Advanced Thin Film Technologies for Cost Effective Photovoltaics

Project no. 019670

Project acronym ATHLET

Project title

Instrument: Integrated Project

Thematic Priority 6.1.ii

Publishable Final Activity Report

Period covered: from 01.01.2006 to 31.12.2009 Date of preparation: 15.02.2010

Start date of project: 01.01.2006 Duration: 48 Month

Project coordinator name: Prof. Dr. M.-Ch. Lux-Steiner

Project coordinator organisation name: Hahn-Meitner-Institut Berlin GmbH

Revision 1 Priority 6.1.ii: FP6-2002-Energy-1 ATHLET

1 PROJECT EXECUTION...... 3

1.1 Objectives...... 3

1.2 Challenges...... 3

1.3 Project structure and partners...... 4

1.4 Progress within the project duration...... 5 1.4.1 SPI - High Efficiency Solar Cells...... 5 1.4.2 SP2 - Thin Film Module Technology...... 6 1.4.3 SP3 - Chalcopyrite specific heterojunctions and TCOs...... 6 1.4.4 SP4 - Thin film silicon large-area modules on glass...... 7 1.4.5 SP5 - Device analysis and modelling...... 8 1.4.6 SP6 - Sustainability, Training and Mobility...... 9

1.5 General Project Information...... 11

2 DISSEMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE...... 12

ATHLET – publishable final activity report page 2 of 32 15/02/2010 Priority 6.1.ii: FP6-2002-Energy-1 ATHLET

1 Project Execution

1.1 Objectives The main objective of the project is to accelerate the decrease in the cost/efficiency ratio for thin film PV modules towards 0.5 €/WP. It focuses on technologies based on amorphous, micro- and polycrystalline silicon as well as on I-III-VI2-chalcopyrite compound semiconductors. The work oriented along the value chain focuses on large area chalcopyrite modules with improved efficiencies and on the up-scaling of silicon based tandem solar cells. This is complemented by a range of activities from the demonstration of lab scale cells with higher efficiencies to the work on module aspects relevant to all thin film solar cells. An important aspect is the analysis and modelling of materials, processes and devices. Accompanying sustainability assessment gives advice to the consortium on successful implementation strategies. 1.2 Challenges Thin film photovoltaics have a higher potential for cost effective production in the economy of scale than the technologies on the market today. In order to benefit from this potential, production capacities must grow faster than the established technologies. Main obstacle for a fast growth is the degree of maturity. This concerns all aspects from the fundamentals to the industrial implementation. Accordingly, this project addresses a range of issues. The most important scientific and technical objectives are given below: · to improve front and back contacts in view of long-term stability, conductivity, transparency (TCO), as well as the related deposition methods (in-line compatible technologies), · to optimise semiconductors as well as interfaces and specific buffers aiming at stable and highly efficient solar cells (materials engineering, source materials, deposition techniques/ parameters), · to optimise encapsulation materials as well as processes based on glass and flexible non-glass materials (damp/heat stability, costs), · to develop high band gap alloys (potential of voltage increase, top cells for tandems) and explore cost- effective tandem devices (technical feasibility), · to scale up novel, cost-effective processes (quality, reliability, throughput, cost), · to set up a new virtual EU laboratory for device analysis and modelling of solar cells, to supply outstanding highly sophisticated and well-matched analytical methods for materials and devices and to develop modelling tools for performance optimisation (cross-linking of analyses), · to identify machinery requirements for production and to enable European manufacturers to improve and supply machinery for large-area manufacturing. The focus of the process development is on throughput, yield, quality and cost, · to identify and solve performance-related problems arising from the rigid glass substrates as well as from flexible substrates (physical/chemical properties, type of glass, metallic and polymeric foils, cost- effectiveness), · to identify suitable in-line compatible patterning methods for super- and substrate modules, to develop alternative monolithic series interconnection methods (quality, throughput), · to identify potentials for the reduction of energy consumption, material usage and waste, to develop improvement strategies, · to assess societal benefits and risks from large-scale technology implementations and to elaborate strategies for a more sustainable energy supply in Europe, · to provide training and to promote mobility for students and young scientists.

1.3 Project structure and partners The topics of the project are organised in six sub-projects. Two of them are mainly driven by industry partners. Sub-project “Chalcopyrite Specific Heterojunctions” aims on the optimisation of large area CIS modules in terms of materials and cell efficiencies, whereas suppliers for production equipment are developing suitable machinery for large are modules based on “micromorph” technology in the sub-project “Thin Film Silicon Large Area Modules on Glass”.

Four of the sub-projects are mainly driven by research institutions. “High Efficiency Solar Cells” aims on efficiencies beyond the state-of-the-art for the technologies in the project. Activities comprise also new cell concepts, i.e. tandem solar cells based on chalcopyrite materials and the use of foil substrates for flexible solar cells. Vacuum free processes, i.e. electro-deposition for PV materials are developed and evaluated. The sub-project “Thin Film Module Technology” focuses on module aspects. Topics are isolated substrates, contact technologies, Encapsulation, serial interconnection and demonstration. A wide range of optical, electrical and structural analysis techniques are provided to the consortium by the sub-project “Device Analysis and Modelling”. Device simulations act as interpretation tools for measurement data. The objective is to get a better understanding of the structural and chemical properties of the cells and to provide a data base for the project. The aim of sub-project “Sustainability, Training and Mobility” is to ensure that the work undertaken will have a positive impact on energy production, quality of live and the environment. Beneath the socio- economic impact, the training and mobility of the participating scientists are supported.

The consortium is composed of seven industrial partners, ten research institutes and seven partners from the higher education. The partners reflect the different technologies in the project and they have complementary expertise. Helmholtz Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie (HZB) acts as the co-ordinator of the project and provides its expertise in CIS and in thin film polycrystalline silicon technology. HZB is supported by scientists from the Freie Universität Berlin. Research on CIS technology is also domain of the Zentrum für Sonnenenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung (ZSW), thin film polycrystalline silicon is in the focus at the Interuniversity MicroElectronics Center (IMEC). A further technology present in the project is known as the micromorphous technology – tandem solar cells based on microcrystalline and amorphous silicon. This cell type is under research at the pioneering Ecole Polytechnique de Lausanne (EPFL), at the Forschungszentrum Jülich (FZJ) and in part at the Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT). Flexible thin film solar cells offer advantages in application as well as in processing. Flexible cells on basis of CIS are investigated at the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA). Work on vacuum free deposition processes, mainly on electro-deposition, is done at the Photovoltaic Energy Development and Research Institute in Paris (IRDEP). A range of complementing research partners are contributing to common and different aspects of the various technologies. Universities of Gent (UGent), Lubljana (ULjub) and Prag (IPP) are performing device analysis and modelling. Process modelling of PECVD reactors is done at the University of Patras (UPat). Development of advanced module technology is important for all thin film technologies for deriving a final product of proven quality. Energy research Centre of the Netherlands is dealing with this aspects. University of Northumbria (UNN-NPAC) and Institute for Futures Studies and Technology Assessment (IZT) are accessing the technologies developed in this project in terms of their socio-economic impacts.

The industrial partners are aiming on the production of advanced solar cells and modules and setting up improved production equipment and facilities. The following partners represent the different technology paths in the project. AVANCIS, former Shell Solar and Sulfurcell (SCG) are producers of large area modules based on compounds of the CIS family. Innovative upcoming products are flexible PV solar cells. They are developed by Solarion using polymer foils as substrate. Applied Materials (AMAT) and Oerlikon Balzers are both suppliers of production equipment for coatings. Both companies are developing PECVD systems for the deposition of thin silicon layers. Schott Solar is known for its solar modules based on silicon wafers and amorphous silicon. The company provides TCO-glass and selected functional layers for thin film cells and

ATHLET – publishable final activity report page 4 of 32 15/02/2010 Priority 6.1.ii: FP6-2002-Energy-1 ATHLET modules. Pre-industrial TCOs are also developed and delivered to the project partners by Saint Gobain Recherce (SGR). 1.4 Progress within the project duration

1.4.1 SPI - High Efficiency Solar Cells Lighttrapping was found to be most important in silicon based devices but might become a critical issue for thinner CIGS devices as well. For this reason we studied the light trapping in all ATHLET thin film technologies by applying the rough interfaces as source for light scattering in identical µc-Si single junction solar cells. We revealed significant light trapping in plasma-textured polycrystalline silicon, but also severe optical losses due to seed layer and BSF. Interestingly, light trapping was concluded to be also present in several CIGS devices just by the intrinsically rough growth of the absorber. This conclusion is of high importance for further developments of several thin film technologies.

At low growth temperature (<550°C) solar cells on stainless steel foil with or without diffusion barrier reached efficiencies up to 12%. To improve cell performance further, higher temperatures are needed and thus a diffusion barrier against Fe diffusion to the absorber is required. With a SiOx diffusion barrier layer high efficiency ( 15 %) CIGS solar cells on stainless steel substrate were achieved by an in-line co- evaporation process. The installation of closed loop control and improved evaporation sources at Solarion led to an increase in efficiency to currently 13.4 % (confirmed by ISE Freiburg). Due to better homogeneity and process stability also the overall process yield has been improved significantly. Additionally improved deposition rates are feasible by new evaporation sources, but further work is needed. An electro-deposited ZnO:Cl layer performed similarly as the sputtered ZnO:Al layers of Solarion showing the potential of electro deposition for in-line processing of CIGS cells on foils. The CIGS tandem device development progressed in terms of top cell transparency of 55% at cell efficiency of 9.1% and simulation tools were developed to predict the respective tandem cell performance. Additionally, mechanically stacked tandem devices were prepared using CIGS wide gap material as bottom cell and a-Si as top cell and further experiments are planned.

Initial peak efficiency was 13.3 % for thick (> 3 µm bottom cell) tandem cells and 12.5% for around 2µm total absorber thickness at the beginning of the reporting period. During the last year of ATHLET we studied the interrelation between intermediate reflector and surface morphology of TCO, glass as well as the intermediate reflector itself on electrical and optical cell performance. Electrical performance could be improved by smoother surfaces, however, cell current decreased. This interrelation makes device optimization quite difficult. On the other hand high currents close to 15 mA for transparent a-Si top and 30 mA for µc-Si single junction devices could be achieved which was identified as one major milestone for high efficiency devices. Silicon deposition process was optimized in order to control plasma conditions and avoid or intentionally induce short and long term drifts of the process conditions. However, cell efficiency could not be improved further and best efficiency is still at 13.3 % though at slightly reduced absorber thickness. Another approach on extremely thin tandem devices reduced the total process time to one half while keeping the stabilized efficiency nearly constant (9.8 -> 9.6 %).

At the end of the third year we showed a best cell efficiency of 8.9% in the high-temperature route by combining plasma texturing with heterojunction emitters to improve the current density and the V oc of our cells. Progress was achieved on cell level by thinning of the seed and back surface field layer to reduce optical losses and on module level by a new preparation procedure of solar modules which will be applied for best solar cells in future. Unfortuantely, both approaches have not yet lead to higher efficiency of cells and modules due to the problems with the plasma texturization reactor so light trapping was not applied. The best cell efficiency in the high-temperature route at the end of the project is therefore still the 8.9% on alumina substrates and 6.4% on glass-ceramic (1 cm2, active area). The best results for solar cell in the intermediate temperature route on glass at the beginning of this reporting period were the following:  = 3.2%, VOC = 407 mV, JSC = 11.9 mA/cm², FF = 67%. Investigation of light trapping by plasma texturization were performed, but due to the worse grain structure of silicon on glass as compared to the high temperature route the texturization led to shunting of the cells and inhomogeneous absorbers. A significant improvement in Voc was achieved by plasma hydrogenation and rapid thermal

ATHLET – publishable final activity report page 5 of 32 15/02/2010 Priority 6.1.ii: FP6-2002-Energy-1 ATHLET annealing leading to Voc values of 450 mV in several experiments. However, solar cells with improved efficiency were not achieved yet. The development of a suitable light trapping will be the major topic for poly silicon devices in general. 1.4.2 SP2 - Thin Film Module Technology In the first period of ATHLET, experiments on mechanical terminal contacting were performed using various contacting options. Then the objective was to select the options most viable for practical use in factory or at field site. Three good workable options have been identified for climate room testing: the press connector, the SMT nut connector and the strip connector, all combined with proper junction boxes. Up to now some significant differences appear in initial contact resistance as well as in contact resistance degradation rate. Two new methods developed, i.e. using the press connector or the SMT nut connector, show behavior quite better than observed for the more state-of-the-art strip connector, in particular for initial resistance. These two are also degrading less, but longer testing time is required for a final judgment and for discriminating between the two.

The idea of water tolerant encapsulation, originating from x-Si technology was transferred to the use for f-Si. A particular dimension is given by the flexibility aspect; this necessarily introduces polymer encapsulants, also at the front side, that are never water tight. The essential issue is a good functionality - cost optimization by balancing encapsulation quality and PV technology robustness. The next step, the extrapolation for CIS technology could not be made: it turned out that no flexible CIS technology samples could be made available within the consortium, and thus deliverable DII.3.25 could not be realized. In order to have a comparison anyway, an experimental evaluation has been done on rigid f-Si technology provided from the outside-SPII partner FZJ. In this way a comparison could be made with a more robust technology in stead of with a more vulnerable one. These activities finalized the work package.

For the development of insulating coatings on metals a detailed analysis was performed about the influence of the thermal expansion coefficient of the substrate material, the substrate roughness, the influence of high- temperature CIGS deposition and a cleaning process between two SiOx deposition steps on the barrier properties. As one result it became clear, that the realisation of a perfect insulation barrier with a high barrier resistance and high breakdown voltage values becomes more and more difficult with increasing substrate area. Nevertheless, it was possible to realise the up scaling of insulating barriers to > 300 cm2 with a high barrier resistance and disruptive discharge voltage of > 100 kV/cm. However, occasional shunts could be found in each of the barriers. 1.4.3 SP3 - Chalcopyrite specific heterojunctions and TCOs From the different processes under development in SP III to replace the CdS buffer layer in a CIS-type module, potential candidates for near-future implementation in production lines have been evaluated. Although a significant progress has been made during the lifetime of ATHLET, different limitations and open questions impede the direct application of the developed solutions at the end of the project:

 A reliable CBD process for the deposition of Zn(S,O) layers has been developed. On Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 absorbers, deposition times are at least comparable to CBD-CdS and the same kind of deposition equipments can be applied. The highest performance of a Cd-free 30x30 cm² module within ATHLET

has been demonstrated with this technique (13.5% aperture area efficiency). On CuInS 2 absorbers, the process window for optimal device performance (7.4% peak efficiency) is not as wide as with the CdS standard process. Metastability of the device performance and the necessity to light-soak the modules to determine the module power are actually seen as the major hints for introduction of the CBD process in module production.

 The difference between CdS-buffered devices and devices with sputtered buffer layer on CuInS2 absorbers can be small but is believed to still be statistically significant. Both (Zn,Mg)O and Zn(O,S) seem to perform well on cell level and monolithically interconnected module test structures. Results on 30x30 cm² were inferior (5.9% best efficiency) – but encouraging enough considering that experience was limited to a single batch of modules. Under the assumption that the ideal case is a flat alignment, a

Mg-content of ~13% appears to be ideal. The optimal value for Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 absorbers is slightly lower, due to the lower band gap of the absorber. In the latter case, the up-scaling was already terminated

in the third project year due to stagnation of progress. It remains unclear whether the limitation in efficiency is of principle nature or due to technical problems in up-scaling.

 An indium sulphide evaporation process for Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 absorbers was successfully transferred to a new labline evaporator with load lock and larger evaporation sources. Continuous processing over several hours could be demonstrated with average cell efficiencies close to 12%, which is an important requirement for industrial application. The up-scaling to 30x30 cm² was so far handicapped by equipment limitations. Nevertheless 12.1% best efficiency value and 12% average of the best five modules were achieved in a batch reactor, which is only slightly below the target values.  For the spray-based techniques, up-scaling of the USP method towards 10x10 cm² has been successful. The deposition mechanism has been studied and the investigations have been expanded towards ZnS layers. Some preliminary experiments with a first industrial ILGAR in-line machine (substrate size up to

30x30 cm²) have been performed. On the lab scale, mixed ZnS+In 2S3 ILGAR layers led to inferior cell efficiencies than pure In2S3 or stacked ZnS/In2S3 layers. Results have been compared with buffer layers deposited by ALCVD processes.

With the new 1% doped Zn:Al target, the quality of the reactively sputtered TCO films could be substantially improved. It was possible to achieve films with nearly identical performance like the reference films sputtered from a ceramic target. Applied to solar modules, this resulted in 13.4% or 12.8% best module efficiency for Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 or Cu(In,Ga)Se2 absorbers respectively. Furthermore, reactive TCO coating of a few modules with alternative Cd-free buffers was successful leading to efficiencies as high as 11.7 % with high photocurrents, suffering only from a lower fill factor. 1.4.4 SP4 - Thin film silicon large-area modules on glass Gen5 size (1.43m²) micromorph modules with initial output power of >150 W have been successfully fabricated by our industrial partners AMAT and Oerlikon. This corresponds to an aperture area efficiency of 11%; given the low light-induced degradation already observed on small area cells and mini-modules (10%), a stabilized aperture efficiency of 10% is expected (135 W modules). Note that this ambitious final milestone was obtained at the cost of a reduction of the target deposition rate from 1 nm/s to 0.5 nm/s. These results have been obtained on textured etched TCO for AMAT and on LPCVD ZnO for Oerlikon (now successfully introduced in production lines). New SnO2 based TCOs were developed by SGR in the framework of this project with some success, but remain significantly less performing than ZnO based TCOs. The substrate costs remain a very important factor in the overall module costs and will require substantial efforts. Nevertheless, taking into account all progresses made recently as well as potential improvements, production cost reduction to approximately 0.5 €/Wp seems feasible in the medium term.

Fig. 1: (left) Gen5 micromorph modules fabricated by AMAT/Schott for indoor/outdoor testing at CREST (Loughborough, UK) and (right) outdoor testing facility of Oerlikon (Trübbach, CH) with various Gen5 a- Si:H and micromorph modules.

Process development on mid-size reactors (>30x30 cm2 by FZJ and EPFL) led to the fabrication of test cells at deposition rate of 1 nm/s with initial efficiencies of up to 12%. Even though, stable efficiencies are close ATHLET – publishable final activity report page 7 of 32 15/02/2010 Priority 6.1.ii: FP6-2002-Energy-1 ATHLET to 10%, the results are far from being sufficient for achieving such efficiency value on full size modules. Process optimization now benefit fully from the simulation work performed by the University of Patras which helped formulate design rules for an improved "ideal" plasma source suitable for the uniform high rate deposition of μc-Si:H thin films. This work was complemented with the implementation of plasma diagnostics in these reactors which permit a better process control but also to gain valuable knowledge in the plasma processes. Further optimization of the a-Si:H cell allowed Oerlikon to obtain a World record with a 10% stabilized efficiency cell. This demonstrates that a relatively large room for improvement exists for thin-film silicon modules. With some delays with respect to the initial planning, several micromorph modules were fabricated and characterized, both in indoor and outdoor conditions. Characterization of modules is still in progress and results will be reported in coming PV conferences and in journals. 1.4.5 SP5 - Device analysis and modelling The objectives of this sub-project are to provide links between processing parameters and materials parameters on the one hand (by advanced electrical and optical characterisation), and between material parameters thus obtained and solar cell characteristics on the other hand (by advanced electrical and optical modelling). This has lead to an increased insight into the physics of the solar cell devices, to an understanding of the performance limits of present solar cells and ultimately to strategies to improve the cells. The analysis and modelling work of SP 5 is offered to cell makers (SP 3 and 4) and cell developers (SP 1) of ATHLET, to help them with characterising and improving their cells through the project. This sub- project has dealt with solar cells of the three families (CIGS, a-Si and poly-Si). The main work carried out, and results obtained are listed here in brief:  Materials (‘ab initio’) modelling: new numerical schemes were developed for a satisfactory description of the dependence of the band gap Eg and band edge shifts ΔEV of indium based chalcopyrites on the internal displacement parameter u. The relative stability of the experimental bandgap in realistic conditions was explained quantitatively through a coupled process between defect formation and structural relaxation.  Electrical cell modelling: realistic simulation of state-of-the art thin film solar cells was achieved by including the effects of graded properties (all parameters, including defect parameters), and by two-dimensional simulation of solar cells (the effects of grains, grain size and grain boundaries).  Optical analysis and two-dimensional modelling: now also covers periodic texture at interfaces, diffusing properties at back- or intermediate reflectors, three-dimensional optical effects in solar cells and structures with ZnO nano-columns.  Numerical experiments (‘virtual engineering’) with the enhanced facilities of electrical and optical solar cell modelling were applied to all three cell families: o CIGS cells: influence of standard parameters: doping densities, defect densities and levels, layer thickness. o CIGS cells: parameters connected with graded properties, and parameters of polycrystallinity (grain position, size, shape); optical and electrical simulation study of tandem CGS/CIGS solar cells o thin film silicon cells: back reflectors (white paint and photonic structures), intermediate reflectors, periodic texture structures, 3-Ddesign based on TCO nanocolumns o poly-Si cells: parameter study of optical behaviour  A final version of database of optical constants (glass, TCO, absorber layers, doped layers, back reflector structures) is available to Athlet partners at http://pv.fzu.cz/athlet/ (password protected).  Advanced analysis: HIKE in-depth analysis of near-surface elemental gradients in chalcopyrite absorbers; X-ray diffraction analysis of poly-Si seed layers on glass, and comparison with EBSD; scanning tunnelling methods (STM, STS): influence of illumination, of grain

boundaries; Raman analysis of CIGSSe absorber materials (S/Se ratio) and buffer materials; SEM/EBIC study on polycrystalline solar cells. semiconductor equations Poisson, continuity of n and p, current, crystal recombination, structure generation electrical materials device solar cell properties , J , V , FF modelling electronic material modelling sc oc first DFT properties SCAPS QE(), C-V, C-f, … principles GW E , , N , N , N , E , ASPIN … g A D t t … quantum … mechanics … (simplifying device structure full assumptions) electro-optical layer stack, thicknesses, modelling roughness, … measurement and optical device characterisation modelling solar cell optics optical material SunShine electrical R(), T(), A() properties CELL optical G(x,) … structural n(), (), (), … … physical-chemical … (WP 19 ) … optical equations geometrical optics, wave- optics, …

Schematics of the work in SP5 of ATHLET: the relations between the three types of modelling performed in WP18 (materials modelling, electrical modelling and optical modelling), and the relation between WP18 and WP19. Not that this scheme emphasises the modelling work, and underexposes the characterisation work.

1.4.6 SP6 - Sustainability, Training and Mobility The advantages of thin film approaches for photovoltaic modules relate to both cost and environmental impact, as a result of lower material requirements and lower cost manufacturing processes than for the crystalline silicon approach. Sub-project 6 has supported the technical developments within the Athlet project by considering both sustainability and environmental impact issues for the processes developed and by considering the market drivers governing the future market share of thin film photovoltaics. This sub- project also addresses training aspects, particularly in regard to researcher exchange and the organisation of a summer school.

In the early part of the project, WP20 provided an overview of the environmental issues associated with the processes being investigated in the Athlet project and developed an Environmental Screening Tool for researchers to gain a rapid insight into both the environmental impacts and health and safety issues for candidate materials in PV device processing. This was intended to aid their decision making process. In the final year of the project, an environmental impact assessment has been completed for three selected processes from the Athlet research portfolio, where the advances reflect different case studies for the environmental assessment process. This was also in response to a recommendation from the external assessors for the project. Most environmental impact analyses are carried out for fully developed production processes, but their use earlier in the development programme can identify the most important process parameters in regard to environmental impact. This then informs the decisions on research directions and, potentially, reduces the time between the research laboratory and the manufacturing line.

The analyses were carried out for three processes, one from each of the CIGS and thin film Si research areas and one that is relevant to both areas. Laboratory scale process parameters were scaled up to production level and a sensitivity analysis was carried out to determine which parameter was most influential in regard to

ATHLET – publishable final activity report page 9 of 32 15/02/2010 Priority 6.1.ii: FP6-2002-Energy-1 ATHLET environmental impact factors. A detailed report has been produced and only the summary results will be considered here. For plasma texturing of thin film silicon absorber layers, developed at IMEC, the most important parameter is material utilisation since the process uses sulphur hexafluoride which has a very high global warming potential. For the range of parameters considered, the addition of the texturing step should result in a reduction of overall environmental impact per unit output provided that the performance improvement seen in the laboratory is maintained through to production. However, careful control of the handling of the gas is required to achieve this. The off-line process for TCO deposition, developed by Saint Gobain Recherche, gives slightly lower impacts than the on-line process, where the assumed yield is the dominant factor, but the overall impacts of this step are only around 3% of the overall impact of the module production. In the third case study, the deposition of the indium sulphide buffer layer for CIGS cells gave slightly higher impacts than the conventional cadmium sulphide buffer layer but this was shown to be related to the technique used. The analysis did not include assessment of the emission of heavy metals, which is the main motivation for replacing the cadmium sulphide. However, the analysis shows that the process parameters should be carefully considered as the indium sulphide deposition is developed further. Again this step represents only a small proportion of the overall environmental impact of the CIGS module production.

The environmental impact studies in WP20 have developed a methodology for considering these impacts at the research stage, so the information can be used alongside technical and economic data to determine the best routes for further development. This has been illustrated with three case studies from advances made in ATHLET and all objectives of the work package have been achieved.

In WP21, the factors influencing market share of thin film technologies have been investigated in order to provide an insight into strategic decisions in thin film manufacturing. Following on from the identification of the key drivers in previous work, two scenarios, “Diversity Rules” and “Size Matters”, have been constructed to reflect different possible developments of the market. In the former, PV applications are small and diverse with building integration and rooftop systems dominating. A wide range of product is required. In the latter scenario, PV systems are large in scale, mainly multi-megawatt installations of large industrial roofs or ground mounted. The required product is standardised and manufactured in large volume. The scenarios do not predict what the market will be, but give two different options for what the future market could look like.

Unlike many other studies developing market scenarios, the work here has considered drivers that might be expected to influence not only the uptake of photovoltaics but also the market share for thin film products. Therefore, the two scenarios differ in terms of the nature of the market but not its size. The assessment of the scenarios considers the implications in terms of the nature of module production and specifically whether the separation of cell and module production could be beneficial for some market segments. The report includes a technology assessment that also considers possible bottlenecks in production of some PV module types due to shortages of certain materials (e.g. indium, gallium, tellurium). Attention to the minimising of material requirements and recycling issues is recommended and this conclusion agrees with the results of the environmental impact assessment in WP20, where the material utilisation was a key parameter in regard to the impacts.

The future market structure is dependent on market development strategies, including not only those aimed at photovoltaics but also those that address energy delivery (e.g. development of the electricity grid) and other energy technologies. PV producers can use the scenarios to test the robustness of their company strategy and technology development plans to market structure to ensure that they are best placed to capture a significant market share for thin film technologies.

1.5 General Project Information Contract no: 019670 Title: Advanced Thin Film Technologies for Cost Effective Photovoltaics - ATHLET Start Date: January, 2006 Duration: 48 months

Contact point: Martha Lux-Steiner Tel: +49-30-8062-2462 Fax: +49-30-8062-3199 [email protected]

Internet: www.ip-athlet.eu

Partners: Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie GmbH (D) Applied Materials GmbH & Co. KG (D) Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (ES) Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (F) Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (NL) Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (CH) Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH (D) Interuniversity MicroElectronics Center (B) Fyzikalni ustav Akademie ved Ceske republiky (CZ) Institut für Zukunftsstudien und Technologiebewertung gGmbH (D) SCHOTT Solar GmbH (D) Universiteit Gent (B) Sulfurcell Solartechnik GmbH (D) Saint-Gobain Recherche (F) AVANCIS GmbH & Co. KG(D) Solarion AG (D) Oerlikon Balzers AG (FL) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (CH) University of Northumbria at Newcastlev(GB) University of Patras (GR) Zentrum für Sonnenenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg (D) University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Electrical Engineering (SLO) Freie Universität Berlin (D)

2 Dissemination of Knowledge Publications of the first period [101, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27, 248, 46, 50, 51, 64, 65, 74, 75, 79, 88, 96, 97, 109, 110, 113, 116, 124, 137, 138, 147, 148, 149, 146, 153, 167, 176, 194, 195, 199, 201, 245, 259, 260] Publications of the second period: [76, 209, 214, 218, 17, 11, 9, 21, 63, 62, 84, 89, 85, 119, 161, 163, 160, 200, 217, 231, 244, 90, 78, 254, 91, 157, 47, 105, 108, 95, 48, 103, 52, 227, 102, 228, 100, 198, 128, 246, 127, 258, 139, 261, 40, 37, 140, 251, 170, 181, 41, 169, 151, 131, 2, 15, 1, 34, 267, 268, 6, 28, 172, 235, 150, 252, 192, 249, 250, 211] Publications of the third period: [210, 213, 215, 219, 223, 121, 10, 92, 118, 162, 202, 238, 130, 57, 43, 36, 26, 25, 243, 111, 106, 107, 99, 158, 49, 239, 242, 83, 104, 82, 180, 141, 38, 135, 55, 174, 175, 24, 263, 270, 67, 66, 81, 177, 33, 236, 230, 193, 125, 126, 179, 73, 207, 225, 29, 54, 255, 171] Publications of the fourth period: [183, 3, 5, 4, 12, 18, 20, 23, 31, 32, 30, 35, 39, 42, 44, 45, 53, 56, 59, 58, 60, 68, 71, 233, 69, 70, 72, 77, 80, 86, 87, 114, 112, 117, 115, 120, 122, 123, 129, 132, 133, 134, 142, 136, 143, 144, 145, 152, 155, 154, 156, 159, 164, 165, 166, 168, 173, 178, 182, 186, 187, 185, 184, 188, 189, 190, 191, 61, 196, 197, 203, 204, 206, 208, 205, 212, 216, 222, 221, 220, 226, 224, 229, 232, 234, 237, 240, 241, 247, 94, 93, 98, 253, 257, 256, 262, 264, 265, 266, 269, 271]

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Dissemination Overview table:

Planned/ Partner Countries Size of actual Type Type of audience responsible addressed audience Dates /involved 01/2008 Conference Thin Solid Research All 300 FZJ Films 01/2008 ATHLET GA Research European 100 HZB, FU 02/2008 Conference ETSF Industry / Higher France 20 CNRS Education 03/2008 Conference Quantsol Research All 70 CNRS 03/2008 MRS Spring Meeting Research All 150 IMEC, ULjub 03/2008 Conference Semicon China Industry All >1000 OERLIKON PV 04/2008 Workshop NANOMAT Research All 100 HZB 04/2008 Conference by the Society Research / All 1000 OERLIKON of Vacuum Coaters Industry Conference E-MRS Research All 1000 HZB, FU, IRDEP, 05/2008 AVANCIS, ETHZ, UGent Conference IEEE PVSEC Research / All 300 IPHT, IMEC 05/2008 Industry EMRS Spring Meeting Research All 300 IMEC, HZB, 05/2008 ETHZ, AVANCIS Conference ICCG Research / All 1000 FZJ, SGR 06/ 2008 Industry 06/2008 Thin Film Industry Forum Industry All >500 OERLIKON 07/2008 Intersolar America Industry All >1000 OERLIKON Conference Research / All 300 HZB, FU 09/2008 Industry International Conference Research / European 100 ULjub 09/2008 on Microelectronics, Industry Devices and Materials Conference EUPVSEC Research / All 400 HZB, FUB, ETHZ, Industry FZJ, UGent, 09/2008 AVANCIS, OERLIKON, UniNE, UPat

Planned/ Partner Countries Size of actual Type Type of audience responsible addressed audience Dates /involved Conference PSE 2008 Research / All 600 HZB, OERLIKON 09/2008 Industry 10/2008 Solar Power Conference Industry All >2000 OERLIKON Workshop Thin Film Solar Research / Switzerland 50 ETHZ 11/2008 Cells Industry Conference talk (A look Research All 40 ETHZ 11/2008 inside solar cells, EMPA) Conference, Bessy-User Research / All 500 HZB 12/2008 Meeting Industry Research/ 01/2009 PVSEC 18, Kolkata, India All, Asia >300 Oerlikon Industry SOLARCON Korea 2009, 01/2009 Industry All, Asia >500 Oerlikon Seoul, Korea Clean Tech Summit, Palm 01/2009 Industry All >500 Oerlikon Springs, USA PVExpo2009, Tokyo, 02/2009 Industry All, Asia >1000 Oerlikon Japan PV Tech 2009 (Photon), 03/2009 Industry All >500 Oerlikon Munich, Germany SOLARCON China 2009, 03/2009 Industry All, Asia >1000 Oerlikon Shanghai, China Deutsche Physikalische 03/2009 Gesellschaft, Dresden, Research Germany >1000 Oerlikon Germany 04/2009 Conference (MRS spring Scientific International IMEC, HZB, SCG, meeting 2009) EPFL 2nd International Workshop upon Thin Film 04/2009 Research All >100 Oerlikon Silicon Solar Cells, Berlin, Germany 1st Intern. Workshop on the 04/2009 Research All >100 Oerlikon Staebler-Wronski Effect SNEC PV Power Expo 05/ 2009 Industry All >1000 Oerlikon 2009, Shanghai, China Intersolar, Munich, 05/2009 Industry All >1000 Oerlikon Germany 06/2009 Conference Research international 300 HZB,ECN, IMEC, (E-MRS 2009 Spring) UGent, Oerlikon Intersolar, Munich, Oerlikon 06/2009 Industry All >2000 Germany SMET USA (Solar, Materials, Equipment & Oerlikon 07/2009 Industry All >500 Technology Conference), San Francisco, USA 07/2009 Conference Research international 300 HZB, IMEC (34th IEEE PVSC) 08/2009 MIDEM 2009 general micro- all 200 UGent, ULjub 45th International electronics Conference on research Microelectronics, Devices community, but and Materials for the workshop: the chalcopyrite Workshop on Advanced PV research Photovoltaic Devices and community Technologies 09/2009 Conference Research international 3000 HZB, AVANCIS,

Planned/ Partner Countries Size of actual Type Type of audience responsible addressed audience Dates /involved (24. EUPVSEC) SCG, ECN, FZJ, Oerlikon, IPP, EMPA 09/2009 Gadest conference, Berlin Research international IMEC Solar Power International 09/2009 Industry All >500 Oerlikon, EPFL 2009, Anaheim, USA 11/2009 19th PVSC, Jeju, South Research international IMEC Korea OTTI, TCO Workshop, 12/2009 Industry All >100 Oerlikon Ulm Germany 2010 EMRS 2010 Conference, Research World >1000 ZSW Strasbourg 2010 EU PVSEC-25 Conference, Research & PV World >3000 ZSW Valencia Industry 2010 Publication in Thin Solid Research ZSW Films

ATHLET – publishable final activity report page 32 of 32 15/02/2010