Authoritative Knowledge and Local Women S Knowledge: a Focus on the Reproductive

Authoritative Knowledge and Local Women’s Knowledge: A Focus on the Reproductive Health Initiatives of ICDDR/B Nadia Rahman

This project reviews anthropological and related studies of women’s reproductive health in Bangladesh, particularly as carried out by the Centre for Health and Population Research in

Bangladesh (ICDDR/B). ICDDR/B, formerly known as the International Centre for Diarrhoeal

Disease Research, Bangladesh is a non-profit health research and training institution with the mandate to develop and disseminate solutions to critical health and population issues, with an emphasis on cost-effective methods for prevention and management.

The Centre’s primary training and research headquarters are in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Originally, ICDDR/B focused on prevention and treatment methods for cholera and diarrhea. It now conducts research on issues spanning from child health, reproductive health, nutrition, population sciences, HIV/AIDS, and safe water. The Centre established and continues to operate the Matlab Health Research Centre (MHRC), through which it maintains longitudinal studies of rural populations (Bhatia 1981).

Compared to the number of anthropological studies on women and reproductive health in

India, those for Bangladesh are few. Rosario et al. and Blanchet are some the earliest anthropologists to undertake intensive research related to rural Bangladeshi women’s reproductive health knowledge. Publications range from examining the role and status of traditional birth attendants (TBAs) in villages to themes of ritual “purity” and “pollution” associated with rural childbirth ideologies (Blanchet 1984; Rashid 2001; Rosario et al. 1998).

Each set of discourses, in different ways, points to the female physiology as problematic.

Worldwide, Western Biomedicine (WBM) claims and is accorded an almost unquestioned position as authoritative knowledge. Jordan (1997), Sargent and Bascope (1996),

1 and Rashid (2001), explain that when multiple knowledge paradigms exist, one tends to be dominant. A recurrent consequence is the loss of authority and denigration of local ways of knowing. The authors argue that the biomedical physicians’ unquestioned authority and status is a type of performance and a ritualized deference paid to the high status of WBM.

Although linguistic anthropological research on medical discourse in Bangladesh is limited, it brings to the forefront issues of authority and power among the language of the biomedical community and the patient (Kuipers 1989). Wilce (1997) argues that these micro- political interactions may render the client weak within the context of reproductive-health knowledge, which may affect rural women’s care-seeking behavior in times of obstetric complications. Recent publications also stress the importance of listening to what rural women have to say in order to understand women’s reproductive knowledge and care-seeking behavior, on the part of both health-care practitioner and researcher (Afsana and Rashid 2001; Khanum et al. 2000; Sargent and Stark 1989).

Anthropological research on reproductive health-related injuries and violence as cause of death and non-fatal injuries of women are scarce and incomplete, and especially so regarding rural Bangladeshi women (Fauveau and Blanchet 1989). This being the case, medical anthropologists can play a crucial role in investigating these issues vis-à-vis community-based studies (Bhatia 1981). Recommendations for any preventative measures can attempt to find a balance between the ideologies of both local and biomedical contexts by means of a dialogical flow of information (Maurial 1999; Sillitoe 2002).

Annotated Bibliography

Afsana, Kaosar and Sabina Faiz Rashid. 2001.

2 The Challenges of Meeting Rural Bangladeshi Women’s Needs in Delivery Care. Reproductive Health Matters 9(18):79-89. This article is based on quasi-anthropological research including in-depth interviews with rural women who gave birth in a BRAC Health Centre (BHC), women who gave birth at home, and biomedical staff of the BHC. Fieldwork was carried out in a district located north of Dhaka. The research team observed patient-staff relations, conducted participant observation, and held focus group discussions. A quantitative approach stressed listening to what rural women had to say regarding delivery care. Findings indicate that rural women’s acceptance of deliveries in health facilities is minimal and their overall reliance on TBAs cannot be overlooked. Cost, fear of hospitals, and the stigma of “abnormal” births are major constraints to health care accessibility. Female paramedics who attended normal deliveries made women give birth lying down and were too busy to give information to the mother, making the birthing process a passive experience.

Bangladesh, rural BRAC Health Center (BHC) Delivery care TBAs Patient-client relations Health-care accessibility

Ahmed, Syed M., Alayne M. Adams, Mustaque Chowdhury, and Abbas Bhuiya. 2003. Changing Health Seeking Behavior in Matlab, Bangladesh: Do Development Interventions Matter? Health Policy and Planning. 18(3):306-315. Ahmed et al. analyze cross-sectional data from surveys undertaken in 1995 and 1999 as part of the BRAC-ICDDR/B Joint Research Project in Matlab. Their findings suggest a rise in self-treatment of women, attributed to the economic impact of a major flood in 1998, and greater reproductive heath “awareness” of rural women, due to the increased numbers of community health workers in Matlab. Because these studies rely on mainly quantitative data, they do not explore women’s beliefs and practices to any significant degree, but it does however, illustrate the degree to which rural women access biomedical health-care and their reasons for doing so.

Bangladesh, Matlab BRAC-ICDDR/B Joint Research Project Self-treatment Reproductive health awareness Accessibility of health care Health and sociology Sociological study

Amin, Sajeda. 1998. Family Structure and Change in Rural Bangladesh. Population Studies 52(2): 201-213. Amin examines the role of family and the household in relation to the reproductive health needs of rural women in two villages in Bangladesh. The villages are located in Mohanpur thana

3 and Rajshahi district. The rising rates of landlessness in these villages lead to increasing nucleation and fragmentation of families. As poverty weakens the family support system, it promotes “disaffection” with marital and familial relationships, encouraging rural women to seek more autonomous lifestyles. The changes in family structure and the significant fertility decline may be crucial in analyzing the extent to which rural women’s ideology may be shifting within the context of both the “traditional” and “biomedical” reproductive strategies. The fertility decline may be in part due to women seeking alternative roles to those of wife and mother.

Bangladesh, rural Mohanpur thana Rajshahi district Landlessness Family change Fertility decline Autonomous lifestyles/alternative roles Cultural anthropology

Bhatia, Shushum. 1981. Traditional Childbirth Practices: Implications for Rural MCH Programs. Studies in Family Planning 12(2):66-75. Bhatia conducted sociological research with ICDDR/B in the Family Planning and Health Services Program in the villages of its field station in the Matlab district. She conducted semi- structured interviews with biomedical staff and observed several deliveries lead by TBAs. She argues that a better utilization of biomedical facilities will occur if they are village-based and incorporate prevailing cultural practices and beliefs, within the context of childbirth practices. Biomedical staffs in rural areas also believe that health programs might achieve better results if the program prioritizes the needs of the community.

Bangladesh, rural Matlab district, ICDDR/B Utilization of biomedical facilities Village-based programs Community-based needs TBAs Sociological study

Blanchet, Therese. 1984. Meanings and Rituals of Birth in Rural Bangladesh, Dhaka: University Press Limited. Blanchet’s fieldwork in villages in Matlab upazila, highlight key processes associated with rural childbirth patterns, rituals, and practices which fuse Islamic, Brahminical, and local Bengali beliefs. Blanchet examines the ritual “purity” and “pollution” themes associated with childbirth. In these village communities spontaneous abortions, menstrual complications, hemorrhages, tetanus, postnatal diarrhea, and stillborn births are associated with the actions of a bhut (spirit) or the “ill” actions of the mother. Blanchet’s work serves as a backdrop to

4 approaching childbirth and related risks as perceived by women in rural Bangladesh, revealing that in different ways, childbirth complications point to the female physiology as problematic.

Bangladesh, rural Matlab upazila Childbirth/complications and risks Purity vs. Pollution Female physiology Medical anthropology

Fauveau, V. and Therese Blanchet. 1989. Deaths from Injuried and Induced Abortion among Rural Bangladeshi Women. Social Science and Medicine 29(9):21-27. Information about injuries and violence as causes of death of women is scarce and often incomplete, and particularly so regarding women in the rural areas of South Asia. This report provides data drawn from a large-scale research project in Matlab. Of 1139 women (aged 15-44 yr) who died during the 11-yr period from 1976 to 1986, 207 were victims of unintentional injuries or violence. Unintentional injuries include domestic and traffic accidents, drowning and snake-bites. Violent deaths are defined as due to intentional injury and include homicide, suicide and lethal complications of induced abortion. Violent deaths during pregnancy and complications of induced abortion among young unmarried women are prevalent. Suicide and homicide are two frequent consequences of illegitimate pregnancy. This study suffers from the absence of data on non-fatal injuries and attempted violence, but it may serve as a basis for recommending preventive measures.

Bangladesh, rural Matlab district ICDDR/B Unintentional and intentional injuries Violent deaths during pregnancy and complications of induced abortions Sociological study

Jordan, Brigitte. 1997. Authoritative Knowledge and Its Construction. In Childbirth and Authoritative Knowledge: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Robbie Davis-Floyd and Carolyn Sargent eds. pp. 55-79. Berkeley: University of California Press. Jordan writes, on the basis of fieldwork on the birthing processes in several cultures, that when multiple knowledge paradigms exist, one tends to be dominant. A frequent result is the loss of authority and even denigration of local ways of knowing, further subordinating these populations in relation to exogenous biomedical practices. In her view, the biomedical physicians’ unquestioned authority and status is a type of performance of ritualized deference paid to the high status of biomedical knowledge. This elevated status serves as a barrier to establishing dialogical relationships between biomedical practitioners and clients, resulting in

5 situations where clients may reject family planning clinics, especially in times of pregnancy- related risks.

Multi-sited cross-cultural fieldwork Birth processes Multiple knowledge paradigms Biomedical authoritative knowledge Denigration/subordination of local knowledge Pregnancy related risks Medical anthropology

Khanum, Parveen A., M.A.Quiayum, Ariful Islam, and Shameem Ahmed. 2000. Complications of Pregnancy and Childbirth: Knowledge and Practices of Women in Rural Bangladesh. Dhaka: ICDDR/B Center for Health and Population Research. The authors are part of the ICDDR/B research staff whose cross-sectional studies examine rural women’s knowledge and care-seeking behavior in times of obstetric complications. They use semi-structured questionnaires when interviewing rural women. The study was done in 7 unions of Mirsarai, 5 unions of Abhoynagar thana in Chittagong and Jessore district. The authors argue that, since rural women still seek care from the traditional providers (TBAs) for deliveries and for the management of obstetric complications, these providers should be directly linked to the ICDDR/B health facilities.

Bangladesh, rural ICDDR/B Rural women’s reproductive knowledge Care-seeking behavior Management of Obstetric complications TBAs Sociological study

Kuipers, Joel C. 1989. Medical Discourses in Anthropological Context: Views of Language and Power. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 3:99-123. Kuipers examines the recorded texts of Weyewa ritual speech of Sumba, Indonesia, in order to analyze medical discourses. The prevailing image of medical knowledge in social science as the ultimate truth has shifted, bringing to the fore issues of power and authority within the context negotiation and control of particular knowledge systems. According to Kuipers, the purpose of achieving linguistic rapport, from the standpoint of biomedical practitioners is to pinpoint discourse-centered commonalities, that is, referential parity, between the language of the scientific community and the patient.

Indonesia Sumba Weyewa ritual speech

6 Medical discourse Power/authority Scientific community/patient Linguistic rapport Linguistic anthropology

Maurial, Mahia. 1999. Indigenous Knowledge and Schooling: A Continuum Between Conflict and Dialogue. In What is Indigenous Knowledge? Voices from the Academy. Ladislaus Semali and Joe Kincheloe, eds. Pp. 60-77. New York: Falmer Press. Maurial examines the re-conceptualization of education through the conceptualization of indigenous knowledge in rural Peru. She argues that the reductionist Western approach to education is counterproductive. Instead, dialogue between the responsible members of the local community and the larger community should be used to understand the complexity of the problem of education among indigenous people. The process of schooling for the indigenous people of Peru has not fostered democracy. Instead schools have imposed a foreign curriculum which devalues indigenous knowledge, resulting in the loss of identity and agency, which in turn is a risk to indigenous knowledge accumulation and use.

Peru, rural Education Dialogical process Indigenous knowledge Reductionist Western approach Identity/agency

Menken, Jane, Linda Duffy, and Randall Kuhn. 2003. Childbearing and Women’s Survival: New Evidence from Rural Bangladesh. Population and Development Review 29(3):405-426. The authors are population studies specialists who collaborated with IDCCR/B to conduct their research. The study was conducted in 14 villages in the Matlab district of ICDDR/B’s Maternal and Child-Health Family Planning Program. Their research supports the relationship between early life conditions and later health and survival risks of rural women. According to the “maternal depletion syndrome” hypothesis, women, especially in the developing world, may suffer from increased maternal depletion as a result of repeated rapid childbearing under poor conditions. Both pregnancy and lactation considerably increases energy expenditure, if a woman cannot compensate for this, her nutritional status and health may be deleterious to her survival.

Bangladesh, rural

7 Matlab district ICDDR/B Link between early life conditions and later health risks Maternal depletion syndrome Repeated rapid childbearing Maternal survival Population studies

Pigg, Stacey L. 1997. Authority in Translation: Finding, Knowing, Naming, and Training “Traditional Birth Attendants” in Nepal. In Childbirth and Authoritative Knowledge: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Robbie Davis-Floyd and Carolyn Sargent., eds. Pp. 233-262. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pigg uses her anthropological fieldwork in Nepal to analyze how development institutions use language to establish their role as holders of authoritative knowledge, thereby denigrating local knowledge systems. She offers a case study in which a development institution’s programs for training TBAs discounted local reproductive knowledge and practices. Instead of incorporating local people’s knowledge about childbirth into the TBA training methods, the institution produced the notions of “appropriate” ideas and practices surrounding reproductive health.

Nepal Development institutions Authoritative knowledge Denigration of local knowledge systems TBA training Cultural anthropology

Rashid, Sabina. 2001. Indigenous Understanding of the Workings of the Body and Contraceptive Use Amongst Rural Women in Bangladesh. South Asian Anthropologist (1)1:57-70. Rashid conducts multi-sited fieldwork to analyze discourses of the female body in rural Bangladesh that illustrate gender relations in rural society and the degree to which village ideologies of shame, purity, and pollution influence women’s attitudes toward contraceptive practices. Women’s understanding of their body and perception of flow, buildup, and blockage within the context of menstruation, is linked to women’s medicinal plant use. The plant Norplant is used relieve any “disruption” of the internal state of the body. Humoral notions underlie descriptions of Norplant use, which are understood to agree with women differently.

Bangladesh, rural Village ideologies Contraceptive practices Norplant Women’s medicinal plant knowledge

8 Humoral health systems Medical anthropology

Rosario, Santi. 1998. The Dai and the Doctor: Discourses on Women’s Reproductive Health in Rural Bangladesh. In Maternities and Modernities: Colonial and Postcolonial Experiences in Asia and the Pacific. Kalpana Ram and Margaret Jolly, eds. pp. 114-176. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rosario et al.’s fieldwork primarily examines the role and status of TBAs in villages of the Dhaka district in relation to indigenous medicinal knowledge. TBAs are typically elderly women with no formal education or training. Rural women in the Dhaka district are aware of the risks associated with consecutive births. In situations where delivering healthy babies are slim and pose a health related risk to the mother, an increasing percentage of rural women have opted for contraception use. This shift in behavior is attributed to a number of factors: a) aggressive campaigning on the part of both NGOs and the Government of Bangladesh (GOB); b) availability of cheaper contraceptives; c) media attention; and d) promotion by Muslim religious leaders.

Bangladesh Dhaka district TBAs Indigenous medicinal knowledge Risk/consecutive births Contraceptives Medical anthropology

Ross, James L., Sandra L. Laston, Pertti J. Pelto, and Lazeena Muna. 2002. Exploring Explanatory Models of Women’s Reproductive Health in Rural Bangladesh. Culture, Health, and Sexuality 4(2): 173-190. In terms of women’s “explanatory models” of illness, using multi-sited fieldwork data, Ross et al. show that rural Bangladeshi women have clear conceptions of illness categories, with different strategies of treatment for various categories. Reproductive tract infections, including those attributed to sexual transmission, and vaginal discharge are crucial to rural women. None of the available health facilities, however, are attuned to addressing rural women's explanatory models for such health risks and illnesses.

Bangladesh, rural Rural women Explanatory models Illness categories Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment strategies Medical anthropology

9 Sargent, Carolyn and Grace Bascope. 1996. Ways of Knowing about Birth in Three Cultures. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 10(2):213- 236. Sargent and Bascope examine the concept of authoritative knowledge in a comparison of birthing systems in Mexico, Texas, and Jamaica. They explore the connection between the distribution of knowledge about childbirth, the value of biomedical ways of knowing about birth, the production of authoritative knowledge vis-à-vis interactions, and the relationship between social status and authoritative knowledge. Their research indicates that in collaborative and low- technology birthing processes, like some Maya communities in Mexico, the midwife and other adult women share general knowledge regarding birth processes. In contrast, Spanish-speaking women delivering in high-technology public hospitals in Texas, due to their limited English, are only minimally able to interact with biomedical staff. Jamaican women delivering in formerly high-technology hospital systems, which are currently experiencing economic severity, renders the health system dysfunctional. The importance given to the authoritative knowledge of the physicians/nurse-midwives in these examples is directly linked to the social position of the practitioner and has its basis in the legitimacy of the profession in its claim to generate and accord authoritative knowledge.

Mexico Texas Jamaica Birthing process Biomedical birthing Technology of birth Ethnicity Maya Authoritative medical knowledge Medical anthropology

Sargent, Carolyn and Nancy Stark. 1989. Childbirth Education and Childbirth Models: Parental Perspectives on Control, Anesthesia, and Technological Intervention in the Birth Process. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 3(1): 36-51. This research is based on the contrastive analysis of two child-birth classes sponsored by the Dallas Association for Parent Education (DAPE). Women, their partners, and labor coaches were interviewed during class sessions. The goal of these classes was to familiarize prospective parents on procedures they may encounter in the hospital. Findings indicate that these childbirth classes are not likely to affect preexisting conceptions, values, and expectations of the delivery process. Discussion related to pain and anesthesia reveals that kin and close friends are the primary source of influence within the context of childbirth education. Medical messages operate as a mechanism of social control whereby the message disseminated has an implicit impact on the values and expectations of the women and their partners.

United States Dallas Childbirth classes

10 Childbirth education Kin and friends-primary influence Medical message Social control Medical anthropology

Schuler, Sydney and Zakir Hossain. 1998. Family Planning Clinics Through Women’s Eyes and Voices: A Case Study from Rural Bangladesh. International Family Planning Perspectives 24(4): 170-175. Schuler and Hossain examine why family planning clinics are underutilized in six rural villages in the Magura, Faridpur, and Rangpur districts of Bangladesh. They find that major explanatory factors include purdah, honor, and purity. Poverty is a critical factor related to the underutilization of biomedical centers. The authors provide case studies of clients who are treated like second class citizens by biomedical staff. Interactions between health care providers and clients take on the hierarchal characteristics common in rural Bangladeshi society in which relationships resemble that of political patronage.

Bangladesh, rural Magura/Faridpur/Rangpur districts Family planning clinics Underutilization of family planning clinics Explanatory models Hierarchal interaction/health risk Medical anthropology

Sillitoe, Paul. Alan Bicker and Johan Pottier. 2002. Globalizing Indigenous Knowledge. In Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. Sillitoe, Paul, Alan Bicker, and Johan Pottier, eds. pp. 108-138. London and New York: Routledge. Sillitoes’s ideas come from working with natural and social scientists in relation to development-funded environmental research projects in South Asia within the context of how development personnel can approach and understand the concept of indigenous knowledge. He argues for a two-way flow of information, with an emphasis on combining strengths of different cultural traditions in our increasingly globalizing world. While indigenous knowledge systems worldwide are gaining respect in areas such as the environment, agriculture, and botany, women’s traditional reproductive knowledge is a neglected area at best and a denigrated area at worst. He argues that the authoritative scientific rationale that dominates our society and the development agenda is unhealthy and constitutes a major risk (e.g. physical/social/economic) to certain sectors of a given community.

South Asia Scientific/Authoritative vs. Traditional/local knowledge Two-way dialogical flow of information Displacement of local knowledge

11 Women’s traditional reproductive knowledge Cultural anthropology

Wilce, James L. 1997. Discourses, Power, and Diagnosis of Weakness: Encountering Practitioners in Bangladesh. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 11(3):352-374. Wilce, informed by multi-sited fieldwork with ICDDR/B in rural and urban Bangladesh, argues that there is a fundamental link between authoritative knowledge and authoritative power within the context of doctor-patient interaction. He examines the role of language and face to face interactions which occur within biomedical institutions by comparing rural and urban centers of ICDDR/B. He explains that the “weakness” of Bangladeshi patients, women in particular, is linguistically constructed by the society in general and biomedical practitioners in particular. Such micro-political interactions render the patient weak in terms of their knowledge and discourse. The hierarchal distribution of knowledge fosters unequal power relationships between biomedical practitioners, ethno-obstetrics (TBAs), and patients.

Bangladesh, urban/rural Authoritative knowledge Unequal power relationships Doctor-patient interaction “Weakness” Linguistic anthropology

Cultural Constructs of Mental Disability Kerry Beckman

The topic of Mental Disability has been examined all over the world in Anthropology through participant observation, case studies, and historical analysis, as well as in many other subject areas. However, there is still room for further research. Most of the comprehensive anthropological research so far has been conducted in the United States. Many of the major researchers are working in anthropology, sociology, psychology, and education.

The issues that mentally disabled individuals face are multi-faceted and complicated.

They confront challenges at all ages in their home life, school, in the work force and at the hands of their governments. Families are economically and socially compromised and often deal with stigma.

12 Most of the work in this area centers on autism, a disease that the media and academia has given considerable attention to in the last decade. Anthropologists have found that the definition of autism varies by culture and community. Autism is characterized by an inability to function according to social norms and since social norms vary widely, the way autism manifests is different as well. This can be seen in Connors’ study of autism among the Navajo and in

Grinker’s book about autism in the Republic of Korea, South Africa and the United States. These studies share the common theme that risks associated with autism are defined in the way a community either supports or stigmatizes a family dealing with the disease.

Parental care, perceptions and family commitment to caring for a mentally disabled child are brought up frequently in the research, particularly Cuadros’ study of parents, professionals and mentally disabled children in Colombia and Ainsworth and Baker’s guide to mental disability. However, family is mentioned in nearly every source that I found.

Some of the leaders in this field are Jenkins, who has published many articles and edited volumes regarding intellectual disability and the anthropological research methods in the field, and Grinker, who is a current leader in cross-cultural studies in autism. In the middle east Miles is publishing work that is more sociological about mental disability, familial responsibility and political influences in multiple countries. The UCLA Mental Retardation Research Center is sponsoring some of the leading research in the field of retardation studies as well.

There are many areas where anthropology has more work to do. It was difficult to find research on outside influences on disability risk. For instance, there wasn’t much that concentrated on the effects of family problems such as divorce or addiction on the development and caretaking of a mentally disabled child. Major political changes also have great effects on the lives of the mentally disabled, but the research in this arena is just beginning to come out. As

13 cultures change and evolve, the need for research in the area of mental disabilities will only grow.

Ainsworth, Patricia and Pamela C. Baker. 2004. Understanding Mental Retardation. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Ainsworth, a professor of human behavior and psychology, and Baker, a consultant for disabilities administration, cover the scope of mental retardation in the United States. It includes everything from the definitions of different disorders to treatment, education and a summary of legal issues affecting the mentally disabled community. It outlines the causes and definitions of different disorders that cause retardation and addresses what U.S. psychologists consider to be normal development. As Ainsworth and Baker discuss the issues facing the mentally retarded at all life phases, they also provide insight into the challenges that the mentally retarded and their families face.

United States Mental retardation Retardation and the law Retardation and the community

Angrosino, Michael V. 1998. Opportunity House: Ethnographic Stories of Mental Retardation. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press. Angrosino writes fictional short stories in the voices of patients at a Florida home for mentally retarded adults where he was doing ethnographic work. It examines the community of mentally retarded adults, how they cope with life’s daily tasks and how they interact with each other. It explores the social dynamics of people who live in the home as well as the social dynamics experienced by former residents outside the home. It’s an intimate study of the way of life in a home for the mentally retarded and of the ways in which these people are challenged and how they overcome those obstacles.

Florida Mental retardation Institutions Coping mechanisms

Armstrong, Elizabeth M. 2003. Conceiving Risk, Bearing Responsibility: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and the Diagnosis of Moral Disorder. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. This book discusses how present prevention techniques for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome focus on the moral ineptitude and shame for mothers associated with unhealthy pregnancy behaviors and how in focusing on these factors there is less emphasis on what happens to the

14 child with FAS after the birth, when the focus should be on treating the child. These children are born into stigmatized families usually with insufficient resources for handling a child with impaired developmental functioning. The book pays particular attention to the risk of a pregnant woman’s child acquiring FAS and risks associated with being born with FAS.

United States Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Stigma Shame Poverty

Biklen, Douglas. 2005. Autism and the Myth of the Person Alone. New York: New York University Press. Biklen, a cultural education disability studies expert, wrote this book using the perspectives of individuals with autism in the United States. It includes chapters co-written by people who are autistic and who describe their experiences. It confronts the common perspective that autistic individuals are intellectually challenged. These individuals are often cast aside and their perspectives on life and on their own situations are ignored. A major risk for the autistic people in the United States is being treated like a child and not being trusted to handle adult responsibilities, while not being able to properly communicate their desires in a way that the general public understands.

United States Autism Mental retardation First hand accounts

Connors, Jean Louise. 1992. Navajo Perceptions of Autism and Social Competence: A Cultural Perspective. Doctoral Thesis. Proquest Dissertations. The University of Wisconsin – Madison. Connors examined the way the Navajo culture interprets autism and how cultural definitions of social competence affect the severity of perceived autism and social and mental capabilities. She did fieldwork with autistic Navajo individuals and their families, as well as Navajo people with a normal mental capacity. She identifies the elements of Navajo culture that define social competence; since autistic individuals were able to approximate them, they were not as shunned in Navajo society..

Navajo Autism Cultural variation Normality

Cuadros, Jose Hermann. 2002.

15 Parental Perceptions of Mental Retardation as a Disability: a Case Study of Cali, Colombia. New York: Columbia University Teacher’s College. Cuadros is a professor of Special Education who grew up in Colombia and did ethnographic field work there in the disabled community. He worked primarily with the parental attitudes towards mental disability and their ability to recognize it their children, as well as seek treatment and assistance. The future of these children is in their parents’ hands the parents’ beliefs about disability. His analysis focuses a lot on the history of mental disability in Colombia and the growing recognition of the need for special education.

Colombia Mental retardation Parental perception Special education

Grinker, Roy Richard. 2007. Unstrange Minds: Remapping the World of Autism. New York: Basic Books. Grinker’s book explores the burgeoning “epidemic” of autism, from its initial description to the current hysteria. The places around the world characterize the disease differently and the struggles that the families of autistic individuals go through vary widely. These families battle social stigma, high medical bills and the potential economic burden of caring for the autistic child. The book focuses on families in The Republic of Korea, India, South Africa and the United States, with particular emphasis on his own family. He does ethnographic interviews around the world as well as examines the evolving diagnostic criteria and the increase in prevalence.

United States South Africa Korea Autism Stigma Cultural variation

Jenkins, Richard. 1993 Incompetence and Learning Disabilities: Anthropological Perspectives. Anthropology Today. Vol. 9. No. 3. pp 16-20. This article provides a review of anthropological research on learning disabilities in the United States. It describes general attitudes towards those with learning disabilities throughout history. A prevalent attitude among the American public that is not educated about disability issues assumes that individuals with learning disabilities are in a condition of a perpetual childhood. This attitude creates many risks for the impaired person. In other cases from historic Europe and among the Arctic, those who were learning impaired were often considered “not human” and left to fend for themselves. The article places a emphasizes the conceptual domination of the middle-class American concept of “normal,” and shows how those who

16 diverge from “normal” range are at risk of having low status, being shunned by society and looked down upon.

United States Learning disabilities Normal Community care

Kohrman, Matthew. 2003. Why Am I Not Disabled? Making State Subjects, Making Statistics in Post-Mao China. Medical Anthropology Quarterly. Vol. 17, No. 1, pp 5-24. In China during the 80’s, state policy required that a certain percentage of workers in each company and department be disabled. Many companies had to lay off their regular employees to hire those with disability cards. Many mentally or physically disabled people were unable to secure the card and were then planced at an extreme disadvantage, by being fired from jobs or denied access to jobs for which they were qualified. Some disabled people who did not fit the state-defined criteria thus suffered a decline in living conditions and social exclusion.

China Disability Nationality Statistical survey Social exclusion Employment risk

LaClave, Martha Mary. 2005. From Corporeal Bantustans to Abakhubazakile: Disability and Identity in South Africa from a Human Rights Perspective. PhD. Dissertation, Dept of Anthropology, Michigan State University. LaCrave uses a human rights perspective to examine the multiple realities of disabled South Africans involved in disability advocacy. She includes multiple disability types and people of all ages in her research. She examines how the background of Apartheid allowed the disabled to advocate as a marginalized group and to create a social issue, rather than as a group that is apolitical and cared for by charities. She uses the political backdrop of a people trying to overcome differences and shows how the disabled as a group are able to mobilize and identify themselves.

South Africa Disability rights Social exclusion Advocacy

Langness, L.L. and Harold G. Levine. 1986.

17 Culture and Retardation. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing. This book explores the ways in which cultures define mental retardation and how these definitions affect statistics. It also looks at the disparities in numbers of retarded people in different cultures and ethnic groups, particularly in the United States. This is done through case studies and life histories of individuals living with retardation as well as statistical analyses. Langness and Levine explore varying types of isolation in the community, whether it be isolation of the entire family or just the retarded individual, as well stigma. Many of the histories are written by family members and the authors note that subjects of these histories risk being rendered incorrectly.

United States Cultural variation Case study Mental retardation Isolation

Mathieu, Arline. 1993. The Medicalization of Homelessness and the Theater of Repression. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 7(2): 170-184. Mathieu focuses on the plight of the homeless in the United States, particularly in New York City. She explores how the general perception of mental illness and retardation among the homeless is actually a detriment to their fight. The article discusses the medicalization of the homeless that occurred when the New York City government and police force adopted a policy of “caring for” the mentally ill homeless. Some of the homeless are mentally ill and not retarded, while others are retarded, and most are simply poor. The classification and treatment of these individuals often does not correspond to their actual mental state.

New York City Homeless Medicalization of the homeless Disability policy Poverty

Miles, M. 1992. Concepts of Mental Retardation in Pakistan: Toward Cross-Cultural and Historical Perspectives. Disability, Handicap and Society 7(3):235-255. Miles’ major concern is the effect of Western constructs on an Asian, Islamic society. Pakistan has a high rate of illiteracy, so an intellectually disabled child is not at risk of being singled out in this arena, as they often are in the West. The research comes from official documents, surveys, a service project and work with family counseling. The family structure in Pakistan is co-dependent and the western notion of “independent living” is not relevant here, although the inability to live independently is one of the major characteristics of mental disability.

18 Pakistan Mental retardation Cultural variation Retardation and the community

Peters, Larry G. 1983. The Role of Dreams in a Mentally Retarded Individual. Ethos. 11(1/2):49-65. This article is a case study of a person named Ralph, a mentally retarded adult man, aged 27 with an IQ of approximately 50. Peters met Ralph in a workshop in Los Angeles he set up for ethnographic research with mentally retarded adults. He has vivid dreams that serve as a type of coping mechanism for him and which play a much more substantial role in his life than they typically do for an average IQ person. Some dreams occur at night and others are planned. The planned dreams are similar to visualizations and are almost always religious in nature. His dreams started after he was institutionalized for behavior problems and were a way of managing his environment and his constant fear.

Los Angeles Mental retardation Dreams Institutions Coping mechanisms Case study

Whyte, Susan Reynolds. 1998. Slow Cookers and Madmen: Competence of Heart and Head in Rural Uganda in Questions of Competence: Culture, Classification and Intellectual Disability. Jenkins, Richard. Ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Whyte emphasizes the elaborate and tightly knit Ugandan social structure in her discussion of incompetence. The inability to function in this larger structure of kinship and education are the major indicators of intellectual disability, which she defines as an inability to define and recognize relations. Ugandans distinguish between social incompetence and intellectual incompetence. Major risks for those who are mentally disabled include being unable to marry and create their own kinship networks. Poverty in rural Uganda means to be without family. Education, articulateness, and a quick wit are all highly valued in Uganda and these are often areas that the mentally disabled don’t excel in.

Uganda Competence Intellectual disability Isolation Kinship systems

19 Culture Loss and the Law – Addressing the Nexus of Cross-Cultural Norms and Values within the Framework of Legal Recourse Todd D Holmes

Culture loss is a concept that refers to the norms, traditions and customary ways of living of indigenous peoples that are threatened with erosion from forces beyond their own community.

Therefore, this project seeks to explore how legal systems affect culture loss. Is one kind of legal system more legitimate than another in regards to adjudicating claims to culture loss? How can one society reconcile its grievances with another if no common agreement can be reached on the legitimacy of each others method for dispute resolution?

Annotations represent some of the major ideas regarding how the concepts of cultural property, culture loss and indigenous rights are addressed in the light of modern day legal recourse. A central issue is the tension between the definition of indigenous rights and legal rights as defined by the state. A recurring theme is the question of how to integrate the claims of indigenous peoples to customary rights and autonomy with the claims of outside entities, state actors, whose assertion to legal authority stems from a Westphalian model of legal authority.

How do local and state actors reconcile their claims? The question is two-fold. First, what are the justifications by either party to the claim that their method for engaging in dispute resolution was inherently more valid or authoritative than that of the other? Second, on a practical level, how do questions of cultural property, culture loss and indigenous rights play out in the “real world Both questions -- what and how -- shaped the research for this bibliography.

The question of “what” legal system – that is, how indigenous legal systems are recognized (or ignored) by state actors is the focus of much anthropological and related research

(Phillips, Kirsch, Kalinoe and Leach, Brush, Coombe and O’Connor). Their work shows that indigenous actors are not always forced into “legalistic assimilation.” Instances of incorporating,

20 in part of sometimes even in whole, the traditional practices of indigenous people in dispute resolution does occur, as Philips illustrates for Native Americans in the United States. Kalinoe and Leach comment how indigenous legal systems in Papua New Guinea are codified into national law as being the sole method for adjudication in many instances regarding disputes between native peoples concerning land and water rights.

The question of “how” various legal systems play out is addressed by Pantone, Dean,

Jentoft / Minde / Nilsen, Biolsi, Sylvain, Jackson, Abu-Saad and Yashar. Yashar offers case studies from South America showing how indigenous peoples have worked within state-centric legal systems to realize political and legal autonomy during the recent rise of neoliberalism.

Abu-Saad chronicles how indigenous autonomy and cultural identity is lost as a result of forced cultural integration at the hands of the Israeli educational process. Dean shows how the U.S. government, through legal standards codified during the second half of the 19th century, forced

Native American children to become incorporated into American educational institutions and to proactively dismiss their cultural heritage. Patone shows how incorporation of and adaptation to outside legal systems among indigenous peoples, even when attained in a manner consistent with legal “victories,” may result in eventual long term harm to indigenous peoples.

While state governments occasionally recognize legal systems of indigenous peoples, it is rare. What is more common (though still hardly the norm) is for states (at least western states, by and large) to recognize claims of damage in the form of culture loss, and to award compensation in some instances. What is more common still is the growing movement of indigenous peoples who seek out and are awarded some degree of legal and political autonomy within a larger state system.

21 Abu-Saad, Ismael 2006 State-Controlled Education and Identity Formation Among the Palestinian Arab Minority in Israel American Behavioral Scientist, 49 (8): 1085-1100 The central thesis for Abu-Saad is that national identity is not comprehensive for all of a state’s citizens, and he examines how the educational system of Palestinian youth to help identify how state systems of identity formation compete against indigenous identities to create this conflict. Abu-Saad argues that identity among members of the dominant group can have the effect of encroaching, and ultimately displacing, minority identities. The need for identities of inclusion, which become manifested though the creation of political organization, are a possible result of this response to the unintended development of culture loss. When these identities become manifest as a threat to a standing government, the reaction on the part of the government will often time be the use of force, under the banner of ‘law’.

Palestine Identity formation Palestinian youth Public education Indigenous groups Culture loss

Biolsi, Thomas 2005 Imagined Geographies: Sovereignty, Indigenous Space and American Indian Struggle American Ethnologist, 32 (2): 239-259 Biolsi complicates scholars' understanding of the "modular" form of the nation-state by examining four kinds of indigenous political space that figure in contemporary American Indian struggles in the United States: (1) "tribal" or indigenous-nation sovereignty on reservation homelands; (2) co-management of off-reservation resources and sites shared between tribal, federal, and state governments; (3) national indigenous space in which Native American people exercise portable rights beyond reservations; and (4) hybrid political space. Understanding of these spaces lends insight into the legal framework in which debates regarding culture loss may occur, specifically within the United States.

Indigenous space U.S. Law Sovereignty American Indian Tribes Political space

Brush, Stephan B., 1993 Indigenous Knowledge of Biological Resources and Intellectual Property Rights: The Role of Anthropology American Anthropologist, New Series, 95 (3): 653-671.

22 This essay links issues from the anthropology of indigenous knowledge with the legal, philosophic and economic literature on intellectual property rights. Brush offers a discussion of biological heritage, with an emphasis on proposals to frame indigenous knowledge within the context of intellectual property. Obstacles to these proposals are discussed, as are the challenges to balancing these claims against claims of rights of those who are users of biological resources. The article concludes with a discussion of the role of anthropologists in this debate.

Intellectual property rights Indigenous knowledge Property rights Natural resources

Coombe, Rosemary J. 2001 Economic Relationships in Transition PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review, 24 (2): 107-117 Coombe discusses domestic and international legal regimes available for recognizing, valuing, preserving, and compensating for the genetic resources held by indigenous peoples in the form of biological and human genetic diversity, and their indigenous knowledge. She explores the various forms of domestic law, and how those laws may come into conflict with international norms. In addition, the author seeks to map the networks of activity and communication that form new social movements of indigenous peoples and NGO’s, which are developing new norms and practices for access and consent in facing questions of cultural identity and rights. Coombes undertakes an interdisciplinary approach which combines law, anthropology, and the life and environmental sciences to establish a greater understanding of the convergence of culture loss and the law.

Comparative law Environmental law International law New social movements Indigenous people’s movements NGO

Dean, Bartholomew 2003 Indigenous Education and the Prospects for Cultural Survival Cultural Survival Quarterly, 27 (4): 14-18 Dean examines the conflicts that may arise when indigenous peoples are forced to adopt exogenous education methods that erode culturally traditional forms of knowledge transmission. Specifically, Dean investigates the case of the Haskell school district case in Kansas, where the evolution of federal government programs over many decades mandated that Native Americans be integrated into ‘traditional’ schooling systems, in an effort to redirect loyalties away from the family and tribe, and toward the school. Dean follows the efforts to transform Haskell into an institution which emphasized Indian education and heritage. The conflux of cultural practices,

23 especially in the form of language, and legal rights and obligations in education form the basis for the discussion of culture loss.

United States Law Culture Loss Federal Education Native American Rights Language Heritage

Jackson, Jean E. 1995 Culture, Genuine and Spurious: The Politics of Indianness in the Vaupes, Colombia American Ethnologist, 22 (1): 3-27 Jackson illustrates how Tukanoans of the Vaupes region of Columbia have begun ‘relearning’ their Indian heritage, and have begun relearning how to ‘be Indian’. As this process unfolds, the recapturing cultural heritage has been mainly from local sources outside the Tukanoan community. Jackson argues that the loss of cultural identity for the Tukanoan people is mainly a result of greater incorporation into Columbian society at large over the last 20 years, and that recapturing cultural, linguistic and healing systems have gone hand in hand with land claims. Jackson examines how local, national and international politics have affected Indian identity and conceptualizations of culture, and the implications for indigenous efforts in realizing their lost heritage and the concept of culture generally.

Cultural Identity Culture Loss Indigenous Legal Rights Land Rights Linguistic Identity

Jenttoft, Svein, Henry Minde, Ragnar Nilsen, 2003 Indigenous Peoples: Resource Management and Global Rights Eburon Academic Publishers, Delft, The Netherlands This book offers case studies about how indigenous peoples have addressed the issue of culture loss both within the legal system and beyond. Industrial development and globalization has contributed to threatening the way of life many indigenous people, and the forum of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit served as a catalyst for a UN legal investigation. The benefits afforded to the reader in viewing these events within the forum of the UN’s Rio Earth Summit (and the subsequent investigations) helps to lend in understanding the concept of culture loss because the examination takes on a more formalized scheme, particularly in regard to legal, political and institutional implications.

Law Culture Loss Political Entities Cultural Identity Indigenous Rights

24 Kalinoe, Lawrence and James Leach, 2004 Rationales of Ownership: Transactions and Claims to Ownership in Contemporary Papua New Guinea, Wantage: Sean Kingston Publishing Kalinoe and James discuss how conceptions of ownership and rights to various resources in Papua New Guinea are delineated by relationships among individuals and groups, particularly in ancestry claims. These frameworks for individual relationship in a legal sense are defined primarily by land ownership and water rights. From this understanding, Kalinoe and James examine how negotiations and dispute resolution is centered upon maintaining the integrity of social networks, avoiding arrangements that would alleviate the responsibility of one party toward the other. This indigenous legal system for dispute resolution is often at odds with the norms of westernized legal frameworks which put definitive parameters upon property and compensation, and can serve as a basis for cultural conflict between indigenous and non-native peoples.

Papua New Guinea Indigenous Legal Systems Ancestry Claims Cultural Heritage Land Rights

Kirsch, Stuart 2001 Lost Worlds: Environmental Disaster, "Culture Loss," and the Law Current Anthropology, 42 (2): 167-198. Kirsh offers an insight into the concept of culture loss, primarly through case studies as it relates to the notion of legal recourse. Indigenous claims about "culture loss" pose a problem for contemporary definitions of culture as a process that continually undergoes change rather than something which can be damaged or lost. The concept of cultural property rights is used to identify the referents of discourse about culture loss, including local knowledge, subsistence production, and connections to place. The problems caused by the taking of inalienable possessions are also considered. At issue is whether indigenous relationships to land are of ownership, belonging, or both. The definition and significance of culture and loss are increasingly debated in legal contexts including tribunals, truth commissions, land rights hearings and heritage legislation.

Culture loss Indigenous Land rights Legal Claims Property rights Loss

Nicholas, George P. and Kelly P. Bannister, 2004 Copyrighting the Past?

25 Current Anthropology, 45 (3): 327–350 Nicholas and Bannister discuss how rights to intellectual property have become an issue in research involving indigenous communities. This article examines intellectual property rights related issues in archaeology, including forms these rights take and the effects of applying intellectual property protection in archaeology. The article also identifies the products of archaeological research and what they represent in a contemporary socio-cultural context. It examines ownership issues, assesses the level of protection of these products provided by existing legislation, and discusses the potential of current intellectual property protection mechanisms to augment cultural heritage protection for indigenous communities.

Intellectual property rights Legal protections Law Cultural heritage Indigenous communities

O’Connor, Richard 1981 Law as Indigenous Social Theory: A Siamese Thai Case American Ethnologist, 8 (2): 223-237

O’Connor sets out to demonstrate that law should not always be considered an independent element of academic discourse apart from anthropology. O’Connor claims that in observing law, a researcher may afford a greater understanding of how societies construct cultural identity. Specifically, O’Connor examines how Siamese Thai law may be viewed as a lens which outsiders may utilize to gain greater understanding of indigenous culture and social norms. In this respect, law may be considered a mechanism for preventing culture loss. The inclusion of law as a topic for framing cultural systems and greater comprehension of indigenous practices is vital in exploring how various societies confront culture loss.

Indigenous identity Thai society Thai law Legal anthropology

Pantone, Dan James 2006 A Forest of Their Own Cultural Survival Quarterly, 30 (4)

Pantone considers how legal systems may ‘award’ legal status to indigenous peoples in such a way that the new found legal status may in fact bring about misfortune to those very same people. Drawing on a case study of the Matsés peoples of South America, who were awarded land rights through the Peruvian legal system, Pantone shows how those new found legal rights where attached to specific legal conditions that were alien to the Matsés people. For example, the peoples were forced to abide by norms of Peruvian legal and sociological structure, such as

26 adhering to democratic systems of governance. These changes that resulted in costs greater that the benefits of autonomy. Consequentially, Matsés peoples became vulnerable to new systems of structured violence, both internally and externally. Pantone argues that in many cases indigenous peoples must be allowed to retain their own culture of traditional social structures after attaining legal recognition.

Indigenous Legal Recognition Matsés Peoples Peruvian Legal Rights Structural Violence Culture Loss

Philips, Susan U. 2005 U.S. Colonial Law and the Creation of Marginalized Political Entities American Ethnologist, 32 (3): 406-419 This review offers a foundation of the legal basis of claims to cultural identity as it relates to territorial autonomy. Specifically, the author analyzes the creation of marginalized political entities, and how that makes them different from U.S. states in their relation to the federal government in a legal sense. The discourse concerns the nature of political entities legally constituted as internal to the United States as a nation-state, and how those entities may become marginalized. This difference serves as the starting point for addressing the question of culture loss as it relates to legal concepts. The work supports the idea that culture loss may be examined within the contexts of the American legal system, and thus this text provides a solid basis from which to begin an understanding of the complexities of the issue.

Sovereignty Colonial law Political entities Marginalized entities Indian reservations U.S. law

Sylvain, Renée 1997 Land, Water, and Truth: San Identity and Global Indigenism Anthropological Quarterly, 70 (2): 58-67 This article examines the history of the South African San peoples, and shows how cultural and legal barriers to the recognition of a San identity may come about. Sylvan addresses indigenous peoples in struggles over land rights, control over natural resources, and political voice in national and international arenas. Sylvan discusses some of the ways in which the international understanding of indigenism has joined together with conceptions of culture and ethnicity to thwart the recognition of indigenous people’s cultural identity, and how a distortion of the understanding of indigenous people’s claims for land and natural resources occurs. The article argues how the San people have dealt with what amounts to coerced integration in colonial southern Africa, thus revealing how culture loss can occur.

27 Southern Africa Global Indigenism San People Land Displacement Cultural Identity Cultural Politics

Yashar, Deborah 2005 Contesting Citizenship in Latin America - The Rise of Indigenous Movements and the Postliberal Challenge Cambridge University Press, New York Yashar’s work chronicles three case studies from Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru in which native peoples attempt to establish their own cultural and political identity. Yashar claims that the primary motive for organizing is to change citizenship regimes that have challenged local autonomy once enjoyed by indigenous peoples. Yashar argues that successful indigenous movements are ones that have “pushed the democratic envelope in a new direction”. This refers to the newly realized political, legal and cultural autonomy that forces of neoliberalism have allowed indigenous peoples to realize. In Yashar’s view, it is only when the forces of motive, capacity and opportunity are available that an indigenous people may succeed in achieving there goal of autonomy.

Social Movements Legal Space Identity Formation Indigenous Legal Recognition Cultural Identity

Ethnic Minorities and State Security in China Christina Johnson

China is a state comprised of four nationalities and 56 ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Han, fully 92 percent of the population and typically thought of as “Chinese.” The 55 minority groups inhabit 98 percent of the territorial boundaries and, historically, have had contentious relations with the central government. This bibliography focuses on the anthropological perspectives of the risks these minority groups pose to state security.

Since 1949, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) has attempted to cement its territorial boundaries. Maintaining sovereignty over non-Han peoples has been an on-going challenge.

28 Wang, Young, and McKhann discuss China’s history of ethnicity. After Liberation, cadre members in Beijing assigned Chinese and Chinese-trained minority anthropologists the task of classifying minority cultures via a socialist frame-work. At the time, Communist ideology dictated that ethnic differences be downplayed in favor of class struggle. The central government decided which rights the groups could claim and the degree to which they could practice autonomy under Chinese authority. Schien and Adams, through ethnographic research, describe how the Miao and Tibetans perceive themselves to be at clear odds with the Han culture and the Chinese government.

The PRC’s internal security is still threatened because many ethnic groups do not identify with Han China. They question the state’s legitimacy. The government has primarily adopted two policies regarding minorities: autonomy and assimilation. The idea is to allow ethnic groups a sense of independence—but assimilating them using economic, political and social means.

Newby and Heberer describe Chinese policy towards the Xinjiang peoples during the late Qing dynasty and Mao-era. They find that the Beijing government executed a successful policy to promote Xinjiang as a part of China to Han Chinese; Xinjiang’s ethnic groups, though, did not believe themselves to be under the jurisdiction of the Chinese government. Gillette reveals how consumption patterns among Muslim Hui in Xi’an reflect aspects of Arab and Islamic culture, thus making a statement about autonomy and state-sanctioned modernization goals defined by

Han standards.

Han Chinese are usually thought of as homogeneous, but with almost a billion Han inhabiting a vast geographic area and an extensive diaspora movement, local realities reflect diversity. Glandney, Chun and Wu explore the construction of a Han Chinese identity. Chun and

Wu describe “Chineseness” as an artificial construct designed to create unity and cohesion

29 among an extremely diverse group. Gladney shows how the exoticifcation of minorities (the

“other”) has the effect of creating a Han majority identity that perceives itself as “modern” and

“normal.”

In China, identity, as seen through ethnicity, is a construct formed in a political environment. Anthropologists have provided many ethnographic studies of Chinese minority groups. What is lacking is research that explores the struggle of maintaining an identity in a system that views the existence of minorities as a threat. Political scientists, China historians and other regional specialists have taken the lead in the study of risk and security of ethnic identity.

Anthropologists seem to be impeded by the politics of nationality. They should explore a cultural anthropological dimension to understanding minority risk and state security. As the bibliography shows, anthropologists are beginning to give attention to this phenomenon but much more remains to be done.

Adams, Vincanne. 1998. Suffering the Winds of Lhasa: Politicized Bodies, Human Rights, Cultural Differences, and Humanism in Tibet. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 12(1):74-102. Adams draws on field research in Tibet’s traditional medicine hospitals over several years and interviews of imprisoned Buddhist nuns to explore the Chinese-Tibetan relationship. Chinese military and government abuse of Tibetans since 1959 is well-documented. Some would argue that under Chinese rule do not have the right to exist. Over time the Chinese have restricted Tibetans freedoms to varying degrees and there is no one unified Tibetan response to Chinese control. The Tibetan culture has a concept called rlung that means “wind.” Rlung can cause sickness within the body and also social, economic, political distress in the world. In fact, making distinctions between the three is inaccurate because they all, everything, is part of and effects everything else. The perceived inability of the Chinese government to understand the most basic principles of rlung, karma, and other forces of creation and existence means many Tibetans cannot accept the authority of the Chinese.

China Tibetan culture Sino-Tibetan relations Rlung

30 Anderson, Benedict. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. Anderson, a political scientist with an anthropological bent, posits that nations, nationalism, and nationality originate via socially constructed imagined communities. He defines nationality as being the personal feeling of belonging to a nation and that the nation is conceived of as a deep and broad solidarity. The vernacular language is the primary determinate of a nation through capitalist-print. Further, people create an identity of as a collective with others in their mind, which is why it is called an “imagined” community. The author discusses numerous conflicts that have erupted because of nationalist sentiment. Nationalism has strong similarities to religion because it is conceived of as destiny and it transcends logic and explains suffering and death. People want to see their nation as living under its own rule, which is why nations have fought for “self-determination” in the 20th century.

Communities Nationalism Language Identity.

Bulag, Uradyn. 2003. Mongolian Ethnicity and Linguistic Anxiety in China. American Anthropologist 105:753-763. Bulag argues that for the Mongol nation in China, Mongolian language has been systematically attacked by the central government. Inner Mongolia is an autonomous province in China that originally was allowed a certain amount of independence in political, economic, and social spheres while remaining under the sovereignty of the Chinese state. The Chinese use “language” as one of five criteria for determining whether an ethnic group is defined as a “nation” within China’s borders. The central government has encouraged ethnic Han Chinese settle in Inner Mongolia (as well as other autonomous regions). Today, Chinese outnumber the Mongolian population five to one, making them a minority in their own province. Language is a double-edged sword for Mongolians. If they retain their own language, they cannot work or function in the now predominately Chinese province. If they speak only Chinese, the Mongolian nation will cease to exist as it is assimilated into China. Bilingualism is emotionally stressful for Mongolians because to speak Chinese is to deny the right to exist; yet to speak Mongolian is often ridiculed. Bulag insists that nationality in China is primarily a political matter, not a cultural issue China Mongols Nationality Language

Chun, Allen. 1996. Fuck Chineseness: On the Ambiguities of Ethnicity as Culture as Identity. boundary 2 23(2):111- 138.

31 Chun examines what it means to be “Chinese” in contemporary China. Fifty-six ethnic minorities groups are usually considered Chinese if only because they reside within the country’s territorial borders. Overseas Chinese tend to attempt to maintain a Chinese identity, either real or imagined. Taiwanese from mainland Chinese have an on-again off-again “Chinese” identity usually corresponding to political climate of the one China policy. So what about Han Chinese self-identity? Chun points out that Northern and Southern Han Chinese tend to believe they have little in common. At a theoretical level, Chun argues that a national identity based on culture is necessarily a construction and therefore it is authorized, institutionalized and legitimized but those with power. The state takes an active role in establishing and promoting a national consciousness.

China Han Chinese Taiwanese Overseas Chinese Chinese identity National identity.

Gillette, Maris Boyd. 2000. Between Mecca and Beijing. Stanford,CA: Stanford University Press. The Hui, a group of Muslim Chinese, of Xi’an are using their patterns of consumption to create a modernity that is distinct from the Chinese central government’s approved and promoted vision what it means to be modern. The idea is that the services and products people purchase— or reject—carry political, economic, and social connotations. In China, people often describe things, people, and places as “modern,” “feudal,” “traditional,” and “civilized.” When a group of people, in this case the Hui of Xi’an, purchase commodities that are not considered modern and civilized by Han Chinese, they inadvertently (and to a lesser extent purposefully) challenge the PRC government’s assimilation efforts that attempt to establish norms and values of “Chinese” identity. Mao-era Chinese government officials employed Soviet and socialist methodologies to determine how China should modernize. The threat that Islam and Arabization pose to the Chinese state through the Muslim Hui, is not that of violent succession, rather it is a vision of modernization that contradicts the norm and exists beyond the state’s authority. China Hui Muslims Consumption patterns National identity.

Gladney, Dru C. 1994. Representing Nationality in China: Refiguring Majority/Minority Identities. Journal of Asian Studies 53(1):92-123. Gladney argues that by understanding how Han Chinese think of national minorities it is possible to learn about the construction of the majority identity—the Han who number about a billion people. The exoticification and romanticization of the “minority” is crucial to creating a

32 Han national discourse and group identity. Minorities in China are almost always portrayed as young, alluring, females singing and dancing in colorful costumes. In contrast, Han Chinese are generally portrayed as “normal,” “un-exotic,” and “modern.” Han Chinese are “civilized” and they study minority cultures as “living fossils” emphasizing how different Han are from the various minority groups. In China, constructing minority identities are directly related to that of the majority.

China National minorities Exoticification Majority identity

Gladney, Dru C. 1996. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press. Gladney is a social anthropologist with an expertise in the Hui, a Muslim ethnic group. This majority of this book describes the author’s ethnographic research among the Hui focusing on their evolving ethnic identity. However, the concluding chapter, “National Identity in the Chinese Nation-State,” focuses on how the Mao-era central government enacted policies to consolidate the “Chinese” identity and undermine ethnic loyalties. In Xinjiang prior to the cultural revolution, Hui and Uighur peoples lived in same communities, praying at the same mosques making little reference to national identities. By the 1980’s they tended have separate communities and highlighted their ethnic differences. This was the intention of Chinese nationality policies, to emphasize the plurality of Muslim groups in order to prevent the creation of a pan-Turkic unification front. Gladney concludes that the Chinese government should not continues to focus on creating one Chinese ethnic identity, but rather encourage openness and inclusiveness.

Hui Uighur Nationality policy Chinese ethnic identity

Goldstein, Melvyn C. 1997. The Snow Lion and the Dragon. Berkeley: University of California Press. Goldstein analyzes the Chinese and Tibetan political situation through a cultural lens. Tibet’s spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, is also its main political leader and has remained in exile since 1959. Therefore, much of the resolution to the “Tibet question,” according to Goldstein, is tied to a settlement between the PRC and the Dalai Lama. Currently, Beijing sees the sees the only solution as waiting until the 62 year-old dies. In the meantime, it has intensified modernization efforts in Tibet. The demographic and economic changes could be irreversible even if future generations of Tibetans do not cooperate with Chinese efforts. Many Tibetans feel alienated by Beijing’s hard line approaches. Among many Tibetans there is a rise in ethnic hatred toward the Chinese government and political helplessness. Beijing’s sinofication policies in

33 Tibet have an air of inevitability because there is the perception that their vast resources will ultimately allow them to prevail.

China Dalai Lama Tibetan politics Sinofication

Heberer, Thomas.1989. China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? London: East Gate Book. Heberer, a political scientist with a background in social anthropology, explains the problem national minorities create for the Chinese state by posing a risk to the sovereignty of the state in two main ways. First, the inherent conflict of a minority population struggling for autonomy from a state control by an “other” majority ethnic group. Second, other states can exploit minority ethnic groups to internally destabilize the host country. A state can accomplish this by seeking the allegiance of the minority ethnic group and encourage them break away from host country. Russia, a formidable northern neighbor, has a long relationship with the Uighurs and other non-Han inhabitants of Xinjiang. The Chinese central government has historically felt threatened by the possibility of a Russian invasion in Xinjiang. The strong ethnic identity of the Uighurs and their tenuous relationship with China left Chinese authorities insecure that Russia could gain the Uighurs’ allegiance.

China Uighurs Conflict National minority Identity Security

Liu, Xin. 2005. The Otherness of Self: A Genealogy of the Self in Contemporary China. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Liu explores the theoretical idea of the “self” in the context of a rapidly developing post- socialist China. Not all of China is developing at the same rate, but many former backwater towns are booming due to an explosion of opportunities. The first half of the book is an ethnography which describes the environment and experiences of several employees of a high- tech company in Beihai. The second part discusses the construct of the “self” in southern China. Though not an account of what it means to be Han Chinese per se, the book provides a perspective on how the “Chinese self” is evolving in the post-Mao era.

China Self Identity Ethnography

34 McKhann, Charles F. 1995. The Naxi and the Nationalities Question. In Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers. Steven Harrell, ed. Pp. 36-62. Seattle: University of Washington Press. The Chinese central government’s national classifications, the criteria which are drawn from Joseph Stalin’s definition of a nation, have been problematic for both the state and for the peoples being classified. McKhann postulates that in China ethnic groups have political significance and the Naxi and Mosuo tribes are examples of a flawed politically-influenced process of ethnic identification. The PRC government has classified the Naxi and Mosuo of Yunnan province, tribes that are not affiliated, as one ethnicity—the Naxi. McKhann analyzes the Naxi and Mosuo using Stalin’s formula (what the central government used) and reveals that even by the government’s own standards numerous significant differences exist between the two groups. Collective memories and myths, however, within each ethnic group that are varied and sometimes contradictory. The Mao-era government based its political ethnic classifications on the finding of Chinese ethnologists. These ethnologists were under ideological pressure to focus on class struggle and downplay ethnic differences. McKhann concludes that a single Naxi ethnic group encompassing both Naxi and Mosuo tribes was created for politically expedient purposes.

China Naxi Mosuo Ethnic classification.

Newby, Laura. 1996. Xinjiang: In Search of and Identity. In Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China. Tao Liu and David Faure, eds. Pp. 67-82. Hong Kong University Press. Newby is a Northern China history scholar who examines Chinese government policy during the late Qing dynasty vis-à-vis Xinjiang. The focus of the chapter is on the Chinese government’s perception that during the late 19th century it needed to bring Xinjiang into its empire and the challenges that individual ethnic groups posed to achieving that goal. The concern with self-identity is in terms of how the Qing dynasty’s ability to manage the various allegiances that minority groups may have, and established the premise within China that Xinjiang (and all the people’s that inhabited it) where an essential part of the country. The Uighurs (among others), however, did not have sense of regional identity. They most strongly identified with their group, and each group was wary, to a greater or lesser extent, of not only the Chinese, but the rest of the ethnic groups within Xinjiang. The author concludes that although today Xinjiang province continues to have a strong separate identity from the rest of China, due to longstanding central government policies of assimilation, it also has strong political, cultural and historic ties to the country. China Xinjiang Identity Qing Dynasty Government policy

35 Integration.

Pang, Keng-Fong. 1998. Unforgiven and Remembered: The Impact of Ethnic Conflicts in Everyday Muslim-Han Social Relations on Hainan Island. In Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China. William Safran, ed. Pp. 142-162. London: Frank Cass. Pang investigates the ethnic clashes between Han and Muslim Utsat on Hainan Island in 1994 and shows how they are related to ethnic violence between the groups over the last century. Pang collected information through field research and participant observation in Utsat communities in the 1980’s and 1990’s. Widespread violence between the ethnically divided villages began after a group of Han Chinese beat up an Utsat youth. State authorities swept through Utsat villages beating and arresting over 500 inhabitants, destroying religious property, and stealing from homes. Most Utsat believed the government was unconcerned about their welfare, they were unsafe, and that Han villagers and Han police could terrorize them at any time. Pang explains that this fear stems from the regular, “minor” confrontations that have become routinized and institutionalized over the last few decades. Structural violence has paved the way for larger ethnic conflicts. The roots of Han-Utsat conflict have not been adequately addressed by state and local officials. Past violence and injustice that have never been addressed or rectified by the state continue to shape ethnic relations on Hainan.

China—Hainan Han Chinese Utsat Ethnic violence Structural violence Fear

Schien, Louisa. 20002. Minority Rules. Durham: Duke University Press. The Miao people are a large, diverse ethnic group residing in Southern China. Schien uses an ethnographic account of the Miao to show how culture matters in creating and maintaining Chinese government classifications which she believes are designed to exclude ethnic minorities. Han Chinese conceive of minorities as “remote.” Remote carries the connotation of a romantic, mystical landscape with backward, lazy inhabitants for many Han. The Miao cultures are political, economic, and social systems, which exist in stark contrast to the Maoist philosophy. In the post-socialist reform era of the 1980’s, the PRC government explored and promoted consumerism, modernity and nationalism. The Chinese government viewed minority females as the embodiment of pure, traditional culture. Schien argues Miao culture is seen by the Chinese officials as a commodity to exploit, not a reality to be respected. Many Miao participate in this reconstruction and representation of their ethnic group and yet struggle to maintain a diverse cultural identity.

China Han Chinese

36 Miao Cultural commodification.

Wang, Jianmin and John A. Young. 2006. Applied Anthropology in China. NAPA Bulletin 25:70-81. This article examines the development of anthropology since the early 1900’s in China with a focus on central government direction and national minorities. With an emphasis on the Mao and post-Mao eras, the authors describe how Communist ideology was applied to the field of anthropology and some of its effects on the anthropological studies in China. In the Mao-era anthropologists were encouraged to study the country’s various nationalities and create categories for ethnic identification. Their research had profound political implications and was a key source of the central government’s national minority rights policies.

China Applied anthropology Mao-era Ethnic identification.

Wu, David Yen-ho. 2002. The Construction of Chinese and Non Chinese Identities. In China Off Center: Mapping the Margins of the Middle Kingdom. Susan D. Blum and Lionel M. Jensen, eds. Pp. 167-185. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Wu argues that the modern idea of what it means to be “Chinese” is constructed in a political environment. Further, the English word “Chinese” fails to convey the myriad of identities encompassed by that word. Some of the terminology in the Chinese language related to the Chinese race and Chinese citizenship are derived from China’s encounter with the West, which forced the country to establish fixed borders and project sovereignty on frontier territories. Generally speaking, these areas were historically considered barbarian lands that each had varying relations with the government in Beijing. The words Zhonguouren (citizen of China) and Zhonghua minzu (Chinese race) not only express who the Chinese are, but perhaps more importantly, who the Chinese are not. “Chinese culture” is, however, in constant flux. Values and norms are evaluated, invented, and prioritized so no monolithic, concrete Chineseness exists. Wu contends that Han Chinese who live in the peripheral areas of China or overseas struggle to define what it means to be Chinese so that they continue to be considered Chinese and accepted as part of the Chinese community.

China Chinese identity Chinese race Chinese culture Overseas Chinese

37 National Language Planning and the Vulnerability of the Rural Poor: A Focus on East Timor Kourtney A. Pompi

This annotated bibliography seeks to provide an in-depth look at policy decisions at the national and international level can marginalize non-elite members of a society. In particular, I look at how language selection and planning is both overtly and inadvertently used as a tool that hinders political participation.

My research began at the macro-level – looking at how nationalism and identity is constructed, interpreted and ultimately linked with language. Anderson and Kuipers discuss how language and its usage work to bind imagined communities together under the banner of nationalism. Feldman, May, and Tollefson provide comparative case studies that illustrate how national policy decisions, while on the surface may seem equitable and fair to all members of society, can have negative effects and can increase the marginality of minority linguistic groups.

Farmer’s discussion of structural violence in Haiti helps underscore the above works, as he examines the way that policy decisions at the national and international levels increased the vulnerability and personal in-security of the Haitian rural poor to diseases such as HIV/AIDS.

These overarching concepts and ideas provide the anthropological framework to examine a micro level example – East Timor.

Using East Timor as a case study, my research sought to examine how government language planning increased the economic risk and political insecurity of large swaths of the population. There are four working languages spoken among varying speech communities within East Timor. Ultimately the government selected Portuguese and Tetum as the official/national languages. Prior to announcing the official languages, many Timorese saw

38 national language selection as a unifying event – a way to come together and select a language that was spoken by all and represented the Timorese people. This was ultimately not the case.

Almost all government business and all legal documents are issued using Portuguese – a language spoken by less than five percent of the country, with most of those being foreign- educated elite. Articles by Chopra, Hajek, Hohe and Hull provide country level analysis of the language debate in East Timor, with Hull briefly touching on the potential economic risks to the rural majority that are inherent in selecting Portuguese.

Although there is significant material on language planning, education policy and marginality as individual areas of study, there appears to be a gap of anthropological material examining these issues together in the context of East Timor, or other nascent states. Arenas and

Lutz shed some light on education planning in East Timor prior to independence in 1999, but virtually no material is available on planning post-independence. There is little anthropological material available examining how East Timor’s economic stagnation, is partially caused by the lack of widespread fluency in Portuguese. This annotated bibliography can be used as a point of departure for further research efforts on language planning in East Timor. There are few resources currently available to examine how national planning, especially education policy and language choice, further marginalize sectors of society. My original question, however, remains unanswered – how have national language policy decisions increased the risk of the rural poor?

Anderson, Benedict. 1991 Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Revised Edition ed. London and New York: Verso, 1991 Anderson introduces the idea of an imagined community – a group of individuals that are brought together by a shared identity or ideology although they may not know the other members of the community. Anderson looks at language as a binding force in the creation of imagined communities noting that many Creole communities, in part, defined and bound themselves by the languages they spoke. Anderson also discusses "print-capitalism" – a tool that brought together

39 linguistic communities together on the eve of the Industrial Revolution, providing these groups with additional knowledge and awareness of the social environment. This fueled helped establish language and language use as a critical element to rising nationalism across Europe.

Nationalism, Capitalism Comparative Political theory

Arenas, Alberto. 1998 Education and Nationalism in East Timor. Social Justice 25 (2):131-148. Arenas discusses how the rise of Indonesian nationalism, during nearly 24 year Indonesian occupation of East Timor, has affected Timorese viewpoints on language, specifically in their internal debate on language selection and education. Indonesia viewed education as a cornerstone to implementing their assimilation campaign, converting the language of instruction from Tetum (the native Timorese tongue) to Bahasa, the official language of Indonesia. Arenas culled information from extensive interviews conducted with exiled political refugees to outline how this language selection and planning processed fueled East Timorese ardent sense of nationalism, including secret and illegal political meetings, the rise of Catholicism, parents teaching their children songs in Tetum and historical narratives, separate from those taught in school, outlining the Timorese history and struggles.

East Timor Indonesia Nationalism Language planning Language selection

Chopra, Jarat and Tanja Hohe. 2004 Participatory Intervention. Global Governance 10 (3): 289-305. Chopra and Hohe, an international law expert and anthropologist, respectively, detail how international intervention programs unfold in post-conflict environments, with case studies of East Timor, Kosovo and Somalia. The authors examine interventions impose particular frameworks and structures on these societies in the rebuilding efforts. Language usage and selection is one component of this framework. Particularly salient to East Timor is how the international community’s efforts to bring stability and democracy to the country might have shifted the priorities of the government toward succeeding in the international marketplace though the assistance of the international community, while marginalizing the local population through their language planning and selection strategy. Chopra and Hohe gathered data from several sources, including literature reviews, and through their appointments as advisers to the UN’s Transitional Authority in East Timor.

East Timor Intervention

40 Post-Conflict Studies

Cooper, Robert L. 1989 Language Planning and Social Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cooper, a sociologist of language, describes how people of influence can manipulate the use of language, such as politicians in state planning. Cooper contends that language planning is a type of social planning, wherein language planning is influential in and is influenced by policy planning and theories of social change. Cooper argues that language planning is not carried out for its own sake, but is integral to non-linguistic measures such as national integration, political control, economic development, the creation of new elites or the maintenance of old ones, and the pacification of minority groups or mass mobilization.

Comparative Cross-cultural Language planning Social planning Social change

Feldman, Gregory. 2005 Estranged States: Diplomacy and the Containment of National Minorities in Europe. Anthropological Theory 5(3):219-245. Feldman examines, through an anthropological lens, how internationally prescribed diplomatic norms and relations, as well as international treaties and conventions, act to marginalize national minorities. He contends that national minorities are constructed as security international security concerns within diplomatic discussions, as they interfere with nation-states mutually securing themselves through diplomacy. He uses Estonia as a case study to illustrate how national policy can marginalize sectors of the populations – specifically Russian speaking Estonians.

Diplomacy Marginality National Minorities Policymaking State building

Farmer, Paul. 2004 An Anthropology of Structural Violence. Current Anthropology. 45(3): 305-325. Through decades of ethnographic research in Haiti, Farmer illustrates how national and international policy and practices causes structural violence in the Haitian rural poor. He describes how the epidemics of AIDS and Tuberculosis, is rooted in the enduring effects of European expansion in the new world and the slavery with which it was associated.

41 Disease Structural violence

Fox, James. 1996 The Paradox of Powerlessness: Timor in Historical Perspective. Paper Presented at the Nobel Peace Prize Symposium: Focus on East Timor, University of Oslo, December 9, 1996. Fox provides a brief anthropological look at the history of East Timor, including an examination of the effects of colonialism on language, traditional power relations and social structures. Fox’s account provides a historical grounding for those looking forward at how policy planning by the Government of East Timor to measure those changes against.

East Timor History

Hajek, John. 2000 Language Planning and the Sociolinguistic Environment in East Timor: Colonial Practice and Changing Language Ecologies. Current Issues in Language Planning 1 (3): 400-414. Hajek, a linguist, provides an overview of language planning and the sociolinguistic environment in East Timor. He begins with a summary of how official language education and use shifted throughout Portuguese, Indonesian and self rule. He suggests that those with responsibility for language planning have shown little interest in any holistic or global approach to the country’s language selection which might have taken into account the region’s indigenous languages. Hajek contends that the dominant use of Portuguese marginalizes the local population and hinders their access to vital government services including education and justice.

East Timor Language selection Language planning Colonialist policy Indigenous languages

Hohe, Tanja. 2002 Totem Polls: Indigenous Concepts and Free and Fair Elections in East Timor, International Peacekeeping 9 (4): 69-88. Hohe outlines the way in which the United Nations designs and implements political development measures in an attempt to stabilize a country post-conflict and to establish democratic practices and principles. She raises questions about how the international community can influence policy decisions in a new country like East Timor, including in national language planning. Significant resources have been devoted to political stabilization and the democratic transition, while the language gap has been largely ignored, including a lack of information and education of rural citizens about the processes their country is undergoing.

East Timor

42 Elections Democratization United Nations Indigenous systems

Hohe, Tanja and Rod Nixon. 2003 Reconciling Justice: ‘Traditional’ Law and State Judiciary in East Timor. Paper prepared for the United States Institute for Peace. January 2003. Electronic Document, http://www.jsmp.minihub.org/Traditional %20Justice/Reports/ReconcilingJusticeReport.doc, accessed on March 20, 2007. Hohe and Nixon outline several limitations within the nascent East Timorese justice system as it was developed in the early 2000s They explain how the official languages of the country, Portuguese and Tetum, limits the judicial system to function properly. Hohe and Nixon point to the use of Portuguese as the official language of laws as being problematic because trained litigators, judges, and support staff lack adequate language skills to function in their judicial roles.

East Timor Judicial reform Language policy Language and law

Hull, Geoffrey. 2000 Current Language Issues in East Timor. Electronic document, http://www.asianlang.mq.edu.au/INL/speech1.html, accessed March 20, 2007. Hull details the primary issues of national language planning that were of concern for the majority of East Timor’s citizens during the transition to democracy in the early 2000s. He outlines several arguments for the inclusion of indigenous languages into the national language plan, including increased access to government, economic resources, and education. Hull is critical of East Timor’s elite, who were primarily educated in Portuguese speaking countries (Portugal, Brazil, Mozambique) and to the international community, namely Australia. Hull’s piece is sympathetic to the voice of the rural majority, in its attention to economic security that the national language planning process and ultimate selection may have on the rural poor.

East Timor Language planning Language selection Indigenous languages

Keane, Webb. 1997 Knowing One’s Place: National Language and the Idea of the Local in Eastern Indonesia. Cultural Anthropology 12 (1): 37-63.

43 Keane outlines how national language planning, selection and policy making shapes and molds local identity. He notes that state power can play a significant role in shaping national identity, and sometimes, creating a sense of marginality for those in the periphery – in this case, Eastern Indonesia. His argument can be applied to language planning and selection in East Timor, where the majority of the population is village based, poor and uneducated. Since most of the government’s business is conducted in Portuguese, most of the rural population is unable to understand – and ultimately identify- with the government which increases the gap between citizens and government, hindering national unity and fostering a cohesive identity.

Eastern Indonesia Marginality Language choice, Identity, Power

Kuipers, Joel C. 1998 Language, Identity and Marginality in Indonesia: The Changing Nature of Ritual Speech on the Island of Sumba. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kuipers uses his fieldwork experience on Sumba Island, Indonesia to explore how the changing political landscape in Indonesia and the rise of nationalism create marginalized populations and marginalized languages. He discusses political marginality, language ideologies and how national planning policies can affect local language usage.

Indonesia Marginality Linguistics

Lutz, Nancy Melissa. 1991 Colonization, Decolonization and Integration: Language Policies in East Timor, Indonesia. Paper presented at the Annual American Anthropological Association, Chicago, November 20, 1991. Lutz outlines how Indonesia’s national motto – Unity in Diversity – was not necessarily applied when they ruled over East Timor from 1974 though 1999. Though a review of legislation, pertinent literature and selected interviews, Lutz shows how Indonesia’s language and education policy toward East Timor – a policy that forced formal education to be conducted in Bahasa Indonesia was largely about control and security. Lutz documents how education policy was a forced measure to exert law and order on the Timorese culture.

Eastern Indonesia Education planning Language policy Law and order

May, Stephen. 2001

44 Language and Minority Rights: Ethnicity, Nationalism and the Politics of Language. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. This interdisciplinary volume provides an analysis of issues related to linguistic pluralism. May addresses arguments about ethnicity and nationalism, social and political theory, education, law, and history as well as the sociology of language and sociolinguistics, through a comparative case study approach. He explores the claims of minority groups to greater representation within existing nation-states, particularly with respect to linguistic and cultural rights. May also examines the links between minority-language policy and education. While acknowledging that education alone cannot bring about language change or reverse language shift, May examines the variety of approaches to educating minority group members in modern nation-states and argues that different language rights can be accorded to different minority groups.

Comparative Language Minority Rights Linguistic Rights Policy planning

O’Barr, William M. and Jean F. O’Barr, eds. 1976 Language and Politics. William M O'Barr and Jean F. O’Barr, eds. The Hague: Mouton. This interdisciplinary study examines the political use and implications of language in formal arenas, such as the judiciary, and legislature, in Tanzania, India and Papua New Guinea. Chapters focus on issues such as the extent to which language diversity can be both a handicap to national integration and a political resource that limits access to national level political institutions. Other themes include the role of language policy in restricting political access, language as a force for political mobilization and how language use can define and bound segments of the population.

India Papua New Guinea Comparative Political use of language Power relationships

O’Reilly, Camille C. 2001 Language, Ethnicity and the State: Minority Languages in East Europe post-1989. Camille C O’Reilly, ed. New York: Palgrave. The political and social upheavals following 1989 have had a significant impact on the minority languages in Europe. The European Union has passed several measures aimed at protecting these lesser-used languages, as outlines in the O’Riagan chapter. Chapters on linguistic communities in Northern Ireland, France, Spain and Italy highlight how identity and nationalism is inextricably linked to language use. In-depth case study analysis shows how the

45 cultural identity, language ideologies and power commingle to produce national and transnational language policy.

European Union member states Comparative Minority languages National policy planning, Transnational policy planning

Steedly, Mary Margaret. 1999 The State of Culture Theory in the Anthropology of Southeast Asia. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, pp. 431-454. Steedly focuses on the themes of gender, marginality, violence, and the state in examining the present state of culture theory in South-east Asia. She contends that culture is increasingly viewed as an attribute of the state- in state policymaking, in the exercise of state power, and in the creation of the nation-state as an entity.

Southeast Asia Culture Theory State building National policy planning

Tollefson, James. 1991 Planning Language, Planning Inequality. New York: Longman. Despite the significant amount of resources invested in language minority education, many of these groups continue to not participate, both socially and politically, in their societies. Tollefson, a linguist, examines language education planning linking it to the institutional constraints created by dominant linguistic groups which prevent linguistic minorities from accessing social and political systems. He devotes several chapters to language planning, ideology and power – unpacking how language planning choices by people in positions of power perpetuate class and social inequality.

Cross-cultural Comparative Language planning Social planning Ideology Power relations

Williams-Van Klinken, Catharina. 2004 Developing Electoral Terminology for a New Official Language: Tetun in East Timor. Current Issues in Language Planning. 5 (2): 142-150.

46 Selected as one of two official languages of East Timor after independence in 1999, Tetun is hampered by a shortage of agreed upon, well-understood, technical terminology. Williams-Van Klinken, a linguist, examines the process by which a joint project between the Independent Election Commission and the United Nations Development Programme established a working technical vocabulary for the first national elections in 2002. Along with several colleagues from the National Institute of Linguistics (East Timor), she examines the linguistic roots of this new electoral vocabulary.

East Timor United Nations Development Programme Elections Codifying language Electoral vocabulary

Wright, Sue. 2004 Language Policy and Language Planning: From Nationalism to Globalization. New York: Palgrave MacMillian. Wright, an expert on the role of language in nation building, examines the development and role of standard languages in the construction of national communities and identities. Language policy and planning is rarely just about language; it always has political, social and ethical dimensions. She discusses how language instruction is affected by economic or political agendas, and how issues such as social mobility, economic advantage or group identity framed language choice. The second part examines the linguistic accommodation of groups in contact, major lingua francas and the case of "International English.”

Language planning Language policy Language instruction Political choice Social choice Power relations

North and South Korea: A Shared Cultural Identity? Culture, Risk, and Korean Reunification Megan Siczek

The 38th parallel dividing North and South Korea is the most heavily militarized border in the world today. This division provides an excellent framework for exploring the relationships among culture, risk, and security. I began this project by seeking an anthropological understanding of how South Koreans perceive the North Korean military threat, especially in

47 light of the arbitrary partition of the peninsula in 1945 that literally divided hundreds of thousands of Korean families. A great deal of security-related analysis has been published to chronicle the North Korean threat over time, but little research is anthropologically grounded.

Thus, my focus shifted from the literal military threat to the complex cultural risks that are associated with the prospect of Korean reunification.

What happens to an ethnically and linguistically homogeneous people, with a strong national identity that has been forged through centuries of foreign oppression, when outside powers divide family members and pit them against one another? How does that common culture endure more than sixty years of separation? And how will the differences that developed over the decades of separation affect both North and South Korea if the ideal of reunification is realized?

Several themes emerge in the literature connecting South Koreans’ symbolic notion of a homogeneous culture with the issue of division/unification. First, a key aspect of Korean identity is grounded in a collective view of mourning, endurance, and eventual redemption.

Schwartz and Kim (2001) and Jager (2003) provide examples of how South Koreans have

“nationalized” a sense of mourning associated with their past. This collective memory recollects shameful incidents in which the Korean peninsula has been dominated by foreign powers, yet at the same time it fuels the confidence that the country will reach the eventual goal of full autonomy and recognition through unification. Modern South Koreans have extracted symbols from their culture’s mythological past and narrative traditions to create this “imagined community,” which in turn frames national discourse on separation and reunification.

The second theme is the image of family. Kim (1988) characterizes the family dispersal engendered by the Korean partition by revealing the personal life stories of South Koreans with

48 separated families. He concludes that their personal experiences cannot be disconnected from the broader issue of Korean reunification. Jager (1996) captures the symbolic evocation of family in her treatment of women as images of faithfulness, who may have been contaminated by foreign influence but will patiently fulfill their wifely duties until the family ideal is reconstituted

(and, symbolically, Korea is reunified).

South Koreans seem to maintain a nostalgic “collective memory” about the nature of

Korean culture. The rhetoric and images associated with this shared past have in turn idealized

South Koreans’ notion of reunification, perhaps provoking a naïveté about its reality. What do

South Koreans really know about the “culture” of their brothers and sisters who have been living in the most isolated state in the world? Anthropologists have had little access to study North

Korea’s current socio-cultural environment. Several studies, however, have dealt with North

Korean communities within the context of modern South Korea. Choo (2006) indicates that

South Koreans viewed North Korean female settlers as “backwards.” Kim (2001) represents an enclave of North Korean refugees in a South Korean border community as being isolated from mainstream South Korean society. Based on the significant cultural differences that have emerged in 60 years of separation, North Koreans run the risk of being marginalized and

“othered” within contemporary South Korea upon reunification.

The act of “reunification” is often analyzed as a political or economic endeavor with global consequences, but a gap exists in anthropological research on the cultural aspects of

Korean unification. Lim and Chung (2004) draw upon the experience of German reunification to advocate a socio-cultural approach to unifying Korea, and Chamberlin (2004) urges “patience and careful planning,” in any unification scenario, but anthropologists should study the potential

49 culture shock that both North and South Koreans could experience on a local level if the ideal of reunification is realized.

Babadzan, Alain. 2000 Anthropology, Nationalism, and the ‘Invention of Tradition.’ Anthropological Forum 10(2):131- 155. Following Hobsbawm’s conceptual lead, Babadzan theoretically investigates the way countries invoke traditionalist discourse to legitimize nationalistic or ideological goals, creating an “imagined community” for social cohesion. Though this invented tradition is often grounded in the symbolic or mythological past of a culture, it is at the least decontextualized and more often randomly constructed, sometimes even fulfilling “purposes that are no longer traditional” and creating a risk in which the imagined tradition of a culture is disconnected from its modern reality.

Cross-cultural anthropology Nationalism Traditional discourse Political identity Imagined communities

Borneman, John. 1992 State, Territory, and Identity Foundation in the Postwar Berlins, 1945-1989. Cultural Anthropology 7(1):45-62. The author conducted 34 months of fieldwork in East and West Berlin during the final years of the Cold War to find out how two “autonomous, asymmetrical, mirror-image” states competed for legitimacy in signifying the reunified nation. The difference in narrative autobiographies between West and East Berliners can be summarized in the way informants related their experiences with currency reform and the automobile. West Berliners viewed both as symbols of entry into an age of modernity, mobility, and economic prosperity. East Berliners characterized currency reform with a sense of “loss and exclusion” and took collective pride in their only automobile option: the sturdy, state-produced “Trabant.” Borneman concludes that unification as a territorial and political act has increased the differences between West and East, calling into question the concept of “Germanness” and a single national identity and offering a base from which to explore potential consequences of Korean reunification.

Germany- Reunification East and West Berlin “Germanness” National identity State narratives

50 Chamberlin, Paul F. 2004 Cultural Dimensions of Korean Reunification: Building a Unified Society. International Journal on World Peace 21(3):3-42. Chamberlin theoretically examines the “culture shock” that could result if the two Koreas unify. While the shock for South Koreans will most likely be a strain on their prosperous new economy, North Koreans will face a far more challenging adjustment as they are “resocialized” from state-controlled socialism into modern South Korean society. The author bases commonly- held Korean traditions on five primary social categories (family, religion, education, economy, and politics), then exemplifies the ways in which North and South Korean societies have diverged in these areas since national division. To diffuse the cultural risk associated with reunification, he urges patience and careful planning so that North Korea can be “absorbed” into South Korea with limited disruption.

North Korea South Korea Korea- Reunification Culture shock Socialism Modernism Peace Studies

Choo, Hae Yeon. 2006 Gendered Modernity and Ethnicized Citizenship: North Korean Settlers in Contemporary South Korea. Gender and Society. 20:576-604. Given the absence of concrete ethnic or linguistic differences between North and South Koreans, Choo uses the term “pseudo-ethnicities” to explain markers that are used to distinguish North Koreans who have migrated (defected) to the Republic of Korea. One of these markers is based on South Koreans’ perception of North Korean women as being “backwards,” cast in the gendered role of victim-subject as a result of North Korean patriarchy. Through ethnographic fieldwork, the author analyzes the way a group of North Korean settlers attempt to mitigate the risk of being perceived as “others” as they construct their citizenship within modern South Korean culture.

Korea Migration Citizenship Gendered modernity Ethnicity Pseudo-ethnicity “Othering”

Grinker, Roy Richard. 1998 Korea and Its Futures: Unification and the Unfinished War. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

51 In the chapter “North Korean Everyday Life on Display,” Grinker examines how an exhibition of (modern) cultural artifacts from North Korea was displayed in Seoul, South Korea and how visitors’ reactions in interviews revealed the complex interaction between previous assumptions about the alien nature of North Koreans and a growing understanding of a common and shared Korean identity. Despite the ongoing security risk in the Korean peninsula, this exhibition of North Korean “reality” allowed South Koreans to consider that “the north and the south are the same people occupying different historical spaces.”

North Korea South Korea Korea- Reunification National identity Museum anthropology Cultural artifacts

Jager, Sheila Miyoshi. 1997 Manhood, the State and the Yongsan War Memorial, South Korea. Museum Anthropology 21(3):33-39. Jager characterizes the exhibitions in the Korean War Memorial museum as a re- invention of Korean military history in order to alleviate national “shame” by creating a more manly presentation of a unified Korean spirit. The relationship between North and South Korea is symbolized by the Statue of Brothers, in which a powerful and armed South Korean soldier is being gratefully embraced by a much smaller and unarmed North Korean soldier, capturing the idea that Koreans share one blood and that the legitimate brother (South Korea) will bring his younger brother (North Korea) back into the fold upon reunification.

South Korea Military culture National identity Collective memory Museum anthropology

Jager, Sheila Miyoshi. 2003 Narratives of Nation Building in Korea: A Genealogy of Patriotism. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. Jager considers the role that narratives have played in shaping South Koreans’ view of national events, including the division of the country in 1945. These narratives frame Korean culture with themes that include heroism/manhood, devoted wife/mother role, relationship to the land, and redemption. These themes connect to the perception that some South Koreans hold about North Korea: that a wayward “younger brother” could not pose a significant risk to South Korean security.

South Korea Nationalism

52 Patriotism Narrative National division

Jager, Sheila Miyoshi. 1996 Women, Resistance and the Divided Nation: The Romantic Rhetoric of Korean Reunification. The Journal of Asian Studies 55(1):3-21. Jager analyzes Korean traditional narrative texts to show how major themes have been appropriated and used in the contemporary nationalistic discourse on reunification. Symbols from traditional texts are used to represent the divided nation (suffering) and eventual reunification (redemption) in Korea. Women are featured as “sociosymbolic” representations of loss, virtue, devotion, and endurance that have been “despoiled” by foreign influences through colonialism, division, and occupation. Threats to Korean essence, in other words, are related to foreign contamination and miscegenation.

Korea- National division Korea- Reunification Nationalist discourse Imperialism Suffering and redemption Miscegenation

Kim, Choong Soon. 1988 Faithful Endurance: An Ethnography of Korean Family Dispersal. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press. Kim’s book explores the family separation that resulted from the partition of Korea and the war that followed. He takes a “humanistic” approach to his fieldwork, using ethnographic observation and interviews to frame the personal experiences of South Koreans whose families have been separated. He concludes by commenting that family reunification is inseparable from the objective of national reunification and that, in keeping with the Korean national character, it is a matter of “faithful endurance.”

Korean War Korea- Family and kinship Korea- Family reunions Korea- Reunification Family separation Humanistic ethnography

Kim, Gwi-Ok. 2001 A Korean Community of Internal Diaspora: The Identities of Wollam’Ins in Sokcho, South Korea. Development and Society 30(1): 27-50.

53 In the mid-1990’s Kim conducted fieldwork and collected oral histories in a unique cultural enclave in South Korea. In the 1950’s, the fishing village of Sokcho became a home for about 12,000 displaced North Koreans, called “Wollam’In.” These refugees constructed their identities based upon their livelihood (fishing) and upon their regional affiliations in the North. Though they have created a strong community among themselves, they continue to feel self- conscious and disconnected from the “native” population. Further, they now live in poverty after being bypassed by the modernization policies of the South Korean government. The experiences of this group over time illustrate North Koreans’ risk of becoming socially or economically marginalized within the modern South Korean society upon reunification.

Korea- National division Dispersed families Refugee settlement Identity construction Marginalization Modernity

Kim, Kwang-ok. 2004 The Making and Indigenization of Anthropology in Korea. In The Making of Anthropology in East and Southeast Asia. Shinji Yamashita, Joseph Bosco, and J.S. Eades, eds. Pp. 253-285. New York: Berghahn Books. This chapter focuses on attempts to establish a “Korean” anthropology within an indigenous view of national identity. The author attributes this approach to Korea’s historical influences including colonial occupation, national division, war, and modern Western influence. This indigenous view has led to a somewhat decontextualized, idealized (nostalgic) version of a homogenous Korea. Though anthropology in South Korea has become more socially and politically contextualized in recent decades, the cultural notion of an “imagined national community” remains strong, which may cause South Koreans to gloss over the actual risk associated with the current North Korean regime and the instability (political, economic, cultural) that reunification could engender.

Korean anthropology Indigenization Nationalism Imagined communities

Lim, Hyun-Chin and Young Chul Chung. 2004 From Unification to Integration: A Socio-Cultural Approach to the “Unified Korea.” The Review of Korean Studies 7(4):175-204. Unification is often classified as a politico-economic endeavor, but Lim and Chung draw on the experience of German reunification to consider the significance of the socio-cultural dimensions of Korean unification. The authors acknowledge that after a long shared history, the two Koreas still hold certain values in common, including Confucianist lifestyles and a strong national consciousness. The expression of these values, however, has diverged during the

54 50–year separation. The risk upon reunification is that a “culture of separateness” will be created.

Korea- Reunification Germany- Reunification Socio-cultural integration Cultural values Homogeneity Heterogeneity

Milliken, Jennifer. 1999 Intervention and Identity: Reconstructing the West in Korea. In Cultures of Insecurity: States, Communities, and the Production of Danger. Jutta Weldes, Mark Laffey, Hugh Gusterson, and Raymond Duvall, eds. Pp. 91-117. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Milliken’s chapter links the partition of Korea and the Korean War to the “Western security collectivity” during the Cold War. The U.S. government engaged in authoritative discourse to represent the threat caused by “others” (that is, communist North Korea) and to justify ongoing security intervention on the Korean peninsula. This intervention created a strong sense of risk in South Korea and around the world, but recently South Koreans have asserted independence over U.S. military domination and are reframing the North Korean threat on their own terms.

Cold War Korean War West- United States- Intervention Security discourse

Osgood, Cornelius. 1951 The Koreans and Their Culture. New York: The Ronald Press Company. Osgood’s anthropological exploration of “how and why the Korean thinks and behaves as he does” offers a treatment of traditional Korean village life during the period of Japanese colonialism during the first half of the 20th century. His ethnography provides a snapshot of rural Korean culture and life before partition, civil war, and the development of the North Korean security threat.

Korea-Anthropology Korea- Village life Korea- Cultural history Korea- Partition-military occupation Colonialism

Ryang, Sonia. 2004

55 A Note on Transnational Consanguinity, or, Kinship in the Age of Terrorism. Anthropological Quarterly 77(4):747-770. Ryang explores the anthropology of kinship as the “base” of society. She uses her diverse undergraduate classroom at Johns Hopkins University as the ethnographic source to study transnational lineage, or how connections between kinship and the nation can be affected by migration or immigration. Students of Korean origin emphasized the importance of “blood” kinship in traditional ancestral lineage and family structures, which continues to this day in South Korea. In one of her case studies, however, she indicates that North Korean authority does not acknowledge patrilineal clan relations, instead insisting that all North Korean people have descended from the great leader Kim Il-Sung. As a result, the claim of a pure, clan-based bloodline, one of the most central and commonly-held Korean cultural characteristics, has lost hold among the people of North Korea. In reunification, without evidence of family bloodlines, North Koreans would have difficulty fitting into the traditional marriage and family structures that define Korean identity.

Korea Kinship Studies Patrilineal ancestry Consanguinity

Ryang. Sonia. 2000 Gender in Oblivion: Women in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea). Journal of African and Asian Studies 35(3):323-349. Ryang examines the issue of gender in the rhetoric of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea by using published literature, official texts, and ethnographic data. She concludes that although North Korea has legally equalized women as “workers” in the socialist production state, they remain subordinate within the patriarchal household. In addition to societal and domestic obligations, women’s primary function is motherhood. Though the category “mother” is often used in public discourse, there is no equivalent for the English concept of “gender” or even of the referent “woman.”

North Korea Socialism National discourse Gender Nuclear family Domestic roles

Schwartz, Barry and MiKyoung Kim. 2001 Honor, Dignity and Collective Memory: Judging the Past in Korea and the United States. In Culture in Mind: Towards a Sociology of Culture and Cognition. Karen Cerulo, ed. Pp. 209-227. London: Routledge. The authors analyze collective memory using data collected in cross-cultural surveys and group discussions among university students in South Korea and the United States. The South

56 Korean students commonly characterized events in their country’s past based on a collective sense of shame and pride. Students’ viewed past events as “degrading” when foreign powers victimized or humiliated Koreans. These events include Japanese colonial rule, the division of the country in 1945 and the war that followed. Students indicated a sense of powerlessness and humiliation when Koreans were forced to fight against their own “brothers” in the Korean War. The South Korean students characterized historical events that “elevated” their country with pride. These events were ones in which Korea liberated itself from foreign power or elevated its national image (creating the Korean alphabet, hosting the Seoul Olympics and the World Cup).

South Korea Korean War University students Collective memory National shame National pride Nationalism

Organ Trafficking and Anthropology Christopher Wong

The subject of black market organ trafficking does not appear in anthropological literature until the mid-1990s. Early publications tend to focus on rumor and allegation rather than actual practice. Scheper-Hughes (1994), Adams (1999), and Campion-Vincent (2001) analyze organ trafficking rumors as metaphorical truths that reflect violence, anxiety, and social inequity in certain parts of the world. None of these writings explore the possibility that markets for organs exist in reality. Other anthropological writings discuss the theoretical underpinnings of organ markets, like how body commodification links to a neoliberal worldview, without delving into site-specific or practice-specific detail (Crowley 1998; Sharp 2001).

More recent publications, most of which post-date the turn of the century, analyze organ trafficking in practice (Harrison 1999; Scheper-Hughes 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006; Cohen 2003;

Sanal 2004). The authors situate organ trafficking within a context of globalized medicine, widespread economic inequity, and inadequate legal regulation. Some publications take the tone of an exposé, probably because the trade in body parts is a relatively recent phenomenon, but this

57 occasionally distracts from deeper analysis. Organ trafficking narratives tend to read like thrillers, whether or not they draw from rumor or reality. All of the authors cited in this bibliography reject organ trafficking on ethical grounds, although some are more adamant about it than others. Ethical positioning becomes more apparent as studies shift from organ trafficking as rumor towards organ trafficking as practice.

The research of Scheper-Hughes deserves particular consideration because it embodies the tension between analyst and activist. Her earlier writings explore organ trafficking rumors as symbols and metaphors, which is considerably “safer” than her later research as an undercover anthropologist/activist (1994, 2004). Scheper-Hughes is explicit about her ethical bent, but this does not change the fact that she distinguishes between innocent and culpable. Some anthropologists might dispute Scheper-Hughes for making such clear moral judgments, in that right-and-wrong is ultimately for the reader to decide. This might be a hyper-relativist argument, particularly in light of documented abuses associated with organ sales, but it would be less problematic if Scheper-Hughes did not dominate the discourse. Scheper-Hughes has either written or contributed to the majority of anthropological works that relate to illegal organ trafficking. Her voice rings loudest among all others, and she clearly wants people to share in her anti-trafficking agenda.

Another gap within the anthropological literature is a surprising lack of focus on individual actors. Several authors focus on world systems – how global economic structures influence the flow of organs – but fail to localize their arguments (Harrison 1999; Scheper-

Hughes 2000). Neoliberal values and libertarian ethos might underlie organ trafficking on some general ideological level, but they are unlikely to manifest identically across all societies. The same holds for organ trafficking rumors, which might propagate globally but presumably under

58 many guises (Scheper-Hughes 1994; Campion-Vincent 2001). Organ trafficking is impossible to completely localize because it is a transnational process. Nevertheless, the most powerful studies focus on particular populations, like donors in Chennai, India (Cohen 2003) or transplant surgeons in Turkey (Sanal 2004). Writings that emphasize the macro-level usually end up repeating the same arguments.

Even though the anthropology of organ trafficking occasionally lacks in ethnographic detail, most authors do an excellent job of exploring the relationship between agency and structure. Scheper-Hughes (1994) and Campion-Vincent (2001) explore organ trafficking rumors as vehicles of witnessing and protest in the absence of more explicit means of expression.

Several authors challenge the “free-choice” rationale for selling organs. The trade in body parts becomes structural violence when some people must choose between survival and health and human dignity (Cohen 2003; Scheper-Hughes 2002, 2004). The anthropology of organ trafficking is most relevant when it illuminates the power structures that force people into certain choices.

Adams, Abigail. 1999 Gringas, Ghouls and Guatemala: The 1994 Attacks on North American Women Accused of Body Organ Trafficking. Journal of Latin American Anthropology 4(1): 112-133. During 1994, rumors of gringas (North American women) stealing children for their organs circulated throughout Guatemala. Adams uses ethnographic research to show that belief in these rumors existed at all levels of Guatemalan society, transcending rural-urban, poor-elite, and Mayan-ladino distinctions, to the extent that US women adopting local babies became victims of hostility. Reports of organ-trafficking had persisted in Guatemala for decades prior, but the central focus on gringas reflected ongoing changes in the uneven relationship between Latin America and North America. Guatemalans perceived the gringa as “man-woman,” denoting an anti-caretaker and anti-feminine status. Prospective adopting mothers purportedly had more motivation to sell Guatemalan babies than to raise them. Local perceptions of racism and American paternalism contributed to negative gringa imagery that would eventually erupt in violence against several North American women.

Guatemala

59 Organ trafficking Rumor Gringo/gringa Racism

Campion-Vincent, Veronique. 2001 On Organ Theft Narratives. Current Anthropology 42(4): 555-558. The author applies her expertise as a folklorist to dispute Scheper-Hughes’s interpretation of organ theft rumors in Brazil, making specific reference to her article “The Global Traffic in Human Organs” [cited in this bibliography]. Although she accepts Scheper-Hughes’s interpretation of rumors as “weapons of the weak,” she stresses that they are not limited to the Third World. Globally-circulated baby-parts stories, eye-thieves stories, and stolen-kidney stories primarily reflect a universal malaise with transplant technology. According to the author, one should not dismiss the benefits that this technology brings to many people. Scheper-Hughes, she argues, sensationalizes organ theft rumors without substantial evidence and at the cost of analytical credibility. In the Reply, Scheper-Hughes argues that investigation of rumors does reveal exploited and mistreated bodies. She provides several examples to illustrate the serious reality of organ trafficking throughout the world.

Organ theft Organ transplantation Rumor Folklore analysis Scheper-Hughes, Nancy

Cohen, Lawrence. 2003 Where It Hurts: Indian Material for an Ethics of Organ Transplantation. Zygon 38(3): 663-688. Entire families in the city of Chennai, in southern India, sell their kidneys to temporarily relieve themselves of debt. The author uses ethnographic research and interviews to examine this controversial pattern and the ethical debate surrounding the right to buy and sell transplant organs. Proponents of organ markets reject the paternalism of human rights activists, although they support industry regulation and education and medical care for all organ sellers. They see no reason to turn away a desperate man who wants to sell a kidney to support himself and his family. The market for transplant organs, however, cannot be simplified to win-win transactions. The notion of rational economic choice loses weight when sellers “have to” give up one of their kidneys. Everyone is a potential seller because kidneys are a priori collateral. Selling a kidney to relieve debt or obtain basic necessities of survival constitutes organ trafficking as a human rights violation and not a question of choice.

India – Chennai Organ sale Transplant surgery Kidney as commodity/ collateral Debt

60 Medical ethics

Crowley, Megan. 1998 Troubling Boundaries: Organ Transplantation and Liberal Law. PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review 21(1): 26-41. Crowley examines organ transplant practices and how they complicate the logic of liberal law in the United States. Her inspiration draws from personal experience as an anthropological observer at hospital ethics committee meetings. From her perspective, transplant organs resist the binary distinction between “object” and “self.” Objects can be claimed and owned, whereas the self is inviolable. Liberal law is also founded upon the abstract tenets of freedom, equality, and integrity. Voluntary organ donation becomes problematic when the “flow” of organs becomes unequal between specific groups. In the United States, wealthy people with good health insurance are most likely to receive an organ, while young, urban-dwelling, and typically poor males are most likely suffer the traumatic deaths that would make them eligible to donate. Inequalities in organ distribution erode the public trust in voluntary donation. The market model of organ distribution also confounds the logic of liberal law. On one hand, prospective sellers should be free to sell that which is rightfully theirs. On the other hand, objectification of body parts threatens the integrity of personhood.

Comparative organ donation Organ sale Bioethics Liberal law

Delmonico, Francis and Nancy Scheper-Hughes. 2003 Why We Should Not Pay for Human Organs. Zygon 38(3): 689-698. Delmonico and Scheper-Hughes discuss the commodification of human organs in relation to Christian ethics. They provide a historical overview of live organ donation, beginning with its inception in 1954, and follow the global emergence of illicit organ trafficking to present day. Organ sales, they argue, reflect a market-oriented ethos and a hyper-libertarian vision of individual autonomy. Arguments against trafficking are difficult to defend in free-market and secular societies like the United States. Traditional Christian morality, however, contradicts organ sales more explicitly by emphasizing the integrity of the body and the dignity of all human beings. The authors recommend that transplant organs be conceptualized as “gifts” rather than commodities.

Organ trafficking Christian ethics Secular ethics Free-market commodification Gift

Erwin, Kathleen. 2006

61 The Circulatory System: Blood Procurement, AIDS, and the Social Body in China. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 20(2): 139-159. The Chinese market in human blood emerged during the early 1990s, as military units, provincial health bureaus, and private profit-seekers began procuring blood for urban and international buyers. Unhygienic collection and distribution created an HIV crisis in Central China. Before the Chinese government began cracking down on dangerous practices during the late 1990s, most donated blood went untested for HIV and other blood-borne pathogens. Erwin documents the history of this crisis and how the consequences of AIDS epidemic continue to unfold. Her analysis draws from published reports of blood procurement in rural China and her own research on blood donation in Shanghai. The demand for blood products remains high, particularly with the current ban on for-profit sales. Voluntary donation rates, however, are low compared to other countries. Erwin analyzes the cultural barriers to this practice, including conceptions of blood in traditional Chinese medicine, and concludes that voluntary donation is never as simple as altruism. Poverty drives some peasants to demand the right to sell blood. China will continue to face a shortage of voluntary donations so long as structural inequalities go unaddressed.

China – Shanghai Blood donation Blood sale Blood-borne pathogens Gift exchange HIV/AIDS

Harrison, Trevor. 1999 Globalization and the Trade in Human Body Parts. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 36(1): 21-30. Since the early 1980s, advancing medical technologies have enabled the globalization of organ transplant procedures. Corresponding with this trend is the emergence of a global trade in human body parts. Harrison documents the history of this market and how the worldwide “demand” for organs continues to increase even though more and more transplant procedures are performed each year. In general, the system of exchange mirrors typical flows between developed and undeveloped regions. Traditionally disadvantaged classes, ethnicities, and genders sell their bodies to more privileged groups. The ideological and cultural bases of globalization contribute to the development of this new market. Neoliberal values encourage the development of capitalist exchange relationships, which ultimately implies that anything has a proper exchange value. The commodification of human body parts is simply the next step in this direction.

Organ trafficking Organ transplantation Globalization Global inequality Commodification of human body Neoliberalism

62 Sanal, Aslihan. 2004 “Robin Hood” of Techno-Turkey or Organ Trafficking in the State of Ethical Beings. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 28(3): 281-309. Aslihan uses ethnographic fieldwork, drawing particularly from doctor and patient interviews, to analyze organ transplantation and trafficking in Turkey. The international market for organs receives significant exposure in the Turkish media and extends beyond marginal private clinics and doctors. Contributing to this industry is a low rate of cadaverous kidney donation and an estimated population of about 30,000 dialysis patients. Many Turkish doctors question the national ban on organ sales because purchased transplants can potentially save lives. Some recommend to patients that they travel abroad to buy an organ. Current anti-trafficking legislation also contains loopholes in that doctors cannot always differentiate between kin and sellers posing as kin. Underlying the ethical debate, Aslihan argues, is the privatization of Turkish medicine, which turns human beings into commodities and justifies the socio-economic disparities between typical buyers and sellers of organs.

Turkey Organ trafficking Organ transplantation Privatization of medicine Commodification of human body Bioethics

Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2006 Kidney Kin: Inside the Transatlantic Transplant Trade. Harvard International Review 24(4): 62- 65. Scheper-Hughes documents the two sides of an illegal organ transplant transaction. The buyer is a poor and elderly New Yorker suffering from end-stage renal failure, who without any possibility of obtaining a life-prolonging kidney transplant in the United States, turns to foreign brokers operating out of South Africa. Her kidney comes from a middle-aged Brazilian man in dire economic straits, who agrees to undergo kidney-removal surgery in South Africa after being offered a few thousand dollars by an Israeli army officer. Following the procedure, both buyer and seller face the authorities for the illegality of their acts, and both remain economically impoverished, though still surviving. As an added burden, the seller faces unanticipated medical complications and social stigma. Woven throughout this account is a general discussion of neoliberal transformation as a consequence of globalization and how this supports the global market in human organs. Commodification challenges longstanding medical conceptions of human dignity, bodily integrity, and the body as an exception.

South Africa Organ trafficking Commodification of human body Globalization Right to life

63 Neoliberal transformation

Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 1994 Theft of Life: The Globalization of Organ Stealing Rumors. Anthropology Today 12(3): 3-11. The author explores rumors of organ theft in the shantytown of Alto do Cruzeiro in Northeast Brazil. These rumors include allegations of child kidnapping and body mutilation by foreigners for the procurement of transplant organs. They testify to the material outrages wretched upon poor and disenfranchised people, whose bodies are treated irresponsibly by both medical and mortuary workers. Contributing factors include a presumed consent law for organ donation, a market for international adoption that sees babies flow out of the country, a particularly marked divide between poor and wealthy classes, and a long history of Brazilian state violence. Rumors of organ theft are more than just metaphors for local anxieties because they are grounded in actual happenings. They reflect a lack of social trust and the necessity of equitable and transparent health care systems where organ transplant surgeries are conducted.

Brazil – Alto do Cruzeiro Organ transplantation Rumor International adoption market Medical inequality/ social inequality State violence

Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2000 The Global Traffic in Human Organs. Current Anthropology 41(2): 191-224. The author uses comparative data from several countries to place organ trafficking in the context of the global economy, as the propagation of transplant technologies has created an international market for body parts. Organs typically flow from poor to wealthy, South to North, Third World to First World, female to male, and black and brown-skinned to white-skinned. The commodification of transplant organs as “spare parts” drives many desperate individuals to seek potential buyers. At the same time, allegations of gross medical abuses, coercion, manipulation, and theft accompany the geographic spread of the industry. Examples are cited from India, China, Brazil, and South Africa. Exploitative and suspect trafficking practices by both states and independent cartels contribute to local anxieties. The establishment of fair and equitable health care systems is necessary to curtail the abuses that are currently endemic to the trafficking industry.

India China South America – Brazil South Africa Commodification of human body Organ trafficking Human rights

64 Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2002 The Ends of the Body: Commodity Fetishism and the Global Traffic in Organs. SAIS Review 22(1): 61-80. The rapid spread of transplant technologies has created a “medical apartheid” that divides the world in organ givers and organ receivers. The libertarian and consumer-oriented principles of the market justify this commodification of the human body, turning the issue of organ trafficking into one of win-win economics. The recipient benefits from the live-saving kidney, while the invariably destitute seller earns a much needed economic boost. There is no such thing, however, as a “clean” transaction in the organ trafficking business. Sellers from supplier nations face medical, social, and economic consequences that usually go unacknowledged. Examples are provided from India, Argentina, and Moldova. On the other side, transplant recipients from developed nations like Israel are super-visible. Their demand has turned the human organ into a fetish item.

India South America – Argentina Eastern Europe – Moldova Israel Commodification of human body Organ trafficking Medical ethics Medical apartheid

Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2004 Parts Unknown: Undercover Ethnography of the Organs-Trafficking Underworld. Ethnography 5(1): 29-73. The author explores the ethical considerations attendant to undercover ethnography. Her study of illicit organs trafficking raises particular questions of conscience and the responsibility to inform. Ethnographic research was conducted on multiple continents, although the article devotes particular attention to donors from Moldova and India. Uncovering their stories required blurring the traditional lines between anthropologist, investigative journalist, and human rights activist. Scheper-Hughes used covert methods, ranging from misrepresentation to outright lying, in order to access the bait-and-switch world of organs trafficking. In her view, such “militant anthropology” is ultimately justified if it gives voice to the otherwise disenfranchised.

Eastern Europe – Moldova India Organ trafficking Undercover ethnography Ethics and research methods Militant anthropology

Sharp, Lesley A. 2001

65 Commodified Kin: Death, Mourning, and Competing Claims on the Bodies of Organ Donors in the United States. American Anthropologist 103(1): 112-133. Sharp draws upon ten years of anthropological research in the United States, beginning in 1991, to examine the commodification of transplant organ bodies by medical professionals. Participant observation and open-ended interviews were conducted with organ procurement professionals and donor kin from several American cities, although particular attention was devoted to those from New York City. Medical slang, the Sharp argues, objectifies the bodies of organ donors and thereby denies their humanity. A perceived scarcity of transplant organs motivates organ procurement organizations (OPOs) to aggressive strategies that rank donor bodies by relative medical value and social worth. Depending on the physical condition of the body, some are labeled “salvageable” while others are “borderline” or “questionable.” In appealing to potential donors, OPOs also employ ecological metaphors of recycling and plant growth. Such imagery skirts the role of death in cadaverous organ donation. As an alternative to the white-washing tendencies of the medical establishment, some donor kin are working to reassert the memory of the deceased. Donor quilts and virtual donor cemeteries transform the anonymous dead into social creatures.

United States – New York City Organ donation Commodification of human body Organ procurement organizations (OPOs) Donor kinship

Risk and Security for Indian Women in Marriage Kate Schindler

The current social science literature on marriage in India implies that women face many risks. Reports of domestic abuse, dowry deaths, unfair inheritance laws, and even widow-burning abound. It is clear, however, that the risks women face are not blindly accepted; advocacy for women is growing, and risky situations are being exposed and analyzed, paving the way for structural change.

Many women in both North and South India feel that they have a sacred duty to marry and have children. Jejeebhoy argues that “marrying off a daughter is regarded as one of the most important duties of a father in both north and south India” (180) according to Riessman’s study of childless women, married women without children may be abused by their in-laws and criticized by their communities. A divorced woman faces extreme pressure to reunite with her

66 husband, even if she is experiencing dowry-related or other domestic violence, making her effectively a hostage in her marital home (Bloch).

Since unmarried women are considered dangerous (Stein), and widows are generally not allowed to remarry, widows are often treated badly by their communities. Basu, Den Uyl, Stein and Unnithan-Kumar discuss the treatment of widows in different contexts. According to Stein, a historian, in recent years, many women have chosen or been forced to burn with their husbands’ bodies and become a saint (sati) rather than live the life of a widow.

Girls and young women also face many risks related to marriage. Some rural North

Indian families marry off their daughters at a younger age to avoid not being able to at an older age (Sagade). According to Alexander et al, young girls in urban areas are increasingly participating in risky premarital sexual activity, much of it coerced.

Though more young women, particularly in South India, are earning money working outside the home, many are not allowed to work after marriage (Lessinger, Ratham and Rao,

Sweeney and Naish). Vera-Sanso argues that Tamil women in Chennai, South India, who seek employment outside the home risk being ostracized by their communities. Greater education and ability to work in the cash economy does increase women’s security in the event of widowhood, desertion, or extreme need, however.

Women’s families increase their security as well. Women who live in endogamous communities in South India can count on the support of their natal families if they need protection from their husbands (Rahman and Rao). Lambert describes a system in which some women in Kerala are “adopted” by families when they marry into a community far from home so that they will have support similar to that of their natal families.

67 Women are gaining support from broader bases than their families as well. Human rights activists are fighting against child marriage and sati. More women are becoming educated, giving them more negotiating power in marriage (Rahman and Rao), the ability to earn money to feed their families when necessary, and the ability to escape a dangerous marriage or survive after being widowed (Sweeney and Naish). Women’s commissions, groups, and shelters are being created, albeit slowly and ineffectively at first, to help women in risky situations (Chacko), and legislation against domestic violence has been proposed (Sunder Rajan).

Alexander, Mallika, Laila Garda, Savita Kanade, Shireen Jejeebhoy, Bela Ganatra. 2006. Romance and Sex: Pre-Marital Partnership Formation among Young Women and Men, Pune District, India. Reproductive Health Matters 14(28):144-155. The authors, a demographer, an anthropologist and health researchers, interviewed approximately 8500 rural and urban men and women between the ages of 15 and 24 in Pune District of Maharashtra. About 17% of rural young men, 25% of urban young men, five percent of rural young women, and eight percent of rural young women reported romantic relationships before marriage. 12-22 percent of young women reported having sex in these relationships, which most tried to conceal from their parents. Many young men did not intend to marry their partners, condom use is not widespread, and a significant minority of women were forced or persuaded to have sex the first time. These three factors contribute significantly to risk for young women. The authors conclude by arguing that women’s security can be increased if the state directs public reproductive health programs toward unmarried as well as married women.

India—Maharashtra Romantic partnerships Sexual activity outside of marriage Rape Demography and population studies

Basu, Srimati. 1999. She Comes to Take her Rights. Albany: State University of New York Press. Basu examines women’s inheritance rights as a result of the 1956 Hindu Succession Act through interviews of women in New Delhi. Though the law gave women limited property rights, many women forfeit these rights in the name of familial harmony. Many Indians feel threatened by the idea of women owning property; they fear that if women could be financially

68 independent, then the institutions of family and marriage would suffer. Though they often give up their natal inheritances, many women realize that property ownership is important to their security, particularly in their old age. Therefore, they take what substitutes they can, such as dowry as a symbol of their natal families’ care for them, financial assistance from their natal families when necessary, and education for the possibility of a wealthier husband and financial independence in the event of widowhood or desertion. Basu concludes that because of social norms in India such as the primacy of the family, legislation is not sufficient to obtain property rights for women. Cultural views of women as inferior must change in order to increase women’s security.

India—New Delhi Property rights Inheritance Women Family values Legislation Equity

Bloch, Francis and Vijayendra Rao. 2002. Terror as a Bargaining Instrument: A Case Study of Dowry Violence in Rural India. The American Economic Review 92(4):1029-1043. Bloch and Rao, economists, define dowry violence as systematic abuse of the wife by the husband’s family in order to get larger payments from her parents. They conducted open-ended interviews in three villages in rural South India in order to obtain ethnographic information on the causes of dowry-related violence. They argue that a bride is a hostage, since divorce is effectively impossible, which makes violence a very effective bargaining tool. Each wife-abuser they interviewed explained his behavior as a means of controlling resources. Though they did not find instances of murder, husbands did occasionally isolate their wives by forcing them to break off all contact with their parents and then refusing to support them in any way. Bloch and Rao use game theory to argue that husbands who are dissatisfied in the marriage are more likely to turn to violence or separation, and their econometric evidence supports their argument. They conclude that violence deserves greater attention from economists because it is often related to economic incentives, and consequently, women’s risk is systematic and predictable rather than random.

Rural South India Dowry violence Economic incentives Satisfaction in marriage Economics

Chacko, Elizabeth. 2003. Marriage, Development, and the Status of Women in Kerala, India. Gender and Development. 11(2):52-59.

69 Chacko, a cultural geographer, discusses the status of women in Kerala in relation to development. Kerala has both the highest human development index and gender-related development index ratings in India, according to the UN. This rating includes life expectancy, literacy, women’s age at first marriage, total fertility rate, and sex ratio. Contemporary inheritance laws are biased against women, however, and the practice of dowering women at marriage is commonplace. Dowries were originally meant to give women an independent source of wealth within marriage, adding to their security, but in recent decades their in-laws have taken these from them. Married women are also at risk of domestic violence, often because their in- laws perceive their dowries to be inadequate. Sometimes this violence ends in their deaths. The Kerala Women’s Commission was created in 1996 to help empower women and increase their security, but its success thus far has been modest.

India – Kerala Women Marriage Development Indicators Dowry Domestic violence Cultural geography

Den Uyl, Marion. 2000. Kinship and Gender Indentity: Some Notes on Marumakkathayam in Kerala. In Culture, Creation and Procreation. Monika Böck and Aparna Rao, eds. Pp. 177-197. New York: Berghahn Books. This chapter examines the matrilineal Nayar society of Kerala state and its system of “visiting husbands,” in which women have more freedom and security than in other contexts in India. Den Uyl contrasts Nayar women with Nambudiri women, who had far lower standing in relation to their husbands. In recent decades, Nayar society has been shifting to a more male- dominated system of marriage and residence, where women are supported by their husbands rather than their families. This change has hurt women’s security in two ways: men often do not make enough money to support them, and they have lost the family protection they used to have.

India—Kerala Nayar Nambudiri Matrilineal Women’s Autonomy Marital Residence

Good, Anthony. 1991. The Female Bridegroom: A Comparative Study of Life-Crisis Rituals in South India and Sri Lanka. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Good describes important rituals for young girls in rural villages in South India and Sri Lanka. In the village of Terku Vandanam, Tamil Nadu, where he did the relevant part of his

70 fieldwork, endogamous marriage was preferred, and divorce did happen but with no apparent dishonor to the wife’s family. The community’s close ties and the social acceptability of divorce would imply more security for women than in other parts of India, because the group could put social pressure on a husband to treat his wife well. A new bride also maintains close ties with her family, even while she lives with her husband’s. Finally, in Terku Vandanam, the woman’s consent was required for marriage, and women kept control of their dowries. Tshese factors decrease risk in marriage for women.

India—Tamil Nadu Dowry Rituals Marriage Seclusion Rules

Jejeebhoy, Shireen J. and Shiva S. Halli, 2005. Marriage Patterns in Rural India. In The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries. Cynthia B. Lloyd, Jere R. Behrman, Nelly P. Stromquist and Barney Cohen, Eds. National Research Council of the National Academies. Pp. 172-199. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. The chapter examines differences in marriage patterns in Uttar Pradesh in North India and Tamil Nadu in South India. The authors, a demographer and a sociologist, interviewed both men and women in India and surveyed over 3000 women as part of their research. Key variables are age at marriage, marriage-related decision-making, premarital acquaintance, marital residence, spousal imbalances in age and education, dowry, and factors contributing to delayed marriage. They found that women in Uttar Pradesh marry earlier and their dowries are more likely to consist of household goods than money, while in Tamil Nadu women have more choice in when and whom they marry, and tend to marry men they already know who are closer to them in age and education. Muslims in Tamil Nadu and Hindus in Uttar Pradesh seemed to have the highest dowries. Finally, Jejeebhoy and Halli found that while education tends to delay women’s marriage, it also increases their dowries, and while working before marriage does not affect age at marrage, it tends to decrease dowry. The authors argue that because of this, more than education and economic opportunities are necessary to increase women’s security in marriage.

India—Tamil Nadu India—Uttar Pradesh Marriage Dowry Patterns Demography Sociology

Koenig, Michael, Rob Stephenson, Saifudden Ahmed, Shireen Jejeebhoy, and Jacquelyn Campbell. 2001.

71 Individual and Contextual Determinants of Domestic Violence in North India. American Journal of Public Health 37(2):132-138. The authors, public health social scientists, conducted a survey of 4520 men in Uttar Pradesh, North India, about sexual and physical domestic violence. They found that generally, higher education, higher socioeconomic status, and community disapproval were related to lower rates of domestic violence, while lower socioeconomic status and stressful economic situations such as a husband being laid off, a higher murder rate in the neighborhood, longer marriage duration and childlessness were associated with higher rates of physical violence. Different factors seemed to affect recent coerced sexual intercourse: it was more likely to occur in couples with higher levels of education and less likely to occur when couples had been married longer. Men who had seen their fathers beat their mothers were several times more likely to behave violently toward their wives, no matter what their education or socioeconomic status.

India—Uttar Pradesh Domestic violence Sexual coercion Domestic risk factors Men’s Reproductive Health Survey Public health

Lambert, Helen. 2000. Village Bodies? Reflections on Locality, Constitution, and Affect in Rajasthani Kinship. In Culture, Creation and Procreation. Monika Böck and Aparna Rao, eds. Pp. 81-100. New York: Berghahn Books. Lambert, a medical anthropologist, describes the ways in which kinship ties can increase security for women in rural Rajasthan, North India. The most important are families in the husband’s village who choose to adopt women marrying in, particularly if the women are far from home. These families provide a source of security for a woman, since they can help her if she is too far away to go to her own family. Women are also at less risk of violence while pregnant, since people in Rajasthan believe that mothers’ feelings have considerable influence over the children they carry. The patrilineal kinship system puts women at more risk, however, since if parents divorce, children stay with their father’s family. The risk of losing their children could lead women to stay in a risky situation for the sake of their children. If a woman is dissatisfied with her marriage and elopes with another man, she will be at great risk of violence, since her husband’s entire village will consider it a matter of honor to bring her back and maybe even kill her. In this context, women are not individuals but are a symbol of a village’s honor.

India—Rajasthan Women Kinship Adoptive families Patrilineage Children Marriage distance

72 Lessinger, Johanna. 2002. Work and Love: The Limits of Autonomy for Female Garment Workers in India. Anthropology of Work Review. 23(1-2):13-18. Lessinger examines the changes that opportunities for young women to work in factories have made for women in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Tamil culture dictates that women must have no part in arranging their marriages, but according to the women she interviewed, many are now using their wages to increase their dowries, and some are even choosing love matches. A larger dowry increases a woman’s security because it allows a woman’s family more power in marriage negotiations. If she continues to work, a woman might be able to satisfy in-laws’ demands for more money after the marriage takes place, thereby reducing her risk of dowry death. Finally, if they are not financially dependent on their families, women are able to get out of a dangerous marriage if need be.

India – Tamil Nadu Women’s employment Women’s autonomy Financial independence Dowry Cultural change Arranged marriage

Martin, Sandra L., Kathryn E. Moracco, Julian Garro, Amy Ong Tsui, Lawrence L. Kupper, Jennifer L. Chase, and Jacquelyn C. Campbell. 2002. Domestic Violence across Generations: Findings from Northern India. International Journal of Epidemiology 31:560-572. The authors, health researchers, surveyed nearly 7000 married men in North India about their experiences with and opinions with about wife-abuse. They found that approximately one third of the men interviewed had seen their fathers abuse their mothers, and that approximately one third of domestic violence was attributable to husbands coming from households of this type. Younger men with less education and economic resources were also more likely to abuse their wives. Men who came from non-violent households were far less likely to abuse their own wives. The authors argue that broad-based government-sponsored education on non-violence could be helpful in increasing women’s physical security, and that it is important to intervene with the children in violent households so that the pattern does not continue in the next generation.

North India Domestic violence Parental examples Socioeconomic indicators Public health

Rahman, Lupin and Vijayendra Rao. 2004.

73 The Determinants of Gender Equity in India : Examining Dyson and Moore’s Thesis with New Data. Population & Development Review 30(2):239-268. Tim Dyson and Mick Moore, a demographer and an anthropologist, argued in 1983 that women have more autonomy in South India, where people practice endogamous marriage and brideprice, than in North India, where they practice exogamous marriage and dowry. They argue that women are more secure in the South because they have the support of their natal families after marriage. Rahman and Rao, economists who work with micro-level data, compare and contrast female autonomy and gender equity in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh. They found that the 2001 male-female ratio was 1000-898, and compared it with the southern state of Karnataka, where the male-female ratio was 1000-964. They use data from a survey of 800 married women in the two states from 1995 on village exogamy, female seclusion and consanguinity preferences, as well as wage rates for men and women, the availability of public services, and the availability of women to possess material assets to explain the effect of these variables on freedom of mobility and household decision making. They find that the status of women in southern India has changed dramatically since Dyson and Moore’s study, because village exogamy was practiced in both the North and the South and dowries were paid equally by women in both the North and South at the time of their study. Women have more mobility and average schooling in Karnataka but more household decision making power in Uttar Pradesh. They also concluded that wealthier women and women in consanguineous marriages tend to have less freedom, but women in villages with better basic infrastructure such as roads and electric lighting tend to have more freedom. Finally, women in exogamous marriages with more education or who had been married longer tend to have more decision-making power within the household.

India—Uttar Pradesh and gender equity India—Karnataka and gender equity Exogamous marriage Consanguineous marriage Decision-making power Freedom of mobility Economics

Riessman, Catherine Kohler. 2000. Stigma and Everyday Resistance Practices. Gender and Society 14(1):111-135. Riessman conducted fieldwork and interviews with Hindu and Muslim women in Kerala, South India, about childlessness. She argues that though the women and their neighbors regard motherhood as a sacred duty, those who are unable to have children resist societal stigma by standing up for themselves or avoiding uncomfortable situations such as visits to their in-laws. According to the women Riessman interviewed, people in Kerala always ask women how many children they have and, if the answer is none, then they ask why. Poor women suffered more from childlessness than more affluent women, since their neighbors ridiculed them and their husbands were more likely to abuse them because of it. Affluent women often turned to childless friends for support and knew that they could support themselves if their husbands left them. All women can and do increase their security by blaming those harassing them rather than

74 themselves, by avoiding situations where they know they will encounter harassment, or by returning to live with their parents in extreme situations.

India—Kerala Childlessness Social stigma Resistance Marital relationships Class and infertility

Sagada, Jaya. 2005. Child Marriage in India: Socio-legal and Human Rights Dimensions. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Sagade, a lawyer devoted to women’s rights, discusses the effects of child marriage on women in rural Rajasthan. Child marriage is still practiced occasionally because of the value of virginity, but more often for economic reasons because women are considered a drain on their parents’ resources. Child brides are also less likely to protest against either their or their husbands’ families. Early marriage usually leads to early pregnancy, however, which can have negative effects on women’s health, as well as that of their children. Child brides are seldom allowed to finish their education, are denied sexual information which could increase their security, and have a higher risk of violence in their new homes than older brides.

Rural India—Rajasthan Women Child marriage Human rights Health risks Law

Sharma, Ursula. 2005. Dowry in North India: Its Consequences for Women. In Dowry and Inheritance. Srimati Basu, ed. Pp 15-26. New Delhi: Raj Press. Sharma argues that as junior members of their natal and married households, young Hindu women in North India have little control over their dowries, since households pool all income. Women are often at risk of violence in their new families because of what their in-laws perceive as inadequate dowries. In this situation, their families can often do nothing because of the tendency for women to marry up in society. This tendency means that few women’s parents are as powerful or wealthy as their in-laws, and consequently cannot pressure the in-laws into treating their daughter well or take legal action against them when they do not. Now that caste is less important than it was in the past, middle-class families with sons often choose a bride based on the dowry she brings with her rather than on her caste. Sharma argues that this emphasis on dowry is why dowry deaths have become more common since the 1980s and also why they tend to occur most often among the middle class. Finally, if dowry puts young brides at risk, it increases the security of mothers-in-law, since they usually have control over the new goods.

75 North India Dowry Daughters-in-law Dowry deaths Mothers-in-law Middle class

Srinivasan, Sharada. 2005. Daughters or Dowries? The Changing Nature of Dowry Practices in South India. World Development 33(4):593-615. Srinivasan, a social scientist focusing on development, argues that based on survey research in Tamil Nadu, South India, dowry is replacing brideprice and growing ever larger and more detrimental to women’s security. In previous generations, dowry was a voluntary and symbolic gift to a daughter from her natal family. Young women today experience dowry as a negotiated and obligatory transaction between their families and their husbands’ families. Srinivasan offers possible explanations for the change in dowry, such as men becoming better educated, social pressure, and the economic growth in India. Though many women believe that a large dowry will help them attract a good husband and protect them from marital violence, this is usually not the case. Much domestic violence is related to demands for more money from the wife’s family. She argues that the “dowry trap” can be avoided only if women become more aware of their self-worth and if dowry is no longer critical to marriage.

India—Tamil Nadu Dowry Women’s status Changes in practice Dowry related violence Development Studies

Stein, Dorothy. 1988. Burning Widows, Burning Brides: The Perils of Daughterhood in India. Pacific Affairs 61(3):465-485. Stein, a historian, examines both the historical and cultural significance of sati, the burning of Hindu widows. Though satis died down in the late 19th Century, they have been increasing since the 1950s, and their relatives still build shrines to them. The second half of the article describes the risks for young Indian women while their husbands are still living, such as dowry-related murder or suicide. Stein studied documented cases and found that the phenomenon affected women of all regions, religions, and socioeconomic status. Women are supposed to have the use of their dowries, which would have increased their security, but in practice dowries have usually been appropriated by in-laws, who often harass the wife for more and beat or kill her if her family does not comply. Women generally have no way out, since divorce is almost always a source of dishonor for the woman and her family. Finally, Stein

76 argues that women’s education and earning power does not increase their security in marriage, as their future earnings come to be seen as simply part of their dowries.

India—Bengal Marriage Sati Dowry Dowry deaths

Sunder Rajan, Rajeswari. 2004. Rethinking Law and Violence: The Domestic Violence (Prevention) Bill in India, 2002. Gender& History 16(3):769-793. When the 2002 Domestic Violence against Women (Prevention) Bill was proposed, most Indian feminists lobbied against it because it did not declare an abused woman’s right to occupy the matrimonial home. Sunder Rajan, a professor of English, argues that the feminist-proposed version of this bill is radical but crucial, because it emphasizes rights in the home and relates to property. Women who are forced from their marital homes are usually in desperate straits, as their natal families are usually unwilling to take them back, and feminists believe that women must have the legal right to remain in a home without violence, even if they do not own that home. Sunder Rajan believes that if this right is widely known, then women will be far more secure from domestic violence.

Law Domestic violence Women’s rights Domestic Violence against Women (Prevention) Bill Right of residence

Sweeney, Jackie and Lucy Naish. 2001. We Can Think but We Can't Do. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Papers in South Asian Studies 15. Sweeney and Naish, sociologists, conducted interviews with 295 female college students in Tamil Nadu, South India, about how they expected their education to affect their marriages. Whether the women intended to keep working after marriage varied: some hoped that working would give them some autonomy, some expected that their earnings would go straight to their in- laws, and others assumed that their husbands would not allow them to work at all. They generally saw education as a safety net, however: if their husbands deserted them, they would have a means of survival. The women also viewed arranged marriages as far more secure than love matches, because they would have the support of their natal families no matter what happened in their marriage. Finally, they disagreed with the practice of dowry, arguing that dowries added no security for them and even increased their risk of violence within marriage. They admitted, nonetheless, that their parents would have to pay it when they got married.

India—Tamil Nadu

77 College women Women's education Women working Sociology Marital aspirations Autonomy in marriage Dowry

Unnithan-Kumar, Maya. 2005. Girasia Brideprice and the Politics of Marriage Payments. In Dowry and Inheritance. Srimati Basu, ed. Pp 27-41. New Delhi: Raj Press. Conventional wisdom states that brideprice gives women more freedom and status than does dowry. Unnithan-Kumar finds that among the Muslim Girasia Taivars in Rajasthan, who give brideprice, this is not the case. Through her fieldwork, she discovered that Taivars generally view brideprice as compensation for feeding and clothing the daughter until she gets married. Fathers and husbands still have the ability to control women’s labor, and fathers often sell their daughters for monetary gain. Widows are particularly insecure, since their children belong to their in-laws, who have no duty to take care of her. They are usually forced to leave or continue working for their in-laws as long as their in-laws allow them to stay.

India—Rajasthan Girasia Taivar Muslims Widows Brideprice

Vanita, Ruth. 2005. Love’s Rite: Same-Sex Marriage in India and the West. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Vanita, an English professor from India who specializes in queer and gay studies, examines same-sex relationships all over India, including their implications for women. Women in Southern India who did not wish to marry could, until recently, become adevadasi, or a temple servant dedicated to the goddess Yellamma. Since they had a place in society and were not subject to their husbands’ families, they were at less risk of violence or death. Women who do not wish to marry because they are in same-sex couples are often at great risk of violence, however, because they are regarded as immoral and it is more difficult for them to keep their relationship secret than it is for men.

India Same-sex marriage Devadasis Homosexuality

Vera-Sanso, Penny. 2000.

78 Risk-Talk: The Politics of Risk and its Representation. In Risk Revisited. Patricia Caplan, ed. Pp 108-132. London: Pluto Press. Vera-Sanso argues that low-income Hindu women in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, are subject to a discourse of risk because the world outside the home is dangerous to them because they are naïve and easily deceived. Women who do not conform to this discourse of fearfulness about the outside world are often cut off from their community, putting them at far more risk of economic and food insecurity than they would have otherwise. Besides facing harassment, they often have trouble marrying off their children, or people in the community will boycott their businesses. When women must work outside the home, they can increase their security of community support by referring to their work as a burden that they bear for the sake of their families, as well as taking on work that they can do from home.

India—Tamil Nadu Chennai Low-income women Employment Risk discourse

The Consequences of Neoliberal Economic Globalization: Neoliberalism in Bolivia Lissa Cruzado

Anthropological studies of globalization have conventionally focused on how minority groups resist, accept, or reinterpret foreign-imposed influences, such as structural adjustment, open trade, and international tourism. Critical analysis of policy discourse reveals that success in development is contingent upon the stabilization of policy interpretations, but too little attention is given to how they are maintained socially and generated and legitimized in specific contexts.

Today, the continual evolution of globalization has produced a more complex ethnographic context for anthropological inquiry. Recent ethnographic investigations of global processes draw on Foucault’s concept of governmentality to show how policy regulates social life through techniques of discipline. These studies disclose how the cultural politics of citizenship, identity and community are being constructed in relation to political regulation and market discipline (Ong, Cohen, Moore, Rainbow, Yurchak). Anthropologists are also revealing that borrow countries, through their negotiations and agreements with the lending institutions,

79 are also playing a significant role in the positive and negative outcomes that are a result of neoliberal programs.

Bolivia implemented the following neoliberal restructuring strategies: privatization, cutting of state pay rolls and programs, and reducing of tariffs and protections (Postero 2005). A critical examination of Bolivia’s neoliberal restructuring strategies will allow us to discern the role of each group (citizens, the state, donor institutions etc.) in the social stabilization of policy interpretations and practices. In addition, a myth of partnership between lenders and aid- receiving countries perpetuates the execution of oppressive actions. A perfect example of this can be found in Bolivia. Although the conditionalities of the loans were and are still being negotiated, the IMF and World Bank make the final decisions. They also continue to make additional demands of Bolivia, such as the privatization of oil and gas, which negatively affect the citizens and benefit Western nations, such as the United States (Kohl 2002).

Countries are continually being advised that reterritorialization of state relations are necessary to regulate new socioeconomic conditions informed by neoliberal development policies. In the case of Bolivia this suggestion led to an increase in socioeconomic inequality and poverty within and across communities (Kohl 2002).

Anthropological research must focus on the ideologies that are used by states to restructure state governance and legitimize their development practices. Anthropologists, through their context-based analyses, can suggest to development actors more effective methods for developing policies and practices and explain to them why theirs have failed.

Anthropologists are capable of influencing policy design and practice and ensuring that they are culturally accepted and applicable to the socioeconomic conditions of the target area.

80 Ultimately, anthropologists are not suggesting that we construe all forms of neoliberal economic globalization as hegemonically evil. Rather, we underscore that anthropological studies of globalization can provide insights that will help us understand better the complex ways in which individuals, local and international groups, humanitarian aid agencies, first and third world governments, and development institutions respond to change, make decisions and exercise power.

Albro, Rob. 2006 The Culture of Democracy and Bolivia’s Indigenous Movements. Critique of Anthropology 26(4):387-410. Albro states that the endorsement of multiculturalism in Bolivia gave rise to the establishment of the Popular Participation Law (PPL). PPL awarded full legal recognition to already existing traditional and popular political structure and management, according to what are “called a group’s “use, customs, and statutory dispositions” or customary law. The author maintains that the passing of this law significantly altered relations between indigenous peoples and the state. Furthermore, he argues that because the state recognizes indigenous peoples based on the “pastness” of their cultural heritage, this policy could limit their ability to participate in contemporary political processes.

Bolivia Indigenous peoples Cultural heritage Customary law Recognition Popular participation law

Benson, Carol. 2004 Do We Expect Too Much of Bilingual Teachers? Bilingual Teaching in Developing Countries. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 7(2&3):204-219. On the basis of fieldwork in Cochabamba, Bolivia in 2001, Benson found that the teachers were insufficiently trained in the state’s reformed methods and procedures of bilingual instruction. The school teachers admitted to skipping over parts of their lessons because they could not understand the standardized instruction materials. Language planners disagree over whether Spanish instruction materials should be adapted to meet the needs of both native speakers and second language learners. She argues that what this indicates is a lack of second language methodological experience on the part of the governmental reform personnel. She

81 speculates that this may be a reason why teachers are having problems understanding the instruction materials.

Bolivia Bilingual teachers Reformed bilingual education Teacher training Instruction materials

Foster Z, Byron E, Victoria Reyes-Garcia, Tomas Huanca, Victor Valdez, Lilian Apaza, Eddy Perez, Susan Tanner, Yorema Gutierrez, Bryan Sandstrom B, Anne Yakhedts, C. Osborn, Ricardo Godoy, William R. Leonard. 2003 Physical Growth and Nutritional Status of Tsimane’ Amerindian Children of Lowland Bolivia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 126:343-351. A team of biological anthropologists and other scientists conducted a study examining the patterns of growth and nutritional status of 409 (210 girls and 199 boys) Tsimane’ Amerindian children. This study was conducted from June-Nov 2000, using a cross-sectional sample of 58 villages from the Beni Department of lowland Bolivia. Measures of physical growth (height-for- age, weight-for-age, and weight-for-height) and nutritional status were standardized relative to National Center for Health Statistics values. Through their research, they determined that high levels of statural growth stunting are associated with poor diets low in micronutrients and high prevalence of diseases in the area, and nutritional status was directly correlated to access to education. They conclude that ecological and socio-economic changes in lifestyle have important implications for population health.

Lowland Bolivia Tsimane’ Indigenous children Child growth and development Diet quality Biological anthropology

Godoy R, Victoria Reyes-Garcia, Thomas McDade, Tomas Huanca, William R. Leonard, Susan Tanner, Victor Valdez. 2006 Does Village Inequality in Modern Income Harm the Psyche? Anger, Fear, Sadness, and Alcohol Consumption in a Pre-industrial Society. Social Science & Medicine 63:359-372. Analysis of 2002-2003 data from 665 adults in 13 villages of a foraging-farming society in the Bolivian Amazon (Tsimane’), estimate the correlation between three negative emotions (anger, fear, sadness); village income inequity and social capital; and one stress behavior (alcohol consumption). They found that village income inequality was associated more with negative emotions but with less alcohol consumption. Positive associations were found between the participant’s and household member’s emotions and alcohol consumption. Social capital was negatively associated with anger, sadness, fear, and alcoholism. Although, new variables were

82 introduced in the model, the results were consistent. They state that by studying the socioeconomic changes in lifestyle of a small-scale, horticultural and foraging society, their understanding of how income inequality could affect health was enhanced.

Bolivia Tsimane’ Health Income inequality Emotions Social capital

Goldstein, Daniel. 2004 The Spectacular City: Violence and Performance in Bolivia. Durham: Duke University Press. Goldstein argues that the local people use displays of violence to contest their marginalization, communicate their requests, and attract attention from those who have denied their social inclusion in Bolivian society. He describes how marginalized urban migrants living in Villa Pagador, Bolivia use ritual and public performance to express their dissatisfaction with the state’s inadequate provision of public services, namely police protection. If the economic situation of all Bolivian citizens does not improve, the author asserts that these forms of protest will continue to be practiced.

Villa Pagador, Bolivia Police protection Performance Violence Marginalization

Gustafson, Bret. 2005 Human Rights Dialogue: Cultural Rights. Carnegie Council on Ethics in International Affairs 2(12):13-14. Gustafson argues that indigenous people’s demands for political recognition and control of land are, in most cases, accompanied by demands for bilingual education. The author contends that the Bolivian Guarani fight for linguistic rights is not only to protect their cultural identity, but for social inclusion in Bolivian society. Furthermore, he claims that the increasing poverty and displacement of indigenous Guarani language and people have led to social fragmentation.

Bolivia Guarani Linguistic rights Indigenous people Indigenous Language Social Inclusion

83 Hornberger, Nancy. 2000 Bilingual Education Policy and Practice in the Andes. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 31(2):173-201. Hornberger, an education specialist, investigates how language policy and education reforms, specifically bilingual intercultural education, have created new opportunities for indigenous populations living in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. She defines the term interculturality as the promotion of diversity of several overlapping identities constructed around class, gender, culture, and ethnicity. By examining the ways in which the term interculturality is used in policy papers, she explores the implications of transforming a standardizing education into one that is multilingual, and of creating a national identity that is pluracultural. She argues that, through the use of ritual oral performances, Bolivian Aymara practitioners are contesting dominant discourse practices and reinforcing their collective identity.

Bolivia Peru Ecuador Aymara Intercultural Pluracultural Language policy Education Reform Performance Collective Identity Multilingualism Standardization

Kohl, Benjamin. 2002 Stabilizing Neoliberalism in Bolivia: Privatization and Participation in Bolivia. Political Geography 21(4):449-472. Kohl, a geographer, critically analyzes Bolivia’s neoliberal economic and political restructuring strategies. Kohl notes that while foreign investment has increased, spending on social welfare has decreased. He contends that the privatization and commodification of water in Cochabamba led to rate hikes, which in turn, induced the rapid formation of resistance movements. He argues that these reforms have threatened the economic security of the Bolivian people and have created greater social inequality.

Bolivia Neoliberal restructuring Privatization of water Social inequality Economic insecurity

Luykx, Aurolyn. 2003

84 Whose Language Is It Anyway? Historical Fetishism and the Construction of Expertise in Bolivian Language Planning. Current Issues in Comparative Education 5(2):92-102. Luykx, through the examination of the language ideologies of Andean language planners, and by focusing on the criteria they use when making decisions related to language standardization, found that language ideology plays an integral role in the formation of Bolivia’s language policies. He contends that because Bolivian language planners have a fetishism for archaic forms of language, they don’t use contemporary indigenous language forms to develop standardized texts. University-trained experts and government officials are subjugating indigenous ideas of language standardization and, by implication, are making sociolinguistically misguided language policy decisions. These decisions, he argues, may disempower indigenous speech communities and lead to the decline of indigenous languages.

Bolivia Indigenous peoples Experts Language ideology Language planning and policies Standardization

McDade T, Leonard WR, Reyes-Garcia V, Valdez V, Huanca T, Godoy R. 2005 Predictors of C-Reactive Protein in Tsimane’ 2 to 15 Years-Old in Lowland Bolivia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 128(4):906-913. A team of biological anthropologists and other scientists conducted a study in 2002 to determine the predictors of C-reactive protein (a biomarker of immune activation) in a cross- sectional sample of 536 2-15 year old Tsimane’ children (boys and girls) from the Beni Department of lowland Bolivia. Predictors of increased CRP used included age, gender, and multiple measures of pathogen exposure, economic resources, and acculturation. They found that the median blood-spot CRP concentration was 0.73 mg/l, and 12.9 percent of the sample had concentrations greater than 5 mg/L. Thus, indicating a relatively high frequency of immune activation in the population. Age was the strongest predictor of CRP and the highest concentrations were found among younger individuals. Increased CRP was also associated with increased maternal education and literacy, higher pathogen exposure, and lower household economic resources. They conclude that the level of measurement of CRP is an objective indicator of immune activation and provides insights into how socioeconomic and environmental conditions shape child growth and health.

Lowland Bolivia Tsimane’ Indigenous children Growth development and health Infectious disease C-reactive protein Immune activation Health predictors

85 Socioeconomic and environmental quality

Mc Ewan, Patrick J. 2004 The Indigenous Test Score Gap in Bolivia and Chile. Economic Development and Cultural Change 53(1):157-190. Mc Ewan conducted an education study to determine reasons for the gap in achievement test scores between non- and indigenous Bolivian and Chilean primary school students. He found that differential poverty levels in the villages under study and the educational environment at home significantly correlated with the lower performance of the indigenous students. He also found that unequal differences between peer quality, and school and classroom resources, such as instructional material are correlated with lower indigenous performance. He argues, however, that in order to change Bolivian and Chilean education policies further research is needed to supplement his findings.

Bolivia Chile Non-indigenous primary school pupils Indigenous primary school pupils Achievement Test Scores Instruction materials Peer Quality School performance

Olivera, Oscar and Tom Lewis. 2004 Cochabamba! Water War in Bolivia. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. Olivera, spokesperson for the Coordinadora in Bolivia, and Lewis, a professor of Spanish and International Studies, provide a detailed account of the 2000 Water War in Cochabamba, Bolivia in which dozens of people were wounded during massive protests over the passing of a law allowing privatization of water and supplies. Their main argument is that Bolivia’s neoliberal restructuring strategies, namely the privatization of national industries and cutting of state pay rolls, have been devastating for the Bolivian people and induced the rapid formation of resistance movements. Furthermore, they contend that these reforms have led to the erosion of the culture of collective identity and intensified the exploitation of Bolivia’s natural resources.

Cochabamba, Bolivia 2000 Water War Neoliberal restructuring strategies Privatization Resistance movements Collective identity

Postero, Nancy. 2005

86 Indigenous Responses to Neoliberalism: A Look at the Bolivian Uprising of 2003. Political and Legal Anthropology Review 28(1):73-92. Postero argues that Bolivia’s IMF-imposed neoliberal restructuring strategies— privatization of national industries, cutting of state pay rolls and programs, and reducing of tariffs and protections—have made access to life sustaining resources difficult for people in all sectors. The author contends that the state’s restructuring strategies are responsible for the social and economic problems to which indigenous peoples have launched successful resistance movements. Postero maintains that by demanding equal participation in political processes, protestors are redefining the terms citizenship and citizenship rights.

Bolivia Neoliberalism Indigenous peoples Citizenship and citizenship rights Privatization

Speed, Shannon. 2005 Dangerous Discourses: Human Rights and Multiculturalism in Neoliberal Mexico. Political and Legal Anthropology Review 28(1):29-51. Speed examines the effects of neoliberal restructuring in Latin America. The author states that Bolivia’s multiculturalism practices have caused disempowerment of indigenous groups, and transformed them into unchallenging subjects of the state’s neoliberal agenda. She also argues that multiculturalism in Latin America may be working to limit protest movements and redefine the “subjects of resistance”. Furthermore, the author maintains that neoliberal multiculturalism may pose more risks to indigenous peoples, than did past assimilation processes.

Latin America Indigenous peoples Neoliberal multiculturalism Subjects of resistance

Tapias, Maria. 2006 Emotions and the Intergenerational Embodiment of Social Suffering in Rural Bolivia. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 20(3):399-415. From 1996-1998 and in 2003, Tapias conducted fieldwork in Punata and Cochabamba, Bolivia. Her research focused on the short- and long-term effects of maternal emotions, such as rage and socioeconomic distress on infant health. She found that since the mid 1980’s, Bolivia’s neoliberal socioeconomic structural adjustment reforms have caused an increase in social suffering and distress within communities and families, particularly women. Based on qualitative data obtained from interviews with mothers, she argues that the emergence of emotion-related illness in market women and working class mothers is harming the health of their babies in utero, infants and children. Emotions generated from domestic violence and economic hardships accumulates in the mother’s body, are released through breast milk, and cause infant mortality or

87 increased susceptibility to child mental and body illness. She observed that factors such as poverty, economic and job insecurity, high rates of alcoholism, increased migration, and familial conflicts have led to an increase in health problems among mothers and children, across generations. She argues that studying health problems and expressions of embodied emotional and bodily distress will help us understand better how Bolivians have and are being affected by and coping with the neoliberal reforms.

Bolivia Cochabamba Punata Neoliberal restructuring reforms Maternal Health Infant and child health Social suffering Emotion related illness Health problems Mortality Structural violence

Taylor, Solange. 2004 Intercultural and Bilingual Education in Bolivia: The Challenge of Ethnic Diversity and National Identity. Instituto de Investigaciones Socio Economicias: Documento de Trabajo No. 01/04. Taylor, an expert on language planning in Bolivia, discusses Bolivia’s pre- and post- neoliberal education reforms. He argues that Bolivia’s pre-neoliberal reforms failed in establishing education systems capable of addressing the cultural diversity in Bolivia. He also discusses the officialization, in September 2000, of thirty-five Bolivian languages. Taylor states that these education and language policy reforms were important steps towards developing a national identity. He argues, however, that the downside to officializing languages is that reforms in language and in educational policies based on these languages have the potential to become tokenized—policies that are a symbolic intimation of the acceptance of diversity. He contends that this will lead to the implementation of ineffective language policies.

Bolivia Education reform Officialization Language policy

Wright, Susan. 2004 Endangered Languages. In Language Policy and Language Planning: From Nationalization to Globalization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Wright examines the language revitalization efforts of the Uru of Iru-Itu, Bolivia. She argues that the Uru have lost their language due to the lack of economic development in the region. By having to look for employment outside of the region, they have come in contact with the English language. She contends that being far removed from their community has led them

88 to feel alienated and isolated from their family and neighbors. The author states that the disappearance of a group’s language has negative consequences for social cohesiveness, self- respect, and well-being.

Bolivia Iru-Itu Uru Language revitalization Language loss English

The Politics of Infertility: Cultural Loss of Feminine Identity and the Risks of New Reproductive Technology Danielle Mattei

The purpose of this literature review is twofold: to explore how new reproductive technologies put women at risk and reshape the female identity. New reproductive technologies

(NRTs) are defined as the use of biotechnology to treat infertility through in vitro fertilization, gamete donation, super ovulation and fertility drugs, and additional medical implantation procedures (Ginsburg and Rapp, 1991 and Steinburg 1990). The sources indicate that, although women have no desire to put themselves at risk, cultural expectations of biological parenthood coupled with the embedded stigma of barrenness lead women to assume risk in order to procreate. Certain populations of women suffer from higher levels of reproductive risk due to the politics and economics of infertility. Inequalities regarding income, class, ethnicity, knowledge, and government control are a few of the impediments to women accessing reproductive technology.

Anthropologists studying the affects of reproductive technologies on women are divided on the issue. Lazrus, Inhorn, and Hanson view NRT as a way to free women from the stigma of childlessness. Although the authors are concerned medical practitioners having control over women’s bodies, women in turn have the opportunity to realize aspirations of motherhood. In

89 contrast, Becker, Steinberg, Rapp and Ginsburg view NRTs as an attack on womanhood and a relinquishing of women’s agency to a male dominated medical profession. They conclude that women lose agency over their bodies as they become commodities and resources in the medical process.

All of the sources reviewed examine the loss of control and bodily risk associated with

NRTs. Becker, Steinberg, Hanson, Ginsburg and Rapp believe the risk of NRTs is loss of female identity. Greenhalgh, Lazarus, Simpson and Vandervort believe NRTs are commodities of social control and therefore individual agency is lost to government entities. Lastly, Browner, Inhorn,

Shore, and Franklin assert that the risk is the altering of cultural kinship and familial bonds as

NRTs remove the norm of biological parenthood. The common thread is that technological advancements impact how women are viewed, used, and altered as a result of technology.

This research is too preliminary to draw any concrete conclusions regarding the risk of

NRTs usurping feminine identity or altering kinship lineage. While the literature examines the problems NRTs create within individual cultures, it is difficult to apply the conclusions cross- culturally. Perceptions about agency of the female body differ across cultures; therefore, these studies do not clearly identify the elements that are germane to all cultures. Additionally, anthropologists studying NRTs did not take into account examples of women outside of the hetero-normative context when examining kinship shift. These are two places that would benefit from continued anthropological studies.

Becker, Gay. 2000 Consuming Technologies. In The Elusive Embryo: How Women and Men Approach New Reproductive Technologies. Gaylene Becker, and Naomi Schneider, eds. Pp. 4-25. Berkley, CA: University of California Press Becker explores the developments of reproductive technology through the lens of American culture and examines the effect technologies have on women and men. She conducted

90 two medical anthropological studies over a period of two years administering multiple one-on- one interviews with over 300 men and women undergoing infertility treatment in the United States. The studies observed how men and women deal with several issues: the deeply embedded cultural expectations of biological reproduction, how they negotiate gender relations, how they think about the cultural ideal of biological parenthood, and how they assess the biomedical system of reproductive technologies. She argues that reproductive technologies aid in reinforcing cultural norms of biological parenthood and provide families with the hope of attaining their goal but the women become commodities in the process. Thus, biomedical practitioners’ emphasis has shifted from diagnosing and correcting abnormal physiology to achieving pregnancy in the fastest and most direct way regardless of cost or invasiveness.

United States Infertility centers New reproductive technologies Commodification of women Biological reproduction

Becker, Gay. 2000 Performing Gender. In The Elusive Embryo: How Women and Men Approach New Reproductive Technologies. Gaylene Becker and Naomi Schneider, eds. Pp. 236-250. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Becker uses ethnographic research to examine the social and cultural forces in the United States that have merged and conspired to nurture the growth of technology and foster the “reimaging” of the feminine identity. Reproductive technologies challenge the cultural norm of “natural parenthood” and therefore consumers of NRTs test the status quo. She observes that attempts to become pregnant through use of reproductive technology last until a couple’s emotional and financial resources are exhausted and female bodies in particular are commodified as a result. The experimentation of impregnating post-menopausal women, of biomedical treatments to “cure” infertility in women, and reconstructing the notion of “natural” fertilization to uphold biological paternity are a few of the ways in which reproductive technologies put women at risk. Becker contends that patriarchal gender interests are perpetuated in polices and practices of reproductive technology to the detriment of females, as women undergoing medical treatment feel that the sense of natural order is being undermined and reconstructed.

United States Infertility centers New reproductive technologies Female identity Biomedicine Commodification of reproduction

Bonacorso, Monica M. E. 2004

91 Programmes of Gamete Donation: Strategies in (Private) Clinics of Assisted Conception. In Reproductive Agency, Medicine, and the State. Maya Unnithan-Kumar, ed. Pp. 83-101. New York: Berghahn Books. Bonacorso, a social anthropologist, conducted fieldwork in Italy for 18 months in private infertility centers. She studied the use of kinship idioms in the context of assisted conception and how practitioners use them to ensure that their patients return. In Italy, medical doctors used the language of kinship to strengthen their client’s faith in IVF techniques and outcomes. The language evokes associations of “naturalness” by connecting the present techniques to a past, non-medical, biological realm of child conception. Because Italy lacks legislation regulating reproductive technology, the clinics treat patients as consumers of free-market private provision rather than solely as patients; a market condition similar to that found in the United States. This is different than the situation in most European countries which provide both laws and funding for infertility treatments. The lack of legislation in Italy gives clinicians full freedom to treat each patient individually rather than using a standard approach mandated by governments. However, due to the higher cost of NRT in Italy, only those in the middle or upper class can receive the benefits.

Italy In vitro fertilization Privatization Reproductive agency Kinship

Browner, C. H. 2000 Situating Women’s Reproductive Activities. American Anthropologist 102 (4):773-788. By examining three Latino communities, one in urban Cali, Colombia, one in the Oaxacan municipality in Mexico, and another in urban Southern California in the United States, Browner argues that gendered ideologies of reproduction differ depending on social class, ethnicity, nationality, and immigration status. Conducting face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with men and women from the three communities, Browner determined that the difference in location and structural forces within the community contribute to whether men or women hold the power to influence aspects of a female’s reproductive activities and the reproductive technologies they use. Her argument is social structural factors such as the distribution of economic, political, and institutional resources are fundamental in shaping the conjugal dynamic between a man and woman. Therefore the reproductive negotiation that occurs is reflective of the structural forces exerted within the culture; the conflict or consensus that emerges within a relationship results in crafting a gendered hierarchy. The impact is visited upon women in a form of structural violence, which dictates behavior and women risk loosing agency and choice regarding reproduction.

Colombia , Cali Mexico, Oaxaca Mexican Americans Conjugal dynamics Reproductive power and choice

92 Social structural force Gender ideology and behavior Gender politics

Clarke, Laura Hurd, Anne Martin-Matthews, and Ralph Matthews. 2006 The Continuity and Discontinuity of the Embodied Self in Infertility. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 43 (1):95-113. Through the use of in-depth interviews of 110 women and 68 men undergoing infertility treatment in Canada, Clarke, Martin-Matthews, and Matthews analyze the impact of infertility upon the psyche and explore feelings of bodily failure relative to infertility. The authors provide a deep analysis of how perceived feelings of dysfunction make individuals aware of their embodiment, thus crafting a gendered discourse of alienation and identity shock. Infertility brought many couples shame, disappointment, feelings of anger, and a negative societal self- worth. As cultural expectations of the body through fertility were unrealized, conceptualization of oneself was fractured; the male sense of virility and masculinity is challenged and the feminine identification with motherhood and family, when unfulfilled, became a mark of shame. In this article, utilizing reproductive technologies to become pregnant made couples more aware of their bodily dysfunction and created pressure to rely on outside measures to ensure self-esteem and remedy the “defective body.” This upholds the cultural expectations of pregnancy yet created insecurity and an increased risk to female and male bodies as they underwent infertility treatments.

Canada Infertility Socialization Self/Body alienation Masculine and Feminine Identity

Franklin, Sarah. 1998 Making Miracles: Scientific Progress and the Facts of Life. In Reproducing Reproduction. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné, eds. Pp. 102-117. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Franklin combines ethnography and kinship theory with approaches from biology, gender theory, and cultural studies to look at how new reproductive technologies alter the coherence of the standard structure of kinship and social groupings in the United Kingdom. Conducting fieldwork in two IVF clinics with 22 couples undergoing assisted reproductive technologies (ARTS), she examined the wider social dimension of the changing conception model. The contemporary use of ARTS increased the patient’s understanding of reproductive risk. Her fieldwork determined that IVF takes over a woman’s life adding additional desire and hope of pregnancy where before, many of the couples had resigned themselves to infertility. IVF, originally thought to establish greater choice for women, ultimately produced less of a choice for them due to the elimination of alternative methods. Franklin found that medical professionals asserted that IVF was the first and only route to begin assisted conception. The dilemmas couples faced reflected broader anxieties about risks associated with medical technology, health, and

93 cost. These issues, coupled with greater expectations of pregnancy and cultural pressure to reproduce altered the traditionally natural, biological standard model of conception and established new notions of kinship, gender, and reproduction outside of familial bonds.

England Infertility centers Assisted reproductive technology In vitro fertilization Kinship Reproductive agency

Ginsburg, Faye; Rayna Rapp. 1991 The Politics of Reproduction. Annual Review of Anthropology. 20:311-343. In this literature review, Ginsburg and Rapp analyze the politics of reproduction by examining reproductive agency. Observing cross-cultural norms, beliefs, and values, as well as Foucauldian power relations, the authors looked at how biotechnology, governmental control, socioeconomic policy, and bodily autonomy shape concepts of reproduction. Parturition, household sustenance, constitution of the labor force, and ideologies that support the continuity of social system influence fertility and female agency with regard to reproduction. The American cultural preoccupation with bodily perfection, the fantasy of children as flawless and expected in heterosexual relationships, and the romance of science conquering human frailty ignore female control and aid in the construction and continuation of herteronormative reproduction. While reproductive biotechnology upholds cultural norms, female bodies are subjected to manipulation rendering the female subordinate to the politics of reproduction.

Reproductive agency Reproductive technology Reproductive regulation Female commodification

Greenhalgh, Susan. 1994 Controlling Births and Bodies in Village China. American Ethnologist 21 (1):3-30. Greenhalgh conducted field research in the northwest province of Shaanxi, China on the reproductive politics and reproductive controls that the state’s population policy put in place. Birth planning enforcement such as the one-child policy have the adverse affect of putting women’s bodies at risk while reinforcing social subordination through patriarchal dominance. Through the medicalization of reproductive healthcare, reproductive micropolitics on bodily practices have affected the cultural construction of gender and constrained human agency. Greenhalgh found that birth control meant controlling not just any bodies but, in particular, female bodies. Women underwent most of the sterilization and other birth control policies enacted in China.

China, Shaanxi Reproductive politics

94 Reproductive control and sterilization policy State domination Population policy Feminist anthropology

Hanson, F. Allan. 2001 Donor Insemination: Eugenic and Feminist Implications. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 15 (3):287-311. Hanson surveyed 65 white, middle aged, well educated, affluent, North American women who voluntarily answered questionnaires distributed to over 100 fertility centers and sperm banks throughout the United States and Canada. He sought to explain whether donor insemination (DI) was being used to improve the condition of women, or as a tool of the patriarchal system that appropriates female functions and exploits female bodies to further scientific and eugenic ends. Hanson looked at the medicalization of women who became swept up in diagnoses and therapies and lost control of their bodies to reproductive technologies. He states that historically, male domination and medicalization of DI threatened women’s reproductive agency. His conclusion is that DI shifted and now has the potential to free women from male dominance and empower them to reproduce with minimal male involvement; sperm banks enable women a wider, non-invasive reproductive technology to realize their traditional aspirations and values related to reproduction.

North America Canada and the United States Donor Insemination Medicalization Women’s agency New reproductive technologies

Inhorn, Marcia. 2006 "He Won't Be My Son" Middle Eastern Muslim Men's Discourses of Adoption and Gamete Donation. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 20 (1):94-120. Having conducted fieldwork in multisectarian Lebanon, Inhorn uses her findings to show how new reproductive technologies, specifically in vitro fertilization and gamete donation, must be examined within the context of local mores and religion. Religious decree frequently prevents certain reproductive technologies from being used and outlawing reproductive technology prohibits many married couples from reproducing. However, recent cultural and religious changes in Shiite dominated Lebanon now allow for in vitro fertilization and egg donation. Donor technologies for Sunni Muslims are still outlawed due to religious doctrine, with the only exception being in vitro fertilization. However, Inhorn found that many men would not agree to participate because they felt any offspring would be illegitimate. Inhorn states that children can be born and, therefore, marriages can be saved throughout the Muslim world with the use of these technologies. While this cultural shift does not provide women with reproductive agency it helps to diminish the stigma associated with being childless.

95 Lebanon New reproductive technologies In vitro fertilization Gamete donation Kinship Islamic values Infertility

Lazarus, Ellen S. 1994 What Do Women Want?: Issues of Choice, Control, and Class in Pregnancy and Childbirth. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 8 (1):25-46. Lazarus, a professor of anthropology at Case Western Reserve, spent 12 years analyzing issues of choice and control for women undergoing infertility treatment and their reliance on medical technology. Her study, conducted in Cleveland, Ohio separated women into three groups: working middle class women, women health professionals that are also middle-class, and poor women. When comparing the experience of infertility treatment among the three divergent groups of women, she found that knowledge about childbirth and care in infertility clinics was inextricably linked to social class. Depending on one’s social class, patients received unequal levels of care. Poor women received separate and unequal levels of care; they were seen in different waiting rooms and examination rooms. Middle class women were influenced by the feminist movement to assert control over reproduction and fertility treatment options however their decisions are also influenced by their acceptance of, or ambivalence toward, the increasingly routine use of advanced technology and obstetrician control of the birthing process.

Ohio, Cleveland Childbirth Medical knowledge Medical hegemony Reproductive technologies Social class

Shore, Cris. 1992 Virgin Births and Sterile Debates: Anthropology and the New Reproductive Technologies. Current Anthropology 33 (3):295-314. Shore explores the social, political, and anthropological issues raised by new reproductive technologies specifically citing the publication of the 1984 Warnock report on human fertilization and embryology and the protracted battle over embryo research in Britain. Shore examines how reproductive technologies call into question descent, personhood and procreation. He further examines how each society’s view of motherhood, paternity, spiritual kinship, biological inheritance, and the integrity of the family influences decisions about reproductive technologies. The author believes that all societies have a vested interest in controlling reproduction through the use of dominant institutions – church, state, medical professions—and they each compete to monopolize the discourse through which reproduction is characterized. New reproductive technologies challenge beliefs about kinship, social norms,

96 gender relations, and inheritance. Shore asserts that the practice and application of reproductive technology can supplant current notions of birthing and mothering, influencing the role of the female and causing the loss of the feminine identity.

United Kingdom Biological procreation New reproductive technologies Fertility control Gendered agency Medical ethics

Simpson, Bob. 2004 Localizing a Brave New World: New Reproductive Technologies and the Politics of Fertility in Contemporary Sri Lanka. In Reproductive Agency, Medicine, and the State. Maya Unnithan- Kumar, ed. Pp. 44-57. New York: Berghahn Books. Simpson explores how the introduction of new reproductive technologies in Sri Lanka is influenced by the economic and political vulnerabilities of the state. He did ethnographic research with Sinhalese patients undergoing infertility treatment in Colombo, Sri Lanka, and found a great deal of public uncertainty regarding infertility treatment and its effects on customs and kin relations. Sri Lanka’s falling birth rates, combined with the government’s “one-child” policy and a high death rate due to decades of regional and ethnic conflict, has influenced the use of reproductive technologies since 1999. Because the government policy led to an increase in abortions among women and vasectomies among men, overall fertility has declined. To combat this, politicians and health planners are promoting increased fertility and, over the last ten years, fertility clinics that utilize NRTs emerged in Colombo. According to Simpson, the shifting culture, changing values and emerging institutions of the state are conflicting with individual desires for traditional conjugal reproduction.

Colombo, Sri Lanka Sinhalese New reproductive technologies Political vulnerability Fertility

Steinberg, Deborah. 1990 The Depersonalization of Women through the Administration of ‘In Vitro Fertilization’. In The New Reproductive Technologies. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yerarly, eds. Pp. 74-122. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Steinberg conducted a cross-cultural, sociological examination of the medicalized practice of in vitro fertilization. Her study examined how NRT terminology impacted women’s health and social status. She researched what the institutionalized practice of IVF involved and analyzed the procedures to show how phraseology creates a linguistic erasure of women therefore contributing to procedural subordination. She outlined what she calls the “four faults” of in vitro fertilization: the technology was designed, developed and solely utilized by affluent

97 communities, the technology is an expression of societal and state desire, women are disempowered reproductively due to who holds the power of reproductive technology and, medical technology is governed by patriarchal, white, male dominance. She explores how these four flaws inhibit women’s participation in NRT by removing reproductive agency. This impacts their personhood rendering female health, reproduction and civil status inferior to a male dominated world.

In vitro fertilization Reproductive technology Reproductive regulation Reproductive power Female subordination Depersonalization

Vandervort, Lucinda. 2006 Reproductive Choice: Screening Policy and Access to the Means of Reproduction. Human Rights Quarterly. 28 (2):438-464. Vandervort reviewed Canadian policies related to access to reproductive technology and the structural and attitudinal factors that shape the policies. She establishes that access to screening is inconsistent with the principles of self-determination and that federal regulations provide unequal access to reproductive services and materials. By perpetuating social control and social dominance, “eligibility rules” to reproductive technologies are created. Therefore access to NRTs is unequal and criteria to access is governed by race, ethnicity, class, marital status. Policies shaping reproductive technology criteria have significant implications for the individual and social and cultural groupings. Technological knowledge, expertise, and materials are neither widely dispersed in the community of potential users nor easily obtainable. Therefore, control over the scarce NRT resources places power in the hands of the government and denies choice and opportunity to women and couples seeking reproductive technological aid.

Canada Reproductive choice Reproductive regulation Stigmatization of infertility New reproductive technology

Whose Eden?: An Anthropological Assessment of Conservation’s Impact on Indigenous Cultures Robin Freeman

Over the past twenty-years, western conservation organizations have been moving toward participatory or community-based approaches when establishing national parks and protected areas, particularly in developing countries. To design and implement successful projects,

98 environmental organizations now consult more often with anthropologists who can provide cultural expertise, situate indigenous communities within broader historical processes such as colonialization, and foster awareness of the influences of institutional systems. All the publications assumed protection of wildlife and nature was beneficial and necessary, with individual research focusing on different aspects of conservation, such as how policies get implemented, project selection and design, and the consequence of those actions.

Currently, anthropologists are also investigating the opposition between indigenous people and western-trained conservationists, helping to mediate and facilitate understanding between the two. This dichotomy – between “indigenous” and “western” – emerged as one of the central underlying themes of the literature reviewed. Igoe, for example, explicitly notes that classic environmental perceptions almost universally subordinate or outright dismiss “anecdotal” or local knowledge and people, which he contends is simply a rephrasing of the indigenous- western opposition. The basis of the debate is that “hard” scientists, like conservation biologists, employ stringent scientific methods and quantifiable data to support specific wildlife agendas; whereas, indigenous communities perceive these aims as fundamentally misguided or incomprehensible because they prioritize the needs of animal over those of people (Alcorn, 1993;

Bennett, 2002; Igoe, 2002; Hardin and Remix, 2006). Similarly, other authors argue that both governments and environmental practitioners exploit this animals-above-people hierarchy to legitimize land appropriation practices that disempower indigenous people and severely constrict their food security (Feeley-Harnik, 1995; Chatty and Colchester, 2002).

Several articles and case-studies correlate the accelerated shift to participatory or community-based conservation (CBC) models with rising indigenous resistance to exclusionary environmental projects (Fratkin, 1997; Alcorn, 1993; Igoe, 2002). Many authors articulate three

99 broad goals of CBC in regards to local people: involve those living on/near protected lands in land-use policy and management decisions; give them ownership over wildlife resources; and divide any economic gains generated by the conservation project.

Approximately half the publications assert that anthropology, particularly environmental anthropology, is well-suited to critically evaluating CBC models, especially in an increasingly globalized world. Anthropological studies often reveal embedded structural hierarchies that allow conservation organizations’ or governments’ to retain power and authority. Any control such institutions do relinquish is at their discretion, thereby reinforcing their supremacy. In

Africa, this favoritism often marginalizes, disenfranchises and dramatically limits resource access for indigenous people. Numerous case-studies and articles argue that although participatory conservation methods can be harmonious and productive, their application is usually haphazard and arbitrary. This further alienates the “poorest of any nation’s poor,” leaving them defenseless against appropriation of indigenous knowledge and vulnerable to seizure of already tenuous land-titles and use-rights by environmental and government agencies.

Most of the authors reproach conservation institutions – subtly or overtly – for ignoring anthropology and advocates greater involvement from anthropologists as culturally-aware mediators among the diverse actors involved with a conservation project. Case-study analysis and critical environmental anthropology are useful tools, yet anthropological research must also address how that knowledge can be utilized to improve collaboration with indigenous communities as full-partners in establishing national parks and protected areas.

Alcorn, Janis B. 1993 Indigenous People and Conservation. Conservation Biology 7(2): 424-426.

100 Alcorn, a botanist with anthropology training, uncovers the common interests shared by indigenous peoples and conservationists. She combines field experiences in Amazon, Central America, Asia and Pacific, with other ethnobiological literature, to assess why numerous conservation projects are failing. Contending that indigenous peoples have been fighting destruction of their home habitats for five-hundred years, Alcorn posits that conservation is foremost a social and political process. Unless conservationists actively choose to work with local peoples’ organizations, their projects will continue to fail. Furthermore, conservation and environmental management projects must work within realistic parameters, not idealized academic parameters, to achieve lasting on-the-ground success. The article also discusses the simultaneous battles waged by indigenous populations against conservationists’ reforestation schemes that use non-native, invasive species and against the logging industry’s wholesale ecosystem destruction.

Indigenous peoples – land rights; perceptions of nature; habitat use Conservation – failure; collaborative Ecosystem – destruction; reforestation Logging impact

Bennett, Elizabeth L. 2002 Is There a Link Between Wild Meat and Food Security? Conservation Biology 16(3):590-592. This article discusses food security among indigenous populations living in forests around the tropical belt. Using fieldwork previously conducted by the author and others, Bennett, a senior zoologist at Wildlife Conservation Society, demonstrates the parallel deterioration resulting from intensified resource extraction and deforestation. Bennett delineates between use of and dependence on wild meat (usually referred to as bushmeat) as a means of subsistence or a luxury item. She asserts that indigenous groups need to transition to alternative protein sources as sources of wild meat become depleted or forbidden. Tropics Food security Bushmeat Indigenous people Protected species

Berglund, Eeva and David G. Anderson. 2003 Towards an Ethnography of Ecological Underprivilege. In Ethnographies of Conservations: Environmentalism and the Distribution of Privilege. Berglund, Eeva and David G. Anderson, eds. Pp1-18. New York, NY: Berghahn Books. Despite the trend toward participatory or collaborative conservation, critical environmental anthropology studies have not increased concomitantly. Berglund and Anderson address this research gap by evaluating the role of anthropology in environmental discourse and conservation policies. They argue that the classic anthropological approach of studying remote cultures was ultimately a disservice to those communities because anthropologists wrote about marginalization and disempowerment but did not help. Contemporary case studies situate anthropology’s shift into advocacy and policy-work. The authors contend that today’s environmental discourse is superficially about the preservation of nature, however, in reality, it

101 revolves around who wields political and decision-making power. They contend that an anthropological focus is critical to uncovering power imbalances within environmental organizations, and that anthropologists must interact more forcefully with the ecopolitics of conservation. Berglund and Anderson conclude that multi-faceted environmental NGOs add complex layers to the debate pitting indigenous rights and development against plants and animals.

Environmental Non-governmental organizations Critical environmental anthropology Indigenous rights Ecopolitics

Chatty, Dawn and Marcus Colchester. 2002 Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples. In Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement, and Sustainable Development. D. Chatty and M. Colchester, eds. Pp. 1 - 20. New York, NY: Berghahn Books. Chatty and Colchester’s introduction is both a literature review and historical contextualization of the conservation-development nexus cross-culturally. By tracing the history of conservation and protected areas in Africa and Asia, they demonstrate how those paradigms continue to influence cultural perceptions and actual practices in the conservation arena. Chatty and Colchester posit that western political views of local and indigenous populations as “primitive” and “backward” served to legitimize practices of disempowerment, displacement, and land appropriation. They reveal the crucial links between the need for a robust economy and ability to enforce environmental regulations of protected areas.

Africa SouthEast Asia Conservation – local impact Protected Areas – displacement from Local economy Marginalization – of local populations Food security

Colchester, Marcus. 2000 Self-Determination or Environmental Determinism for Indigenous Peoples in Tropical Forest Conservation. Conservation Biology 14(5):1365-1367. Indigenous people directly own an estimated fifteen-percent of the world’s protected areas, and inhabit the remaining eighty-five percent of these high biodiversity tropical regions. Colchester combines statistics with anthropological fieldwork among Yanomami and Ye’kuana communities along the upper Amazon Basin Rivers to argue that indigenous populations should be the guardians of these lands. He also asserts that conservation projects will fail if they exclude local populations in the management and control of protected and managed landscapes. While on paper, indigenous communities may be the legal owners, in reality these communities are neither recognized nor supported. Colchester notes a significant discrepancy between the

102 International Labor Organization’s newly ratified laws and their recognition by international human rights groups. He concludes that conservationists should be worried about species depletion and pressures on habitats, but they are wrong to enact environmental policies on the basis of faunal population dynamics without incorporating people. The aim of conservationists should be as advisors to indigenous peoples to establish frameworks, not to manage other peoples’ lands.

Yanomami Ye’Kuana Indigenous land use Local habitat management Amazon – Orinoco basin Conservation policies

Colding, Johan and Carl Folke. 2001 Social Taboos: “Invisible” Systems of Local Resource Management and Biological Conservation. Ecological Applications 11(2):584-600 Colding, a systems ecologist, and Folke, an ecological economist, employ an anthropological tone in their collection and synthesis of traditional social taboos associated with natural resource management and habitat use from around the world. Defining social taboos as “informal institutions based on cultural norms,” they focus on traditional societies, which are often in the same place as most world biodiversity hotspots. They classify these resource and habitat taboos (RHTs) into six categories based on potential functions for nature conservation and management. These include: species-specific, temporal, and life-history taboos, which influence appropriate time, place, and use of plants, animals and other natural resources. Interestingly, they do not find any taboos regulating the amount of a resource that can be extracted. Next, they compare these RHTs with contemporary environmental methods to evaluate potential benefits in conservation management partnerships. Colding and Folke, conclude that many indigenous RHTs function akin to codified rules of formal institutions, yet western development and conservation practitioners do not sufficiently recognize, integrate or utilize the functional value of RHTs.

South America – Brazil; Ecuador; Guyana; Colombia Africa – Central African Republic; Democratic Republic of Congo; Zaire Southeast Asia – Malaysia; Papua New Guinea; Solomon Islands Resource and habitat taboos Indigenous resource management Ecosystem management Traditional societies

Croft, Trevor A. 1991 Lake Malawi National Park: A Case Study in Conservation Planning. In Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation. Patrick West and Steven Brechin, eds. Pp. 138-149. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press.

103 Croft is a geographer and town planner whose specialty in conservation-related land led to his involvement in the establishment of the Lake Malawi National Park. The creation of this park in 1976 was problematic because the lake’s shoreline is heavily populated. In addition, the Lake’s large diversity of fish species supports a robust fishing industry that contributes significantly to Malawi’s economy. The Government nonetheless believed the lake’s continued viability as both a resource and attraction for a fledgling tourist economy depended on designating it protected. The government and external park planners quickly realized that the complex situation required an multidisciplinary approach that incorporated local leadership and regional communities outside the proposed Park. Today, the Lake Malawi National Park is held up as a successful model of how to integrate sustainable resource and recreational use of a habitat with protecting wild plants and animals.

Lake Malawi Southern Africa Marine biodiversity Sustainable fishing industry Tourism and recreation region Integrated habitat management

Feeley-Harnik, Gillian. 1995 Plants and People, Children or Wealth: Shifting Grounds of "Choice" in Madagascar. Political and Legal Anthropology Review 18(2):45-64. The Malagasy government has been using conservationists’ calculations to rationalize and justify their land appropriation from local inhabitants to create national parks and protected areas (PAs). These maneuvers weaken the food and financial security of local populations. As a result, any size increase of local populations will stress, or break, the ecosystem’s carrying capacity. Rural Malagasy people, however, equate children with wealth. This deep-seated cultural value directly conflicts with the agenda of conservationists and the Malagasy government’s health program. Feeley-Harnik situates this debate within Madagascar’s French colonial history and the residue of ill-will that remains among local Malagasy to this day towards their previous colonizers as well as the Malagasy in power who follow those policies.

Madagascar -- French Colonialism of Malagasy people Conservation induced displacement Land appropriation Pronatalism

Fratkin, Elliot. 1997 Pastoralism: Governance and Development Issues. Annual Review of Anthropology 26:235- 261. Fratkin reviews the anthropological literature to establish how changing global trends influence outsider perceptions of traditional pastoralist cultures. Using the Maasai of Kenya as one case study, Fratkin illustrates how initially western governments and exogenous

104 development agencies blamed them for widespread ecological ills, including Sahelian desertification. That view recently shifted to frame the Maasai as victims. Outside aid and development projects, such as the creation of national parks and protected areas, marginalized the Maasai, resulting in sharply curtailed freedom to herd sustainably and weakened food security.

Kenya Pastoralism Land appropriation Food security Marginalization Maasai

Hackel, Jeffrey D. 1999 Community Conservation and the Future of Africa’s Wildlife. Conservation Biology 13(4):726- 734. Hackel, a professor of geography and environmental studies, reviews the Community- Based Conservation (CBC) approach. He positions CBC as a response to the food and land-use restrictions, and marginalization wrought by colonialism in Africa. Hackel believes that CBC has three types of benefits: allows local populations to live on/near protected areas and participate in land-use policy decisions; gives local people ownership over wildlife resources; and accrues economic benefits to local communities. CBC’s bottom-up approach supposedly shifts the balance of power towards rural communities, but Hackel believes conservationists, development practitioners and governments oversell CBC as a panacea. He argues that CBC in practice often ignores the need to invigorate rural economic growth, particularly in Africa, supporting his point with case studies from Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia and Swaziland. CBC is an effective and successful method only if localized; if not, it is simply another rigid framework externally imposed on indigenous communities, without empowering them.

Madagascar Ethiopia Swaziland Zimbabwe Community-based conservation Participatory environmentalism

Hardin, Rebecca and Melissa J. Remis. 2006 Biological and Cultural Anthropology of a Changing Tropical Forest: A Fruitful Collaboration across Subfields. American Anthropologist 108(2):273-285. The article examines the interactions between human and non-human primates in regards to contemporary and significant changes in central African forests wrought by conservation missions or logging schemes. Hardin and Remis conducted fieldwork in three sectors that included protected areas, logging camps and buffer zones. Integrating biological and cultural anthropology approaches, they conducted surveys, constructed migration and life histories, and

105 rebuilt hunting territory maps. Data analysis focused on three categories of change: changing human perceptions and uses of the forest; spatially varied human and animal adaptations; and a decline in animal densities. While environmental and logging endeavors represent opposing agendas, worldviews and methods, they nonetheless represent significant sources of employment to the indigenous (primarily BaAka) populations. This financial dominance subordinates local peoples, rendering them dependent on foreign support.

Indigenous people Environmental anthropology Collaborative conservation BaAka - Central African Republic Employment opportunities

Hough, John. 1991 Michiru Mountain Conservation Area: Integrating Conservation with Human Needs. In Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation. Patrick West and Steven Brechin, eds. Pp. 130-137. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press. Hough, a natural resource manager, analyzes the establishment of the Michiru Mountain Conservation area in Malawi, Southern Africa. The park’s ultimate success in the 1970s resulted from the cooperative model used. The Forestry Department of Malawi controlled approximately eighty-two percent of the land-area; the National Parks Department and a private landholder controlled the remainder. Stakeholders and local communities put cooperative systems in place, rather than create yet another agency that would divert needed resources and add a management layer. The management team identified three types of terrain suitable for sustainable-use according to community resource needs. Fast-growing eucalyptus trees were planted on the steep escarpment to prevent further erosion and to provide a renewable source of firewood. Wood was cut and counted by head-load, not vehicular loads. Since the park’s establishment, local people have better access to resources, such as clean water, and increased diversity and numbers of floral and faunal species, which improves their food and financial security.

Malawi – Michiru Mountains Southern Africa Integrated conservation Participatory environmentalism Sustainable resource extraction

Hughes, David McDermott. 2005 Third Nature: Making Space and Time in the Great Limpopo Conservation Area. Cultural Anthropology 20(2):157-184. Hughes argues that recent trends among conservationists mirror those of early anthropologists, in that, both groups of actors “fix” indigenous populations to permanent locations on a map for time immemorial, denying the nomadic aspect of some indigenous cultures. The Great Limpopo Conservation Area exemplifies “third nature space” created by

106 environmental organizations, in contrast with ‘first nature’ (pristine, hypothetical prehuman environments) and ‘second nature,’ (human-shaped or impacted environments) spaces. Hughes defines ‘third nature’ as imagined or ‘virtual’ zones based on the potential, abstract plans of conservationists. Hughes contends that environmental agencies elevate eco-regions to continent- level in contrast to the rural and indigenous populations, which are perceived on a regional scale. This hierarchy privileges global environmental movement and animals over national governments of less-developed countries. According to Hughes, the ripple-effect marginalizes local populations in particular.

Limpopo Basin Southern Africa Imagined environments Conservation – western; global influence of Marginalization of local populations

Igoe, James. 2002 National Parks and Human Ecosystems: The Challenge to Community Conservation - A Case Study from Simanjiro, Tanzania. In Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement, and Sustainable Development. D. Chatty and M. Colchester, eds. Pp 77 – 96. New York, NY: Berghahn Books. Igoe examines the ecological, economic and social impacts of East African national parks and protected areas on local populations and economies, specifically the Maasai of northern Tanzania. He traces the causes of problems to structural adjustment programs, liberalization policies, community conservation projects and private tour companies, with the Taragire National Park as his study site. Igoe cites growing literature and field accounts showing that the national parks themselves often exacerbate the problems they profess to alleviate: poverty, reduced food security, and weakened land tenure or use-rights. The creation of Taragire displaced scores of people living marginal existences. As these displaced populations grow, the Maasai for example, they stretch the land’s carrying capacity. Igoe contends that a root cause of the initial displacement was the wholesale imposition of western conservation paradigms which never accommodated local lifeways. He concludes that attempts at community-based conservation and benefit-sharing initiatives are doomed to fail without a major shift in conservation ideologies.

Maasai – northern Tanzania Taragire National Park, Tanzania Conservation – benefit sharing; community-based Displacement – conservation induced

Kassam, Aneesa, and Ali Balla Bashuna. 2004 Marginalisation of the Waata Oromo Hunter-Gatherers of Kenya: Insider and Outsider Perspectives. Africa [International Module] 74(2):194-216. The Waata Oromo are a little-studied group of hunter-gatherers, scattered throughout Kenya and areas of Tanzania and Ethiopia. Kassam and Bashuna examine the extinction of

107 Waata Oromoa way of life after their confinement on “Tribal Reserves” during England’s Colonial rule. British administrators forcibly removed the Waata Oromo from their homelands, destroying their traditional systems of land-use, ownership and cultural identity. Once released, the Waata Oromo discovered their native lands occupied by others. Additionally, the Kenyan government (re)constructed local and national systems which further exclude them. This article examines the aftermath of their marginalization on Waata Oromo food security, as well as how shifting global attitudes of indigenous populations further impacts them – usually for the worse.

Kenya Waata Oromo Hunter-Gatherer Indigenous rights Political disenfranchisement Cultural identity

Little, Paul E. 1999 Environments and Environmentalisms in Anthropological Research: Facing a New Millennium. Annual Review of Anthropology 28: 253-284. Little’s literature review focuses on the inter-related subfields of ecological anthropology and the anthropology of environmentalism. He centers his analysis on four theoretical and methodological subjects: transformations of ecological paradigms; the use of history; the level at which these subfields articulate; and the emergence and redefining of the concept of ‘space’ or ecosystems. Little regards civil society as a crucial ‘protagonist’ and social force within and between levels of discourse in the environmental movement. Defining environmentalism as an explicit, active concern with the relationship between human groups and their respective environments, he contends that the historic nature/culture dichotomy is simplistic, out-dated and potentially dangerous. This dualism obviates important collaboration and bridge-building. In conclusion, Little argues that a new conservation paradigm must emerge that incorporates political and economic processes with history and biophysical and cultural adaptations to global environmental changes. Anthropology, he posits, should take on an expanded role in this debate to maximize its substantive influence.

Political ecology Nature/culture dichotomy Anthropology – ecological; of environmentalism; expanded role of Environmental paradigm – shifts of Environmentalism Civil Society

McCabe, J. Terrence. 2002 Giving Conservation a Human Face? Lessons from Forty Years of Combining Conservation and Development in Ngorngoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. In Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement, and Sustainable Development. D. Chatty and M. Colchester, eds. Pp. 61 – 76. New York, NY: Berghahn Books.

108 After briefly reviewing recent history and current issues being debated between conservationists and development agents, McCabe analyzes the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Tanzania. He contends that western perceptions of the African environment as well as African people, deeply rooted in East Africa’s colonial history, continue to shape conservation paradigms which often marginalize local Maasai populations. Furthermore, he alleges that both development and conservation practitioners view the environment as a “savage Eden” needing protection in order to satisfy an urge in the European psyche. The lingering perceptions of the African people as primitive mismanagers of land and wildlife are used to justify their presence in and influence on Africa, specifically the NCA. According to McCabe, the primary problem is that environmentalists and development representatives rarely communicate with each other, or the Maasai who inhabit the NCA. Drawing on the NCA’s forty-year history, he argues that decisions about how to manage the NCA are politically-shaped by the relationships between external funders and the Tanzanian government. To combat this, the input of social scientists and conservationists is urgently needed.

East Africa Tanzania – Ngorngoro Conservation Area Maasai Conservation induced displacement Protected Areas Indigenous populations - marginalization of Colonialism – influence on conservation

Orlove, Benjamin S. and Stephen B. Brush. 1996 Anthropology and the Conservation of Biodiversity. Annual Review of Anthropology 25:329- 352. In this literature review, Orlove and Brush categorize conservation policy into three target levels: individual species; protection of habitat; and management of ecosystems. The authors examine the relationship between anthropological approaches and conservation methods used in two subfields – management of protected areas and analysis of genetic crop resources. Comparing anthropological and conservation practices, they draw parallels in methodologies, such as how anthropologists initially position indigenous peoples; the pragmatic interactions resident populations and conservationists; concrete conservation methodologies and anthropological fieldwork; plant genetic resources; and ethnobiological surveys of agricultural diversity. The purpose is to provide a framework for the deeper collaboration of anthropology into conservation policy and practices.

Biodiversity – maintenance of; agricultural; genetic Anthropological methods – applied Conservation anthropology Collaborative conservation – applied Protected areas

Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall. 2006

109 The Old Way: A Story of the First People (first edition). New York, NY. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Thomas, who spent several years in the 1950’s among the Kalahari Bushmen with her parents and brother, combines her first-hand experiences with ethnographies, government records and environmental reports to provide an in-depth history of the “First People.” This foundation contextualizes chapters nineteen and twenty, which specifically address the effects of globalization, development and modernization on the Bushmen. Marshall argues that their traditional, or “old way,” of life is gone and will not return – nor should it. Such externally enforced cultural stagnation would subordinate the Bushmen in the social hierarchies of Southern Africa, and keep them dependent on governmental hand-outs and “tourist fees” to dress up in skins and hold spears. Furthermore, she contends that the environmental changes wrought by development projects and conservation agencies have made it impossible for the Bushmen to sustainably and nutritionally hunt and gather. Those locations that are still home to wildlife populations are off-limits for hunting by indigenous populations, specifically the Bushmen.

Namibia Botswana San – Bushmen; !Kung; Marginalization Cultural identity and loss Hunting and gathering societies Development induced displacement