to the best interest of the present and future generations not to utilize ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) the resources if the uncertainty is so great as to ensure that the likelihood of destroying the environment is eminent. This is as yet an arbitrary decision resulting primarily from the lack of definitive knowledge to support the adopted actions. Hence, when this required knowledge becomes available, the suggested use of the resources may change. The role of the academe and the scientists is crucial in this respect.
9.7 EIA as a Tourism Planning and Management Tool
In an effort to safeguard the environment and ensure the sustainable use of its resources at the national level, both regulatory and non-regulatory tools of government have been employed. These are given below:
a. Regulatory tools
1. Allocation of use rights to specific individuals, business, or communities;
2. Permit programs for specific activities in specified areas;
3. Zoning programs (as this coastal use plan);
4. Performance and construction standards;
5. Environmental Impact Assessments; and
6. Exploitation limitations.
b. Non-regulatory tools
1. Economic incentives;
2. Acquisition of property rights;
3. Training;
4. Public education;
5. Enhancement/restoration of environmental quality;
6. Emergency response plans;
7. Monitoring;
8. Research; ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) 9. Voluntary compliance programs; and
10. Guidelines for developers and users.
Hence, the Environmental Impact Statement System of the Philippines (P.D. 1586) is a regulatory tool. However, with the evolution of the DENR as policy advocate, environment and resource manager, and facilitator/promoter, not just a regulator, the EIS similarly has evolved into a planning and management tool. How it does this important function is given below:
The EIA process can assist management in three important ways:
it provides an opportunity for clearly determining the public interest and, from this, setting the bounds of what impacts on the environment by the proposed activity would be unacceptable;
the role and objectives of science can be clarified so that it can provide information that will effectively contribute to management responsible for protecting the environment from the unacceptable impacts; and
the process explicitly deals with uncertainty during the formulation procedures that regulate development and long-term conduct of an activity.
Since its initial application in the early 80s, the EIS has undergone many changes in its organization and implementation structure. To date, some of the most recent modifications are embodied in the DENR Administrative Order No. 96-37, Series of 1996, revising DENR AO No. 21, Series of 1992. One of the improvements is Section 8.0 (Eligible Preparers), which states that "the EIS may be prepared by the proponents technical staff or a professional group commissioned by the proponent, provided that only EIS preparers duly accredited by the Environmental Management Bureau in accordance with its accreditation procedures shall be allowed to actually prepare the EIS."
In addition, a Programmatic EIA (DAO 11) has evolved to address the environmental requirements of developmental projects composed of a number of activities the cumulative effects of which are not normally addressed in project EIAs. Hence, an ecological profile is an added feature in .a Programmatic EIA. The Petrochemical Estate in Limay, Bataan, the Tourism Estates in Davao Gulf, and industrial areas with similar or greater magnitude, are in principle required to undergo this type of EIA. We recommend that the tourism 'highway' being proposed in this plan be likewise treated.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) 9.8 Institutional Arrangements
There is a wide range of approaches and instruments that are available in ensuring the sustainable development of coastal resources. Because of the variety of these approaches and instruments, and the dispersal of authority and responsibility among and within the different levels of governance, some degree of effective coordination -if not integration- must be achieved within an entire governmental system in the planning as well as in the implementation and monitoring stages. The concurrent authority of several government agencies or of the national and regional governments, if exercised at cross-purposes or in an uncoordinated fashion, may instead guarantee the irreversible loss of the country's natural resources. Even where territorial jurisdiction is clearly delineated among levels of government, the environmental rules in one spatial unit must not be negated by the rules applied in adjoining or other units. The ends sought with the use of one set of instruments should be compatible with those promoted by other instruments.
Three distinct approaches guide environmental management worldwide (Kolluru 1994). This scenario is generally true in developing countries, although the mix may be quite different in individual political settings. Some are regulation-oriented, emphasizing the role of government as a standard setter and executioner of environmental action plans. Others are market-oriented , relying heavily on the 'magic of the marketplace' and emphasize incentives and other inducements that will lead organizations and individuals to behave in environmentally desirable ways. Finally there are the education-oriented, emphasizing voluntary behavior by organizations and individuals as part of the normal, routine ways of operating and living. Regardless of the approach, however, there must be continuous improvement in the tasks we do and to achieve this end, the tourism sector must institutionalize environmental thinking throughout the industry. A commitment from top management is a critical first step, but corporate environmental policies are often vague. The challenge for business today is to develop management mechanisms and other tools to systematically translate corporate policies into actions and establish practices.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) a. Levels of Planning
In order to incorporate environmental concerns into regional development planning, one approach is to undertake the process at different planning levels: national (e.g. development of environmental profiles, country strategy studies); regional (development of integrated regional development planning, land use planning, multiproject planning); sector (environmental guidelines, sectoral reviews or strategies); and project (essentially the EIA process). At the national level, the aim of coastal zone planning is to have a country-wide framework for the use of coastal resources. Drawing from the outputs of the other levels below, the output of this plan would serve as a general guide for leaders especially in presenting synoptic descriptions of the country's coastal needs.
At the regional level, the primary purpose of coastal use planning should be to have a regional coastal use framework plan which will indicate in broad terms the primary coastal uses across provinces within the region. The outputs of the plan at this level will include a regional base map on the topographic map showing the following: provincial boundaries, mangroves and maritime vegetation, seagrass beds, coral reefs, associated major watersheds and river systems, associated forestlands, established protected areas including reservations and hazard areas, other proposed protected areas as may be identified at the regional level.
At the provincial level, the focus is to define the primary uses of the coastal environment particularly the protection and production areas. The outputs of a coastal plan at the provincial level, much like those at the regional level, will include a provincial base map on the topographic map showing the following: municipal boundaries, mangroves and maritime vegetation, seagrass beds, coral reefs, associated sub-watershed and river systems, forestlands, established protected areas including reservations and hazard areas, and other proposed protected areas as may be identified at the provincial level. As important as the above are conflict areas, issues and problems, and recommendations, as well as issues for referral to municipal or community levels.
At the municipal level, the primary focus of coastal use planning includes: validation by the concerned municipality of protection and production areas delineated at the provincial level; resolution of outstanding conflicts not settled at the provincial level; and integration of the final municipal coastal uses in the municipal land use and zoning plan.
The outputs at this level will include: conflict areas/issues and problems, and recommendations; municipal coastal use. map showing barangay boundaries, river ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) systems, protected areas including proposed protected areas as may be identified at the municipal/community level, and production areas.
At the sectoral level, the primary focus of coastal use planning includes: validation by the concerned sector (e.g. health, environmental, tourism) of the municipality of protection and production areas delineated at the municipal level; resolution of outstanding conflicts not settled at the municipal level; and integration of the final sectoral coastal uses in the municipal land use and zoning plan. The outputs at this level will include: conflict areas/issues and problems, and recommendations; and sectoral coastal use map showing sectoral responsibilities.
At the project level, the primary focus of coastal use planning is the assessment, prediction, and mitigation of impacts of a specific project that affect the coastal zone ecology and population. In the formulation of the plan, the outputs at the different levels above are considered, not necessarily incorporated. Exception is in the case of programmatic EIA where the concerns of an entire region or province needs to be incorporated. This includes: validation by the concerned sector (e.g. socioeconomic, biological, meteorological) of the barangay, municipality, or province of protection and production areas delineated at the municipal level; and resolution of outstanding conflicts. The outputs at this level will include: assessment and suggested resolution of conflict areas/issues and problems, and recommendations; and sectoral coastal use map showing sectoral responsibilities.
Tourism planners must conduct a thorough land use study for the coastal zone, indicating existing situation, such as the presence of the following (the responsible agencies and activities are given after each item):
- Forest resources (i.e. mangrove, swamps, etc.) BFD
- Mineral resources MGB
- Other coastal sub-systems DENR/Primary Survey (i.e. sand dunes, woodlands, estuaries)
- Other commercial activities such as resorts or Primary survey tourism sites, ports; agricultural activities to include both fishing and farming, quarrying activities, and aquaculture development
- Location and extent of settlements Primary survey
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) b. Policies and Laws
Some local legislation have been promulgated that are specific for the protection and sustainable use of marine organisms or habitats. Hence, the government has policies and laws addressing fishing and fisheries, mangroves, coral reefs, seaweeds, invertebrates, marine pollution, national parks and wildlife, and air and water quality management.
The laws which specifically provide for the protection of species of special concern (e.g. sea turtles, sea cows) include:
Executive Order No. 542 (June 26 1979): Creating the Task Force Pawikan and Appropriating Funds Thereof;
Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 12 Series of 1979: Regulations for the Conservation of Marine Turtles in the Philippines;
Memorandum Order No. 6 Series of 1982: Suspension of Permits on Marine Turtle Exploitation;
Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 8 Series of 1982: Establishment of Certain Islands in the Province of Tawi-Tawi, Palawan and Antique, as Marine Turtle Sanctuaries;
Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 10 Series of 1982; Deputizing the Governor and Vice-Governor of Tawi-Tawi, Municipal Mayor and Barangay Captains of the Municipality of Taganak of the Province of TawiTawi as Deputized Conservation Officers;
Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1982: To declare the Municipality of Caluya as Marine Turtle Sanctuary;
Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 33 Series of 1982: Regulations Governing the Collection of Marine Turtle Eggs in the Province of Tawi-Tawi and Reiterating the Duties and Responsibilities of Deputy Conservation Officers and Deputy Game wardens;
Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 1 Series of 1983, Deputizing the Provincial Mayors, Vice-Mayors and Barangay Captains in Areas Critical for the Protection of Marine Turtles in the Philippines as Conservation Officers;
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 518, Series of 1984, Establishing Certain Areas in Northwestern Palawan as Marine Turtle Sanctuary and Promulgating rules for Administration and Control Thereof;
Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 884 Series of 1989, Designating Regional Pawikan Conservation Project Field Action Officers to Carry Out Nationwide Marine Turtle Conservation Program; and
Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 55 Series of 1991, Declaring the Dugong or Sea Cow (Dugong dugon) as Protected Marine Mammal in the Philippines.
c. International Agreements and their Operationalization in the Country
The following are some of the major commitments of the Philippines in international marine conservation initiatives:
Member of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES);
Signatory of the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS);
Contracting state to the London Dumping Convention;
Signatory of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer;
Signatory to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal;
Member state of the World Conservation Union (IUCN, an independent international organization which is a union of governments, non-governmental organizations and government agencies). Its aims are to initiate and promote scientifically-based actions to preserve humanity's natural environment through its monitoring, strategic planning, promotion and advisory capacities;
Recipient of support from World Wide Fund (one of the world's largest private international nature conservation organizations). Its mission is to conserve nature by preserving genetic, species and ecosystem diversity by creating global awareness of threats to nature and raising both moral and financial support.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA)
It is mandated to provide the government with map-making services and to act as the central mapping agency, depository and distribution facility for natural resources data in the form of maps, charts, text, statistics, etc.
- AIDAB-assisted project called the Philippines-Australia Remote Sensing Project
- Coastal Resource Mapping of Critical Bays in the Philippines using Remote Sensing.
The Philippine National Museum (PNM)
The Philippine National Museum (PNM) is the Philippine institution devoted to the procurement, care, study, and display of all objects of lasting interest or value in the country. In limited circumstances, personnel of the PNM have been involved in the assessment of certain coastal areas of environmental importance.
National Power Corporation (NAPOCOR)
Mandated to develop and generate cheap and reliable electricity for national development, exercising complete jurisdiction and control over watersheds surrounding the reservoirs of plants or projects constructed or proposed to be constructed by the corporation.
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)
An independent planning unit of the government, it evaluates the technical, financial, and economic viability of government projects. Heads the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development.
National Irrigation Administration (NIA)
It is mandated to study, improve, construct and administer all national irrigation systems in the country and undertake projects such as flood control, drainage, land reclamation, hydropower development, reforestation, etc.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD)
It is mandated to formulate strategies, policies, plans, programs and projects, for fisheries and aquatic resources research and development, program ad allocate government and external funds for research and development; monitor research and development projects and generate external funds.
The major biodiversity-related programs of the council include:
- Monitoring, assessment, management and conservation of marine fisheries resources;
- Promotion of environmental protection and rehabilitation of shallow coastal areas;
- Diversification and expansion of viable agricultural industries; and
- Assessment of oceanic water including the Exclusive Economic Zone.
The Marine Science Institute of the University of the Philippines (UPMSI)
A unit of the college of Science of the University of the Philippines at Diliman, Quezon City, the UPMSI has just become the National Center of Excellence in Marine Science. It is mandated: to generate basic information necessary for optimal and sustained utilization, management, and conservation of the marine environment and its resources; to provide graduate level training and extension services to develop manpower requirements in marine science; and to develop appropriate and environmentally sound technologies for industrial and economic development in the marine ecosystem.
d. Private Institutions
Some other non-government institutions which are active in biodiversity conservation and management in the Philippines include:
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)
An autonomous, non-governmental scientific research center, ICLARM conducts, stimulates, and accelerates research on the development and management of living aquatic resources to assist developing countries meet their nutritive, economic, and social needs. This institution has collaborated in a variety of marine studies and has provided analytical methodology and training to boost efforts in the region and others in the world. It has three research programs with implications to marine bio-diversity conservation:
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Coastal Resource Systems Program
Coral Reef Management Program
National Research Support Program
Two significant contributions of ICLARM, with support from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the European Union (EU), to current awareness and understanding of global bio-diversity are the FishBase and ReefBase. FishBase is a global database which combines key information on fish with time series data on their occurrence and abundance and with their currently recognized status of threat (with CD-ROM version). On the other hand, ReefBase is a global database of coral reefs, documenting the location, extent and depth zonation of the reefs and their exploitation and conservation status.
Asian Wetlands Bureau (AWB)
An international NGO, AWB aims to promote the sustainable use and protection of wetlands in the Asia-Pacific region. Its mode of operation is: to maintain an overview of the conservation status of wetlands in the region; to assist in the development of regional and national wetland action plans; to disseminate information on the importance of wetlands and to promote information exchange; to provide support to local organizations to manage wetlands on a sustainable basis; and to provide linkages with international organizations and expertise outside the region and to locate funding for wetland conservation projects within the region.
Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)
WWF effected the first debt-for-nature swap in the Philippines, agreeing to acquire US$ 2 million worth of debt owed by the Philippines to foreign banks. This money helped fund vitally needed park improvements and training programs. Joining forces with USAID and DENR through the Natural Resources Management Program, it erased the US$ 10 million worth of Philippine debt. The centerpiece of the program is the Foundation for Philippine Environment (FPE) which provides funding to environmental projects of Philippine NGO's.
Foundation for the Philippine Environment (FPE)
A non-stock, non-profit institution, FPE provides funds to the Philippine NGO community involved in the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable natural resource management.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (HARIBON)
HARIBON emphasizes community-based resource management projects, including community education in basic concepts in ecology, leadership skills, resource management, paralegal training, biological and socioeconomic surveys of sites, mangrove reforestation and reintroduction of species.
The World Conservation Union (IUCN)
A union of sovereign states, government agencies and NGO's, the IUCN initiates and promotes scientifically-based actions that will ensure the perpetuation of the natural environment.
Other academic and non-academic institutions
This includes those departments or divisions of private universities or research laboratories which made significant contributions to the field of marine science through collections and identification of specimens, research on coastal resources ecology and management, and non-governmental organizations involved in marine environmental protection. Foremost among them are Silliman University in Dumaguete City and University of San Carlos in Cebu. More recently, a major contribution to the country's knowledge of its bio-diversity is being made by private firms involved in energy power plant construction, coastal development such as tourism estates along coasts through their environmental impact statements.
A few national institutions in Southeast Asia have achieved international prominence in marine science. Most notable of these is the Marine Science Institute of the University of the Philippines which conducts a variety of projects on coastal and marine sciences and management. A private institution, Silliman University in the central Philippines has a long history of coral reef research including pioneering work in village-based coral reef reserves (Jameson et al. 1995). These two institutions combined forces in the mid-1970's to conduct a national survey of coral reefs of a scope unmatched to the present by any nation except Australia.
9.9 Tourism in an Environmental Scenario of the 21st Century
In the short-term, a large segment of the predominantly rural population in the country is expected to continuously put heavy pressure on the environment and its resources. The situation is expected to worsen within the next five years as the country intensifies its degree of industrialization in order to attain the "newly industrialized country" (NIC) ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) status by the year 2000. This will bring about an unprecedented rise in the number of process by reducing costs in the areas of disposal fees, raw material purchases, and energy and water bills, strong environmental management programs can save money and can decrease liabilities. That environmental protection makes good business sense has been proven by a number of companies like Chevron (whose SMART ("Saves Money and Reduces Toxics") Program has saved $3.8 million in hazardous waste disposal costs during one year), 3M company ('Pollution Prevention Pays', which saved the company $480 million since 1975), Du Pont (citing a savings of $1 million per year through reduced consumption of raw materials. Its President is now viewing waste reduction as providing a competitive advantage).
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) 9.10 LITERATURE CITES AND OTHER REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank. 1992. Guidelines for Integrated Regional Economic-cum- Environmental Development Planning: A Review of Regional environmental Development Planning studies in Asia. Environment Paper No. 3 Vol. 1. 125 p.
Central Luzon Tourism Situationer 1995
Daly, H. E. and J. Cobb. 1989. For the common good: redireting the economy towards community, environment, and a sustainable future. Boston, Beacon Press. 482 pp. de Groot, R. S. 1992. Functions of nature. Wolters-Noordhoff. Amsterdam, 315 p.
Deloso, A.D. Zambales at a Glance
Fortes, M. D., 1989. Sea-grasses: a resource unknown in the ASEAN region. ICLARM Education Series 5, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines, 46 pp.
Fortes, M.D. 1994. Status of sea-grass beds in ASEAN. Paper presented at the Regional Symposium of the ASEAN-Australia Living Coastal Resources (LCR) project, Bangkok, Thailand, May 1994 (in press).
Fortes, M.D. 1995. Sea-grasses of East Asia: environmental and management perspectives, RCU/EAS Technical Report Series No. 6, UNEP, Bangkok, 79 pp.
Fortes, M.D. 1996x. DENR-Instituional Strengthening Program (Coastal and Marine component). Technical Report submitted to the DENR.
Fortes, M.D. 1996b. Bio-diversity Country Study (Coastal and Marine Component). Technical Report submitted to UNEP/DENR/UNDP.
Fortes, M.D. and L.T. McManus. 1994. Issues and challenges in coastal zone development in Southeast Asia. Paper presented at The Regional workshop on Planning and Management of Coastal Resources, Tuaran, Sabah (Malaysia), 8-9 November 1994.
Foundation for Rural Economic Enterprise and Development, Inc. (FREED). 1994. DENR Internal Assessment: Gearing the DENR Organization for sustainable Development. Philippines. 73 p. Gomez, E. D., P. M. Alino, W. R. Y. Licuanan and H.T. Yap. 1994. report on coral reefs of the Philippines 1994. Pp. 57-76 in: C. Wilkinson, S. Sudara and Chou L. M. (Eds.). Proceedings third ASEAN-Australia symposium on Living coastal Resources Vol. 1: Status Reviews, AIMS, Townsville, Australia.
Goodland, R, H. E. Daly, S. El Serafy and B. von Droste (eds.). 1992. Environmentally sustainable economic development: building on Brundtland. UNESCO, Belgium.
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)/World Bank (WB)/World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1995. A global representative system of marine protected areas. III. Central Indian Ocean, Arabian Seas, East Africa and East Asian Seas, pp. 107-136.
Hodgson, G. and J. A. Dixon. 1988. Logging versus fisheries and tourism in Palawan. Occasional Pap. No. 7. East-west environment and Policy Institute, Honolulu. 95 pp.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Holligan, P. M. and H. De Boois (eds.). 1993. Global Change, Report No. 25, Land- Ocean Interactions in the coastal zone (LOICZ) Science Plan. IGBP, Stockholm, 50 pp.
Jameson, SC, JW McManus and MD Spalding. 1995. State of the reefs, regional and global perspectives. An International coral Reef Initiative Executive Secretariat background paper, US Department of Commerce, NOAA, Office of ocean and coastal Resource Management, MD, USA.
GIS database forthe JICA study on tourism development in Region III.
Kolluru, R.V. (ed). 1994. Environmental Strategies Handbook. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1080 pp.
Lacanilao, F. 1995. Research and development problems of Philippines fisheries. Lecture presented at the Scientific symposium " Sustainable Development of fisheries Resources", National Research council of the Philippines, University of the Philippines, Diliman 1101, QC, 22 November 1995.
Lean, G., D. Hinrichsen, and A. Markham (eds.). 1990. World Wildlife fund atlas of the environment. Prentice Hall Press, New York, 192+ pp.
McManus, J. W. 1988. Coral reefs of the ASEAN region: status and management. Ambio 17(3): 189-193.
Master Plan Study for Central Luzon Development Program Vol. IV
School of Urban and Regional Planning (SURP). 1996. Sustainable land use planning. Technical Report submitted to the DENR.
Socio-Economic and Investment Opportunities Study of Manila Bay - Coastal Areas of Bataan UB TECH INC. 1993 pp.58-59.
Socio-Economic Profile of Bataan 1994
Subic Power Corp. Environmental Impact Statement for the 108 MW Subic Bay Power Project, prepared by BHP Engineering Philippines Inc.
The Aquino Administration - Major Development Programs and Projects 1986-1992.
Zambales Integrated Fisheries & Aquatic Resources Conservation, Protection and Development Project, prepared by the Group of Ten International Corp.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) APPENDIX 1
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Bathymetry - The measurement of depths of water in oceans, seas and lakes; and the information derived from such measurements.
Beach - Unvegetated part of the shoreline firmed by loose materials, usually sand, that extends from the lower berm edge to high water mark.
Berm - A narrow shelf, edge or path, typically at the bottom or top of a slope or along a bank.
Bio-diversity or Biological diversity - The variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations; includes ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity
Brackishwater ponds (earthponds) - Man-made enclosures of varying size, dependent on tidal fluctuations of water management, located in estuaries (deltas, mudflatsand mangrove swamps) and intended for the culture of fishes/aquatic species.
Brackishwater swamps - Land areas where most of the time the brackishwater level is at or above the land surface.
Carrying capacity - The inherent capacity of a given area for a certain type of use as provision of space, resources and suitable environmental conditions in a sustainable manner.
Coastal zone - The coastal zone is the strip of land and adjacent space (water and submerged land) in which the land ecology and use directly affect the lake and ocean space ecology, and vice versa. It is governed by the following limits: (a) The outermost limit is the 200 meter (100 fathoms) isobath except atembayments where a 200 meter isobath at the mouth of the bay, gulf or cone is extended across. In case where the 200 meter isobath is less than three kilometers from the shoreline, the three kilometer distance will be adopted. The internal waters are likewise considered part of the coastal zone; (b) The innermost boundary is one kilometer from the shorelines except at places where recognizable indicators for maritime influences exist, like mangrove, beaches, sand deposits, margins of bays, salt beds and deltaic deposits in which cases, the one kilometer distance shall be reckoned from the edges of such features (see Fig. 2).
Coastal zone management "...a dynamic process in which a coordinated strategy is developed and implemented for the allocation of environmental, ______1Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) however, advocates a pragmatic approach to the defining of coastal areas in which the area under consideration might change over time as problems are addressed which require resolutions over a wider geographical area. "It includes primarily the coastal land and adjacent coastal waters. In one case, the coastal area might extend from a watershed from across a large coastal plain and incorporate a large area of the continental shelf. In another situation, the coastal area might be sall, including a narrow strip of land adjacent to a similarly narrow area of sea. small island countries may constitute coastal areas in their entirety." (Proceedings of the Workshop and Policy Conference on Integrated Coastal Zone management in Eastern Africa including the island states. Report from the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries Marine Science Program, 1995) ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) socio-cultural, and institutional resources to achieve the conservation and sustainable multiple use of the coastal zone" (Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island)
Coastal zone planning A tool or working methodology to improve the use of coastal resources and comply with identified objectives. It incorporates knowledge of the reality on which it operates, capacity to evaluate the expected outcome, and the process through which it could be attained.
Coastlines Lines that form the boundary between the land and water, especially of sea or ocean.
Conservation Protection against undesirable changes through management of human use of organisms or ecosystems to ensure that such use is sustainable
Continental shelf As defined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Art. 76), it is the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas which extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin. The Philippines claims a continental shelf into a distance of 200 meters isobath or to where the depth of the superjacent waters admit exploitation of the natural resources of the seabed and subsoil of the submarine area.
Coral reefs Simply defined, these are reefs made chiefly of fragments of corals, coral sands, algae and other organic deposits, and the sold limestone resulting from the consolidation. Technically, they are marine shelves or platforms formed by the consolidation of the skeleton of hermatypic corals through cementation by coralline algae and lithification processes. Continuous accumulation of calcareous materials by those organisms, as well as by other reef species, especially mollusks, echinoderms and foraminifera, maintains the reef surface at or near sea level.
Cultivated lands These refer to lands devoted to crops. Among the common crops raised in the coastal zone are staple crops (rice and corn); plantation crops (coconut and sugar cane); root crops (cassava, kamote), legumes, and vegetables.
Dune An accumulation of sand in ridges or mounds landward of the beach formed by natural processes and usually parallel to the shoreline. Ecotone Transition zone between two adjacent ecosystems or habitats, e.g. sea-grass bed, as it is between coral reefs and mangroves
Estuary A water body where sea water of oceanic origin is diluted by freshwater from land drainage areas. Areas influenced by this include deltas, tidal marshes, and river mouth, among others.
Exclusive Economic Zone The water, sea bottom and sub-surface measured from the baseline of the Philippine archipelago up to two hundred nautical miles (200 n.m.) offshore. (Section 3 [o], Republic Act No. 7942)(see Fig. 1)
Foreshore area As defined, it is a strip of land alternately covered and uncovered by the tidal movements. Its interior limits is that portion of land reached by the water during the highest equinoctial tide. The outer limit is that portion of land reached by the water during the lowest ordinary tide.
Freshwater bodies These are water bodies in basins, rivers, lakes, lagoons, channels and aquifers not influenced by sea water.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Freshwater swamps These are land areas where the freshwater table is at or above the land surface during most of the year to promote the formation of hydric soiland to support growth of hydrophytes such as grasses and sedge which are also influenced by sea water.
Function or Environmental function The capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods and services that directly or indirectly contribute to human welfare
Goods Those which can easily be expressed in terms of money (e.g. minerals, fish, raw materials
Isobath An imaginary line or line on a map or chart that connects all points having the same depth below a water surface, as of an ocean, sea or lake.
Mangroves or mangrove forests The communities of trees and associated shrubs that are restricted to tidal flats in coastal waters, extending inland along rivers where the water is tidal, saline or brackish
Marine protected area (MPA) An area of the coastal and marine environment dedicated mainly to protection and enjoyment of natural or cultural heritage, to maintenance of bio-diversity, and/or to maintenance of life-support systems
Marine waters These cover beds, banks, shell fields, zones, areas and regions of Philippine waters totaling some 1,666,300 sq. km.
Mineralized areas Areas containing deposits of metallic and non-metallic minerals.
Mudflat An intertidal ecosystem whose substrate consists predominantly of fine silts, clays, and organic material
Municipal waters "Include not only streams, lakes and tidal waters included within the municipality, not being the subject of private ownership, and not comprised within national parks, public forests, timber lands, forest reserves, but also marine waters included between two lines drawn perpendicularly to the general coastline from points where the boundary lines of the municipality or city touch the sea at low tide and a third line parallel with the general coastline and fifteen (15) kilometers from it. Where two (2) municipalities are so situated on the opposite shores that there is less than fifteen (15) kilometers of marine waters between them, the third line shall be equally distant from opposite shores of the respective municipalities." (Section 131 [r] Republic Act No.7160)
Pasture lands All lands producing natural forage for animal consumption and those which are vegetated naturally or artificially to provide forage cover. They are generally considered as those which are not cultivated and include natural grasslands, savannas, wetlands dominated by grass and grass like plants suitable for grazing, certain shrubs and related plant communities.
Precautionary principle or "do-no-harm" principle A proactive method of dealing with the environment that places the burden of proof on those whose activities could harm the environment; the opposite of "wait-and-see" principle; (see "vorzorgeprinzip")
Seabed The land underlying the sea or ocean. Services Those whose values may be indirectly estimated or perhaps can openly be described when assessing intangible features such as climate-control, or oxygen provider, source of cultural and spiritual inspiration
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Sustainable useUse of an organism, ecosystem, or any other renewable resource at a rate within its capacity for renewal
Tidal flats These are lands mostly devoid of trees and shrubs that are alternatively exposed and inundated by tides. These may be mud flats or sand flats. (see foreshore areas)
"Vorzorgeprinzip" (precautionary principle) The rule, wherein it is to the best interest of the present and future generations not to utilize the resources if the uncertainty is so great as to ensure that the likelihood of destroying the environment is eminent. This is as yet an arbitrary decision resulting primarily from the lack of definitive knowledge to support the adopted actions. Hence, when this required knowledge becomes available, the suggested use of the resources may change
Wastelands A misnomer, these refer to land not suitable for any crop or to any definite economic purposes. Examples of coastal wastelands in the country are cliffs (breeding place for birds) and rock islands.
Woodlands These occur behind the beach and dune on the older beach areas. In the coastal zone, these consist essentially of a tangle of low stunted trees or shrubs. Examples are botong, pandan, and the taller agoho and coconut palms.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) APPENDIX 2
CHARTER FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
We, the participants in the World Conference on Sustainable Tourism, meeting in Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain, on 27-28 April 1995.
Mindful that tourism is a worldwide phenomenon and also an important element of socioeconomic and political development in many countries, and that tourism touches the highest and deepest aspirations of all people.
Recognizing that tourism, as an ambivalent phenomenon, since it has the potential to contribute positively to socio-economic and cultural achievement, while at the same time it can contribute to the degradation of the environment and the loss of local identity, should be approached with a global methodology.
Mindful that the resources on which tourism is based are fragile and that there is a growing demand for improved environmental quality.
Recognizing that tourism can afford the opportunity to travel and to get to know other cultures, and that the development of tourism can help promote closer ties and peace among peoples, creating a conscience that is respectful of the diversity of culture and life styles.
Recalling the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly of United Nations, and the various United Nations declarations and regional conventions on tourism, the environment, the conservation of cultural heritage and on sustainable development.
Guided by the principles set forth in the Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development and the recommendations that emanate from Agenda 21.
Recalling declarations in the matter of tourism, such as the Manila Declaration on World Tourism, the Hague Declaration and the Tourism Charter and Tourist Code.
Recognizing the objective of developing a tourism that meets economic expectations and environmental requirements, and respects not only the social and physical structure of the location, but also the local population.
Taking into account the priority of protecting and reinforcing the human dignity of both local communities and visitors.
Mindful of the need to establish effective alliances among the principal actors in the field of tourism so as to build the hope of a tourism that is more responsible towards our common heritage.
APPEAL to the international community and, in particular, URGE governments, other public authorities, decision makers and professionals in the field of tourism, public and private associations and institutions whose activities are related to tourism, and tourists themselves, to adopt the principles and objectives of the Declaration that follows:
1. Tourism development shall be based on criteria of sustainability, which means that it must be ecologically bearable in the long term, as well as economically viable, and ethically and socially equitable for local communities.
Sustainable development is a guided process which envisages global management of resources as to ensure their viability, thus enabling our natural and cultural capital, including protected areas, to be preserved. As a powerful instrument of development, tourism can and should participate actively in the sustainable development strategy. A requirement of sound ______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) management of tourism is that the sustainability of the resources on which it depends must be guaranteed.
2. Tourism has to contribute to sustainable development and its integration with the natural, cultural and human environment; it must respect the fragile balances that characterize many tourist destinations, in particular small islands and environmentally sensitive areas. Tourism should ensure an acceptable evolution as regards the influence of tourism activity on natural resources, bio-diversity and the capacity for assimilation of any impacts and residues produced.
3. Tourism must consider its effects on the cultural heritage and traditional elements, activities and dynamics of each local community. Recognition of the these local factors and support for the identity, culture and interests of the local community must at all times play a central role in the formulation of tourism strategies, particularly in developing countries.
4. The active contribution of tourism to sustainable development necessarily presupposes the solidarity, mutual respect and participation of all the actors, both public and private, implicated in the process, and must be based on efficient cooperation mechanisms at all levels: locals, national, regional and international.
5. The conservation, protection and appreciation of the worth of our natural and cultural heritage afford a privileged area for cooperation. This approach implies that all those responsible must take upon themselves a true challenge, that of cultural, technological and professional innovation, and must also undertake a major effort to create and implement integrated planning and management instruments.
6. Quality criteria both for the preservation of the tourist destination and for the capacity to satisfy tourists, determined jointly with local communities and informed by the principles of sustainable development, should represent priority objectives in the formulation of tourism strategies and projects.
7. To participate in sustainable development, tourism must be based on the diversity of opportunities offered by the local economy. It should be fully integrated into and contribute positively to local economic development.
8. All options for tourism development must serve effectively to improve the quality of life of all people and must entail a positive effect and inter-relation as regards sociocultural identity.
9. Governments and the competent authorities, with the participation of NGOs and local communities, shall undertake actions aimed at integrating the planning of tourism as a contribution to sustainable development.
10. In recognition of economic and social cohesion among the peoples of the world as a fundamental principle of sustainable development, it is urgent that measures be promoted to permit a more equitable distribution of the benefits and burdens of tourism. This implies a change of consumption patterns and the introduction of pricing methods which allow environmental costs to be internalized.
Governments and multilateral organizations are called upon to reorient aid related to tourism, particularly aid which leads to negative effects on the environment. Within this context, it is necessary to explore thoroughly the application of internationally harmonized economic, legal and fiscal instruments to ensure the sustainable use of resources in tourism.
11. Environmentally and culturally vulnerable spaces, both now and in the future, should be given special priority in the matter of technical cooperation and financial aid for sustainable tourism development. Similarly, special treatment should be given to zones that have been degraded by obsolete and high impact tourism models.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) 12. The promotion of alternative forms of tourism that are compatible with the principles of sustainable development, together with the encouragement of diversification, participate in medium and long-term sustainability. In this respect there is a need, for many small islands and environmentally sensitive areas in particular, to actively pursue and strengthen regional cooperation.
13. Governments, industry, authorities, and tourism-related NGOs should promote and participate in the creation of open networks for research, dissemination of information and transfer of appropriate tourism and environmental knowledge on tourism and environmentally sustainable technologies.
14. The establishment of a sustainable tourism policy necessarily requires the support and promotion of environmentally-compatible tourism management systems, feasibility studies for the transformation of the sector, as well as the implementation of demonstration projects and the development of international cooperation programs.
15. Bodies, particularly associations and NGOs whose activities are related to tourism, shall draw up specific frameworks for positive and preventive actions for sustainable tourism development and establish programs to support the implementation of such practices. They shall monitor achievements, report on results and exchange their experiences.
16. Particular attention should be paid to the role and the environmental repercussions of transport in tourism, and to the development of economic instruments designed to reduce the use of non-renewable energy and to encourage recycling and minimization of residues in resorts.
17. The adoption and implementation of codes of conduct conducive to sustainability by the principal actors involved in tourism, particularly industry, are fundamental if tourism is to be sustainable. Such codes can be effective instruments for the development of responsible tourism activities.
18. All necessary measures should be implemented in order to sensitize and inform all parties involved in the tourism industry, at local, regional, national and international level, with regard to the contents and objectives of the Lanzarote Conference.
______Final Report for the Tourism Master Plan for Region III (Central Luzon) Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP) Table 9.1 Major Environmental Impacts of the Proposed Projects and their Mitigating Proposed Major Environmental Impact Mitigating Project Activities Impacts Duration Measures
1. Restoration of Fort Physical Minor 1-2 yr Contain Residuals Playa Honda Restoration (Botolan, Zambales) 2. Creation of Provincial Light Minor to Moderate Contain Residuals; Museums Construction 1-3 yr Secure Discharges 3. On-site Build-up; Minor to Moderate Contain Residuals; Archaeological Excavation 1-3 yr Secure Discharges Museum Reconstruction 4. Archaeological Excavation; Minor to Moderate Contain Residuals; Excavation of Reconstruction 1-3 yr Secure Discharges Prehistoric site Construction (Masinloc, Zambales) 5. Archaeological Impact Desk-Top NONE ------Assessment Research 6. Restoration of Capas Reconstruction Minor 1-2 yr Contain Residuals Death March Shrine 7. Lights and Sounds Event Re Minor 1-2 yr Contain Residuals Camp O'Donnell enactment (Capas, Tarlac) 8. Community Trade Light Construction Minor to Moderate 1-3 yr Contain Residuals; Display Center Secure Discharges 9. Clark Industrial Estate Multifaceted Minor to Moderate Full-Blown & and Dry Port Dev't. Industrial Activities 1-15 yr Programmatic EIA Required 10. Hermosa Agro Light-To-Heavy Minor to Moderate Full-Blown & Industrial Estate Industrial Activities 1-10 yr Programmatic EIA Required 11. Provincial Desk-Top Minor Contain Residuals Cooperative Savings Activities; Light 1-2 yr and Loan Construction Association 12. Micro and Small Light Construction; Minor to Moderate Contain Residuals; Enterprises Livelihood Resource Resource Systems Dev't. Extraction 1-3 yr Assessment and Rehabilitation 13. Greater Subic Heavy Industrial/ Minor to Moderate Programmatic EIA Tourism Core Dev't. Commercial 1-15 Required Activities 14. BEP-SBMA Desk-Top NONE ------15. Complementary Dev't. Program Study 16. Alternative Dev't. Light Construction; Minor to Moderate Full-Blown EIA Systems Industrial 1-5 yr Required Processing (Product) 17. Subic Industrial Light to Heavy Moderate to Major Programmatic EIA Estate Construction 1-15 yr Required Activities; Multifaceted 18. Local Resource and Commercial and Minor to Moderate Contain Residuals; Agri-based Rural Light Industrial 1-5 yr Secure Discharges; Industries Activities; Desk EIA may be Establishment Top Research Required 19. Cooperative-Managed Light Construction Minor to Moderate EIA Required Food Terminal 1-2 yr 20. Regional Integrated Desk-Top NONE ------Distributors Promotion Research 21. Rattan Plantations Light Construction Minor to Major 1-5 yr Resource Dev't. and and Agricultural Rehabilitation; EIA Mangement Activities; Product Processing 22. Capacity Building on Desk-Top, Training None to Minor 1-2 yr ------Tourism Activities; Resource Assessment, Habitat Restoration